Perlembagaan Belanda

Sejarah

Perlembagaan Belanda sebagai suatu keseluruhan, dari segi sebuah hukum asas yang dilaksanakan pada semua provinsi dan bandarnya, adalah perlembagaan 1579, yang mendirikan republik gabungan Tujuh Provinsi Bersatu. Perlembagaan telah diberikan kuasa oleh Kesatuan Utrecht, oleh itu perjanjian. Artikel XIII dari perjanjian meluluskan tiap penduduk Republik kebebasan suara kecil. Perjanjian Kesatuan Utrecht mengilhamkan Artikel Gabungan Amerika.
Selepas penaklukan Perancis pada 1794 Republik Batavia, sebuah negara kesatuan, telah diumumkan. Pada 31 Januari 1795 ia mengisukan suatu Bil Hak Asasi, Verklaring der Rechten van den Mensch en van den Burger. Pada 1 Mei 1798 suatu perlembagaan baru, yang pertama dari segi yang rasmi moden, Staatsregeling voor het Bataafsche Volk, ditulis oleh suatu Perhimpunan Berpelembagaan, dikuatkuasakan, diluluskan oleh Perhimpunan Negara. Kerajaan Holland Napoleon, sebuah raja berpelembagaan, telah ditubuhkan oleh Constitutie voor het Koningrijk Holland pada 7 Ogos 1806. Pada 1810 kerajaan ini diambil oleh Empayar Perancis.
Selepas tentera Perancis dikejar keluar oleh Cossack Rusia, negara merdeka baru Belanda, sebuah principality, telah ditubuhkan oleh perlembagaan 29 Mac 1814, Grondwet voor de Vereenigde Nederlanden. William VI dari Orange, instated pada 2 Disember 1813 sebagai "Putera Mahkota" oleh sambutan gembira dan meriah, dan hanya menerima "di bawahperlindungan suatu perlembagaan bebas, memastikan kebebasan anda terhadap salah guna masa hadapan yang boleh terjadi", telah pertama melantikkan sebilangan lelaki dari kedudukan yang baik sebagai pengundi dan ini meluluskan perlembagaan, ditulis oleh suatu jawatankuasa diketuai oleh Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp. Pada 24 Ogos 1815 William — sejak 16 Mac Raja William I dari Belanda — dengan mengisytiharkan dirinya Raja dari Belanda Bersatu yang lebih besar enam hari terdahulu, mengisukan versi pertama perlembagaan kini, Grondwet voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden atau Loi fondamentale du Royaume des Pays-Bas, mendirikan Kerajaan Bersatu Belanda, kini memanjangkan dunianya dengan wilayah negara kininya Belgium, yang akan sekali lagi mengundur diri darinya pada 1830. Ia termasuk suatu bil hak asasi yang tidak berkubu terhad, dengan kebebasan agama, prinsip habeas corpus, hak petisyen dan kebebasan media sebagai sudut titik utamanya. Dalam Perjanjian London 1814 Persekutu telah memerintahkan negara Belanda terdahulu untuk merancangkan perlembagaan baru. Ia telah diluluskan oleh States-General baru (terdiri dari 55 ahli) dari Belanda Utara, tetapi ditolak oleh kebanyakan para pengundi (796 terhadap 527) Belanda Selatan. Pada 126 meskipun telah menandakan bahawa mereka menentangnya kerana (oleh mereka masih dianggap terlalu terhad) kebebasan agama, yang diwajibkan di bawah Perjanjian Vienna yang memerintahkan kesatuan Belanda Utara dan Selatan, undi mereka dan yang dari orang yang enggan untuk mengundi, telah ditambahkan pada yang minoriti, dan oleh Willam "Hollandic Arithmetic" yang memalukan merasa berjustifikasi untuk mengisytiharkan kerajaan baru.
Menurut dengan bingkai kerajaan perlembagaan 1815 did not diverge much from the situation during the Republic: the 110 members of Dewan Perwakilan (lower house) States-General were still appointed by the States-Provincial (for three years; each year a third was replaced), who themselves were filled with nobility members or appointed by the city councils, just like under the ancien régime. However, now also some rural delegates were appointed to all States-Provincial (first only true for Friesland) and the city councils were appointed by electoral colleges which were in turn elected by a select group of male citizens of good standing and paying a certain amount of taxes, so very indirectly there was a modicum of democracy introduced to the system. In all the administration was very monarchal, with the king appointing for life the members of the Senate, that mockingly was called the Ménagerie du Roi.
Pada 1840, apabila suatu ulang kaji baru telah diperlukan oleh kemerdekaan Belgium, suatu langkah pertama pada suatu sistem yang lebih berparlimen telah diambil oleh pengenalan tanggung jawab kementerian banduan.
