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Q21536094

_START_ARTICLE_ Carl Muecke (editor) _START_PARAGRAPH_ Rev. Dr. Carl Wilhelm Ludwig Muecke PhD., DTh., MA. (16 July 1815 – 4 January 1898), occasionally written Mücke, especially in German language newspapers, was a German-born clergyman, plant pathologist and German-language newspaper editor in the colony of South Australia. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ Muecke was born in Möckern, near Magdeberg, and was originally destined for a career in mining, which he studied at Frieberg, but after experiencing an accident in the mines, his father sent him to the University of Bonn, where he took his degrees._NEWLINE_He served for a time as an observer on the Luxembourg border during the 1831 war between Belgium and Holland._NEWLINE_He began teaching chemistry, and became an activist for the cause of compulsory education in State schools. He was an excellent speaker, and much in demand at the Handwerkerverein (de), a workers' education society in Berlin. One of Muecke's brothers established a Liedertafel in association with the Verein, which after his death erected a monument to his memory._NEWLINE_During the repressive Eichhorn ministry Muecke published some anti-authoritarian pamphlets, for which two of his fellows were punished. He moved to Berlin, where he had a hand in editing educational year-books._NEWLINE_Following the Revolutions of 1848, Muecke left Germany for South Australia aboard Princess Louise, arriving in August 1849. Also on board were two of the Schomburgk brothers: Otto Alfred Carl Schomburgk and his wife Maria Charlotte Schomburgk (née Von Selchow) and_NEWLINE_Richard Moritz Schomburgk, and Pauline Henriette Schomburgk (née Kneib), who were married at sea. He was naturalized as a British subject in September 1849, one of the few times his name was written as Mücke._NEWLINE_He first settled as a farmer near Gawler, but agriculture had no great attraction for him, and in 1859 he accepted an invitation to serve as pastor of the Lutheran Church at Tanunda, and shortly afterwards settled in that town. Over the next twenty years he also served several other Lutheran congregations: Lyndoch, Concordia (5 km ENE of Gawler), Schoenfeld (near Freeling) and King's Belt (near Sheaoak Log). At each of these pastorates he was closely associated with the church school and intellectual life of these towns. He was at the forefront of agitation for equal voting rights for naturalized Germans, and gave popular and stimulating lectures on scientific subjects._NEWLINE_He was of great assistance to Sir Robert Torrens in promoting the Real Property Act which, thanks to Dr. Ulrich Hübbe, was largely based on the system used in the Hanse towns, and helped organise a festival at Tanunda in honour of Sir Robert after the Act was passed._NEWLINE_For years he took a very practical interest in "takeall" and "red rust", significant diseases of wheat, studying the soil and roots under a microscope, and discovered parasites that could have been responsible._NEWLINE_His MA. degree was conferred by the University of Adelaide. _START_SECTION_ Later years _START_PARAGRAPH_ For many years he resided at Semaphore, then around 1890, thinking the mountain air would be more beneficial to his health, he retired to Hahndorf. On his eightieth birthday a great celebration was held at the German Club in his honour.

1752621675840784920

Q5040575

_START_ARTICLE_ Carl Nafzger _START_SECTION_ Bull riding career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Nafzger competed in bull riding throughout the 1960s, and qualified for the National Finals Rodeo 3 separate times. He retired from bull riding in 1972, after suffering a bad leg fracture. _START_SECTION_ Horse training career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Following the end of his bull riding career, Nafzger went to California from his home in Texas and began training Thoroughbred racehorses. He had his first Kentucky Derby win in 1990, with Unbridled. His second Kentucky Derby winner was Street Sense, in 2007. _START_SECTION_ Awards and honors _START_PARAGRAPH_ Nafzger was inducted into the Professional Bull Riders Heroes and Legends Celebration Ring of Honor in 2007. In 2008 he was inducted into both the Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame and the National Museum of Racing Hall of Fame. Also in 2007 he was inducted into the Texas Horse Racing Hall of Fame. Lastly, he was inducted into the Texas Rodeo Cowboy Hall of Fame.

8455951328850005702

Q22082452

_START_ARTICLE_ Carles Pérez _START_SECTION_ Club career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Born in Granollers, Barcelona, Catalonia, Pérez joined FC Barcelona's youth setup in 2012, from RCD Espanyol. On 3 October 2015, while still a youth, he made his senior debut with the reserves by coming on as a second-half substitute for Maxi Rolón in a 0–0 Segunda División B away draw against Levante UD B._NEWLINE_In July 2017, Pérez was promoted to the B-side, now in Segunda División. He made his professional debut on 19 August 2017, replacing Vitinho in a 2–1 away win against Real Valladolid._NEWLINE_Pérez scored his first professional goals on 21 January 2018, netting a hat-trick in a 3–1 away defeat of CD Tenerife. On 12 June, after suffering relegation with the reserve side, he renewed his contract for two further years._NEWLINE_Pérez made his first team – and La Liga – debut on 19 May 2019, replacing Malcom in a 2–2 away draw against SD Eibar. He scored his first goal for the Blaugrana on 25 August, scoring his team's third in a 5–2 home routing of Real Betis.

