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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Galicia-Volhynia

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

In (Galicia), the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of the and s. The Jewish population of Galicia and , part of , was extremely large; it made up 5% of the global Jewish population.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century through the creation of the in 1569, was considered one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Cossack Uprising and the Deluge

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

The Ukrainian led a , known as (1648–1657), under the premise that the had sold them as "into the hands of the accursed Jews." At that time it is estimated that the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325. An army of Cossacks massacred and took into captivity numerous Jews, Roman Catholics and in 1648–49. Recent estimates range from fifteen thousand to thirty thousand Jews killed or taken captive, and 300 Jewish communities totally destroyed. 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in in May 1648 and 1,500 in in July 1648.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

The Cossack Uprising and the left a deep and lasting impression on the Jewish social and spiritual life. In this time of and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of , known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Eastern Europe. His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of , related to , known as . The rise of Hasidism had a great influence on the rise of , with a continuous influence through its many . A radically different movement was started by in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were extremely unorthodox (such as purification through transgression, as well as adoption of elements of Christianity), and he was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Russian Empire and Austrian rule

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

The traditional measures of keeping the free of Jews were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during the . During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were taken over by the Russian Empire, and established the that included and . During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in after the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first , while according to others (such as the , 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was the 1859 riot in Odessa. The term became common after a wave of large-scale anti-Jewish violence swept southern Russian Empire, including Ukraine, between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the . In May 1882, introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that stayed in effect for more than thirty years, until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an was applied to the Jews of Kyiv. In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were cut out of the Pale. When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to : "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to , the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III ended symbolically. It began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions." Odessa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Political activism and emigration

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

Persons of Jewish origin were over-represented in the Russian leadership. However, most of them were hostile to traditional and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the 's and , and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism". groups, including the , opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. There was also a backlash from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odessa. himself claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Early 20th century

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as , , , and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most notorious one was under the leadership of in Odessa. In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the (commonly known as the ""). From 1911 to 1913, the tenor of the period was characterized by a number of cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of , who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy (Lowe 1993, 284–90). The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population. From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, which coincide with the Pale of Settlement.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

World War I aftermath

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

During the 1917 and the ensuing , an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire in this period. In the territories of modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Ukrainian People's Republic

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

During the establishment of the (1917–1921), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In the Ukrainian People's Republic, was an official language, while all government posts and institutions had Jewish members. A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (it was the first modern state to do so). All rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed. All Jewish parties abstained or voted against the 's of 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties with and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state, since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence. In Ukraine alone, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35,000 and 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms." The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them. But it lacked authority to stop violence. In the last months of its existence it lacked any power to create social stability. Among the prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period were , Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see ) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by the Ukrainian Jewish . Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by the of who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Provisional Government of Russia and Soviets

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds". The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities. One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917 , the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation. In 1918, the issued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private. On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the . It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat was also expected to fight the influence of and Jewish-Socialist Parties. On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed. On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU () was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Pogroms in western Ukraine

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

The pogroms which erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine. After it was the turn of , northwest of Kyiv. In on 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko. Then (6 and 7 April). In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion. According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (now ), near the city of , "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Massive pogroms continued until 1921.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Pogroms across Podolia

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, initiated a pogrom in which many Jews were massacred on () from three p.m. until next Sunday (?Saturday). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising, which he believed was led by Jews. According to the record books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper by the head of . In it denounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable for being used to justify 's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in light of revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms in various places around Ukraine culminated in the between June and October of that year.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Bolsheviks/USSR consolidation of power

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

In July 1919, the dissolved the (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided a number of social services to the Jewish community. From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition. The Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education. To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in . At the same time, the body also worked to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community. In 1921 many Jews in the newly formed , as they were entitled by a peace treaty in to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the . On 31 January 1924 the Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded. On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas. A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (), was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of . For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade. In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish national raions in Ukraine as well as two in the Crimea – national raions occupied the 3rd level of the soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II. The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odessa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and , 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in , 42,600 or 37.9%. On 8 April 1929 the new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities. In 1930 the was dissolved, and there was now no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared. When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for these purposes. The affected the Jewish population, and led to a migration from the s to the overcrowded cities. As the Soviet government annexed territory from , (both would be incorporated into the after ) and the , roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens. Restrictions on Jews that had existed in the formerly independent countries were now lifted. At the same time, Jewish organizations in the newly acquired territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled. Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Jewish settlement in Crimea

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-Union passed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belarusian cities to Crimea, 570,400 families. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was again confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on 15 July 1926, assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources. The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in Crimea was opposed by , who regarded it as a provocation. This train of thought was supported by who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there. The Soviets twice sought to establish ; once, in the 1920s, with the support of the , and secondly, in 1944, by the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

World War II

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

The total number of civilians who died during the war and the German occupation of Ukraine is estimated to be as high as seven million, this estimate includes over one million Jews who were shot and killed by the and local Ukrainian collaborators in various regions of Ukraine. The total number of Jews who were killed in the Holocaust in Eastern Ukraine, or the Ukrainian SSR (within its 1938 borders), is estimated to be slightly less than 700,000 out of a total pre-Holocaust Jewish population of slightly over 1.5 million. Within the borders of Modern , the death toll is estimated to be around 900,000.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Post-war situation

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

Ukraine had 840,000 Jews in 1959, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population declined significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). The overwhelming majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved to other countries (mostly to Israel) in the 1990s during and after the . Such new immigrants to Israel included artists, such as and street artist , as well as activists, such as and .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Independent Ukraine

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

In counted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine. Although discrimination by the state all but halted very soon after in 1991, Jews were still discriminated against in Ukraine during the 1990s. For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions. Antisemitism has since declined. According to the European Jewish Congress, as of 2014, there are 360,000–400,000 Jews in Ukraine. During the 1990s, some 266,300 Ukrainian Jews as part of a wave of of Jews from the former Soviet Union to in the 1990s. The counted 106,600 Jews living in Ukraine (the number of Jews also dropped due to a negative birthrate). According to the , early 2012 there were 250,000 Jews in Ukraine, half of them living in Kyiv. By 1999 there were various Ukrainian Jewish organizations who disputed each other's . In November 2007, an estimated 700 scrolls previously confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet Union's Communist rule were returned to Jewish communes in Ukraine by the state authorities. The was established in 2008 in Kyiv with the aim of concentrating the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving the community's strategic problems and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine". In the s, won its first seats in the , garnering 10.44% of the popular vote and the fourth most seats among national political parties; This led to concern among Jewish organizations both inside and outside Ukraine "Svoboda" of openly Nazi sympathies and being antisemitic. In May 2013, the listed the party as . "Svoboda" itself has denied being antisemitic. Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still a problem in Ukraine. Since the February 2014 ending of the protests unrest has gripped and , and this escalated in April 2014 into the ongoing . In April 2014, leaflets were distributed by three masked man as people left a synagogue in (the biggest city in Donbas) ordering Jews to register to avoid losing their property and citizenship "given that the leaders of the Jewish community of Ukraine support the in and are hostile to the and its citizens". While many speak of a hoax (concerning the authorship of the tracts) which took on international proportions, the fact that these flyers were distributed remains undisputed. Due to the growing , Ukrainian Jews making from Ukraine reached 142% higher during the first four months of 2014 compared to the previous year. 800 people arrived in over January–April, and over 200 signed up for May 2014. On the other hand, chief rabbi and emissary of Rabbi claimed late April 2014 "Today, you can come to Kyiv, or and walk through the streets openly dressed as a Jew, with nothing to be afraid of". In August 2014, the reported that the is organizing chartered flights to allow at least 150 Ukrainian Jews, to immigrate to Israel in September. Jewish organizations within Ukraine, as well as the , the and the Jewish community of , have arranged temporary homes and shelters for hundreds of Jews who fled the War in Donbas in eastern Ukraine. Hundreds of Jews have reportedly fled the cities of and Donetsk, and Rabbi stated (in August 2014) that more Jews may leave for Israel if the situation in eastern Ukraine continues to deteriorate. In 2014 the Jews and were appointed Governor of and respectively. Groysman became in April 2016. Ukraine elected its first Jewish president in the where former comedian and actor of the TV series , won over incumbent .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

In February 2022, when , the Israeli Embassy stayed open on the Sabbath to facilitate the evacuation of an estimated 200,000 Jews from Ukraine. A total of 97 Jews chose to flee Ukraine for Israel. In addition, 140 Jewish orphans have fled from Ukraine to Romania and Moldova. 100 Jews fled from Ukraine to Belarus in order to prepare for their eventual move to Israel On 2 March 2022, the Jewish Agency for Israel reported that hundreds of Ukrainian Jewish war refugees sheltering in Poland, Romania and Moldova were scheduled to leave for Israel by the following week. On March 13, 2022, 600 Jews fleeing from Ukraine went to Israel, and by March 21, 2022, the number was 12,000. As of 23 March, more than 15,200 Ukrainian refugees arrived in Israel, of whom only 4,200 would have otherwise been eligible for citizenship As of 7 April 2022 the number of Jews from Ukraine who have gone up to Israel is reported to be 10,000. As of 4 May 2022 12,500 Jews have been evacuated from Ukraine.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Jewish communities

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

As of 2012, Ukraine had the fifth-largest Jewish community in Europe and the twelfth-largest , behind and ahead of . The majority of Ukrainian Jews live in four large cities: (about half of all Jews living in Ukraine), , and . Rabbis of Kyiv and of Dnipro are considered to be among the most influential foreigners in the country. Opened in October 2012 in Dnipro, the multifunctional is probably one of the biggest s in the world. There is a growing trend among some Israelis to visit Ukraine on a "roots trip" to follow the footsteps of Jewish life there. Among the places of interest Kyiv is usually mentioned, where it is possible to trace the paths of and ; and , where one can follow the steps of ; , where one can trace the life of ; , where one can follow the course of ; – the path of ; – the place of and .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Ukraine