The constitution as it was revised on 11 October 1848 is often described as the original of the version still in force today. Under pressure from the Revolutions of 1848 in surrounding countries, King William II accepted the introduction of full ministerial responsibility in the constitution, leading to a system of parliamentary democracy, with the House of Representatives directly elected by the voters within a system of single-winner electoral districts. Parliament was attributed the right to amend government law proposals and to hold investigative hearings. The States-Provincial, themselves elected by the voter, appointed by majorities for each province the members of the Senate from a select group of upper class citizens. A commission chaired by Johan Thorbecke was appointed to draft the new proposed constitution, which was finished on 19 June. Suffrage was enlarged (though still limited to census suffrage), as was the bill of rights with the freedom of assembly, the privacy of correspondence, freedom of ecclesiastical organisation and the kebebasan pendidikan.
In 1884 there was a minor revision. In 1887 the census suffrage system was replaced by one based on minimal wealth and education, which allowed an ever growing percentage of the male population to be given the right to vote; therefore this provision was at the time nicknamed the "caoutchouc-article". The election interval for the House of Representatives was changed from two (with half of it replaced) to four years (with full a replacement of now hundred members). Eligibility for the Senate was broadened. Any penal measure not based on formal law was prohibited.
In 1917, like in 1848 influenced by the tense international situation, manhood suffrage was introduced combined with a system of proportional representation to elect the House of Representatives, the States-Provincial and the municipality councils. The Senate continued to be elected by the States-Provincial, but now also employing a system of proportional representation, no longer by majorities per province. The Christian-democrat parties allowed manhood suffrage in exchange for a complete constitutional equality in state funding between public and denominational schools, ending the bitter Dutch School Wars which had antagonised Dutch society for three generations.
By the revision of 1922 universal suffrage was explicitly adopted in the constitution, after it had already been introduced by law in 1919. Each three years half of the members of the Senate were to be elected by the States-Provincial for a period of six years, within a system of proportional representation.
In 1938 there was a minor revision, introducing some elements of the then fashionable corporatism by giving a constitutional base to public bodies regulating sectors of the economy. A proposal to make it possible to impeach "revolutionary" members of representative bodies, directed against communists and fascists, failed to get a two thirds majority.
Selepas Perang Dunia Kedua pada 1946 suatu ulang kaji gagal mencuba untuk mempermudahkan tatacara berulangkaji. Meskipun suatu perubahan telah diterima membenarkan untuk mengirim kerahan ke perang jajahan di Hindia Belanda Timur.
Dalam ulang kaji 1948 suatu adegan baru yang lengkap telah ditambahkan untuk memudahkan penggabungan negara baru Indonesia dalam Kerajaan. Tidak lama kemudian ia akan menjadi tidak berkenaan kerana Indonesia menerukkan semua ikatan dengan Belanda pada 1954. Juga ulang kaji menciptakan pejabat setiausaha negara, suatu jenis submenteri atau menteri kecil tetapi satu orang bawahan pada sesetengah menteri.
In 1953 new articles were introduced concerning international relations, as the Netherlands were abandoning their old policy of strict neutrality.
In the revision of 1956 the constitution was changed to accommodate the full independence of Indonesia. The number of members of the House of Representatives members was brought up to 150, of Senate members to 75.
The revision of 1963 accommodated the loss of Dutch New Guinea to Indonesia. The voting age was lowered from 23 to 21.
In 1972 there was a minor revision; the main change was a lowering of the voting age to 18.
In 1983 the constitution was almost entirely rewritten. Many articles were abolished. Social rights were included, most articles were reformulated (the main exception being article 23 about the still sensitive freedom of education) using a new uniform legal terminology and their sequence was changed. The bill of rights was expanded with a prohibition of discrimination, a prohibition of the death penalty, a general freedom of expression, the freedom of demonstration and a general right to privacy.
In 1987 there was a minor revision. In the revision of 1995 the introduction of a professional army, replacing the conscript army, was regulated. In the revision of 1999 a proposal to introduce an advisory referendum was rejected by the Senate. After a minor revision in 2002, the last changes were made in 2005; a proposal to introduce an elected mayor was rejected by the Senate.