4016147136248597940

Q5041248

_START_ARTICLE_ Carleton Scott _START_SECTION_ Professional career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Scott went undrafted in the 2011 NBA draft. In August 2011, he signed with Cáceres Ciudad del Baloncesto of Spain for the 2011–12 season. In November 2011, he left Cáceres and signed with UBC Güssing Knights of Austria for the rest of the season._NEWLINE_In July 2012, Scott joined the Brooklyn Nets for the 2012 NBA Summer League. On September 17, 2012, he signed with the Nets. However, he was later waived by the Nets on October 27, 2012. Five days later, he was acquired by the Springfield Armor as an affiliate player._NEWLINE_In July 2013, Scott re-joined the Brooklyn Nets for the 2013 NBA Summer League. On August 31, 2013, he signed with Juvecaserta Basket of the Lega Basket Serie A._NEWLINE_On June 10, 2015, he signed with Antwerp Giants of Belgium._NEWLINE_On June 27, 2016, he signed with Pallacanestro Trapani of Italy in Serie A2.

3479884865230936161

Q1041805

_START_ARTICLE_ Carlisle, Massachusetts _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ English colonialists first settled the area composing the town of Carlisle in 1651 on parcels of land of the neighboring towns of Acton, Billerica, Chelmsford and Concord. Carlisle became a district of Concord in 1780 and was incorporated as a town by an act of the legislature in 1805. _START_SECTION_ Activities _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carlisle contains a library, a country store, a book store, a dentist's office, an automated teller machine and many residential buildings. There are two ice cream stores: one of the four branches of Kimball Farms, and Great Brook Farm State Park which is home to the first robotic milking system in Massachusetts and serves ice cream made from the farm's milk. Great Brook Farm is also the site of one of the premiere cross-country ski touring centers in New England. On the east end of town there is an auto body shop and the former (closed in 2012) Blue Jay Recording Studio, where artists such as the Platters, Aerosmith, Aimee Mann, Amy Grant, Alice Cooper, Boston, John Williams and the Boston Pops, Buckwheat Zydeco, Billy Joel, Lauryn Hill, Rihanna, Roy Orbison, k. d. lang, Pat Metheny, Yo Yo Ma, Carly Simon, the Pussycat Dolls, Genesis and Lady Gaga have recorded._NEWLINE_The town newspaper, the Carlisle Mosquito, has appeared as the weekly independent newspaper of the town since 1972. It is a non-profit publication distributed free to all town residents. The paper includes local news, announcements, and logs._NEWLINE_The Gleason Public Library is one of the 36 libraries in the Merrimack Valley Library Consortium. Gleason Public Library also contains a seismograph._NEWLINE_Cultural organizations include the Carlisle Chamber Orchestra, the Carlisle Community Chorus, and the Savoyard Light Opera Company._NEWLINE_Carlisle Old Home Day has been held for over 100 years on the weekend prior to the Fourth of July as a free public event with family-friendly games and activities. _START_SECTION_ Demographics _START_PARAGRAPH_ As of the census of 2000, there were 4,717 people, 1,618 households, and 1,372 families residing in the town. The population density was 307.1 people per square mile (118.6/km²). There were 1,655 housing units at an average density of 107.7 per square mile (41.6/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 93.47% White, 0.17% African American, 0.06% Native American, 4.83% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.13% from other races, and 1.29% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.19% of the population._NEWLINE_There were 1,618 households out of which 46.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 78.6% were married couples living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.2% were non-families. 11.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.18._NEWLINE_In the town, the population was spread out with 30.6% under the age of 18, 3.4% from 18 to 24, 23.3% from 25 to 44, 34.3% from 45 to 64, and 8.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.4 males._NEWLINE_The median income for a household in the town $176,228 (Average household income is $244,544). The per capita income for the town was $87,470. The town is ranked as having the third highest income per capita in Massachusetts, behind Weston and Dover._NEWLINE_Carlisle maintains a 2-acre (8,100 m²) zoning law on new development. _START_SECTION_ Notable residents _START_PARAGRAPH_ Norm Abram, television personality_NEWLINE_E. M. Swift, sports writer_NEWLINE_Mike Toth (1952-2014), founder and CEO of Toth + Co. (Toth Brand Imaging)._NEWLINE_Clairo, musician and recording artist_NEWLINE_Sean Bielat, businessman and two time Republican candidate for United States Congress in Massachusetts's 4th congressional district.

8419438746559755476

Q1041877

_START_ARTICLE_ Carlo Bernari _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carlo Bernari (born in Naples on October 13, 1909; died in Rome on October 22, 1992) is the pseudonym under which Italian author Carlo Bernard is known. _START_SECTION_ Life and career _START_PARAGRAPH_ He had no formal education after grade seven, when he was expelled, but read widely in philosophy and art. At an early point he became interested in avant-garde art and experimentalism. He also became close to leftist intellectuals and artists His first novel, Tre Operai (Three Workers), concerned workers issues in Naples. The book may have been a precursor to neo-realism and reportedly angered Benito Mussolini who felt there was Communism in it. _START_SECTION_ Awards _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1950, he shared the Viareggio Prize with Francesco Jovine. In 1962, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for his work on the screenplay of The Four Days of Naples.