History of the Jews in Ukraine

Further reading

The history of the in dates back over a thousand years; communities have existed in the territory of from the time of the (late 9th to mid-13th century). Some of the most important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from to , rose either fully or to an extensive degree in the territory of modern Ukraine. According to the , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes the third-largest in Europe and the fifth-largest in the world. Whilst at times it flourished, at other times the Jewish community faced periods of persecution and discrimination. In the (1917-1920), was declared a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted an autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency in this same period, between 1917 and 1920. Before , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews; they were the largest national minority in Ukraine. Ukrainian Jews consist of a number of sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including , , , , , and . In the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the between 1648 and 1657, an army of massacred and took into captivity large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniate Christians. Recent estimates state that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in following the death of the patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first . At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur, leading to large-scale emigration. When Ukraine was part of the , attitudes were expressed in numerous cases between 1911 and 1913. In 1915, the Russian imperial government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the conflicts of the and the ensuing , an estimated 31,071 Jews were . During the establishment of the (1917–21), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by Petliura's forces during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 50,000 to 100,000 Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of and spread to many other regions of Ukraine. Massive pogroms continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism in the area. Total civilian losses during World War II and the are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, of them around 225,000 in , were shot and killed by the and by their many local Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the , of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). During and after the in the 1990s, the majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 and moved abroad (mostly ). Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still problems in Ukraine.

Velychenko, Stephen (2021) Ukraine's Revolutions and anti-Jewish Pogroms * (historians.in.ua).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Introduction

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Early history

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

Throughout several centuries the lands of modern Belarus and the were both parts of the . Therefore, the history of Belarusian Jews is closely related to the and historically they could be seen as a subset of . As early as the 8th century Jews lived in parts of the lands of modern Belarus. Beginning with that period they conducted the trade between Ruthenia, Lithuania, and the , especially with , (Vineta or Wollin, in ), and other cities on the , , and . The origin of Belarusian Jews has been the subject of much speculation. It is believed that they were made up of two distinct streams of Jewish immigration. The older and significantly smaller of the two entered the territory that would later become the from the east. These early immigrants spoke Judeo-Slavic dialects which distinguished them from the later Jewish immigrants who entered the region from the Germanic lands. While the origin of these eastern Jews is not certain, historical evidence places Jewish refugees from Babylonia, Palestine, the Byzantine Empire and other Jewish refugees and settlers in the lands between the Baltic and Black Seas that would become part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The later and much larger stream of immigration originated in the 12th century and received an impetus from the persecution of the by the . The traditional language of the vast majority of Lithuanian Jews, Yiddish, is based largely upon the Medieval German and Hebrew spoken by the western Germanic Jewish immigrants. The peculiar conditions that prevailed in Belarus compelled the first Jewish settlers to adopt a different mode of life from that followed by their western ethnic brethren. At that time there were no cities in the western sense of the word in Belarus, no or close s at that time. Some of the cities which later became the important centers of Jewish life in Belarus were at first mere villages. , one of the oldest, was first mentioned in the chronicles of 1128. was founded somewhat later by ; in 1250; and in 1252; in 1262; and in 1280; , , and in 1320.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Increasing prosperity and the great charter (1320–1432)

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

With the campaign of and his subjection of and (1320–1321) the Jewish inhabitants of these territories were induced to spread throughout the northern provinces of the . The probable importance of the southern Jews in the development of Belarus and Lithuania is indicated by their numerical prominence in Volhynia in the 13th century. According to an annalist who describes the funeral of the grand duke in the city of (Volhynia), "the Jews wept at his funeral as at the fall of , or when being led into the ." This sympathy and the record thereof would seem to indicate that long before the event in question the Jews had enjoyed considerable prosperity and influence, and this gave them a certain standing under the new régime. They took an active part in the development of the new cities under the tolerant rule of duke Hiedzimin. Little is known of the fortunes of the Belarusian Jews during the troublous times that followed the death of Hiedzimin and the accession of his grandson (1341). To the latter, the Jews owed a charter of privileges which was momentous in the subsequent history of the Jews of Belarus and Lithuania. The documents granting privileges first to the Jews of (July 1, 1388) and later to those of , (1389), , Vladimir, and other large towns are the earliest documents to recognize the Jews of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as possessing a distinct organization. The gathering together of the scattered Jewish settlers in sufficient numbers and with enough power to form such an organization and to obtain privileges from their Lithuanian rulers implies the lapse of considerable time. The Jews who dwelt in smaller towns and villages were not in need of such privileges at this time, and the mode of life, as suggests, "the comparative poverty, and the ignorance of Jewish learning among the Lithuanian Jews retarded their intercommunal organization." But powerful forces hastened this organization toward the close of the 14th century. The chief of these was probably the cooperation of the Jews of with their brethren in the GDL. After the death of (1370), the condition of the Polish Jews changed for the worse. The influence of the Roman Catholic clergy at the Polish court grew; was indifferent to the welfare of his subjects, and his eagerness to convert the Jews to Christianity, together with the increased Jewish immigration from Germany, caused the Polish Jews to become apprehensive for their future.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

The Charter of 1388

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

On this account it seems more than likely that influential Polish Jews cooperated with the leading Belarusian and Lithuanian communities in securing a special charter from (Witold). The preamble of the charter reads as follows: In the name of God, Amen. All deeds of men, when they are not made known by the testimony of witnesses or in writing, pass away and vanish and are forgotten. Therefore, we, Alexander, also called Vitovt, by the grace of God Grand Duke of Lithuania and ruler of Brest, Dorogicz, Lutsk, Vladimir, and other places, make known by this charter to the present and future generations, or to whomever it may concern to know or hear of it, that, after due deliberation with our nobles we have decided to grant to all the Jews living in our domains the rights and liberties mentioned in the following charter. The charter itself was modeled upon similar documents granted by Casimir the Great, and earlier by , to the in 1084. Under the charter, the Jews of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed a class of freemen subject in all criminal cases directly to the jurisdiction of the grand duke and his official representatives, and in petty suits to the jurisdiction of local officials on an equal footing with the lesser nobles (), s, and other free citizens. The official representatives of the grand duke were the elder (starosta), known as the "Jewish judge" (judex Judæorum), and his deputy. The Jewish judge decided all cases between Christians and Jews and all criminal suits in which Jews were concerned; in civil suits, however, he acted only on the application of the interested parties. Either party who failed to obey the judge's summons had to pay him a fine. To him also belonged all fines collected from Jews for minor offenses. His duties included the guardianship of the persons, property, and freedom of worship of the Jews. He had no right to summon any one to his court except upon the complaint of an interested party. In matters of religion the Jews were given extensive autonomy. Under these equitable laws the Jews of Belarus and Lithuania reached a degree of prosperity unknown to their Polish and German co-religionists at that time. The communities of Brest, Hrodna, , Troki and Lutsk rapidly grew in wealth and influence. Every community had at its head a Jewish elder. These elders represented the communities in all external relations, in securing new privileges, and in the regulation of taxes. Such officials are not, however, referred to by the title "elder" before the end of the 16th century. Up to that time the documents merely state, for instance, that the "Jews of Brest humbly apply," etc. On assuming office the elders declared under oath that they would discharge the duties of the position faithfully, and would relinquish the office at the expiration of the appointed term. The elder acted in conjunction with the rabbi, whose jurisdiction included all Jewish affairs with the exception of judicial cases assigned to the court of the deputy, and by the latter to the king. In religious affairs, however, an appeal from the decision of the rabbi and the elder was permitted only to a council consisting of the chief rabbis of the king's cities. The cantor, sexton, and were subject to the orders of the rabbi and elder. The goodwill and tolerance of Vitaut endeared him to his Jewish subjects, and for a long time traditions concerning his generosity and nobility of character were current among them. His cousin, the king of Poland , did not interfere with his administration during Vitaut's lifetime.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Jagiellon rule

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

In 1569 Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were united. It was generally a time of prosperity and relative safety for the Jews of both countries (with the exception of the in the 17th century). However, a few events, such as the expulsion of the Jews from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania between 1495 and 1503 occurred just within the Grand Duchy.

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History of the Jews in Belarus

Expulsion of the Jews in 1495 and return in 1503

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

Casimir was succeeded as king of Poland by his son John Albert, and on the Lithuanian throne by his younger son, Alexander Jagellon. The latter confirmed the charter of privileges granted to the Jews by his predecessors, and even gave them additional rights. His father's Jewish creditors received part of the sums due to them, the rest being withheld under various pretexts. The attitude toward the Jews which had characterized the Lithuanian rulers for generations was unexpectedly and radically changed by a decree promulgated by Alexander in April, 1495. By this decree all Jews living in and the adjacent territories were summarily ordered to leave the country. The expulsion was evidently not accompanied by the usual cruelties; for there was no popular animosity toward the Jews, and the decree was regarded as an act of mere willfulness on the part of an absolute ruler. Some of the nobility, however, approved Alexander's decree, expecting to profit by the departure of their Jewish creditors, as is indicated by numerous lawsuits on the return of the exiles to Lithuania in 1503. It is known from the Hebrew sources that some of the exiles migrated to the , and that by far the greater number settled in Poland, where, by permission of King John Albert, they established themselves in the towns situated near the boundary of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This permission, given at first for a period of two years, was extended "because of the extreme poverty of the Jews on account of the great losses sustained by them." The extension, which applied to all the towns of the kingdom, accorded the enjoyment of all the liberties that had been granted to their Polish brethren (, June 29, 1498). The expelled settled in the Polish town of . The causes of the unexpected expulsion were probably many, including religious reasons, the need to fill a depleted treasury by confiscating the Jews' money, personal animosity, and other causes. Soon after Alexander's accession to the throne of Poland he permitted the Jewish exiles to return to Lithuania. Beginning in March, 1503, as is shown by documents still extant, their houses, lands, s, and cemeteries were returned to them, and permission was granted them to collect their old debts. The new charter of privileges permitted them to live throughout Lithuania as before. The return of the Jews and their attempt to regain their old possessions led to many difficulties and lawsuits. Alexander found it necessary to issue an additional decree (April, 1503), directing his vice-regent to enforce the law. In spite of this some of the property was not recovered by the Jews for years.

