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ear regression adapted for classification ( Ting and Witten 1999 ) , which can be described by the following equation :
J07-1005
External_52486
2,007
1,999
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
issues in stacked generalization
[ "Kai Ming Ting", "Ian H Witten" ]
null
4 http://mallet.cs.umass.edu/ ear regression adapted for classification ( Ting and Witten 1999 ) , which can be described by the following equation : Pk is the probability that a sentence specifies an outcome , as determined by classifier k ( for classifiers that do not return actual probabilities , we normalized the scores and treated them as such ) .
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ear regression adapted for classification ( @@CITATION ) , which can be described by the following equation :
J07-1005_47
0
null
For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance .
P02-1001
External_889
2,002
1,996
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
learning string edit distance
[ "E Ristad", "P Yianilos" ]
null
Not only do these methods require additional programming outside the toolkit , but they are limited to particular kinds of models and training regimens . For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance . In short , current finite-state toolkits include no training algorithms , because none exist for the large space of statistical models that the toolkits can in principle describe and run .
2
null
Background
[ 104, 130 ]
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For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( @@CITATION ) trains only stochastic edit distance .
P02-1001_30
0
introduction
Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet .
N01-1010
W00-0104
2,001
2,000
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
automatic extraction of systematic polysemy using treecut
[ "N Tomuro" ]
null
Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet . In this section , we give a summary of this method , and describe the cluster pairs obtained by the method .
3
null
Extends
[ 67, 80 ]
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Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( @@CITATION ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet .
N01-1010_30
0
experiments
( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .
D12-1037
D11-1004
2,012
2,011
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
optimal search for minimum error rate training
[ "Michel Galley", "Chris Quirk" ]
null
Several works have proposed discriminative techniques to train log-linear model for SMT . ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .
5
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 170, 193 ]
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( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; @@CITATION ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .
D12-1037_14
0
related work
5 Significant bigrams are obtained using the n-gram statistics package NSP ( Banerjee and Pedersen 2003 ) , which offers statistical tests to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis regarding a bigram ( that it is not a collocation ) .
J09-4010
External_60688
2,009
2,003
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the design implementation and use of computational linguistics volume 35 number 4 the ngram statistics package in cicling
[ "S Banerjee", "T Pedersen" ]
null
Nonetheless , in the future , it may be worth investigating a TF.IDF-based representation . 5 Significant bigrams are obtained using the n-gram statistics package NSP ( Banerjee and Pedersen 2003 ) , which offers statistical tests to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis regarding a bigram ( that it is not a collocation ) . As discussed in Section 2 , there are situations that can not be addressed by a document-level approach , because requests only predict or match portions of responses .
3
null
Uses
[ 77, 103 ]
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5 Significant bigrams are obtained using the n-gram statistics package NSP ( @@CITATION ) , which offers statistical tests to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis regarding a bigram ( that it is not a collocation ) .
J09-4010_0
0
method
Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .
N10-1084
External_56138
2,010
2,007
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the syntax of concealment reliable methods for plain text information hiding
[ "Brian Murphy", "Carl Vogel" ]
null
In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .
3
null
Background
[ 64, 89 ]
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Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , @@CITATION and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .
N10-1084_18
0
related work
2The WePS-1 corpus includes data from the Web03 testbed ( Mann , 2006 ) which follows similar annotation guidelines , although the number of document per ambiguous name is more variable .
D09-1056
External_84048
2,009
2,006
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
multidocument statistical fact extraction and fusion
[ "Gideon S Mann" ]
null
We generated word n-grams of length 2 to 5 , 2The WePS-1 corpus includes data from the Web03 testbed ( Mann , 2006 ) which follows similar annotation guidelines , although the number of document per ambiguous name is more variable . 3Both corpora are available from the WePS website http://nlp.uned.es/weps 4A very sparse feature might never occur in a sentence with the person name .
4
null
Uses
[ 58, 69 ]
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2The WePS-1 corpus includes data from the Web03 testbed ( @@CITATION ) which follows similar annotation guidelines , although the number of document per ambiguous name is more variable .
D09-1056_16
0
experiments
The local training method ( Bottou and Vapnik , 1992 ) is widely employed in computer vision ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ; Cheng et al. , 2010 ) .
D12-1037
External_91021
2,012
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a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
local learning algorithms
[ "L´eon Bottou", "Vladimir Vapnik" ]
null
2 Local Training and Testing The local training method ( Bottou and Vapnik , 1992 ) is widely employed in computer vision ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ; Cheng et al. , 2010 ) . Compared with the global training method which tries to fit a single weight on the training data , the local one learns weights based on the local neighborhood information for each test example .
2
null
Background
[ 28, 52 ]
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The local training method ( @@CITATION ) is widely employed in computer vision ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ; Cheng et al. , 2010 ) .
D12-1037_3
0
introduction
Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .
W03-0806
P02-1030
2,003
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
scaling context space
[ "James R Curran", "Marc Moens" ]
null
However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data Consortium , 2003 ) . Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data . Also , many potential applications of NLP will involve processing very large text databases .
2
null
Background
[ 39, 62 ]
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Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; @@CITATION ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .
W03-0806_14
0
introduction
Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .
W01-0706
External_2309
2,001
1,991
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
parsing by chunks
[ "S P Abney" ]
null
Shallow parsing is studied as an alternative to full-sentence parsing . Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) . A lot of recent work on shallow parsing has been influenced by Abney 's work ( Abney , 1991 ) , who has suggested to `` chunk '' sentences to base level phrases .
2
null
Background
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Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; @@CITATION ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .
W01-0706_0
0
introduction
The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by Niu and Hirst ( 2004 ) .
J07-1005
W04-0509
2,007
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
analysis of semantic classes in medical text for question answering
[ "Yun Niu", "Graeme Hirst" ]
null
The work of Hearst ( 1996 ) demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision . The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by Niu and Hirst ( 2004 ) . Their study also illustrates the importance of semantic classes and relations .
6
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 110, 132 ]
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The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by @@CITATION .
J07-1005_38
0
related work
The standard approach is to train two models independently and then intersect their predictions ( Och and Ney 2003 ) .
J10-3007
External_3667
2,010
2,003
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models
[ "Franz Josef Och", "Hermann Ney" ]
null
In practice , we see that the choice of which language is source versus target matters and changes the mistakes made by the model ( the first row of panels in Figure 1 ) . The standard approach is to train two models independently and then intersect their predictions ( Och and Ney 2003 ) . However , we show that it is much better to train two directional models concurrently , coupling their posterior distributions over alignments to approximately agree .
3
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 98, 114 ]
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The standard approach is to train two models independently and then intersect their predictions ( @@CITATION ) .
J10-3007_31
0
null
We use the same method as Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) for generating our multimodal corpora : for each word token in the text corpus , a feature is selected stochastically from the word 's feature distribution , creating a word-feature pair .
D13-1115
External_32478
2,013
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations
[ "Mark Andrews", "Gabriella Vigliocco", "David Vinson" ]
null
In order to evaluate our algorithms , we first need to generate multimodal corpora for each of our nontextual modalities . We use the same method as Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) for generating our multimodal corpora : for each word token in the text corpus , a feature is selected stochastically from the word 's feature distribution , creating a word-feature pair . Words without grounded features are all given the same placeholder feature , also resulting in a wordfeature pair .5 That is , for the feature norm modality , we generate ( word , feature norm ) pairs ; for the SURF modality , we generate ( word , codeword ) pairs , etc. .
6
null
Uses
[ 26, 49 ]
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We use the same method as @@CITATION for generating our multimodal corpora : for each word token in the text corpus , a feature is selected stochastically from the word 's feature distribution , creating a word-feature pair .
D13-1115_6
0
experiments
MI was also recently used for inference-rule SPs by Pantel et al. ( 2007 ) .
D08-1007
N07-1071
2,008
2,007
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
isp learning inferential selectional preferences
[ "Patrick Pantel", "Rahul Bhagat", "Bonaventura Coppola", "Timothy Chklovski", "Eduard Hovy" ]
null
Normalizing by Pr ( v ) ( yielding MI ) allows us to use a constant threshold across all verbs . MI was also recently used for inference-rule SPs by Pantel et al. ( 2007 ) . classifier for each predicate independently .
4
null
Background
[ 52, 74 ]
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MI was also recently used for inference-rule SPs by @@CITATION .