9454981284780725531

Q5042006

_START_ARTICLE_ Carlos E. Chardón _START_SECTION_ Early life and education _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chardón (birth name: Carlos Eugenio Chardón Palacios) was born in Ponce, Puerto Rico, to Carlos Felix Chardón and Isabel Palacios Pelletier. His great-grandfather, Juan Bautista Chardón, a Catholic native of Champagne, France, immigrated to Puerto Rico from Louisiana in 1816, encouraged by the Royal Decree of Graces issued by the Spanish Crown, which was trying to attract new settlers to the island_NEWLINE_Chardón received his primary and secondary education in his hometown. In 1915 he began his studies in agriculture at the College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts in Mayagüez. Chardón went to the United States to continue his college education at Cornell University in New York State after Mayagüez was struck by an earthquake in 1918. It did considerable damage to the university and the city, damaging hundreds of masonry and wooden buildings, both commercial and residential._NEWLINE_Chardón earned his B.A. degree in 1919 and continued towards his Master's. He specialized in phytopathology and mycology, and studied diseases of sugar cane under the supervision of Professor Herbert H. Whetzel. Chardón earned his master's degree in 1921 and became the first Puerto Rican mycologist. He returned to Puerto Rico and began a career in the fields of taxonomy of fungi, phytopathology, and agricultural development. _START_SECTION_ First Puerto Rican mycologist _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chardón worked as a phytopathologist at the Agricultural Experimental Station in Río Piedras. He became the first person to describe Ophionectria portoricensis in 1921. In 1922 he discovered the vector of the Mosaic virus of sugar cane, which was the aphid Aphis maidis. His findings were published in the Journal of Phytopathology._NEWLINE_Chardón was appointed Commissioner of Agriculture and Labor by Horace Mann Towner, the US-appointed governor. As commissioner, he continued his studies of the diseases of tobacco and sugar cane. In 1926 Chardón traveled to Colombia, where he reorganized the School of Agriculture of Medellín. He also traveled to Venezuela, Bolivia and the Dominican Republic to assist in their agricultural programs. In 1929 he returned to Colombia and established the Experimental Station of Palmira in Palmira, Valle del Cauca, Colombia. _START_SECTION_ Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico _START_PARAGRAPH_ He resigned from his position as Commissioner of Agriculture and Labor in 1931, when he was named by Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., the US-appointed governor, as Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico. As the first Puerto Rican to hold that position, Chardón was in a very prominent role._NEWLINE_Don Pedro Albizu Campos, president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, believed that Chardón was being used by the US for its own interests at the university. He thought the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico, a leading political party of the time, was allied with US interests there. On 20 October 1935, the Nationalist Party broadcast their meeting in Maunabo, at which Albizu Campos denounced Chardón, the university deans, and the Liberal Party as "traitors," saying they wanted to convert the university into an "American" propaganda institution._NEWLINE_In reaction, on 23 October 1935, students at the university in Rio Piedras who supported Chardón began a signature drive to declare Albizu Campos as "Student Enemy Number One". A pro-Nationalist faction of students protested, denouncing Chardón and the Liberal Party in turn. _START_SECTION_ Rio Piedras massacre _START_PARAGRAPH_ The following day, 24 October, a student assembly at the university declared Albizu Campos Persona non grata (person not welcomed). Concerned about the potential for violence, Chardón requested the governor to provide armed police officers at the university because of the tensions. That day, two police officers saw what they thought was a suspicious-looking automobile and asked the driver, Ramón S. Pagán, for his license. His friend Pedro Quiñones was with him, and a confrontation developed that resulted in the deaths of Pagán and Quiñones. The local newspaper El Mundo reported the next day that an explosion and gunfire had been heard; the students Eduardo Rodríguez Vega and José Santiago Barea also died that day. The incident became known as the "Rio Piedras massacre" and caused national outrage. _START_SECTION_ Plan Chardón _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1935, Chardón was appointed by Blanton Winship, the island governor, as head of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration (PRRA). Luis Muñoz Marín, a senator in the Puerto Rican legislature and member of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico, had encouraged formation of the agency; it was also modeled on some of the New Deal programs of the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, developed by his administration to put people to work during the Great Depression. Well received, it was known informally as "Plan Chardón". It encouraged the training and development of Agriculture Technicians._NEWLINE_Chardón resigned from his positions in PRRA and the University of Puerto Rico because of his disagreements with the Government of Puerto Rico. He left Puerto Rico and helped in the agricultural and economic development of the Dominican Republic, Colombia, and Iran._NEWLINE_After returning to Puerto Rico in 1940, he held positions as director of the Land Authority (1940), and the Tropical Agricultural Institute in Mayagüez (1942). _START_SECTION_ Marriage and family _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chardón married Dolores López Wiscovich; they had 4 children- two sons and two daughters . His second son Carlos E. Chardón López earned a doctorate at Syracuse University and became an educator and administrator. He served as Puerto Rico's Secretary of Education in 1977 and 2009. His younger brother Carlos Fernando Chardón (5 September 1907 – 9 December 1981) served as the Puerto Rico Adjutant General and Secretary of State of Puerto Rico from 1969 to 1973.