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History of the Jews in Belarus

The Act of 1566

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

The middle of the 16th century witnessed a growing antagonism between the lesser nobility and the Jews. Their relations became strained, and the enmity of the Christians began to disturb the life of the Litvak Jews. The anti-Jewish feeling, due at first to economic causes engendered by competition, was fostered by the clergy, who were then engaged in a crusade against "," notably the , , and Jews. The , which had spread from Germany, tended to weaken the allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Frequent instances occurred of the marriage of Catholic women to Jews, , or . The (Vilnius) complained to (Dec., 1548) of the frequency of such mixed marriages and of the education of the offspring in their fathers' faiths. The also saw in the Jews dangerous competitors in commercial and financial undertakings. In their dealings with the agricultural classes the lords preferred the Jews as middlemen, thus creating a feeling of injury on the part of the szlachta. The exemption of the Jews from military service and the power and wealth of the Jewish tax-farmers intensified the resentment of the szlachta. Members of the nobility, like , , () and others, attempted to compete with the Jews as leaseholders of customs revenues, but were never successful. Since the Jews lived in the towns and on the lands of the king, the nobility could not wield any authority over them nor derive profit from them. They had not even the right to settle Jews on their estates without the permission of the king; but, on the other hand, they were often annoyed by the erection on their estates of the tollhouses of the Jewish tax-collectors. Hence when the strategic moment arrived, the Lithuanian nobility endeavored to secure greater power over the Jews. At the in 1551 the nobility urged the imposition of a special polltax of one per head, and the Volhynian nobles demanded that the Jewish tax-collectors be forbidden to erect tollhouses or place guards at the taverns on their estates. The opposition to the Jews was finally crystallized and found definite expression in the repressive of 1566, when the nobles of Belarus and Lithuania were first allowed to take part in the national legislation. Paragraph Twelve of this statute contains the following articles: "The Jews shall not wear costly clothing, nor gold chains, nor shall their wives wear gold or silver ornaments. The Jews shall not have silver mountings on their sabers and daggers; they shall be distinguished by characteristic clothes; they shall wear yellow caps, and their wives kerchiefs of yellow linen, in order that all may be enabled to distinguish Jews from Christians." Other restrictions of a similar nature are contained in the same paragraph. However, the king checked the desire of the nobility to modify essentially the old charters of the Jews.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Effect of the Cossacks' Uprising in Belarus

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

The fury of the destroyed the organization of the Jewish communities in Belarus. The survivors who returned to their old homes in the latter half of the 17th century were practically destitute. The wars which raged constantly in the Lithuanian territory brought ruin to the entire country and deprived the Jews of the opportunity to earn more than a bare livelihood. The intensity of their struggle for existence left them no time to reestablish the conditions which had existed up to 1648. (1648–1668) sought to ameliorate their condition by granting various concessions to the Jewish communities of Lithuania. Attempts to return to the old order in the communal organization were not wanting, as is evident from contemporary documents. Thus in 1672, Jewish elders from various towns and villages in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania secured a charter from King (1669–1673), decreeing "that on account of the increasing number of Jews guilty of offenses against the Szlachta and other Christians, which result in the enmity of the Christians toward the Jews, and because of the inability of the Jewish elders to punish such offenders, who are protected by the lords, the king permits the s to summon the criminals before the Jewish courts for punishment and exclusion from the community when necessary." The efforts to resurrect the old power of the kahals were not successful. The impoverished Jewish merchants, having no capital of their own, were compelled to borrow money from the nobility, from churches, congregations, monasteries, and various religious orders. Loans from the latter were usually for an unlimited period and were secured by mortgages on the real estate of the kahal. The kahals thus became hopelessly indebted to the clergy and the nobility. In 1792 the Jewish population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was estimated at 250,000 (as compared with 120,000 in 1569). The whole of the commerce and industries of the country, now rapidly declining, was in the hands of the Jews. The nobility lived for the most part on their estates and farms, some of which were managed by Jewish leaseholders. The city properties were concentrated in the possession of monasteries, churches, and the lesser nobility. The Christian merchants were poor. Such was the condition of affairs in Belarus at the time of the second partition of Poland (1793), when the Jews became subjects of Russia.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Jewish culture in Belarus

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

The founding of the s in Belarus was due to the Lithuanian-Polish Jews who studied in the west, and to the German Jews who migrated about that time to Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. Very little is known of these early yeshivas. No mention is made of them or of prominent Lithuanian rabbis in Jewish writings until the 16th century. The first known rabbinical authority and head of a yeshiva was of Vladimir, Volhynia, who was already an old man when went to in the fourth decade of the 16th century. Another rabbinical authority, , rabbi of Ostrog and predecessor of Luria, died in 1559. Occasional references to the yeshiva of are found in the writings of the contemporary rabbis Solomon Luria (d. 1585), (d. 1572), and (d. 1589), who speak of its activity. Of the yeshiva of Ostrog and Vladimir in Volhynia it is known that they were in a flourishing condition at the middle of the 16th century, and that their heads vied with one another in ic scholarship. Mention is also made by Gans of the head of the yeshiva, , of whom but little is known otherwise. At the time of the , Solomon Luria was rabbi of Ostrog, and was regarded as one of the greatest Talmudic authorities in Poland and the GDL. In 1568 King Sigismund ordered that the suits between Isaac Borodavka and Mendel Isakovich, who were partners in the farming of certain customs taxes in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, be carried for decision to Rabbi Solomon Luria and two auxiliary rabbis from and . The far-reaching authority of the leading rabbis of Poland and Lithuania, and their wide knowledge of practical life, are apparent from numerous decisions cited in the . They were always the champions of justice and morality. In the Eitan ha-Ezrachi (Ostrog, 1796) of (known also as Abraham Schrenzel; d. 1650), Rabbi is cited as follows: "I emphatically protest against the custom of our communal leaders of purchasing the freedom of Jewish criminals. Such a policy encourages crime among our people. I am especially troubled by the fact that, thanks to the clergy, such criminals may escape punishment by adopting Christianity. Mistaken piety impels our leaders to bribe the officials, in order to prevent such conversions. We should endeavor to deprive criminals of opportunities to escape justice." The same sentiment was expressed in the 16th century by (Responsa, § 138). Another instance, cited by Katz from the same responsa, likewise shows that Jewish criminals invoked the aid of priests against the authority of Jewish courts by promising to become converts to Christianity. The decisions of the Polish-Lithuanian rabbis are frequently marked by breadth of view also, as is instanced by a decision of (Bayis Hadash, § 127) to the effect that Jews may employ in their religious services the melodies used in Christian churches, "since music is neither Jewish nor Christian, and is governed by universal laws." Decisions by Luria, , and show that the rabbis were acquainted with the and its philology. Jaffe, for instance, in a divorce case where the spelling of the woman's name as Lupka or Lubka was in question, decided that the word is correctly spelled with a "b," and not with a "p," since the origin of the name was the Russian verb = "to love," and not = "to beat" (Levush ha-Butz we-Argaman, § 129). Meïr Katz (Geburat Anashim, § 1) explains that the name of is written in divorce cases "Brest" and not "Brisk," "because the majority of the Lithuanian Jews use the Russian language." It is not so with Brisk, in the district of Kujawa, the name of that town being always spelled "Brisk." Katz (a German) at the conclusion of his responsum expresses the hope that when Lithuania shall have become more enlightened, the people will speak one language only——and that also will be written "Brisk."

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History of the Jews in Belarus

Items from the Responsa

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

The shed an interesting light also on the life of the Lithuanian Jews and on their relations to their Christian neighbors. states in his Mas'at Binyamin (end of sixteenth and beginning of 17th century) that "the Christians borrow clothes and jewelry from the Jews when they go to church." Sirkes (l.c. § 79) relates that a Christian woman came to the rabbi and expressed her regret at having been unable to save the Jew Shlioma from drowning. A number of Christians had looked on indifferently while the drowning Jew was struggling in the water. They were upbraided and beaten severely by the priest, who appeared a few minutes later, for having failed to rescue the Jew. Luria gives an account (Responsa, § 20) of a quarrel that occurred in a Lithuanian community concerning a cantor whom some of the members wished to dismiss. The synagogue was closed in order to prevent him from exercising his functions, and religious services were thus discontinued for several days. The matter was thereupon carried to the local lord, who ordered the reopening of the building, saying that the house of God might not be closed, and that the cantor's claims should be decided by the learned rabbis of Lithuania. mentions (She'erit Yosef, § 70) a Jewish community which was forbidden by the local authorities to kill cattle and to sell meat—an occupation which provided a livelihood for a large portion of the Lithuanian Jews. For the period of a year following this prohibition the Jewish community was on several occasions assessed at the rate of three per head of cattle in order to furnish funds with which to induce the officials to grant a hearing of the case. The Jews finally reached an agreement with the town magistrates under which they were to pay forty gulden annually for the right to slaughter cattle. According to (Bet Hillel, Yoreh De'ah, § 157), Naphtali says the Jews of Vilna had been compelled to uncover when taking an oath in court, but later purchased from the tribunal the privilege to swear with covered head, a practise subsequently made unnecessary by a decision of one of their rabbis to the effect that an oath might be taken with uncovered head. The responsa of Meïr Lublin show (§ 40) that the Lithuanian communities frequently aided the and the . On the expulsion of the Jews from , when the Jewish inhabitants of Silz had the privilege of remaining on condition that they would pay the sum of 2,000 gulden, the Lithuanian communities contributed one-fifth of the amount.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Belarusian Jews under the Russian Empire