Hukum berpelembagaan tidak ditulis

Some of the most basic fundamental laws in the Dutch constitutional system are not explicitly expressed in the written Constitution. These include the rule that the Dutch monarch cannot dissolve the House of Representatives more than once because of a conflict over a single political issue and that the Senate shall never block legislation for mere party politics, so that coalition governments (all Dutch governments since the 19th century) do not need a majority in the Senate.
The unwritten laws are most influential when a cabinet is formed; the procedure is not regulated by the Constitution but purely based on tradition. At the eve of the elections the sitting cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch, who takes it into consideration; the cabinet is now "demissionary". After the elections the King consults his advisors. He then appoints an "Informateur" who explores the possibilities of a coalition cabinet. Because of the Dutch multi-party system, no political party (in the modern sense) has ever obtained a majority by itself. On the basis of the information process the King then appoints a "Formateur" who literally forms the government by negotiating an coalition agreement between the coalition parties and the division of the ministrial posts between the parties. He also meets with candidate ministers and often becomes Prime Minister himself. The King then dismisses the sitting cabinet and appoints the new one. Since there are no political alliances and parties do not commit themselves to a coalition before the elections, a competent King can have a decisive personal influence on what coalition is formed.
In common law systems these rules would not be seen as laws but as mere legal conventions as they cannot be upheld by judges; within the Dutch civil law system however they are part of the more extended Dutch-German legal concept of the Recht, the total "legal" normative structure, be it written or unwritten, so that they have full normative force. Indeed that force is much larger than with written constitutional rules; any breach of the unwritten rules would cause an immediate constitutional crisis.

Ketidakharidan sebuah mukadimah

Contrary to many other constitutions, the Dutch constitution has no preamble stating the sovereignty by which it would be founded or the general principles on which it would be based. This is in line with a long tradition within the Dutch legislative to avoid any explicit reference to ideology or legal doctrine in its written laws. Even the typical terminology of the trias politica is mostly absent: nowhere in the constitution the executive or legislative power is named as such to be explicitly attributed, although of course such an attribution is implicit within the whole of the constitutional system.

Sistematik dan istilah

Civil law systems are characterised by their emphasis on abstract rules and methodology. Since the Second World War there has been a dominant movement within the Dutch legal community to be fully consequential in this and incorporate the total of case law accumulated during the generations while the old French Code Napoleon derived law books remained basically unchanged, into a completely new set of modern codes. Economy of style, clarity of expression, conceptual coherence and unity of terminology were striven for. The total revision of the Dutch constitution of 1983 is part of this process. Combined with an absence of explicit legal doctrine the result can be deceptive as the simple phrases hide the underlying implicit doctrine.
Because there is no Constitutional Court testing laws and acts against the constitution, much of the systematics is centered on the problem of delegation. If the legislative were allowed to delegate its powers to the government or to lower decentralised bodies, this would threaten democratic legitimisation and the constitutional protection of the citizen as the latter has no recourse to a Constitutional Court. Therefore delegation is only allowed if articles contain the terms "regulate" or "by force of law"; otherwise it is forbidden. This rule itself however, being legal doctrine, is nowhere explicitly expressed within the written law and can only be learned from the official commission reports and ministerial commentaries accompanying the bill.