D08-1007_46
0
method
Based on this advise ( Moore and Quirk , 2007 ) exclude the latent segmentation variables and opt for a heuristic training procedure .
D08-1066
External_28803
2,008
2,007
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
an iterativelytrained segmentationfree phrase translation model for statistical machine translation
[ "Quirk" ]
null
The most similar efforts to ours , mainly ( DeNero et al. , 2006 ) , conclude that segmentation variables in the generative translation model lead to overfitting while attaining higher likelihood of the training data than the heuristic estimator . Based on this advise ( Moore and Quirk , 2007 ) exclude the latent segmentation variables and opt for a heuristic training procedure . In this work we also start out from a generative model with latent segmentation variables .
7
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 33, 45 ]
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Based on this advise ( Moore and @@CITATION ) exclude the latent segmentation variables and opt for a heuristic training procedure .
D08-1066_37
0
conclusion
For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers .
W03-0806
External_681
2,003
1,993
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank computational linguistics
[ "Mitchell Marcus", "Beatrice Santorini", "Mary Marcinkiewicz" ]
null
Some of this new data will be manually annotated . For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers . This will require more efficient learning algorithms and implementations .
2
null
Background
[ 169, 189 ]
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For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( @@CITATION ) , currently used for training POS taggers .
W03-0806_25
0
introduction
The forward and backward probabilities , p0j and pkn , can be computed using single-source algebraic path for the simpler semiring ( R , + , x , ∗ ) -- or equivalently , by solving a sparse linear system of equations over R , a much-studied problem at O ( n ) space , O ( nm ) time , and faster approximations ( Greenbaum , 1997 ) .
P02-1001
External_24066
2,002
1,997
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
iterative methods for solving linear systems
[ "Anne Greenbaum" ]
null
Write wjk as ( pjk , vjk ) , and let w1jk = ( p1jk , v1 jk ) denote the weight of the edge from j to k. 19 Then it can be shown that w0n = ( p0n , Ej , k p0jv1jkpkn ) . The forward and backward probabilities , p0j and pkn , can be computed using single-source algebraic path for the simpler semiring ( R , + , x , ∗ ) -- or equivalently , by solving a sparse linear system of equations over R , a much-studied problem at O ( n ) space , O ( nm ) time , and faster approximations ( Greenbaum , 1997 ) . • A Viterbi variant of the expectation semiring exists : replace ( 3 ) with if ( p1 > p2 , ( p1 , v1 ) , ( p2 , v2 ) ) .
5
null
Background
[ 314, 330 ]
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The forward and backward probabilities , p0j and pkn , can be computed using single-source algebraic path for the simpler semiring ( R , + , x , ∗ ) -- or equivalently , by solving a sparse linear system of equations over R , a much-studied problem at O ( n ) space , O ( nm ) time , and faster approximations ( @@CITATION ) .
P02-1001_14
0
null
4To prove ( 1 ) ⇒ ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch ¨ utzenberger construction ( Berstel and Reutenauer , 1988 ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp .
P02-1001
External_35216
2,002
1,988
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
rational series and their languages
[ "Jean Berstel", "Christophe Reutenauer" ]
null
The general form is illustrated by 3Conceptually , the parameters represent the probabilities of reading another a ( A ) ; reading another b ( ν ) ; transducing b to p rather than q ( µ ) ; starting to transduce p to a rather than x ( p ) . 4To prove ( 1 ) ⇒ ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch ¨ utzenberger construction ( Berstel and Reutenauer , 1988 ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp . A full proof is straightforward , as are proofs of ( 3 ) ⇒ ( 2 ) , ( 2 ) ⇒ ( 1 ) .
2
null
Uses
[ 114, 143 ]
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4To prove ( 1 ) ⇒ ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch ¨ utzenberger construction ( @@CITATION ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp .
P02-1001_2
0
introduction
Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts .
J07-1005
External_2736
2,007
2,001
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
effective mapping of biomedical text to the umls metathesaurus the metamap program
[ "Alan R Aronson" ]
null
First , substantial understanding of the domain has already been codified in the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg , Humphreys , and McCray 1993 ) . Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts . Both systems utilize and propagate semantic information from UMLS knowledge sources : the Metathesaurus , the Semantic Network , and the SPECIALIST lexicon .
1
null
Background
[ 73, 85 ]
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Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( @@CITATION ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts .
J07-1005_0
0
introduction
Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .
W14-1815
D10-1051
2,014
2,010
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
automatic analysis of rhythmic poetry with applications to generation and translation
[ "Erica Greene", "Tugba Bodrumlu", "Kevin Knight" ]
null
The majority of NLG focuses on the satisfaction of a communicative goal , with examples such as Belz ( 2008 ) which produces weather reports from structured data or Mitchell et al. ( 2013 ) which generates descriptions of objects from images . Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced . In these papers soft semantic goals are sometimes also introduced that seek responses to previous lines of poetry or lyric .
3
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 109, 129 ]
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Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( @@CITATION ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .
W14-1815_4
0
related work
Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .
E03-1005
P97-1021
2,003
1,997
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a dop model for semantic interpretation
[ "R Bonnema", "R Bod", "R Scha" ]
null
Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence . We will refer to these models as Likelihood-DOP models , but in this paper we will specifically mean by `` Likelihood-DOP '' the PCFG-reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) given in Section 2.2 .
3
null
Background
[ 63, 86 ]
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Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , @@CITATION , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .
E03-1005_25
0
null
The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate .
J02-3002
J97-2002
2,002
1,997
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
adaptive multilingual sentence boundary disambiguation
[ "David D Palmer", "Marti A Hearst" ]
null
State-of-theart machine learning and rule-based SBD systems achieve an error rate of 0.8 -- 1.5 % measured on the Brown corpus and the WSJ corpus . The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate . The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus .
7
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 90, 112 ]
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The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( @@CITATION ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate .
J02-3002_27
0
null
The extracted frames are noisy as a result of parser errors and so are filtered using the binomial hypothesis theory ( BHT ) , following Brent ( 1993 ) .
J05-3003
J93-2002
2,005
1,993
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
from grammar to lexicon unsupervised learning of lexical syntax
[ "Michael Brent" ]
null
frame definitions , and the extracted frames include details of specific prepositions . The extracted frames are noisy as a result of parser errors and so are filtered using the binomial hypothesis theory ( BHT ) , following Brent ( 1993 ) . Applying his technique to approximately four million words of New York Times newswire , Manning acquired 4,900 verb-subcategorization frame pairs for 3,104 verbs , an average of 1.6 frames per verb .
3
null
Background
[ 137, 151 ]
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The extracted frames are noisy as a result of parser errors and so are filtered using the binomial hypothesis theory ( BHT ) , following @@CITATION .
J05-3003_4
0
related work
This method allows the efficient retrieval of arbitrary length n-grams ( Nagao and Mori , 94 ; Haruno et al. , 96 ; Ikehaxa et al. , 96 ; Shimohata et al. , 1997 ; Russell , 1998 ) .
A00-1019
External_32168
2,000
1,997
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
retrieving collocations by cooccurrences and word order constraints
[ "Sayori Shimohata", "Toshiyuki Sugio", "Junji Nagata" ]
null
For sake of efficiency , we used the suffix array technique to get a compact representation of our training corpus . This method allows the efficient retrieval of arbitrary length n-grams ( Nagao and Mori , 94 ; Haruno et al. , 96 ; Ikehaxa et al. , 96 ; Shimohata et al. , 1997 ; Russell , 1998 ) . The literature abounds in measures that can help to decide whether words that co-occur are linguistically significant or not .
4
null
Background
[ 138, 161 ]
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This method allows the efficient retrieval of arbitrary length n-grams ( Nagao and Mori , 94 ; Haruno et al. , 96 ; Ikehaxa et al. , 96 ; @@CITATION ; Russell , 1998 ) .
A00-1019_4
0
method
The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .
J86-1002
External_33234
1,986
1,980
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
pattern recognition as ruleguided inductive inference
[ "R Michalski" ]
null
The VNLCE processor may be considered to be a learning system of the tradition described , for example , in Michalski et al. ( 1984 ) . The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) . That is , the current system learns procedures rather than data structures .
7
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 182, 200 ]
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The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in @@CITATION , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .
J86-1002_21
0
null
Our most accurate product model achieves an F score of 92.5 without the use of discriminative reranking and comes close to the best known numbers on this test set ( Zhang et al. , 2009 ) .