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

Upon annexation of Belarusian lands, Russian czars included the territory into the so-called , a western border region of in which the permanent residence of Jews was allowed. Though comprising only 20% of the territory of European Russia, the Pale corresponded to the historical borders of the and included much of present-day , , , , , and parts of western . By the end of the 19th century, many Belarusian Jews were part of the general flight of Jews from Eastern Europe to the due to conflicts and s engulfing the and the of the Russian . Millions of Jews, including tens of thousands of Jews from Belarus, emigrated to the and South Africa. A small number also emigrated to the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

After the October Revolution

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

Jewish political organizations, including the , participated in the creation of the in 1918. During the first years of , in the 1920s, was an official language in along with , and . , a Ukrainian Jew, was First Secretary of the (i.e. the de facto head of state) from December 1928 to October 1929. However, the Soviet policy later turned against the Jews (see ).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

World War II

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

Atrocities against the Jewish population in the German-conquered areas began almost immediately, with the dispatch of (task groups) to round up Jews and shoot them. Local s were encouraged to carry out their own s. By the end of 1941, there were more than 5,000 troops devoted to rounding up and killing Jews. The gradual industrialization of killing led to adoption of the and the establishment of the extermination camps: the machinery of the Holocaust. Of the Soviet Jews who were killed in the Holocaust, 246,000 Jews were Belarusian: some 66% of the total number of Belarusian Jews.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Belarus

History of the Jews in Belarus

Late 20th century to modern days

The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. lived in all parts of the lands of modern . Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the (1919-1920), under the terms of the , Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, remained the third largest ethnic group in and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as , , , , , and was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the . According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.

In 1968, several thousand Jewish youths were arrested for Zionist activity. In the second half of the 20th century, there was a large wave of Belarusian Jews immigrating to (see ), as well as to the . In 1979, there were 135,400 Jews in Belarus; a decade later, 112,000 were left. The collapse of the Soviet Union and Belarusian independence saw most of the community, along with the majority of the former Soviet Union's Jewish population, leave for Israel (see ). The 1999 census estimated that there were only 27,798 Jews left in the country, which further declined to 12,926 in 2009 and marginally rose to 13,705 in 2019. However, local Jewish organizations put the number at 50,000 in 2006. About half of the country's Jews live in . National Jewish organizations, local cultural groups, religious schools, charitable organizations, and organizations for war veterans and Holocaust survivors have been formed. Since the mass immigration of the 1990s, there has been some continuous immigration to Israel. In 2002, 974 Belarusians moved to Israel, and between 2003 and 2005, 4,854 followed suit.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20ABCs%20of%20Rock

The ABCs of Rock

Introduction

The ABCs of Rock is a half-hour-long music program on the Canadian Music Video Channel . The show picks a letter each episode and lists artists, albums, trivia questions and events in pop-culture, then lists them during the episode.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20ABCs%20of%20Rock

The ABCs of Rock

Production crew

The ABCs of Rock is a half-hour-long music program on the Canadian Music Video Channel . The show picks a letter each episode and lists artists, albums, trivia questions and events in pop-culture, then lists them during the episode.

Producers: Jessica Capobianco, Greg Miller, Bob Pagrach Editor: Michael Burshtyn

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Andretti%20Racing

Mario Andretti Racing

Introduction

Mario Andretti Racing is a that was released in 1994 on the . It was an early title in the newly created line, and was developed by . The game was produced by famed sports game developer as part of his collaboration with in the creation of EA Sports. Race driver personally guided the development of the used by the non-player drivers in , style racing, and . The game uses different physics and AI for three kinds of racing. The success of Mario Andretti Racing led Orr and Hilleman to work with Stormfront to launch the highly successful series. In 1996, EA Sports released another game starring Andretti, called , for the and . A version for followed in 1997.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Andretti%20Racing

Mario Andretti Racing

Reviews

Mario Andretti Racing is a that was released in 1994 on the . It was an early title in the newly created line, and was developed by . The game was produced by famed sports game developer as part of his collaboration with in the creation of EA Sports. Race driver personally guided the development of the used by the non-player drivers in , style racing, and . The game uses different physics and AI for three kinds of racing. The success of Mario Andretti Racing led Orr and Hilleman to work with Stormfront to launch the highly successful series. In 1996, EA Sports released another game starring Andretti, called , for the and . A version for followed in 1997.

(Apr, 1994) (Jun, 1994) (Jul, 1994) (Aug, 1994) (Aug 10, 1994) (Sep, 1994) (Sep, 1994)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Introduction

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Origins

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

Medieval Danish art contains depictions of Jews—visibly wearing —but there is no evidence that any Jews actually lived in Denmark during that time. With the conclusion of the in 1536, Jews along with Catholics were prohibited entry into Denmark. The first known settlement on Danish territory was based on a royal dispensation. Industrious founded on the river in today's state of in 1616. When it initially threatened to founder, he decided in 1619 to allow Jewish merchant Albert Dionis to settle in the town. He thus hoped to ensure its success. This dispensation was extended to a few other Jews, and in 1628, their status was formalized by being promised protection, the right to hold private religious services, and maintain their own cemetery. Albert Dionis gained special status within the Danish royal court, apparently as a source of credit for ambitious projects. Gabriel Gomez, who also attained status, persuaded to allow to reside in Denmark while conducting trade. At that time, , in contrast to the Sephardim, were forbidden to enter unless they were specifically granted letters of safe passage, and were subject to considerable fines if caught without the required documents; nevertheless, many of the Jews who settled in the kingdom in the coming years were Ashkenazi.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Establishment of permanent communities

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

Following the costly , which created a fiscal crisis for the Danish crown, Frederik III proclaimed in Denmark. To improve trade, the king encouraged Jewish immigration. The first Jewish community was founded in the newly established town of in 1682, and in 1684 an Ashkenazi community was founded in . By 1780, there were approximately 1,600 Jews in Denmark, though all were admitted by special permission granted only on the basis of personal wealth. They were subject to social and economic discrimination, and for a brief period in 1782 they were forced to attend Lutheran services. But they were not required to live in ghettos and had a significant degree of self-governance.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Danish West Indies

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

Jews began settling in the in 1655, and by 1796 was inaugurated. In its heyday in the mid-19th century, the Jewish community made up half of the white population. One of the earliest , , was a .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Integration into Danish life

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

As the reached Denmark in the late 18th century, the king instituted a number of reforms to facilitate integration of Jewish subjects into the larger Danish society. Jews were allowed to join s, study at the university, buy real estate, and establish schools. The and the disastrous brought about a complete emancipation of Danish Jews (while, in contrast, in Norway resulted in a constitutional ban on Jews entering Norway). Still, there were severe riots in Denmark in 1819 that lasted several months, though without any known fatalities. On the other hand, the early 19th century saw a flourishing of Danish-Jewish cultural life. The is a landmark building, designed by the architect . A number of Jewish cultural personalities (or persons of Jewish ancestry who did not necessarily regard themselves as Jews), among them the art benefactor and editor , the writer , and founder of , , his brother literary critic (who had a strong influence on Norwegian playwright ), , and others rose to prominence.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Growth and 20th century crises

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

As in many other societies, increasing integration accelerated assimilation of Jews into mainstream Danish society, including higher rates of . In the early twentieth century, events such as the in 1903, the in 1904, and the series of Russian revolutions, led to an influx of approximately 3,000 Jewish refugees into Denmark. The new arrivals changed the character of Danish Jewry significantly. More likely to be socialist than religious, they founded a theater and several Yiddish newspapers. During , in 1918, the set up a central office in Copenhagen in order to present the claims of the Jewish people at the . These proved to be short-lived, however, and Denmark closed its door to further immigration in the early 1920s. A notable Danish Jew from this period was , one of the Chief Rabbis of Copenhagen, who, after immigrating to , founded the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

The Nazi era

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

In April 1933, was scheduled to appear at the central synagogue in Copenhagen to celebrate its centennial anniversary. When came to power in Germany in January 1933, the community leaders suggested that the king postpone his visit. The king insisted, however, and became the first Nordic monarch to visit a synagogue. also became the subject of a persistent according to which, during Nazi occupation, he donned the Star of David in solidarity with the Danish Jews. This is not true, as Danish Jews were not forced to wear the star of David. However, the legend likely stems from a 1942 British report that claimed he threatened to don the star if this was forced upon Danish Jews. He did, however, later on, finance the transport of Danish Jews to unoccupied Sweden, where they would be safe from Nazi persecution. A period of tension ensued, for the Danish population in general and its Jewish citizens in particular. Danish policy sought to ensure its independence and neutrality by placating the neighboring Nazi regime. After Denmark was occupied by Germany following on April 9, 1940, the situation became increasingly precarious. In 1943, the situation came to a head when , the German plenipotentiary in Denmark, ordered the arrest and deportation of all Danish Jews, scheduled to commence on October 1, which coincided with . The Jewish Danes were warned and only 202 were arrested initially. 7,550 fled to Sweden, ferried across the strait; 500 Jews were deported to the concentration camp. Danish authorities often interceded on their behalf (as they did for other Danes in German custody), sending food. Of the 500 Jews who were captured, approximately 50 died during deportation. Danes rescued the rest and they returned to Denmark in what was regarded as a patriotic duty against the Nazi occupation. Many non-Jewish Danes protected their Jewish neighbours' property and homes while they were gone. After the war, many migrated to Sweden, Israel, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Post-war era