675386587921929357

Q19818508

_START_ARTICLE_ Carlos Martins (musician) _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carlos Martins (born 1961 in Alentejo, Portugal) is a Portuguese saxophonist, jazz musician and composer and a reference in the Portuguese cultural scene._NEWLINE_He is known for his artistic works, compositions and collaborations in contemporary music, jazz and world music, both in Portugal and abroad as well as his conceptual works as artistic director and producer. _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carlos Martins studied contemporary music, composition and saxophone in Lisbon, Barcelona and New York City. He was teaching at the Conservatório Nacional de Lisboa as well as the Jazz School Hot Clube de Portugal in Lisbon and at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center._NEWLINE_He founded some of the most important Portuguese jazz groups and performed at a number of national and international festivals._NEWLINE_He looks back on numerous collaborations with both Portuguese artists from different disciplines like Bernardo Sassetti, Maria João, Rui Horta as well as international acclaimed artists such as Cindy Blackman and George Garzone._NEWLINE_He released seven albums of his own music as band leader, some of them awarded as the best national jazz records in Portugal and appeared on plenty of others as musician._NEWLINE_Apart from his own compositions, he composed for films, theatre plays and dance and has contributed to a number of interdisciplinary projects. _START_SECTION_ Style _START_PARAGRAPH_ His saxophone sound indicates references to American jazz musicians such as John Coltrane or Sonny Rollins, and European jazz musicians including Jan Garbarek, but his music is deeply rooted in the Mediterranean and lusophone music culture._NEWLINE_His style is influenced by different elements, coming as well from the Mediterranean music, especially the Portuguese traditional music, like Fado or Canto Alentejano, but also from other lusophone areas e.g. Brasil, Cabo Verde or Mozambique. _START_SECTION_ Work as artistic director _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1996 he founded the Sons da Lusofonia, a project in which artists from the lusophone world collaborate for a better citizenship. Since 2002 he is artistic director of the Portuguese national jazz festival, Festa do Jazz, and, since 2006, the artistic director of Lisboa Mistura, an intercultural festival with a focus on new cultural tendencies and innovative formats. Apart from his artistic work he is socially engaged in different educational projects and is consulting in urban studies.

16275305670293132364

Q544520

_START_ARTICLE_ Carlos Torre Repetto _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ While Torre was Mexican by birth and citizenship, he spent much of his early life in New Orleans and developed as a young player under the tutelage of the New Orleans player E. Z. Adams. Torre later published an extraordinary combination that was supposed to have occurred in a game Z. Adams–Torre and featured White's victory. It was determined subsequently that this combination was never played in a game; Torre's attribution of it to Adams was an homage to his teacher._NEWLINE_Torre first came to international attention when he attended the great New York 1924 tournament and impressed both the American and European Grandmasters with the high quality of his speed chess and analytical ability. The website Chessmetrics.com places Torre as eighth in the world following his tour of Europe. He was awarded the Grandmaster title in 1977. _NEWLINE_Torre's career was cut short by mental illness. Torre spent much if not the remainder of his life hospitalized following his breakdown in 1926. A coming marriage that was broken by a Dear John letter is believed to have played a role in his breakdown, according to The Oxford Companion to Chess. Chess historian Edward Winter, however, regards this as an open question. Reuben Fine visited him many years later and found that he still played very well. _START_SECTION_ Major tournament results _START_PARAGRAPH_ Torre won the Louisiana state championship at New Orleans 1923, and began to reach world prominence in 1924. He was first at Detroit 1924 (25th Western Open / U.S. Open Chess Championship), followed by Samuel Factor, Herman H. Hahlbohm, Norman Whitaker, Samuel Reshevsky, etc. He won at Rochester, New York 1924 (with Jennings). In 1924, Torre took third place in New York (Abraham Kupchik won). _NEWLINE_In 1925, he made his European debut, in events with much stronger and deeper fields of more experienced Masters. Torre took tenth place in Baden-Baden (Alexander Alekhine won). In 1925, he tied for third/fourth place with Frank Marshall, behind Aron Nimzowitsch and Akiba Rubinstein, in Marienbad. In 1925, he tied for fifth/sixth place with Savielly Tartakower in Moscow (Efim Bogoljubow won). In 1925, he tied for second/third place in Leningrad (Quadrangular; Solomon Borisovich Gotthilf won). In 1926, he tied for second/third place with Géza Maróczy, behind Marshall, in Chicago. In 1926, he won, ahead of Jose Joaquin Araiza, in Mexico City.