D10-1002
D09-1161
2,010
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
kbest combination of syntactic parsers
[ "Hui Zhang", "Min Zhang", "Chew Lim Tan", "Haizhou Li" ]
null
Our most accurate single grammar achieves an F score of 91.6 on the WSJ test set , rivaling discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ) and products of latent variable grammars ( Petrov , 2010 ) , despite being a single generative PCFG . Our most accurate product model achieves an F score of 92.5 without the use of discriminative reranking and comes close to the best known numbers on this test set ( Zhang et al. , 2009 ) . In future work , we plan to investigate additional methods for increasing the diversity of our selftrained models .
8
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 165, 184 ]
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Our most accurate product model achieves an F score of 92.5 without the use of discriminative reranking and comes close to the best known numbers on this test set ( @@CITATION ) .
D10-1002_36
0
conclusion
To demonstrate that this is possible we have implemented a system which constructs dictionary entries for the PATR-II system ( Shieber , 1984 and references therein ) .
J87-3002
External_24080
1,987
1,984
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the design of a computer language for linguistic information
[ "S Shieber" ]
null
The output of the transformation program can be used to derive entries which are appropriate for particular grammatical formalisms . To demonstrate that this is possible we have implemented a system which constructs dictionary entries for the PATR-II system ( Shieber , 1984 and references therein ) . PATR-II was chosen because it has been reimplemented in Cambridge and was therefore , available ; however , the task would be nearly identical if we were constructing entries for a system based on GPSG , FUG or LFG .
5
null
Uses
[ 127, 141 ]
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To demonstrate that this is possible we have implemented a system which constructs dictionary entries for the PATR-II system ( @@CITATION and references therein ) .
J87-3002_37
0
null
Other works ( Kasper et al. , 1995 ; Becker and Lopez , 2000 ) convert HPSG grammars into LTAG grammars .
W01-1510
External_78975
2,001
2,000
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
adapting hpsgtotag compilation to widecoverage grammars
[ "Tilman Becker", "Patrice Lopez" ]
null
The manual translation demanded considerable efforts from the translator , and obscures the equivalence between the original and obtained grammars . Other works ( Kasper et al. , 1995 ; Becker and Lopez , 2000 ) convert HPSG grammars into LTAG grammars . However , given the greater expressive power of HPSG , it is impossible to convert an arbitrary HPSG grammar into an LTAG grammar .
2
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 37, 60 ]
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Other works ( Kasper et al. , 1995 ; @@CITATION ) convert HPSG grammars into LTAG grammars .
W01-1510_0
0
introduction
The work of Hearst ( 1996 ) demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision .
J07-1005
External_82323
2,007
1,996
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
improving fulltext precision on short queries using simple constraints
[ "Marti A Hearst" ]
null
PICO-based querying in information retrieval is merely an instance of faceted querying , which has been widely used by librarians since the introduction of automated retrieval systems ( e.g. , Meadow et al. 1989 ) . The work of Hearst ( 1996 ) demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision . The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by Niu and Hirst ( 2004 ) .
6
null
Background
[ 12, 27 ]
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The work of @@CITATION demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision .
J07-1005_23
0
related work
Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( Rote , 1985 ) .
P02-1001
External_11575
2,002
1,985
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a systolic array algorithm for the algebraic path problem shortest paths matrix inversion
[ "G¨unter Rote" ]
null
( Mohri , 2002 ) . Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( Rote , 1985 ) . • In many cases of interest , Ti is an acyclic graph .20 Then Tar an 's method computes w0j for each j in topologically sorted order , thereby finding ti in a linear number of ⊕ and ⊗ operations .
5
null
Future
[ 80, 91 ]
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Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( @@CITATION ) .
P02-1001_32
0
null
2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) .
P97-1063
External_9618
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a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
how to compile a bilingual collocational lexicon automaticallyquot
[ "F Smadja" ]
null
However , n ( u ) = Ev n ( u , v ) , which is not the same as the frequency of u , because each token of u can co-occur with several differentv 's . 2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) . co-occur is called a direct association .
3
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CompareOrContrast
[ 136, 149 ]
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2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( @@CITATION ) .
P97-1063_47
0
method
Krahmer and Theune ( 2002 ) have argued that Dale and Reiter 's ( 1995 ) dichotomy between salient and nonsalient objects ( where the objects in the domain are the salient ones ) should be replaced by an account that takes degrees of salience into account : No object can be too unsalient to be referred to , as long as the right properties are available .
J06-2002
External_2473
2,006
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
efficient contextsensitive generation of referring expressions
[ "Emiel Krahmer", "Mari¨et Theune" ]
null
9.4.1 A New Perspective on Salience . Krahmer and Theune ( 2002 ) have argued that Dale and Reiter 's ( 1995 ) dichotomy between salient and nonsalient objects ( where the objects in the domain are the salient ones ) should be replaced by an account that takes degrees of salience into account : No object can be too unsalient to be referred to , as long as the right properties are available . In effect , this proposal ( which measured salience numerically ) analyzes the black mouse as denoting the unique most salient object in the domain that is both black and a mouse .
4
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Background
[ 0, 27 ]
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@@CITATION have argued that Dale and Reiter 's ( 1995 ) dichotomy between salient and nonsalient objects ( where the objects in the domain are the salient ones ) should be replaced by an account that takes degrees of salience into account : No object can be too unsalient to be referred to , as long as the right properties are available .
J06-2002_29
0
experiments
The acquisition of dialogue as implemented in VNLCE is reminiscent of the program synthesis methodology developed by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) where program flowcharts were constructed from traces of their behaviors .
J86-1002
External_43441
1,986
1,976
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
construction of programs from example computations
[ "A Biermann", "R Krishnaswamy" ]
null
A verb is just as likely to be mis-recognized or not recognized as is a noun , adjective , determiner , etc. . The acquisition of dialogue as implemented in VNLCE is reminiscent of the program synthesis methodology developed by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) where program flowcharts were constructed from traces of their behaviors . However , the `` flowcharts '' in the current project are probabilistic in nature and the problems associated with matching incoming sentences to existing nodes has not been previously addressed .
7
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 117, 151 ]
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The acquisition of dialogue as implemented in VNLCE is reminiscent of the program synthesis methodology developed by @@CITATION where program flowcharts were constructed from traces of their behaviors .
J86-1002_5
0
null
Character classes , such as punctuation , are defined according to the Unicode Standard ( Aliprand et al. , 2004 ) .
W05-0709
External_80812
2,005
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the unicode standard
[ "Joan Aliprand", "Julie Allen", "Joe Becker", "Mark Davis", "Michael Everson" ]
null
Each punctuation symbol is considered a separate token . Character classes , such as punctuation , are defined according to the Unicode Standard ( Aliprand et al. , 2004 ) .
4
null
Uses
[ 90, 112 ]
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[]
Character classes , such as punctuation , are defined according to the Unicode Standard ( @@CITATION ) .
W05-0709_4
0
null
Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .
W01-0706
External_93146
2,001
1,993
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
evaluation techniques for automatic semantic extraction comparing semantic and window based approaches
[ "G Greffenstette" ]
null
Shallow parsing is studied as an alternative to full-sentence parsing . Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) . A lot of recent work on shallow parsing has been influenced by Abney 's work ( Abney , 1991 ) , who has suggested to `` chunk '' sentences to base level phrases .
2
null
Background
[ 180, 200 ]
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Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; @@CITATION ) .
W01-0706_16
0
introduction
Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by Crothers ( 1979 ) strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph .
J91-2003
External_44423
1,991
1,979
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
paragraph structure inference
[ "E J Crothers" ]
null
Secondly , the cooperative principle of Grice ( 1975 , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he should appeal only to the most direct knowledge of the reader . Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by Crothers ( 1979 ) strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph . Thus , for example , we can expect that in the worst case only one or two steps of such an iteration would be needed to find answers to wh-questions .
1
null
Motivation
[ 222, 239 ]
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Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by @@CITATION strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph .
J91-2003_10
0
introduction
In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .
W06-3813
External_15774
2,006
1,998
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a representation of complex events and processes for the acquisition of knowledge from text
[ "Fernando Gomez" ]
null
Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) . In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .
3
null
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In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( @@CITATION ) .
W06-3813_15
0
related work
The exact form of M ( Si ) need not be discussed at this point ; it could be a conceptual dependence graph ( Schank and Abelson 1977 ) , a deep parse of Si , or some other representation .