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

In 2013, the officially recognized Jewish Community in Denmark religious organization had approximately 1900 members, according to Finn Schwarz, president of the community. Comparing to 1997, this number indicates a significant decrease in membership, which the Jewish community has explained partly by increasing antisemitic incidents. Research from Danish professor Peter Nannestad has shown that antisemitism in Denmark is confined to other minority groups and is not an issue in Danish society at large. Rather, the fact that Denmark has become increasingly secular in recent years might be a better explanation for why Jews and other groups with a strong religious heritage face difficulties in adapting to life in Denmark. Indeed, it has been suggested that non-orthodox Jews have little or no problems feeling at home in Denmark. Another sensitive topic for Jews in Denmark is the relatively strong support of Palestine in the country, which can create some tension if Danish Jews are vocal in their support of Israel during military actions in Gaza. According to the Jewish Community in Denmark, as of 2020, there were approximately 6,000 Jews in Denmark, of which 1,700 were card-carrying members of the organisation. The majority of Danish Jews are secular, but maintain a cultural connection to Jewish life. Almost all Jews are very integrated into mainstream Danish society. Danish society has generally maintained a safe and friendly environment for its Jewish minority. There are three active synagogues in Denmark today, all in Copenhagen. The larger synagogue in Krystalgade is a - community and is inclusive of its members, though follows a traditional liturgy. The Machsike Hadas Synagogue is an synagogue, and also has a presence in Copenhagen. Shir Hatzafon is a Reform Jewish synagogue and community in Denmark. In addition, there are two Jewish periodicals published in Danish: Rambam, published by Selskabet for Dansk-Jødisk Historie; and Alef, a journal of Jewish culture.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Denmark

History of the Jews in Denmark

Contemporary antisemitism

The history of the in goes back to the 1600s. At present, the Jewish community of Denmark constitutes a small minority of about 6,000 persons within Danish society. The community's population peaked prior to at which time the (with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens) took part in a collective effort to from by sea to nearby neutral , an act which ensured the safety of almost all the Danish Jews.

As of 2012, tolerance toward the Jewish population in Denmark has become more tenuous due to increasing anti-Israel sentiment and hostility from a growing immigrant population now numbering over 250,000. In February 2014, the AKVAH (Section for Mapping and Sharing of Knowledge about Incidents) published its Report on Antisemitic Incidents in Denmark 2013. The report described 43 antisemitic incidents that occurred in Denmark during the year, which included assault and physical harassment, threats, Antisemitic utterances and vandalism. According to the report, there was no change in the level of antisemitism in the country comparing to previous years. The Jewish community in Denmark reported an increase in threatening messages and antisemitic assaults, caused by the ,. In August 2014, the "Carolineskolen", a Jewish school, and complex in Copenhagen was vandalized as windows were smashed and antisemitic graffiti was sprayed on the school walls. The graffiti was political in nature and referred to the ongoing conflict between Israel and in Gaza. Prior to this event, school officials advised parents not to allow their children to wear Jewish religious symbols in public as a result of rising reports of antisemitic harassments in Denmark. The Jewish community in Denmark reported 29 incidents in connection with the conflict in Gaza. In September 2014, a Danish , , at a mosque run by , said in a filmed lecture that the Jews are the "offspring of apes and pigs". In July 2014 Al-Khaled had stated “Oh Allah, destroy the Jews. They are no challenge for you. Count them and kill them to the very last one. Don’t spare a single one of them.” On 15 February 2015, occurred outside the in Copenhagen, and killed a Jewish man (who had been providing security during a ) and injured two police officers. Prime Minister laid flowers at the synagogue, and stated "Our thoughts go to the whole of the Jewish community today. They belong in Denmark, they are a strong part of our community. And we will do everything we can to protect the Jewish community in our country." The synagogue's Rabbi, Jair Melchior, stated, "Terror is not a reason to move to Israel... Hopefully the [police] should do what they do, but our lives have to continue naturally. Terror’s goal is to change our lives and we won’t let it...We lost a dear member of the community and now we have to continue doing what he did, which was helping to continue regular Jewish lives in Denmark. This is the real answer to [this] vicious, cruel and cowardly act of terror." Two months later, a window at a local Kosher-food store was smashed and an anti-Semitic graffiti was scrawled on a wall. A review study published in 2015 by the revealed that in a survey conducted in the number of antisemitic stereotypes among immigrants of Turkish, Pakistani, Somali and Palestinian origin were significantly more common (up to 75 percent) than among ethnic Danes (up to 20 percent). The survey, managed by the Institute for Political Science at , consisted of interviews with 1,503 immigrants, as well as 300 ethnic Danes. In the a Danish teenager became an enthusiast admirer of , , and , converted to Islam, and was convicted of acquiring bomb-making materials for her plan to blow up a Jewish school in Copenhagen. In September 2017, soldiers from the were deployed to guard synagogues in Copenhagen to relieve the , which was increasingly occupied with gang-related shootings in the city.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda%20Ghost

Amanda Ghost

Introduction

Amanda Louisa Gosein-Cameron (born 10 July 1974), known professionally as Amanda Ghost, is a British music executive, songwriter, singer, and former president of (2009–10).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda%20Ghost

Amanda Ghost

Career

Amanda Louisa Gosein-Cameron (born 10 July 1974), known professionally as Amanda Ghost, is a British music executive, songwriter, singer, and former president of (2009–10).

Born in North London to a mother and an father, Ghost was encouraged at an early age to play guitar. In 1997, she contributed a version of 's "Absolution" to the tribute album ; unlike the other tracks on the album, it was a song Numan had not released, and came out months before his own version. Her first recording contract was with in Los Angeles, for whom she recorded her first album, Ghost Stories. Ghost's second album was released in autumn 2006 on her own record label, Plan A Records, and was preceded by a , Blood on the Line. Ghost co-wrote 's "", "" for and , and ' first single "". Amanda also co-wrote four songs for Beyoncé's third album, : "Disappear", "Satellites", "Ave Maria" and "Once in a Lifetime". She co-wrote and sang backing vocals on "Colours", which was on the Prodigy's 2009 album, . She also collaborated with John Legend on the lyrics for the track "Getting Nowhere" by Magnetic Man. On 3 February 2009, Ghost was named the new president of . She replaced , who left at the end of 2008 to start his own company. Ghost co-wrote, with and Ian Dench, "Red", a top-5 hit for in the UK in May 2009, and "For the Glory" and "Vanity Kills" by , which she co-wrote with Ian and Dave McCracken. She also co-wrote and produced the multi-platinum-selling single "Gypsy", from the album . Amanda left her position as president of Epic Records in 2010. and is now the CEO of her own record label, Outsiders, a joint venture with The Universal Music Group. In 2011, she was executive producer for the Scissor Sisters album Magic Hour, and co-wrote the smash hit "Only The Horses", co-produced by Calvin Harris. She co-wrote two songs for the Florence and The Machine album Ceremonials, and has more recently collaborated with John Legend, Sub Focus and ASAP Rocky. Ghost is a three-time winner, a nominee, and has been nominated for three s. One of the latter was as co-producer of two tracks on Beyoncé's album, I Am... Sasha Fierce, which was nominated as Album of the Year, and the other for "Once in a Lifetime", which she co-wrote with Scott McFarnon, Ian Dench, Jody Street, James Dring and Beyoncé. The song was the title track from Beyoncé's , and was nominated for the Best Song Written for a Motion Picture Award.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda%20Ghost

Amanda Ghost

Singles

Amanda Louisa Gosein-Cameron (born 10 July 1974), known professionally as Amanda Ghost, is a British music executive, songwriter, singer, and former president of (2009–10).

"Idol" (2000) - #63 "Glory Girl" (2000) "Filthy Mind" (2000) - only released in the U.S./Australia "Break My World" (2004) - UK #52 † "Feed" (2004) † "Girls Like You" - digital only release (2005) "Monster" - digital only release (2005) "Blood on the Line" EP (2006) "Time Machine" (featuring ) (January 2007) † Credited to Dark Globe featuring Amanda Ghost

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda%20Ghost

Amanda Ghost

Albums

Amanda Louisa Gosein-Cameron (born 10 July 1974), known professionally as Amanda Ghost, is a British music executive, songwriter, singer, and former president of (2009–10).

(2000) Blood on the Line - The Download Collection (2008)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrome%20steel

Chrome steel

Introduction

Chrome steel is one of a class of non stainless s such as AISI 52100, En31, SUJ2, 100Cr6, 100C6, DIN 5401 which are used for applications such as bearings, tools, drills and utensils.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrome%20steel

Chrome steel

Popular culture

Chrome steel is one of a class of non stainless s such as AISI 52100, En31, SUJ2, 100Cr6, 100C6, DIN 5401 which are used for applications such as bearings, tools, drills and utensils.

The term was used in both the , as well as , of . When Kong is brought to , he is chained with this metal on stage. The impression given by the film from to the audience is that the "chrome steel" has some unique properties of having a higher than "normal " which is incorrect. Higher steels are created by the addition of . True to this deceptive description, breaks free anyway (in both versions). The term was also used in the episode "," where the s introduced to the primitive villagers by the s were fashioned with a chrome steel drill point. Billy Joel used the term "chromium steel" in his song "Allentown" from "The Nylon Curtain" album (1982).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah-Jane%20Mee

Sarah-Jane Mee

Introduction

Sarah-Jane Mee (born 10 July 1978) is a presenter and the anchor of . From October 2016 until October 2019, Mee anchored .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah-Jane%20Mee

Sarah-Jane Mee

Career

Sarah-Jane Mee (born 10 July 1978) is a presenter and the anchor of . From October 2016 until October 2019, Mee anchored .