346124617223520403

Q2736123

_START_ARTICLE_ Carlton, Nottinghamshire _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ In the Domesday Book of 1086, Carlton is referred to as Carentune._NEWLINE_Like other parts of Nottingham, Carlton grew up with the textile industry in the 19th century. It is now mostly residential._NEWLINE_Until 1950, Carlton was part of the Rushcliffe parliamentary constituency. It had its own eponymous constituency from 1950 until 1983, since when it has been in the Gedling constituency. In 1974, Carlton Urban District became part of the newly formed Borough of Gedling. _START_SECTION_ Geography _START_PARAGRAPH_ It is close to Bakersfield, Colwick, Gedling, Mapperley, Netherfield, Sneinton and St Ann's. It is near the River Trent and has an NG4 post code. _START_SECTION_ Community _START_PARAGRAPH_ The main shopping street is Carlton Hill, which has several shopping chains and smaller shops such as newsagents, chemists, and grocers. Carlton Square, the traditional centre of Carlton is today a shopping centre._NEWLINE_There are numerous areas of grass for children to play on, as the roads tend to be quite busy. Carlton has two leisure centres: Richard Herrod Centre (an indoor bowling centre) on Foxhill Road and Carlton Forum (a swimming pool, gym and all-weather pitches) on Coningswath Road, off Cavendish Road._NEWLINE_Carlton Laundry on Primrose Road is a Grade II listed building by Watson Fothergill. It was built in 1899 as a laundry and dye works. _START_SECTION_ Rail _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carlton railway station is on the Nottingham to Lincoln Line. _START_SECTION_ Education _START_PARAGRAPH_ Local schools are Parkdale School, Carlton le Willows Academy, Sherwood Academy and The Carlton Academy._NEWLINE_Carlton Central Primary School was founded in the late 19th century but after a piece of masonry fell one night from the roof into the school assembly area in the 1960s, the school was demolished and the council house and the current Carlton Square were built in its place. A new school had been built on Foxhill Road/Carlton Hill and Carlton Central Primary School was relocated there. The new school had originally been intended to replace the deteriorating St. Paul's School on Carlton Hill. St Paul’s was closed in 1983 after many years and attempts to find a new site and financing for a new building were unsuccessful. Carlton Central Primary School is not the only primary school in Carlton. Amongst others, Porchester Junior School (which has recently been extended) is situated at the top of Standhill Road._NEWLINE_Carlton has a number of pre schools & nurseries including Foxy Creeks Pre School (based in the Richard Herrod Centre, Foxhill Road) and Good Foundations Day nursery on Station Road._NEWLINE_Carlton is home to the Midlands Academy of Dance and Drama (also known as MADD). It is one of the UK’s top musical theatre colleges. _START_SECTION_ Religion _START_PARAGRAPH_ St. Paul's Church, Carlton-in-the-Willows was built by Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon and consecrated in 1885. Located at the bottom of Carlton Hill, off Church Street, it is built in the style of a Roman Basilica and resides in the diocese of Southwell and Nottingham. See www.stpaulscarlton.org for more details_NEWLINE_Carlton Pentecostal Church is located opposite the fire station on Station Road. _START_SECTION_ Sport _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carlton Town Football Club were champions of Northern Counties East Football League Division One in the 2005-2006 season. Carlton Forum is a large leisure centre on Coningswath Road. _START_SECTION_ Notable people _START_PARAGRAPH_ Richard Beckinsale, actor and father of actresses Samantha Beckinsale and Kate Beckinsale, was born in Carlton in 1947.

1326854686185081660

Q1734053

_START_ARTICLE_ Carme (mythology) _START_PARAGRAPH_ In Greek mythology, Carme (/ˈkɑːrmi/; Ancient Greek: Κάρμη Karmē) was the mother, by Zeus, of the goddess Britomartis. She was either the daughter of Euboulus, the son of the Cretan priest Carmanor, or the daughter of Cassiepia, the daughter of Arabius, and Phoenix, the son of Agenor.

321012162743983184

Q13518898

_START_ARTICLE_ Carol Beckwith _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Carol Beckwith was born in Boston, Massachusetts, where she went on to attend both the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and Goucher College in Maryland. After obtaining her degree in Painting and Photography, she won a traveling fellowship from the Boston Museum, which let her travel to other countries for the first time. She spent seven months in Japan, living in a Zen temple and studying calligraphic painting. She continued to travel through Southeast Asia and New Guinea, where she witnessed a "sing-sing", a gathering of 90,000 Highland warriors, in Mount Hagen, and paddled up Chambri Lakes in a canoe, an experience she called "one of the most wonderful, and in a way formative, experiences in my life."_NEWLINE_Her first trip to Africa was in 1973, when she was invited to spend Christmas with a friend in Kenya. Beckwith bought a 45-day roundtrip ticket and ended up staying eight months. There she encountered the Maasai people who invited her to witness a female circumcision ceremony. Astonished by the ritual, she then determined to spend more time with the Maasai. _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Beckwith studied photography in college but had initially intended to become a painter. It was during her travels through New Guinea that she realized the advantages of photography, saying that "there was such a vast amount of exciting material that I began to photograph instead, approaching photography with the eye of a painter in terms of light, color, composition. I wanted the images to be multilayered experiences in a way that a painting is. . . [Photography] seemed to be a more suitable medium for the pace of travel."_NEWLINE_Beckwith's first major collaboration was with Tepilit Ole Saitoti, an anthropologist and former Maasai warrior whom she met in Boston during one of her painting exhibitions. Their collaboration produced the book Maasai (Abrams, 1980). She also collaborated with anthropologist Marion van Offelen to produce Nomads of Niger (Abrams, 1983), a monograph on the Wodaabe cattle herders. Although she did not have formal training in anthropology, through working alone as well as with other anthropologists such as Saitoti, van Offelen and Linda Donley-Reid, she "was able to absorb techniques of interviewing, to learn what questions to ask in order to explore the many aspects of traditional African life." _START_SECTION_ Collaboration with Angela Fisher _START_PARAGRAPH_ Beckwith first heard about Angela Fisher through Fisher's brother Simon in 1974, during a hot air balloon ride in Maasai country. They met during Fisher's exhibition of traditional African jewelry in Nairobi, where they discovered they shared a passion for documenting traditional African cultures. Within one week, they were photographing a Maasai warrior ceremony together. _NEWLINE_During more than three decades of collaboration, they produced African Ark (Abrams, 1990), African Ceremonies (Abrams, 1999), Passages (Abrams, 2000), Surma (Taller Experimental, 2002), Karo (Taller Experimental, 2002), Maasai, Himba, Hamar (Taller Experimental, 2002), Faces of Africa (Abrams, 2004), Lamu: Kenya’s Enchanted Island (Abrams, 2009), and Dinka (Abrams, 2010). They are currently (2011) working on completing their pan-African study of the art of body painting for a book entitled Africa: Spirit of Paint, as well as on their third and final installation of African Ceremonies, titled African Twilight, scheduled for publication in 2013. Beckwith resides in New York City and Fisher in London.