J86-1002
External_2536
1,986
1,977
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
scripts plans goals and understanding lawrence erlbaum associates
[ "R Schank", "R Abelson" ]
null
We denote the meaning of each sentence Si with the notation M ( Si ) . The exact form of M ( Si ) need not be discussed at this point ; it could be a conceptual dependence graph ( Schank and Abelson 1977 ) , a deep parse of Si , or some other representation . A user behavior is represented by a network , or directed graph , of such meanings .
3
null
Background
[ 109, 132 ]
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The exact form of M ( Si ) need not be discussed at this point ; it could be a conceptual dependence graph ( @@CITATION ) , a deep parse of Si , or some other representation .
J86-1002_25
0
experiments
Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .
D12-1037
N09-2006
2,012
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a simplex armijo downhill algorithm for optimizing statistical machine translation decoding parameters
[ "Bing Zhao", "Shengyuan Chen" ]
null
h is a feature vector which is scaled by a weight W. Parameter estimation is one of the most important components in SMT , and various training methods have been proposed to tune W . Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one . All these training methods follow the same pipeline : they train only a single weight on a given development set , and then use it to translate all the sentences in a test set .
2
null
Background
[ 112, 132 ]
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".", "ArgType": null, "before": "", "is_root": null, "tense": null, "is_pass": null, "has_aux": null } ] ]
Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .
D12-1037_42
0
introduction
Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .
W04-0910
External_51291
2,004
2,003
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
learning to paraphrase an unsupervised approahc using mutliplesequence alignment
[ "R Barzilay", "L Lee" ]
null
For instance , ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) acquire two-argument templates ( inference rules ) from corpora using an extended version of the distributional analysis in which paths in dependency trees that have similar arguments are taken to be close in meaning . Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source . And ( Glickman and Dagan , 2003 ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts .
2
null
Background
[ 14, 37 ]
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Similarly , ( @@CITATION ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .
W04-0910_0
0
introduction
This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in Gurevych ( 2006 ) .
W06-1104
External_61155
2,006
2,006
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
computing semantic relatedness across parts of speech
[ "Iryna Gurevych" ]
null
She used an adapted experimental setup where test subjects had to assign discrete values -LCB- 0,1,2,3,4 -RCB- and word pairs were presented in isolation . This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in Gurevych ( 2006 ) . Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) annotated a larger set of word pairs ( 353 ) , too .
4
null
Background
[ 85, 102 ]
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This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in @@CITATION .
W06-1104_9
0
related work
More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .
W04-1805
W02-1403
2,004
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
lexicallybased terminology structuring some inherent limits
[ "Natalia Grabar", "Pierre Zweigenbaum" ]
null
Hence , synonyms , co-hyponyms , hyperonyms , etc. are not differentiated . More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters . Up to now , the focus has been on nouns and adjectives , since these structuring methods have been applied to lists of extracted candidate terms ( Habert et al. , 1996 ; Daille , 2003 ) or to lists of admitted terms ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) .
4
null
Background
[ 193, 224 ]
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More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; @@CITATION use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .
W04-1805_6
0
related work
Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .
P10-2059
External_1047
2,010
1,991
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the hcrc map task corpus language and speech
[ "Anne H Anderson", "Miles Bader", "Ellen Gurman Bard", "Elizabeth Boyle", "Gwyneth Doherty", "Simon Garrod", "Stephen Isard", "Jacqueline Kowtko", "Jan McAllister", "Jim Miller", "Catherine Sotillo", "Henry S Thompson", "Regina Weinert" ]
null
Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues . Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers . Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .
2
null
Background
[ 184, 206 ]
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Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( @@CITATION ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .
P10-2059_1
0
introduction
Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .
J04-3001
P01-1005
2,004
2,001
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
scaling to very very large corpora for natural language disambiguation
[ "Michele Banko", "Eric Brill" ]
null
applications . Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) . More challenging are learning problems whose objective is not classification , but generation of complex structures .
4
null
Background
[ 215, 235 ]
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Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .
J04-3001_0
0
related work
It is known that certain cue words and phrases ( Hirschberg and Litman 1993 ) can serve as explicit indicators of discourse structure .
J00-3003
J93-3003
2,000
1,993
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
empirical studies on the disambiguation of cue phrases
[ "Julia B Hirschberg", "Diane J Litman" ]
null
DA labeling accuracy results should be compared to a baseline ( chance ) accuracy of 35 % , the relative frequency of the most frequent DA type ( STATEMENT ) in our test set .4 5.1 Dialogue Act Classification Using Words DA classification using words is based on the observation that different DAs use distinctive word strings . It is known that certain cue words and phrases ( Hirschberg and Litman 1993 ) can serve as explicit indicators of discourse structure . Similarly , we find distinctive correlations between certain phrases and DA types .
3
null
Motivation
[ 49, 75 ]
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It is known that certain cue words and phrases ( @@CITATION ) can serve as explicit indicators of discourse structure .
J00-3003_20
0
null
The last point may be seen better if we look at some differences between our system and KRYPTON , which also distinguishes between an object theory and background knowledge ( cfXXX Brachman et al. 1985 ) .
J91-2003
External_9316
1,991
1,985
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
krypton a functional approach to knowledge representationquot
[ "R J Brachman", "R E Fikes", "H J Levesque" ]
null
Rather , R must be treated as a separate logical level for these syntactic reasons , and because of its function -- being a pool of possibly conflicting semantic constraints . The last point may be seen better if we look at some differences between our system and KRYPTON , which also distinguishes between an object theory and background knowledge ( cfXXX Brachman et al. 1985 ) . KRYPTON 's A-box , encoding the object theory as a set of assertions , uses standard first order logic ; the T-box contains information expressed in a frame-based language equivalent to a fragment of FOL .
1
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 181, 201 ]
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The last point may be seen better if we look at some differences between our system and KRYPTON , which also distinguishes between an object theory and background knowledge ( cfXXX @@CITATION ) .
J91-2003_4
0
introduction
One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) .
J87-3002
External_29754
1,987
1,985
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
designing a computerised lexicon for linguistic purposes
[ "Erik Akkerman", "Pieter Masereeuw", "Willem Meijs" ]
null
This type of error and inconsistency arises because grammatical codes are constructed by hand and no automatic checking procedure is attempted ( see Michiels , 1982 , for further comment ) . One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) . In this project , a new lexicon is being manually derived from LDOCE .
3
null
Background
[ 66, 88 ]
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One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( @@CITATION ; Akkerman , 1986 ) .
J87-3002_0
0
null
Though we could have used a further downstream measure like BLEU , METEOR has also been shown to directly correlate with translation quality ( Banerjee and Lavie , 2005 ) and is simpler to measure .
D11-1138
W05-0909
2,011
2,005
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
meteor an automatic metric for mt evaluation with improved correlation with human judgments
[ "S Banerjee", "A Lavie" ]
null
We use a reordering score based on the reordering penalty from the METEOR scoring metric . Though we could have used a further downstream measure like BLEU , METEOR has also been shown to directly correlate with translation quality ( Banerjee and Lavie , 2005 ) and is simpler to measure . All reordering augmented-loss experiments are run with the same treebank data as the baseline ( the training portions of PTB , Brown , and QTB ) .
4
null
Motivation
[ 143, 168 ]
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Though we could have used a further downstream measure like BLEU , METEOR has also been shown to directly correlate with translation quality ( @@CITATION ) and is simpler to measure .
D11-1138_0
0
experiments
For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; Kübler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers
J13-1008
External_4979
2,013
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
parsing indian languages with maltparser
[ "Joakim Nivre" ]
null
Statistics about this split ( after conversion to the CATiB dependency format ) are given in Table 1 . For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; Kübler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers 10 We use the term `` dev set '' to denote a non-blind test set , used for model development ( feature selection and feature engineering ) .
3
null
Uses
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For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; Kübler , McDonald , and @@CITATION ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers
J13-1008_40
0
related work
We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) .
J13-1008
E12-1069
2,013
2,012
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
identifying broken plurals irregular gender and rationality in arabic text
[ "Sarah Alkuhlani", "Nizar Habash" ]
null
To address this issue , we use a version of the PATB3 training and dev sets manually annotated with functional gender , number , and rationality ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2011 ) .18 This is the first resource providing all three features ( ElixirFm only provides functional number , and to some extent functional gender ) . We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) . The next two parts show the advantages of functional gender and number ( denoted with a FN * prefix ) over their surface-based counterparts .