After graduating from the , Mee joined Sky Sports as a runner, then moved to the planning desk before becoming a . In October 2002, she joined to present the sport on Central News West, and latterly the main news programme. She also anchored the pan-regional programme, Soccer Monday. She then became the face of sport for ITV in the Midlands. As well as presenting on the six o'clock news programme most evenings as Main and Sports Presenter, she was the main presenter of ITV Central's popular weekly Central Soccer Night show. She co-hosted the ITV Central and London football programme Hancock's Half-Time, along with (which replaced Central Soccer Night). The show was later given its original name of Central Soccer Night after Hancock departed, and Mee hosted the show into 2007, along with former , , and striker . She also co-presented the last series of 's with and . Her radio career began in 2006, when she stood in for Hellon Wheels on the Ed James Breakfast Show on , whilst Hellon had her first baby. After a successful three-month stint on the show over the Summer of 2006, she rejoined the show as a regular host in January 2007. In January 2008, it was announced that she would leave both Central Television and Heart FM to rejoin . She left Central in January, and presented her last show for Heart in March. Mee became a part of Sky Sports' team on Wednesday evenings, alongside . Since May 2009, Mee has co-presented on . In August 2013, she started presenting a new weekly show on Sky Sports called What's The Story? In June 2014 Mee cycled the 190 km leg of the upcoming , from to for the Sky Sports show Riding The Dales. In July 2014, while attending the launch of French Connection's "Never Miss a Trick" collection at the brand's flagship store, Mee was sawn in half by magician Troy in a performance of his illusion in the store's main window. From October 2019 Mee has been the presenting on , Monday to Thursday 2 pm – 5 pm.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah-Jane%20Mee

Sarah-Jane Mee

Personal life

Sarah-Jane Mee (born 10 July 1978) is a presenter and the anchor of . From October 2016 until October 2019, Mee anchored .

She married Ben Richardson, the chief executive of a branding agency, in 2022. They have a daughter born in June 2020. Mee is stepmother to Ben's son from a previous relationship.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch%20class%20space

Pitch class space

Introduction

In , pitch-class space is the circular representing all the s (es) in a musical . In this space, there is no distinction between tones that are separated by an integral number of octaves. For example, C4, C5, and C6, though different pitches, are represented by the same point in pitch class space. Since pitch-class space is a circle, we return to our starting point by taking a series of steps in the same direction: beginning with C, we can move "upward" in pitch-class space, through the pitch classes C♯, D, D♯, E, F, F♯, G, G♯, A, A♯, and B, returning finally to C. By contrast, is a linear space: the more steps we take in a single direction, the further we get from our starting point.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch%20class%20space

Pitch class space

Tonal pitch-class space

In , pitch-class space is the circular representing all the s (es) in a musical . In this space, there is no distinction between tones that are separated by an integral number of octaves. For example, C4, C5, and C6, though different pitches, are represented by the same point in pitch class space. Since pitch-class space is a circle, we return to our starting point by taking a series of steps in the same direction: beginning with C, we can move "upward" in pitch-class space, through the pitch classes C♯, D, D♯, E, F, F♯, G, G♯, A, A♯, and B, returning finally to C. By contrast, is a linear space: the more steps we take in a single direction, the further we get from our starting point.

, and use a "reductional format" to represent the perception of pitch-class relations in tonal contexts. These two-dimensional models resemble bar graphs, using height to represent a pitch class's degree of importance or centricity. Lerdahl's version uses five levels: the first (highest) contains only the , the second contains tonic and , the third contains tonic, , and dominant, the fourth contains all the notes of the , and the fifth contains the . In addition to representing centricity or importance, the individual levels are also supposed to represent "alphabets" that describe the melodic possibilities in tonal music . The model asserts that tonal melodies will be cognized in terms of one of the five levels a-e: Note that Lerdahl's model is meant to be cyclical, with its right edge identical to its left. One could therefore display Lerdahl's graph as a series of five concentric circles representing the five melodic "alphabets." In this way one could unite the circular representation depicted at the beginning of this article with Lerdahl's flat two-dimensional representation depicted above. According to David , "Harmonic space, or tonal space as defined by Fred Lerdahl, is the abstract nexus of possible normative harmonic connections in a system, as opposed to the actual series of temporal connections in a realized work, linear or otherwise."

projected-04044513-003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch%20class%20space

Pitch class space

Sources

In , pitch-class space is the circular representing all the s (es) in a musical . In this space, there is no distinction between tones that are separated by an integral number of octaves. For example, C4, C5, and C6, though different pitches, are represented by the same point in pitch class space. Since pitch-class space is a circle, we return to our starting point by taking a series of steps in the same direction: beginning with C, we can move "upward" in pitch-class space, through the pitch classes C♯, D, D♯, E, F, F♯, G, G♯, A, A♯, and B, returning finally to C. By contrast, is a linear space: the more steps we take in a single direction, the further we get from our starting point.

Full Text

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Introduction

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

First European Banknotes (17th century)

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

The first European banknotes were issued in 1661 by . Founded by , it was a predecessor of Sweden's central bank .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Spanish dollar (17th – 19th centuries)

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the use of silver s or eight-real coins, also known as "pieces of eight" extended from the westwards to and eastwards to . This then formed the first worldwide currency. Spain's on the world stage, the importance of Spanish commercial routes across the and the , and the coin's quality and purity of silver helped it become internationally accepted for about three centuries. It was legal tender in 's Pacific territories of , and , and later in and other countries, until the mid-19th century. In the it was legal tender in all of (except ) and in the and until the 19th century. The Spanish dollar was legal tender in the United States until the . In Europe it was legal tender in the as well as most of including: , the , Sicily and , in the (), and in the . It was also used in other European states including the n territories. After in 1821, the Spanish dollar continued to be used in many parts of the Americas, together with the from the 1860s onward. The Mexican peso, the , and the all trace their origins back to the Spanish dollar. The trace also included the use of the ($), also known as the dollar sign.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Sterling

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

Before 1944, the world reference currency was the 's, . The transition between sterling and United States dollar and its impact for central banks was described recently.

projected-04044516-005

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

U.S. dollar

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

In the period following the of 1944, s around the world were to the , which could be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold. This reinforced the dominance of the US dollar as a global currency. Since the collapse of the regime and the and the institution of s following the in 1971, most currencies around the world have no longer been pegged to the United States dollar. However, as the United States has the world's largest economy, most international transactions continue to be conducted with the United States dollar, and it has remained the de facto world currency. According to in Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order (2001): "Somewhere between 40 and 60 percent of international financial transactions are denominated in dollars. For decades the dollar has also been the world's principal reserve currency; in 1996, the dollar accounted for approximately two-thirds of the world's foreign exchange reserves", as compared to about one-quarter held in euros (see ). Some of the world's currencies are still pegged to the dollar. Some countries, such as Ecuador, El Salvador, and Panama, have gone even further and eliminated their own currency (see ) in favor of the United States dollar. Only two serious challengers to the status of the United States dollar as a world currency have arisen. During the 1980s, the became increasingly used as an international currency, but that usage diminished with the in the 1990s. More recently, the euro has increasingly competed with the United States dollar in international finance.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Euro

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

The inherited its status as a major reserve currency from the (DM) and its contribution to official reserves has increased as banks seek to diversify their reserves and trade in the expands. As with the dollar, some of the world's currencies are pegged against the euro. They are usually Eastern European currencies like the , plus several west African currencies like the and the . Other European countries, while not being EU members, have adopted the euro due to currency unions with member states, or by unilaterally superseding their own currencies: Andorra, Monaco, Kosovo, Montenegro, San Marino, and Vatican City. , the euro surpassed the dollar in the combined value of cash in circulation. The value of euro notes in circulation has risen to more than €610 , equivalent to US$800 billion at the exchange rates at the time. A 2016 report by the shows that the world's energy, food and services trade are made 60% with US dollar and 40% by euro.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Governmental

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

On 16 March 2009, in connection with the , called for a supranational reserve currency as part of a reform of the . In a document containing proposals for the G20 meeting, it suggested that the (IMF) (or an Ad Hoc Working Group of G20) should be instructed to carry out specific studies to review the following options: Enlargement (diversification) of the list of currencies used as reserve ones, based on agreed measures to promote the development of major regional financial centers. In this context, we should consider possible establishment of specific regional mechanisms which would contribute to reducing volatility of exchange rates of such reserve currencies. Introduction of a supra-national reserve currency to be issued by international financial institutions. It seems appropriate to consider the role of IMF in this process and to review the feasibility of and the need for measures to ensure the recognition of SDRs as a "supra-reserve" currency by the whole world community." On 23 March 2009, , then-President of the , called for a replacement of the US dollar with a different standard using "creative reform of the existing international monetary system towards an international reserve currency," believing it would "significantly reduce the risks of a future crisis and enhance crisis management capability." Zhou suggested that the IMF's (a currency basket then comprising dollars, euros, and yen) could serve as a super-sovereign reserve currency, saying that it would not be easily influenced by the policies of individual countries. Then-US President , however, rejected China's call for a new global currency. He stated, "As far as confidence in the US economy or the dollar, I would just point out that the dollar is extraordinarily strong right now." At the G8 summit in July 2009, expressed Russia's desire for a new supranational reserve currency by showing off a coin minted with the words "". The coin, an example of a future world currency, emphasized his call for creating a mix of regional currencies as a way to address the global financial crisis. On 30 March 2009, at the second in , Venezuelan president proposed the creation of a petro-currency. It would be backed by the huge oil reserves of oil-producing countries. Chavez's successor, , in 2018 announced the , but it does not appear to be used as a .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Single world currency