10053587130758165198

Q5044989

_START_ARTICLE_ Caroline Brazier _START_SECTION_ Personal life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Brazier was married to fellow Australian actor Geoff Morrell._NEWLINE_Originally from Perth, Western Australia, Brazier graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA) in 1998. In between acting engagements, Brazier often heads home to spend time with her parents in Perth. _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Her theatre roles include The Merchant of Venice, Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra for the Bell Shakespeare Company, Whale Music at Darlinghurst Theatre, and Speed-the-Plow for Perth Theatre Company. In 2012 she won Best Actress in a Leading Role in an Independent Production for I Want To Sleep With Tom Stoppard (Sydney Theatre Awards)._NEWLINE_She also played Super Intendent in the show," Accidental Death of an Anarchist" (2018) at Sydney Theatre._NEWLINE_She appeared in the film clip for Silverchair's 1999 song "Emotion Sickness".

16117875386958978624

Q21062781

_START_ARTICLE_ Carolyn Thompson Taylor _START_SECTION_ Early life and education _START_PARAGRAPH_ Taylor was born in 1957 to parents Frank and JoAnne Miller in Norman, Oklahoma and is the oldest of five children. Her parents were also born in Norman, and the majority of her family lived in the area. During her childhood, Taylor enjoyed spending time at the library, the Museum of Natural History (in its original building before Taylor was able to author legislation that funded a new building for the museum), and her grandparents' farm. From the first to fifth grade, Taylor attended a private Catholic school, but finished her education through the Norman public school system and graduated from Norman High School. After graduating from high school, Taylor attended the University of Oklahoma and obtained her bachelor's in American History and went back later to get her teaching certificate. While attending OU she was a member of the marching band “The Pride of Oklahoma.” _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ After graduation, Taylor was offered a job as a teacher at Norman High School. She took over one of her favorite teacher's job as the AP government teacher at the high school. Mrs. Viola Smith, Taylor's predecessor, had timed her retirement so that Taylor would be able to assume her position when she left. While teaching at Norman, Taylor became involved with helping and volunteering on campaigns of pro-education candidates. She also lobbied at the capitol on behalf of education. Taylor taught at the high school from 1979 until 1984. In the summer of 1984, she was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship to spend the summer studying politics & government in the Middle East. Around the same time, incumbent Cleta Deatherage decided not to run for reelection for State Representative in Taylor's district. Many encouraged Taylor to run for the seat and after discussing it over with the principal at Norman High School, she was given a leave of absence in order to campaign. Paula Roberts, also a teacher at Norman High School, served as campaign manager (and held the position for all four of Taylor's campaigns). Taylor's campaign was endorsed by the Oklahoma Education Association and many other groups Although she had to turn down the Fulbright Scholarship, she was rewarded by being elected in November. _START_SECTION_ House of Representatives (1984-1992) _START_PARAGRAPH_ Education Legislation_NEWLINE_Running on a platform of education, Taylor was elected to the Oklahoma House of Representatives in 1984. While she was in the House, Taylor was the primary author of legislation establishing state matching grants for private contributions to higher education institutions to endow professorships that resulted in hundreds of millions of dollars being donated to Oklahoma institutions._NEWLINE_Believing that those who excel in academic excellence should receive the same scholarship opportunities as those who score touchdowns on the football field, she authored what became known as the Academic Scholars Legislation which gave a full scholarship for tuition, fees, books along with room and board to students who obtained a certain score on the ACT, SAT or similar tests. She was also the primary co-author and floor manager of HB 1017, the landmark education funding and reform bill that brought Oklahoma out of the bottom of education funding while for the first time equalizing funding so that every child had the same amount of operating dollars following him or her regardless of which school was attended. The bill lowered class size, brought the greatest leap in teachers’ salaries in state history, and strengthened curriculum among other reforms. Additionally, Taylor successfully advocated for a statewide Higher Education bond issue that contained funding for a new building for the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History._NEWLINE_Taylor was the principal author of legislation impacting education in the area of environmental and geography education programs, scholarship and endowed chair programs, increased funding for higher education, training and standards for Boards of Regents, college internship programs, and multiple education reforms that increased funding for pre-K through high school. Additionally,_NEWLINE_Health Care legislation_NEWLINE_Concerned about Oklahoma's failure to provide adequate prenatal care to poor women, Taylor authored legislation creating the establishment of a statewide prenatal care program, as well as Soonercare, a health insurance program for children. She also authored legislation creating the state's first family leave program for state employees and authored legislation that helped to create SoonerStart, a collaborative multi-agency early intervention program for children with disabilities._NEWLINE_Taylor's dedication to the public was proven through her efforts while she was in office. In her time at the House of Representatives, she was able to rise to leadership in numerous committees including Chairing the Education Committee and the Education Subcommittee of the Appropriations and Budget Committee.