3
null
Uses
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We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( @@CITATION ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) .
J13-1008_4
0
related work
In our previous work ( Salloum and Habash , 2011 ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only .
N13-1036
W11-2602
2,013
2,011
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
dialectal to standard arabic paraphrasing to improve arabicenglish statistical machine translation
[ "Wael Salloum", "Nizar Habash" ]
null
In contrast , we use hand-written morphosyntactic transfer rules that focus on translating DA morphemes and lemmas to their MSA equivalents . In our previous work ( Salloum and Habash , 2011 ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only . We did not use a language model to pick the best path ; instead we kept the ambiguity in the lattice and passed it to our SMT system .
5
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 23, 48 ]
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In our previous work ( @@CITATION ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only .
N13-1036_30
0
related work
It has already been used to implement a framework for teaching NLP ( Loper and Bird , 2002 ) .
W03-0806
W02-0109
2,003
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
nltk the natural language toolkit
[ "Edward Loper", "Steven Bird" ]
null
Python is very easy to learn , read and write , and allows commands to be entered interactively into the interpreter , making it ideal for experimentation . It has already been used to implement a framework for teaching NLP ( Loper and Bird , 2002 ) . Using the Boost.Python C++ library ( Abrahams , 2003 ) , it is possible to reflect most of the components directly into Python with a minimal amount of coding .
8
null
Extends
[ 69, 90 ]
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It has already been used to implement a framework for teaching NLP ( @@CITATION ) .
W03-0806_23
0
null
Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .
Q13-1020
W06-1606
2,013
2,006
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
spmt statistical machine translation with syntactified target language phrases
[ "Daniel Marcu", "Wei Wang", "Abdessamad Echihabi", "Kevin Knight" ]
null
In recent years , tree-based translation models1 are drawing more and more attention in the community of statistical machine translation ( SMT ) . Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) . However , tree-based translation models always suffer from two major challenges : 1 ) They are usually built directly from parse trees , which are generated by supervised linguistic parsers .
2
null
Background
[ 311, 330 ]
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Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; @@CITATION ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .
Q13-1020_23
0
introduction
Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .
N10-1084
External_56137
2,010
2,001
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
syntactic information hiding in plain text masters thesis trinity college dublin
[ "Brian Murphy" ]
null
In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .
3
null
Background
[ 46, 61 ]
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Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , @@CITATION , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .
N10-1084_19
0
related work
Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .
J91-2003
External_83402
1,991
1,985
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
abductive inferencequot
[ "J A Reggia" ]
null
, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin . Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) . But , obviously , trying to establish precise connections for the metarules or the provability and the R + M-abduction would go much beyond the scope of an argument for the correspondence of paragraphs and models .
1
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 101, 116 ]
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Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of @@CITATION , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .
J91-2003_50
0
introduction
On the other side , wikis started as collective works where each entry is not owned by a single author e.g. Wikipedia ( 2005 ) .
W06-2807
External_98156
2,006
2,005
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
wikipedia from wikipedia the free encyclopedia
[ "Wikipedia" ]
null
Now they try to collect themselves in so-called ` blogspheres ' . On the other side , wikis started as collective works where each entry is not owned by a single author e.g. Wikipedia ( 2005 ) . Now personal wiki tools are arising for brainstorming and mind mapping .
3
null
Background
[ 108, 126 ]
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On the other side , wikis started as collective works where each entry is not owned by a single author e.g. @@CITATION .
W06-2807_19
0
null
To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by Smrž ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .
J13-1008
External_471
2,013
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the penn arabic treebank building a largescale annotated arabic corpus
[ "Mohamed Maamouri", "Ann Bies", "Timothy A Buckwalter", "Wigdan Mekki" ]
null
A similar inconsistency appears in feminine nominals that are not inflected using sound gender suffixes , for example , the feminine form of the masculine singular adjective S , l Âzraq + φ ( ` blue ' ) is Abj zarqA ' + φ not U , j l * * Âzraq + ah . To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by Smrž ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) . The Elixir-FM analyzer ( Smrž 2007 ) readily provides the
2
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 471, 491 ]
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To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by Smrž ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( @@CITATION ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .
J13-1008_30
0
experiments
Jiang et al. ( 2005 ) has built a semantic role classifier exploiting the interdependence of semantic roles .
D08-1034
External_34855
2,008
2,005
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
semantic argument classification exploiting argument interdependence
[ "Zheng Ping Jiang", "Jia Li", "Hwee Tou Ng" ]
null
Jiang et al. ( 2005 ) has built a semantic role classifier exploiting the interdependence of semantic roles . It has turned the single point classification problem into the sequence labeling problem with the introduction of semantic context features .
4
null
Uses
[ 0, 21 ]
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@@CITATION has built a semantic role classifier exploiting the interdependence of semantic roles .
D08-1034_3
0
null
Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) .
W06-1639
External_55734
2,006
2,006
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
automated classification of congressional legislation
[ "S Purpura", "D Hillard" ]
null
An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site . Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) . Detecting agreement We used a simple method to learn to identify cross-speaker references indicating agreement .
6
null
Background
[ 161, 187 ]
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Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .
W06-1639_39
0
related work
8 It is based on the dataset of Pang and Lee ( 2004 ) ,9 which consists of 1000 positive and 1000 negative movie reviews , tokenized and divided into 10 folds ( F0 -- F9 ) .
D08-1004
P04-1035
2,008
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a sentimental education sentiment analysis using subjectivity summarization based on minimum cuts
[ "B Pang", "L Lee" ]
null
In Zaidan et al. ( 2007 ) , we introduced the `` Movie Review Polarity Dataset Enriched with Annotator Rationales . '' 8 It is based on the dataset of Pang and Lee ( 2004 ) ,9 which consists of 1000 positive and 1000 negative movie reviews , tokenized and divided into 10 folds ( F0 -- F9 ) . All our experiments use F9 as their final blind test set .
5
null
Extends
[ 32, 53 ]
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8 It is based on the dataset of @@CITATION ,9 which consists of 1000 positive and 1000 negative movie reviews , tokenized and divided into 10 folds ( F0 -- F9 ) .
D08-1004_7
0
experiments
In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .
J90-3003
P86-1022
1,990
1,986
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the contribution of parsing to prosodic phrasing in an experimental texttospeech system
[ "J Bachenko", "E Fitzpatrick", "C E Wright" ]
null
In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) . The system generated phrase boundaries using information derived from the syntactic structure of a sentence .
1
null
Extends
[ 19, 39 ]
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In previous work ( @@CITATION ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .
J90-3003_2
0
introduction
The UMLS -- the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) has been developed and maintained by National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) [ 17 ] .
P05-3005
External_7220
2,005
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the unified medical language system umls integrating biomedical terminology
[ "O Bodenreider" ]
null
other attributes associated with genes and the products they encode . The UMLS -- the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) has been developed and maintained by National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) [ 17 ] . It contains three knowledge sources : the Metathesaurus ( META ) , the SPECIALIST lexicon , and the Semantic Network .
2
null
Background
[ 131, 137 ]
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The UMLS -- the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) has been developed and maintained by National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) @@CITATION .
P05-3005_4
0
null
The data used in the experiment was selected from the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal , and is the same used by Brill and Wu ( 1998 ) .
N01-1006
P98-1029
2,001
1,998
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
classifier combination for improved lexical disambiguation
[ "E Brill", "J Wu" ]
null
A multitude of approaches have been proposed to solve this problem , including transformation-based learning , Maximum Entropy models , Hidden Markov models and memory-based approaches . The data used in the experiment was selected from the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal , and is the same used by Brill and Wu ( 1998 ) . The training set contained approximately 1M words and the test set approximately 200k words .
5
null
Uses
[ 114, 135 ]
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The data used in the experiment was selected from the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal , and is the same used by @@CITATION .
N01-1006_2
0
experiments
As shown in Meurers ( 1994 ) this is a well-motivated convention since it avoids splitting up lexical rules to transfer the specifications that must be preserved for different lexical entries .
J97-4003
External_98507
1,997
1,994
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
on implementing an hpsg theory aspects of the logical architecture the formalization and the implementation of headdriven phrase structure grammars
[ "Detmar Meurers" ]
null
This conflicts with the standard assumption made in HPSG that only the properties changed by a lexical rule need be mentioned . As shown in Meurers ( 1994 ) this is a well-motivated convention since it avoids splitting up lexical rules to transfer the specifications that must be preserved for different lexical entries . * The authors are listed alphabetically .