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

An alternative definition of a world or global currency refers to a hypothetical single global currency or supercurrency, as the proposed or the DEY (acronym for Dollar Euro Yen), produced and supported by a which is used for all transactions around the world, regardless of the nationality of the entities (individuals, corporations, governments, or other organizations) involved in the transaction. No such official currency currently exists, although non-inflationary current funds such as MXV/UDI () have been used as a model for a General Global Currency (GGC), a principal reserved current fund based on a complex relationship between national currencies. Advocates, notably , of a global currency often argue that such a currency would not suffer from inflation, which, in extreme cases, has had disastrous effects for economies. In addition, many argue that a single global currency would make conducting international business more efficient and would encourage (FDI). There are many different variations of the idea, including a possibility that it would be administered by a global that would define its own or that it would be on the . Supporters often point to the euro as an example of a supranational currency successfully implemented by a union of nations with disparate languages, cultures, and economies. A limited alternative would be a world reserve currency issued by the , as an evolution of the existing and used as reserve assets by all national and regional central banks. On 26 March 2009, a UN panel of expert economists called for a new global currency reserve scheme to replace the current US dollar-based system. The panel's report pointed out that the "greatly expanded SDR (special drawing rights), with regular or cyclically adjusted emissions calibrated to the size of reserve accumulations, could contribute to global stability, economic strength and global equity." Another world currency was proposed to use conceptual currency to aid the transaction between countries. The basic idea is to utilize the balance of trade to cancel out the currency actually needed to trade. In addition to the idea of a single world currency, some evidence suggests the world may evolve multiple global currencies that exchange on a singular market system. The rise of digital global currencies owned by privately held companies or groups such as suggest that multiple global currencies may offer wider formats for trade as they gain strength and wider acceptance. WOCU currency, based on the synthetic global currency quotation derived from a weighted basket of currencies of fiat currency pairs covering the top 20 economies of the world, is planned to be issued and distributed by Unite Global a centralised platform for global real-time payments and settlement.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Limited additional benefit with extra cost

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

Some economists argue that a single world currency is unnecessary, because the U.S. dollar is providing many of the benefits of a world currency while avoiding some of the costs However, this de facto situation gives the U.S. government additional power over other countries. If the world does not form an , then it would be economically inefficient for the world to share one currency.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Economically incompatible nations

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

In the present world, nations are not able to work together closely enough to be able to produce and support a common currency. There has to be a high level of trust between different countries before a true world currency could be created. A world currency might even undermine national sovereignty of smaller states.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Wealth redistribution

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

The interest rate set by the central bank indirectly determines the interest rate customers must pay on their bank loans. This interest rate affects the rate of interest among individuals, investments, and countries. Lending to the poor involves more risk than lending to the rich. As a result of the larger differences in wealth in different areas of the world, a central bank's ability to set interest rates to make the area prosper will be increasingly compromised, since it places wealthiest regions in conflict with the poorest regions in debt.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

Usury

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

– the accumulation of interest on loan principal – is prohibited by the texts of some major religions. In Christianity and Judaism, adherents are forbidden to charge interest to other adherents or to the poor ( 25:35–38; 23:19). Islam forbids usury, known in Arabic as . Some religious adherents who oppose the paying of interest are currently able to use banking facilities in their countries which regulate interest. An example of this is the system, which is characterized by a nation's central bank setting interest rates for most other transactions.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20currency

World currency

See also

In , a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders.

(SDRs)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explore%20%28TV%20series%29

Explore (TV series)

Introduction

Explore was a 1980s TV show based upon the film footage filmed by explorer over the previous 20 years. The show was hosted by popular actor .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explore%20%28TV%20series%29

Explore (TV series)

Series Episodes

Explore was a 1980s TV show based upon the film footage filmed by explorer over the previous 20 years. The show was hosted by popular actor .

Once Upon A Time In Afghanistan (Afghanistan) In The Foot Steps Of Genghis Khan (Afghanistan) Land of the Living Gods Kingdom Beneath The Sky Lost Road To Nubia (Ethiopia) Bodies of Art, Bodies of Pandora Sanctuaries of Stone (Ethiopia) Land of Sheba (Ethiopia) Orphans of the Sun Magic Healing, Magic Death Wolves of Freedom Puppets of God And The Gods Moved to Taiwan Between Gods & Men Journal from India In The Wheels Of Karma the Last Empire of Sailing Festival of Tears Dancers of Evil (Sri Lanka) Tooth of Buddha (Sri Lanka) Blue Men of the Sahara From Timbuktu To The Stars (Burkina Faso) Kaaba Center of the Universe Bandits, Pirates, Flying Carpets Jungles of Borneo (Indonesia) Headhunters of Borneo (Indonesia)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Idol%203%3A%20The%20Final%2013%20%E2%80%93%20Australian%20Made%3A%20The%20Hits

Australian Idol 3: The Final 13 – Australian Made: The Hits

Introduction

Australian Made: The Hits is the compilation of cover songs released by the finalists of . The songs were chosen based on the first Australian Idol 3 liveshow theme on 11 September 2005, which was Australian Hits, there was also a corresponding DVD featuring the performances from this particular show.

projected-04044521-001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Idol%203%3A%20The%20Final%2013%20%E2%80%93%20Australian%20Made%3A%20The%20Hits

Australian Idol 3: The Final 13 – Australian Made: The Hits

Track listing

Australian Made: The Hits is the compilation of cover songs released by the finalists of . The songs were chosen based on the first Australian Idol 3 liveshow theme on 11 September 2005, which was Australian Hits, there was also a corresponding DVD featuring the performances from this particular show.

"Ready" by the "Cry in Shame" by "I Don't Want To Be With Nobody But You" by "The Day You Went Away" by "Absolutely Everybody" by "Throw Your Arms Around Me" by "Please Don't Ask Me" by "Holy Grail" by "Playing To Win" by "Buses & Trains" by "Forever Now" by "Tucker's Daughter" by "You're My World" by "(Baby I've Got You) On My Mind" by

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiffany%20Scott

Tiffany Scott

Introduction

Tiffany Scott (born May 1, 1977) is an American . Scott was born in . She skated with until 2005. They competed at the and won the pairs title at the . In 2005, Dulebohn retired from competition and Scott teamed up with . Dulebohn was one of the pair's coaches during their brief partnership. Scott and Fein finished 4th at their first and only in 2006. Away from the ice, Scott married Brian Pryor in 2005. In May 2006, Scott announced her retirement from competitive skating. In March 2012, the couple had a son. In the 2007 film , Scott served as Amy Poehler's stunt double.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiffany%20Scott

Tiffany Scott

Programs

Tiffany Scott (born May 1, 1977) is an American . Scott was born in . She skated with until 2005. They competed at the and won the pairs title at the . In 2005, Dulebohn retired from competition and Scott teamed up with . Dulebohn was one of the pair's coaches during their brief partnership. Scott and Fein finished 4th at their first and only in 2006. Away from the ice, Scott married Brian Pryor in 2005. In May 2006, Scott announced her retirement from competitive skating. In March 2012, the couple had a son. In the 2007 film , Scott served as Amy Poehler's stunt double.

(with Dulebohn) (with Fein)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Introduction

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Description

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

The characteristic that defines this genus is the spine on the cheek. The colors of the body and bars and geographic location. Despite the common name maroon clownfish, only some females have a body color, with a range of color to dark brown. Juveniles and males are bright red-orange. The fish has three body bars which may be white, grey, or yellow. Where the female bars are grey, they can be "switched" rapidly to white if fish is provoked. The size-based dominance hierarchy means in any group of anemonefish, the female is always larger than the male. A significant difference in size is seen in this species, with females being one of the largest anemonefish, growing up to while males are much smaller, usually being .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Color variations

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

The significant color variations for fish in this species are related to sex and geographic location. Male and juvenile fish are bright red-orange which darkens on the fish changing to female, ranging from maroon to dark brown. The body bars of the female are narrower and the body bars reportedly all but disappear in older females. At least three geographic variations in the color of females are found, with fish from to retaining white body bars. In the central , the head bar tends towards a dull yellow, with the other two body bars being grey. In and , all three body bars are yellow for both male and female, and the female body color can range from a dull maroon to a dark brown. While other species have a blue tinge to their body bars, and , this geographic variety, is the only anemonefish to have yellow or gold body bars. Central Malay Archipelago The female in the Central Malay Archipelago, from and the in the north to in the south, has a dull-yellow head bar and grey body bars. Male and juvenile fish are bright red-orange with white bars. East Timor to Australia In the area from East Timor through New Guinea and Australia, the female has white or grey head and body bars. Male and juvenile fish are bright red-orange with white bars. Sumatra Fish from Sumatra, the Andaman Islands, and have yellow body bars on both males and females. This distinctive feature meant they were previously considered a .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Similar species

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

No similar species are seen because the cheek spine is distinctive of the genus and presently all geographic variations of the fish are considered to be the one species. has shown that it is closely related to and .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Distribution and habitat

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

P. biaculeatus is found in the Malay Archipelago and Western Pacific Ocean north of the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Host anemones

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

The relationship between anemonefish and their host sea anemones is not random and instead is highly in structure. P. biaculeatus is highly specialised with only one species anemone host, bubble-tip anemone, predominantly with the solitary form. The fish chooses the host and one of the primary drivers for host selection is thought to be competition. E. quadricolor is highly generalist, hosting at least 14 species, around half of all species of anemonefish. With such competition, P. biaculeatus is considered to be the most territorial of all anemonefish. Competition alone, though, does not explain the preference of P. biaculeatus for the solitary form of E. quadricolor.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Taxonomy