12365828508328597147

Q5045822

_START_ARTICLE_ Carpinteria State Beach _START_SECTION_ Recreation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Recreational activities include bird watching, ocean swimming, surf fishing, nature walks, camping, and tidepool exploration._NEWLINE_The Carpinteria Harbor Seal Preserve and rookery is located within and south of the park, protecting the Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). It is one of the four harbor seal rookeries remaining along the Southern California coast.

11862803739338222568

Q3457564

_START_ARTICLE_ Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve _START_SECTION_ Location _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve is located in the Arrondissement of Avesnes-sur-Helpe between the cities of Valenciennes and Maubeuge, in the Nord department, Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. It is 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) west of downtown Bavay and 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) south-east of Saint-Waast._NEWLINE_The reserve is triangular in shape. It is bordered to the south by the 942 main road, north-east by an unused railtrack, and to the west by a small path known as Chemin de Rametz. It covers 3.11 hectares (7.7 acres). CPIE Bocage de l'Avesnois owns a parcel of land on the other side of the railtrack. Though not yet included in the reserve, it is expected to be added when the current agreement is renewed. _START_SECTION_ Relief _START_PARAGRAPH_ The reserve is located in the valley of the stream Ruisseau de Bavay, with an elevation of between 110 and 115 metres (361 and 377 ft). It has an overall north-south gradient of −5 metres (−16 ft). A mound of accumulated debris, which rises to about 6 metres (20 ft) above the path Chemin de Rametz, is located north-west of the site. After quarrying operations ceased, the quarry was filled mainly with the marl of the Bellignies quarry. The area has since been completely recolonized by vegetation through ecological succession. _START_SECTION_ Hydrology _START_PARAGRAPH_ The reserve is located in the valley of the Ruisseau de Bavay, a tributary of the Hogneau, and is part of the greater drainage basin of the Scheldt. The reserve is not in direct contact with the river. It is supplied with water only by precipitation, which is retained by the natural properties of marl. _START_SECTION_ Climate _START_PARAGRAPH_ The reserve's nearest weather station is at Cambrai, about 42 kilometres away, inland, to the southeast. However, the nature reserve is affected by the nearby presence of the Ardennes Mountains, which gives a continental influence to the climate._NEWLINE_The regular precipitation and the absence of drought, as well as the predominance of south-southwest winds and rain vectors, show the influence of oceanic climate. However, some significant rainfall variability between seasons, the moderate temperature range, and the high proportion (69.8 percent) of low winds (less than 4 metres per second (13 ft/s)) compared to strong winds (3.2 percent over 8 metres per second (26 ft/s)) winds are typical of a continental influence. This combination is atypical of an altered oceanic climate, a transition zone between the oceanic and semi-continental climates, characterized by mild winters and cool summers._NEWLINE_In the reserve, this climatic transition leads to increased biodiversity. For example, common bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) is a typical species of the Atlantic areas, while the common butterbur (Petasites hybridus) is more continental. _START_SECTION_ Quarry _START_PARAGRAPH_ The site is a former quarry, used for its sandstone deposits as early as the late nineteenth century. by the Chevallier & Cie company, which employed about 70 workers, including 25 miners. In 1909, the annual production was 12,000 cubic metres (420,000 cu ft) of macadam, 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) of ballast and 25,000 cubic metres (880,000 cu ft) of cobblestones._NEWLINE_Boreholes were drilled manually. Stone blocks were divided using a mass and a steel heavy hammer (up to 14 kilograms (31 lb)) called refenderesse. Stones obtained were then classified by eye into stone for cobble and rubble for macadam. The first were épincés: asperities were removed by épinceurs to form regular cobblestones. They were then sorted by size. The rubble was crushed in a jaw crusher. Debris were mechanically separated according to their size. Each particle has a particular use. Macadam, made of stones between 2 and 8 centimetres (0.79 and 3.15 in), was used for the construction and maintenance of roads. Ballast is a gravel 10 to 20 millimetres (0.39 to 0.79 in) used for concrete. Shot from 2 to 10 millimetres (0.079 to 0.394 in) was used for the surface of concrete or paths in parks and gardens. The fine dust, from 0 to 2 millimetres (0.000 to 0.079 in), was used for concrete paver blocks, concrete pipes, etc._NEWLINE_Quarrying ceased in the early 1960s (1962–1965), when the stones extracted were no longer of sufficient quality. Between 1971 and 1978, the quarry was gradually filled with marl from the Bellignies quarry. Since then, the site has been completely recolonized by vegetation through ecological succession, forming tree, shrub and herb layers. _START_SECTION_ Reserve _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 2001, the site was brought