1
null
Motivation
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As shown in @@CITATION this is a well-motivated convention since it avoids splitting up lexical rules to transfer the specifications that must be preserved for different lexical entries .
J97-4003_31
0
introduction
The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like .
J91-2003
P87-1021
1,991
1,987
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the interpretation of tense in discoursequot
[ "B Webber" ]
null
So it is not necessary now to present a formal semantics here . The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like . Since sentences can refer to events described by other sentences , we may need also a quotation operator ; Perlis ( 1985 ) describes how first order logic can be augmented with such an operator .
1
null
Background
[ 86, 97 ]
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The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; @@CITATION ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like .
J91-2003_57
0
introduction
Proceedings of EACL '99 example , the ALE parser ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom-up or topdown .
E99-1022
External_24317
1,999
1,994
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
ale — the attribute logic engine users guide version 202
[ "Bob Carpenter", "Gerald Penn" ]
null
For Proceedings of EACL '99 example , the ALE parser ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom-up or topdown . In the case of selective magic parsing we use so-called parse types which allow the user to specify how constraints in the grammar are to be interpreted .
4
null
Background
[ 51, 76 ]
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Proceedings of EACL '99 example , the ALE parser ( @@CITATION ) presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom-up or topdown .
E99-1022_1
0
null
Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we represent use the ACE training data for acquiring our SC clasSCA as a binary value that indicates whether the insifier ; instead , we use the BBN Entity Type Corpus duced SCs of the two NPs involved are the same or ( Weischedel and Brunstein , 2005 ) , which consists of not .
P07-1068
External_5960
2,007
2,005
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
bbn pronoun coreference and entity type corpus linguistica data consortium
[ "R Weischedel", "A Brunstein" ]
null
The first as our goal is to investigate the role of SC knowlknowledge source ( KS ) is semantic class agreement edge in coreference resolution ; and ( 2 ) we do not ( SCA ) . Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we represent use the ACE training data for acquiring our SC clasSCA as a binary value that indicates whether the insifier ; instead , we use the BBN Entity Type Corpus duced SCs of the two NPs involved are the same or ( Weischedel and Brunstein , 2005 ) , which consists of not . The second KS is mention , which is represented all the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal articles as a binary value that indicates whether an NP bewith the ACE mentions manually identified and anlongs to one of the five ACE SCs mentioned above .
2
null
Uses
[ 253, 284 ]
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Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we represent use the ACE training data for acquiring our SC clasSCA as a binary value that indicates whether the insifier ; instead , we use the BBN Entity Type Corpus duced SCs of the two NPs involved are the same or ( @@CITATION ) , which consists of not .
P07-1068_24
0
introduction
Following Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) , we also compare the performance of our system with a system using features based on the Brown clusters of the word types in a document .
W14-1609
W09-1119
2,014
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition
[ "Lev Ratinov", "Dan Roth" ]
null
These lexicons were gathered from US Census data , Wikipedia category pages , and Wikipedia redirects ( and will be made publicly available upon publication ) . Following Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) , we also compare the performance of our system with a system using features based on the Brown clusters of the word types in a document . Since , as seen in section 2.1 , Brown clusters are hierarchical , we use features corresponding to prefixes of the path from the root to the leaf for each word type .
3
null
Uses
[ 10, 35 ]
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Following @@CITATION , we also compare the performance of our system with a system using features based on the Brown clusters of the word types in a document .
W14-1609_33
0
introduction
Church and Hanks ( 1990 ) use mutual information to identify collocations , a method they claim is reasonably effective for words with a frequency of not less than five .
J00-3001
External_244
2,000
1,990
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
word association norms mutual information and lexicography
[ "Kenneth W Church", "Patrick Hanks" ]
null
In Smadja 's collocation algorithm Xtract , the lowest-frequency words are effectively discarded as well ( Smadja 1993 ) . Church and Hanks ( 1990 ) use mutual information to identify collocations , a method they claim is reasonably effective for words with a frequency of not less than five . A frequency threshold of five seems quite low .
1
null
Background
[ 0, 25 ]
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@@CITATION use mutual information to identify collocations , a method they claim is reasonably effective for words with a frequency of not less than five .
J00-3001_1
0
introduction
We do this with a first-order HMM part-ofspeech tagger ( Merialdo [ 13 ] ) .
A00-1018
External_30238
2,000
1,994
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
tagging english text with a probabilistic model
[ "B Merialdo" ]
null
Misleading similarities in graphical form can sometime induce translation mistakes ( deceptive cognates ) ) These forbidden pairs normally involve only one of several possible parts of speech , hence the need to disambiguate them . We do this with a first-order HMM part-ofspeech tagger ( Merialdo [ 13 ] ) . I In the rest of the paper , we will use deceptive cognate very losely often to refer to normative usage of word in general .
4
null
Uses
[ 66, 72 ]
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We do this with a first-order HMM part-ofspeech tagger ( Merialdo @@CITATION ) .
A00-1018_8
0
null
Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( Lari and Young 1990 ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) .
J04-3001
External_9007
2,004
1,990
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the estimation of stochastic contextfree grammars using the insideoutside algorithm computer speech and language
[ "Karim A Lari", "Steve J Young" ]
null
Mapping it back into the entropy definition from equation ( 3 ) , we derive the tree entropy of w as follows : Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( Lari and Young 1990 ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) . Similarly , the algorithm can be modified to compute the quantity E P ( v | G ) lg ( P ( v | G ) ) .
3
null
Uses
[ 121, 140 ]
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Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( @@CITATION ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) .
J04-3001_12
0
null
As shown in ( Minnen , 1996 ) • The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 .
E99-1022
P96-1033
1,999
1,996
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
magic for filter optimization in dynamic bottomup processing
[ "Guido Minnen" ]
null
See , among others , ( Ramakrishnan et al. 1992 ) . As shown in ( Minnen , 1996 ) • The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 . I A more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found in ( Minnen , 1998 ) .
2
null
Background
[ 14, 27 ]
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As shown in ( @@CITATION ) • The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 .
E99-1022_10
0
introduction
According to Hinds ( 1979 ) , paragraphs are made up of segments , which in turn are made up of sentences or clauses , which in turn are made up of phrases .
J91-2003
External_18434
1,991
1,979
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
organizational patterns in discoursequot
[ "J Hinds" ]
null
These chunks are sometimes called `` episodes , '' and sometimes `` paragraphs . '' According to Hinds ( 1979 ) , paragraphs are made up of segments , which in turn are made up of sentences or clauses , which in turn are made up of phrases . Paragraphs therefore give hierarchical structure to sentences .
1
null
Background
[ 13, 27 ]
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According to @@CITATION , paragraphs are made up of segments , which in turn are made up of sentences or clauses , which in turn are made up of phrases .
J91-2003_22
0
introduction
Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .
J91-2003
External_83403
1,991
1,987
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a theory of diagnosis from first principlesquot
[ "R Reiter" ]
null
, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin . Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) . But , obviously , trying to establish precise connections for the metarules or the provability and the R + M-abduction would go much beyond the scope of an argument for the correspondence of paragraphs and models .
1
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 164, 179 ]
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Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of @@CITATION , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .
J91-2003_51
0
introduction
This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( Hasan and Ng , 2013a ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ) .
D14-1083
P13-2142
2,014
2,013
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
extralinguistic constraints on stance recognition in ideological debates
[ "Kazi Saidul Hasan", "Vincent Ng" ]
null
In other words , we train a SC model that assumes as input a post sequence and outputs a stance sequence , with one stance label for each post in the input post sequence . This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( Hasan and Ng , 2013a ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ) . Given an input post sequence PS = ( p1 , p2 , ... , pn ) , the MEMM finds the most probable stance sequence S = ( s1 , s2 , ... , sn ) by computing P ( S | PS ) , where :
5
null
Extends
[ 64, 83 ]
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This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( @@CITATIONa ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ) .
D14-1083_12
0
experiments
Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .
P97-1063
External_6444
1,997
1,988
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a statistical approach to language translationquot
[ "P F Brown", "J Cocke", "S Della Pietra", "V Della Pietra", "F Jelinek", "R Mercer", "P Roossin" ]
null
Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) . However , the IBM models , which attempt to capture a broad range of translation phenomena , are computationally expensive to apply .
2
null
Background
[ 141, 160 ]
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Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( @@CITATION ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .