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

P. biaculeatus is currently the of the Premnas. Historically, anemonefish have been identified by features and color pattern in the field, while in a laboratory, other features such as of the head, tooth shape, and body proportions are used. The spine on the cheek of the fish is the characteristic that distinguishes the genus Premnas from the closely related Amphiprion. P. biaculeatus has been thought to have a lineage, however genetic analysis has shown that it is closely related to A. percula and A. latezonatus. Genetic analysis suggests P. biaculeatus is with Amphiprion, closely related to and A. percula. This would make Premnas a synonym of Amphiprion. The epigrammata from Sumatra probably should be recognized as a distinct species, Premnas epigrammata (, 1904). The recent precedents of the recognition of as a distinct species from and being distinguished from demonstrate the need to show not only geographic and morphological differences, but also genetic data to confirm the separation of the proposed species. In 2021 an expansive phylogenetic analysis of the damselfishes has reclassified the Maroon Clownfish from the monotypic genus Premnas to a junior synonym of Amphiprion. The species name remains unchanged, thus the Maroon Clownfish is now Amphiprion biaculeatus. Reef fish taxonomist Yi-Kai Tea agrees, based on DNA studies, "Premnas has been refuted for ages."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

In the aquarium

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

The fish has successfully bred in a home aquarium. Being one of the larger anemonefish and the most aggressive, these characteristics need to be accommodated in any aquarium setup.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Selective breeding

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

P. biaculeatus has been subject to in captivity. One of the more prominent traits is the "lightning" morph which is characterized by broken, jagged white body bars that have a honeycomb appearance. One of the first times this trait was observed was in a wild-caught pair from Fisherman's Island near , Papua New Guinea.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon%20clownfish

Maroon clownfish

Hybridization

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of found in the from western to and the . They can grow up to be about . Like all anemonefishes it forms a with s and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a with a strict size-based ; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit , meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes and .

The maroon clownfish has been successfully crossbred with A. ocellaris to create the named the "blood orange clownfish" by the Florida aquaculture company, Oceans, Reefs and Aquariums. The body of this hybrid more closely resembles A. ocellaris, but possesses a darker orange hue, grows larger, and has a more fiery temperament, features characteristic of its P. biaculeatus genes.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

Introduction

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

Early coaching career

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

Glenn served as backfield coach at the in 1974. He was also a backfield coach at in 1975. Glenn's first head coaching job was at in . There he was the youngest head college football coach at 27 years of age. While at Doane he compiled a 21–18–1 record over four seasons. After Doane, Glenn made his first stint at the as a s and s coach and from 1980 to 1985. He was out of coaching in 1986. In 1987, he joined the staff at (UNC) as quarterbacks and kicking coach. He was named head coach of UNC for the 1989 season. Prior to coaching at Montana, Glenn led the University of Northern Colorado to two s in 1996 and 1997. Glenn spent eleven seasons at UNC, with a 98–35 record.

projected-04044542-003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

Montana

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

Glenn coached at Montana for three seasons, from 2000 to 2002, and compiled a 39–6 record. In 2001, the Grizzlies won the , defeating in the title game. The year before, the Grizzlies finished as the NCAA Division I-AA runner-up, losing to in the championship game. In 2002, Montana finished in the quarterfinals of the NCAA Division I-AA playoffs.

projected-04044542-004

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

Wyoming

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

Over a three-year period, Glenn and his staff took a team that won only five games in the three previous seasons to a win in two seasons. The 24–21 victory over on December 23, 2004 marked the first appearance for Wyoming in 11 years and their first bowl victory in 38 years. In 2005, after starting 4–1, including a victory over the , the Cowboys went on a six-game losing skid, finishing 4–7. The 2006 season was one which saw the Cowboys picked to finish last in the conference. After an opening day victory over , the Cowboys suffered four losses, two of them in overtime. Then the Cowboys fortunes began to shift. The team enjoyed a four-game winning streak, all against conference opponents. The Cowboys next two games were both road losses, the first against , in which they managed only a field goal. The next game was on the road against than #25 . The Cougars trounced the Cowboys, 55–7. The Cowboys fell to 5–6. The Cowboys won their final game against , moving them to a 6–6 record, and making them bowl eligible but the team did not receive an invitation. The 2007 Cowboys season started off with a 23–3 victory over -member . By the end of October, Wyoming was 5–3 and needed only one win in its last four games to become bowl-eligible. However, the Cowboys lost all four games to finish 5–7, including a 50–0 thrashing at the hands of on November 10. Offensive coordinator Billy Cockhill was fired at the end of the 2007 season and replaced by Bob Cole, formerly of in an attempt to improve the Cowboy's anemic offense. Junior college signal caller Dax Crum came to the Laramie campus from the in to compete for the starting quarterback job, which he won over junior Karsten Sween. The opened the season with a win over -member (21-20), a loss to (23-3) and a win over FCS (16–13). Wyoming followed up that victory with five straight losses: to (44–0), (45–16), (24–0), (40-7), and (54–7). On November 1, the Pokes beat , 35-10, at home and then followed with a win over , 13–7, on the road a week later. Five days later, on Thursday, Wyoming lost to , 22–14, on the road. Wyoming finished the season by losing to arch rival , 31–20, at home in the 100th . The following day, November 23, 2008, Glenn was fired. Glenn finished his career at Wyoming with an overall record of 30–41 (.423), and 15–31 (.326) versus Mountain West opponents. Glenn joined the as a game-day analyst in 2009. In 2010, he left the Mtn. and joined the as a color commentator.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

South Dakota

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

Glenn was named USD's 29th head football coach on December 5, 2011. Glenn started coaching the Coyotes during the 2012 season as they started their first season as a full-fledged member in Division I-FCS football, competing in the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

Controversy

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

During the week before their game against in 2007, Glenn "guaranteed" a victory at a luncheon for students. However, this ended up motivating Utah as they beat Wyoming that day, 50-0. In the third quarter, with the Utes up 43-0, Utah attempted an onside kick. After the play, a furious Glenn was caught giving the middle finger in the direction of the Utah sidelines on national television. The reprimanded Glenn, who would later apologize for the obscene gesture and regretted the "guarantee."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Glenn%20%28American%20football%29

Joe Glenn (American football)

Personal life

Joseph Cassidy Glenn (born March 7, 1949) is a former coach and former player. He was the head football coach at the , his alma mater, from 2012 to 2015. He was named head coach on December 5, 2011 after the school's athletic director, David Sayler, fired . Glenn served as the head football coach at (1976–1979), the (1989–1999), the (2000–2002), and the (2003–2008). He won two s at Northern Colorado, in 1996 and 1997, and an at Montana in 2001.

Glenn graduated from the in 1971. While there, he earned a degree in health, physical education, recreation and athletics. He played quarterback and wide receiver for the Coyotes, and was selected a team captain as a senior. During college, he completed Army and upon graduation was commissioned as a serving two-years of active duty as an MP at , . In 1975, he received a master's degree in education from South Dakota. In 2006, Glenn was inducted into the university's Hall of Fame. Glenn and his wife, Michele, are both natives of . They have two adult children: a daughter, Erin, and a son, Casey. Casey was an All-American at in , concluding his playing career in 2002 when Carroll won their first of five NAIA National Championships. After coaching at Idaho State, South Dakota and Oklahoma, he served as tight ends and fullbacks coach after serving as Director of Football Operations for under his father.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF%204HP14%20transmission

ZF 4HP14 transmission

Introduction

The ZF 4HP14 is a four-speed for from . Introduced in 1984, and produced through 2001, it was used in , , and cars.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF%204HP14%20transmission

ZF 4HP14 transmission

Applications

The ZF 4HP14 is a four-speed for from . Introduced in 1984, and produced through 2001, it was used in , , and cars.

1984–1993 1.6 1985–1993 Citroën BX 1.9 1987–1993 1.6 1987–1993 Peugeot 205 1.9 1987–1989 1.5 1987–1996 1.6 1987–1996 1.9 1987–1997 1.6 1987–1997 Peugeot 405 1.8 1987–1997 Peugeot 405 1.9 1990–1996 1991–1998 (XX/R17) 1992–1993 1.6 1992–1998 1.8 1993–1998 1.8 1993–1998 Citroën Xantia 2.0 1993–2001 1.8 1993–2001 Peugeot 306 2.0 1996–1997 1.5 1996–1997 Daewoo Nubira 1.8 1996–1997 1.8 1996–1997 Daewoo Leganza 2.0

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological%20summary%20of%20the%202006%20Winter%20Olympics

Chronological summary of the 2006 Winter Olympics

Introduction

This article contains a chronological summary of the in , .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological%20summary%20of%20the%202006%20Winter%20Olympics

Chronological summary of the 2006 Winter Olympics

Opening ceremony – February 10

This article contains a chronological summary of the in , .

lit the . Actresses and (along with some other famous women) carried a flag into the stadium while and watched from special seats in the audience. , in his final performance, sang .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological%20summary%20of%20the%202006%20Winter%20Olympics

Chronological summary of the 2006 Winter Olympics

Day 1 – February 11

This article contains a chronological summary of the in , .

of wins the of the 2006 Winter Olympics, with a victory in the individual 20 km race. Russian pair and lead after the short program. becomes the first woman to win a medal in moguls. wins the silver and of wins the bronze. The sets an Olympic record for the most lopsided win, beating 16–0. picks up the gold medal in Nordic combined. wins the 5000 m long-track event.