P97-1063_0
0
introduction
This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( Mittal et al. 1998 ) .
J00-2005
J98-3004
2,000
1,998
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
describing complex charts in natural language a caption generation system
[ "Vibhu Mittal", "Johanna Moore", "Guiseppe Carenini", "Steven Roth" ]
null
Despite these arguments , most applied NLG systems use a pipelined architecture ; indeed , a pipeline was used in every one of the systems surveyed by Reiter ( 1994 ) and Paiva ( 1998 ) . This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( Mittal et al. 1998 ) .
1
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Background
[ 218, 236 ]
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[]
This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( @@CITATION ) .
J00-2005_4
0
introduction
This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) .
N04-2004
External_5189
2,004
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
adding semantic annotation to the penn treebank
[ "Paul Kingsbury", "Martha Palmer", "Mitch Marcus" ]
null
Verbs are viewed as simple predicates over their arguments . This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) . Underlying the semantic roles approach is a lexicalist assumption , that is , each verb 's lexical entry completely encodes ( more formally , projects ) its syntactic and semantic structures .
2
null
Background
[ 203, 226 ]
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null, "has_aux": null }, { "index": 43, "word": "...", "lemma": "...", "after": "", "pos": ":", "characterOffsetEnd": 173, "segment_span": null, "characterOffsetBegin": 168, "originalText": ". . .", "ArgType": null, "before": " ", "is_root": null, "tense": null, "is_pass": null, "has_aux": null } ] ]
This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( @@CITATION ) .
N04-2004_9
0
introduction
Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .
J87-3002
External_8297
1,987
1,981
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
natural language information processing
[ "N Sager" ]
null
Robinson , 1982 ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand . Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources . In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) .
1
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 74, 86 ]
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Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( @@CITATION ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .
J87-3002_35
0
introduction
They can also shift the dialogue 2The notion of the initiative in this paper is different from that of the dialogue initiative of Chu-Carroll ( 2000 ) .
W00-1017
A00-1014
2,000
2,000
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
mimic an adaptive mixed initiative spoken dialogue system for information queries
[ "Junnifer Chu-Carroll" ]
null
Functions defined here decide what string should be spoken and send that string to the speech output module based on the current dialogue state . They can also shift the dialogue 2The notion of the initiative in this paper is different from that of the dialogue initiative of Chu-Carroll ( 2000 ) . phase and change the holder of the initiative as well as change the dialogue state .
3
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 130, 150 ]
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They can also shift the dialogue 2The notion of the initiative in this paper is different from that of the dialogue initiative of @@CITATION .
W00-1017_5
0
null
The Google n-gram data was collected by Google Research for statistical language modelling , and has been used for many tasks such as lexical disambiguation ( Bergsma et al. , 2009 ) , and contains English n-grams and their observed frequency counts , for counts of at least 40 .
N10-1084
External_9487
2,010
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
webscale ngram models for lexical disambiguation
[ "Shane Bergsma", "Dekang Lin", "Randy Goebel" ]
null
The Google n-gram data was collected by Google Research for statistical language modelling , and has been used for many tasks such as lexical disambiguation ( Bergsma et al. , 2009 ) , and contains English n-grams and their observed frequency counts , for counts of at least 40 . The striking feature of
4
null
Background
[ 159, 180 ]
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The Google n-gram data was collected by Google Research for statistical language modelling , and has been used for many tasks such as lexical disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) , and contains English n-grams and their observed frequency counts , for counts of at least 40 .
N10-1084_7
0
experiments
Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) .
D09-1056
N04-1002
2,009
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
crossdocument coreference on a large scale corpus
[ "Chung Heong Gooi", "James Allan" ]
null
The most basic is a Bag of Words ( BoW ) representation of the document text . Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) . Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .
3
null
Background
[ 149, 170 ]
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Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; @@CITATION ) .
D09-1056_12
0
related work
To represent the semantics of predicative units , we use FrameNet inventory of frames and frame elements ( C.Johnson et al. , 2002 ) .
W04-0910
External_51289
2,004
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
framenet theory and practice
[ "C Fillmore C Johnson", "M Petruckand C Baker", "M Ellsworth", "J Ruppenhofer" ]
null
For non predicative units , we use WordNet synset numbers or when working within a restricted domain with a well defined thesaurus , the descriptors of that thesaurus . To represent the semantics of predicative units , we use FrameNet inventory of frames and frame elements ( C.Johnson et al. , 2002 ) . FrameNet is an online lexical resource for English based on the principles of Frame Semantics .
4
null
Uses
[ 109, 130 ]
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To represent the semantics of predicative units , we use FrameNet inventory of frames and frame elements ( C.@@CITATION ) .
W04-0910_5
0
null
Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose .
P13-3018
External_83583
2,013
2,004
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
morphological decomposition and the reverse base frequency effect
[ "M Taft" ]
null
( Taft , 1975 ) with his experiment on English inflected words , argued that lexical decision responses of polymorphemic words depends upon the base word frequency . Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose . Later , Baayen ( 2000 ) proposed the dual processing race model that proposes that a specific morphologically complex form is accessed via its parts if the frequency of that word is above a certain threshold of frequency , then the direct route will win , and the word will be accessed as a whole .
3
null
Background
[ 195, 206 ]
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Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; @@CITATION ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose .
P13-3018_17
0
related work
These two sets of data were used for automatic dialogue act classification , which was run in the Weka system ( Witten and Frank , 2005 ) .
P10-2059
External_345
2,010
2,005
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
data mining practical machine learning tools and techniques
[ "Ian H Witten", "Eibe Frank" ]
null
The multimodal data we obtained by combining the linguistic annotations from DanPASS with the gesture annotation created in ANVIL , resulted into two different groups of data , one containing all Yes and No expressions , and the other the subset of those that are accompanied by a face expression or a head movement , as shown in Table 4 . These two sets of data were used for automatic dialogue act classification , which was run in the Weka system ( Witten and Frank , 2005 ) . We experimented with various Weka classifiers , comprising Hidden Naive Bayes , SMO , ID3 , LADTree and Decision Table .
3
null
Uses
[ 112, 135 ]
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These two sets of data were used for automatic dialogue act classification , which was run in the Weka system ( @@CITATION ) .
P10-2059_21
0
null
• The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( Rabiner , 1989 ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set .
W00-1312
External_3897
2,000
1,989
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a tutorial on hidden markov models and selected applications in speech recognitionquot
[ "L Rabiner" ]
null
where W 's are query words in Q. Miller et al. estimated probabilities as follows : • The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( Rabiner , 1989 ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set . P ( v IGx ) = number of occurrences of W in Cx • length of Cx which is the general language probability for word Win language x. • P ( v I D ) = number of occurrences of W in D length of D
3
null
Uses
[ 65, 79 ]
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• The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( @@CITATION ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set .
W00-1312_16
0
null
Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .
P10-2059
External_10875
2,010
2,009
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
combining lexical syntactic and prosodic cues for improved online dialog act tagging
[ "Vivek Kumar Rangarajan Sridhar", "Srinivas Bangaloreb", "Shrikanth Narayanan" ]
null
Work has also been done on prosody and gestures in the specific domain of map-task dialogues , also targeted in this paper . Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues . Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .
2
null
Background
[ 0, 23 ]
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@@CITATION obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .
P10-2059_20
0
introduction
( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term .
W04-1610
External_1878
2,004
1,997
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a comparative study on feature selection in text categorization
[ "Y Yang", "J P Pedersen" ]
null
Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic . ( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term . On the other hand , ( Rogati and Yang , 2002 ) reports the X2 to produce best performance .
6
null
Background
[ 2, 26 ]
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( @@CITATION ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term .
W04-1610_18
0
experiments
Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .
J09-4010
External_52005
2,009
2,003
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
mercure towards an automatic email followup system
[ "G Lapalme", "L Kosseim" ]
null
This indicates that help-desk customers may have also become more tolerant of inaccurate or incomplete automatically generated replies , provided these replies are still relevant to their problem , and so long as the customers can follow up with a request for human-generated responses if necessary . Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) . A major factor limiting this work is the dearth of corpora -- help-desk e-mails tend to be proprietary and are subject to privacy issues .
1
null
Background
[ 176, 200 ]
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Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .
J09-4010_22
0
introduction
To quantify the relative strengths of these transitive inferences , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) propose to assign a weight to each link .
P00-1012
External_69922
2,000
1,999
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
ordering among premodifiers
[ "James Shaw", "Vasileios Hatzivassiloglou" ]
null
The first ordered pairs are more frequent , as are the individual adjectives involved . To quantify the relative strengths of these transitive inferences , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) propose to assign a weight to each link . Say the order ( a , b ) occurs m times and the pair -LCB- a , b -RCB- occurs n times in total .
4
null
Background
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To quantify the relative strengths of these transitive inferences , @@CITATION propose to assign a weight to each link .
P00-1012_14
0
experiments
While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .
P07-1068
External_3699
2,007
2,002
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
anaphora resolution
[ "R Mitkov" ]
null
In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , Tetreault ( 2001 ) ) . While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance . In fact , semantics plays a crucially important role in the resolution of common NPs , allowing us to identify the coreference relation between two lexically dissimilar common nouns ( e.g. , talks and negotiations ) and to eliminate George W. Bush from the list of candidate antecedents of the city , for instance .
2
null
Background
[ 61, 76 ]
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While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see @@CITATION ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .
P07-1068_13
0
introduction
Lisp is not particularly well suited for interfacing to complex , structured objects , and it was not our intention to embark on a major effort involving the development of a formal model of a dictionary ( of the style described in , eg. , Tompa 1986 ) ; on the other hand a method of access was clearly required , which was flexible enough to support a range of applications intending to make use of the LDOCE tape .
J87-3002
External_22623
1,987
1,986
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
database design for a dictionary of the future
[ "Frank Tompa" ]
null
In addition , in order to link the machine readable version of LDOCE to our development environment , and eventually to our natural language processing systems , we need to provide fast access from Lisp to data held in secondary storage . Lisp is not particularly well suited for interfacing to complex , structured objects , and it was not our intention to embark on a major effort involving the development of a formal model of a dictionary ( of the style described in , eg. , Tompa 1986 ) ; on the other hand a method of access was clearly required , which was flexible enough to support a range of applications intending to make use of the LDOCE tape . The requirement for having the dictionary entries in a form convenient for symbolic manipulation from within Lisp was furthermore augmented by the constraint that all the information present in the typesetting tape should be carried over to the on-line version of LDOCE , since it is impossible to say in advance which records and fields of an entry would , or would not , be of potential use to a natural language processing program .
2
null
Background
[ 240, 250 ]
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Lisp is not particularly well suited for interfacing to complex , structured objects , and it was not our intention to embark on a major effort involving the development of a formal model of a dictionary ( of the style described in , eg. , @@CITATION ) ; on the other hand a method of access was clearly required , which was flexible enough to support a range of applications intending to make use of the LDOCE tape .
J87-3002_39
0
null
We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .
D12-1037
External_762
2,012
1,998
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
an empirical study of smoothing techniques for language modeling in
[ "Stanley F Chen", "Joshua Goodman" ]
null
We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair . We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) . In our experiments the translation performances are measured by case-insensitive BLEU4 metric ( Papineni et al. , 2002 ) and we use mtevalv13a.pl as the evaluation tool .
4
null
Uses
[ 167, 190 ]
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We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( @@CITATION ) .
D12-1037_5
0
experiments
• Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) • Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) • Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) • Localization ( Sch ¨ aler 1996 )
J03-3004
External_16447
2,003
1,988
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
generating language with a phrasal lexicon
[ "Edward Hovy" ]
null
More specifically , the notion of the phrasal lexicon ( used first by Becker 1975 ) has been used successfully in a number of areas : • Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) • Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) • Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) • Localization ( Sch ¨ aler 1996 ) More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch ¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch ¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .
1
null
Background
[ 64, 73 ]
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• Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) • Text generation ( @@CITATION ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) • Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) • Localization ( Sch ¨ aler 1996 )
J03-3004_16
0
introduction
Details of the top performing heuristics of COCKTAIL were reported in ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) .
A00-1020
W99-0104
2,000
1,999
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
knowledgelean coreference resolution and its relation to textual cohesion and coherence
[ "Sanda M Harabagiu", "Steve J Maiorano" ]
null
Examples of the heuristics operation on the MUC data are presented presented in Table 2 . Details of the top performing heuristics of COCKTAIL were reported in ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) .
3
null
Background
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Details of the top performing heuristics of COCKTAIL were reported in ( @@CITATION ) .
A00-1020_6
0
null
Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .
J92-1004
H89-1012
1,992
1,989
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
the bbn spoken language systemquot
[ "S Boisen", "Y-L Chow", "A Haas", "R Ingria", "S Roukos", "D Stallard" ]
null
Current advances in research and development of spoken language systems2 can be found , for example , in the proceedings of the DARPA speech and natural language workshops , as well as in publications from participants of the ESPRIT SUNDIAL project . Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) . * Spoken Language Systems Group , Laboratoiy for Computer Science , MIT , Cambridge MA 02139 f This research was supported by DARPA under Contract N00014-89 +1332 , monitored through the Office of Naval Research .
1
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Background
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Representative systems are described in @@CITATION , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .
J92-1004_0
0
introduction
In addition , Moulin et al. ( 1985 ) note that our Object Raising rule would assign mean to this category incorrectly .
J87-3002
External_43912
1,987
1,985
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
computer exploitation of ldoces grammatical codes paper presented at a conference on survey of english language
[ "A Moulin", "J Jansen", "A Michiels" ]
null
None of these verbs take sentential complements and therefore they appear to be counterexamples to our Object Raising rule . In addition , Moulin et al. ( 1985 ) note that our Object Raising rule would assign mean to this category incorrectly . Mean is assigned both a V3 and a T5 category in the code field associated with sense 2 ( i.e. `` intend '' ) , however , when it is used in this sense it must be treated as an Object Equi verb .
6
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 14, 36 ]
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In addition , @@CITATION note that our Object Raising rule would assign mean to this category incorrectly .
J87-3002_24
0
null
The parallel corpus is word-aligned using GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) .
N13-1036
External_3667
2,013
2,003
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models
[ "F J Och", "H Ney" ]
null
Our system uses a standard phrase-based architecture . The parallel corpus is word-aligned using GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) . Phrase translations of up to 10 words are extracted in the Moses phrase table .
7
null
Uses
[ 53, 71 ]
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The parallel corpus is word-aligned using GIZA + + ( @@CITATION ) .
N13-1036_21
0
null
tions for the remaining 20 % of the instances ; and ( 3 ) train an SVM classifier ( using the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) ) on these 20 % of the instances , where each instance , i , is represented by a set of 31 binary features .
P07-1068
External_380
2,007
2,001
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
libsvm a library for support vector machines software available at httpwwwcsientuedutw∼cjlinlibsvm
[ "C-C Chang", "C-J Lin" ]
null
7See http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/∼lindek/downloads.htm 8In our implementation of Soon 's method , we label an instance as OTHERS if no NE or WN CLASS feature is generated ; otherwise its label is the value of the NE feature or the ACE SC that has the WN CLASS features as its keywords ( see Table 1 ) . tions for the remaining 20 % of the instances ; and ( 3 ) train an SVM classifier ( using the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) ) on these 20 % of the instances , where each instance , i , is represented by a set of 31 binary features . More specifically , let Li = 141 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 451 be the set of predictions that we obtained for i in step ( 2 ) .
2
null
Uses
[ 111, 131 ]
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tions for the remaining 20 % of the instances ; and ( 3 ) train an SVM classifier ( using the LIBSVM package ( @@CITATION ) ) on these 20 % of the instances , where each instance , i , is represented by a set of 31 binary features .
P07-1068_2
0
introduction
Our algorithm is similar to the approach taken by Pereira and Schabes ( 1992 ) for inducing PCFG parsers .
J04-3001
P92-1017
2,004
1,992
a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining
insideoutside reestimation from partially bracketed corpora
[ "Fernando C N Pereira", "Yves Schabes" ]
null
would be labeled as `` ( ( Several fund managers ) ( expect ( ( a rough market ) ( this morning ) ) ( before ( prices stabilize ) ) ) . ) '' Our algorithm is similar to the approach taken by Pereira and Schabes ( 1992 ) for inducing PCFG parsers . Because the EM algorithm itself is an iterative procedure , performing sample selection on top of an EM-based learner is an extremely computational-intensive process .
3
null
CompareOrContrast
[ 50, 78 ]
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Our algorithm is similar to the approach taken by @@CITATION for inducing PCFG parsers .
J04-3001_19
0
null