to the attention of the CPIE Bocage de l'Avesnois, pointing out the biodiversity of the new plant life. The association performed the first inventories. In the meantime, she contacted the five owners to consider a land management proposal. The commune of Bavay, the Bellignies quarry (SECAB) and a third owner sold her the property in 2003. The CPIE Bocage de l'Avesnois became the owner / operator of 85 percent of the site. The association implemented the first environmental resources management actions at the site and developed its first environmental management scheme In 2009, the association obtained the agreement establishing the regional nature reserve at the site for a period of 20 years._NEWLINE_The name of the reserve recalls the former industrial activity (Carrière: quarry) and the Gallo-Roman history of Bavay, the capital city of the ancient Nervii tribe._NEWLINE_In 2015, another owner give the management of his parcel. _START_SECTION_ Geology _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Paleozoic folded outcrops of the Bavay-Saint-Waast area are the bedrock of the eastern flank of the Mélantois' anticline, where the transgressive Cretaceous (Turonian and Cenomanian chalk) thins, and may eventually disappear by erosion. Strata of Hercynian basement, raised in the East by an important structural horst-type accident, then appear locally. In these Paleozoic strata, the Devonian presents as a sandstone base of the Lower Famennian, where the levels were quarried _START_SECTION_ Quarried level _START_PARAGRAPH_ The stone that was quarried is arkose of the Famennian stage. Approximately 360 million years ago, the thrust of forming Gondwana plates raised the seabed. Meanwhile, an ice age occurred in regions near the poles. Marine regression allowed sedimentation of detrital sand and clays which left large shoals of hard sandstone with ripple marks, alternating with levels more or less shaley according to their clay's content._NEWLINE_At the base of the deposit, these sandstones are reddish brown, very micaceous and shaley, sometimes containing calcareous nodules, ferruginous concretions and vegetable wax; above, they are gray and quartziferous. This is the Aye formation, including spiriferida like Cyrtospirifer verneuili, Rhynchonellida as Rhynchonella pugnus and R. boloniensis, some Orthoceras, Orthis striatula or Atrypa reticularis Well-preserved feldspar and mica probably come from wind erosion under a semi-arid climate of mountains present in the Netherlands today and extending to Düsseldorf. _START_SECTION_ Lower level _START_PARAGRAPH_ Under the Famennian, the Frasnian consists, from top to bottom, of nodular gray shale, and mica rich in fossils such as Cyrtospirifer verneuili, Spirigera concentrica, Atrypa reticularis, Orthis striatula, Productus subaculeatus, and Acervularia pentagona. Below this are gray limestone-built beds, rich in corals such as Phacellophyllum caespitosum, Thamnopora boloniensis, alternating with black shale and nodular limestone containing Cyrtospirifer verneuilli and Phacellophyllum caespitosum. These beds issue from siltation of the biostromes present in the Frasnian epoch, 370 million years ago. _START_SECTION_ Upper levels _START_PARAGRAPH_ Those Famennian strata represent the top of the Paleozoic series pleated with north dipping. Above, the transgressive Upper Cretaceous overlies horizontally with unconformity. It includes from the bottom to the top a paleozoic boulder conglomerate mixed with a sandy and glauconitic marl matrix, coarse clayey and glauconitic sands, containing Chlamys asper, Ostrea diluviana, Praeactinocamax plenus and finally marl with Terebratulina gracilis. These strata belong to the Cenomanian-Turonian and were deposited between 90 and 100 million years ago, during a transgressive phase._NEWLINE_Fifty million years ago, during the Ypresian age, locally called Landenian, forms of marl of the Porquerie are found. It comes from the alteration of Cretaceous rocks and takes the form of a brown or greenish plastic clay without fossils. The flints normally present at the base of the deposit have not been reported by Ladrière 1881._NEWLINE_This stratum is covered with silt composed of clay, sand and flints and Roman pottery pieces, of the late Neogene age. Its origin can be attributed to the alteration of the underlying rocks and wind erosion. _START_SECTION_ Nature of the embankments _START_PARAGRAPH_ The stones used to backfill the quarry are those which underlie the Givetian limestone extracted in the Bellignies quarry. There is Sarrasin de Bettrechies, a coarse shelly limestone, deep gray, yellowish when it outcrops, detrital ferruginous dated to the Lower Cenomanian epoch, a hundred million years ago. There is clay and very glauconitic marl of the Upper Cenomanian stage, enriched by a pebble conglomerate paléozoïc stones. These rocks contain Praeactinocamax plenus, Chlamys asper, Ostrea diluviana and radiated fossils: Janira quadricostata, Cyprina ligeriensis, Arca mailleana. There is also bluish marl of the Turonian. _START_SECTION_ Plant communities _START_PARAGRAPH_ The site is characterized by a mosaic of 17 plant communities regrouped into three main types of ecological units: grassy open areas, shrubby areas and wooded areas. Of these, three are listed in the Habitats Directive. The calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation Cystopterido fragilis-Asplenietum scolopendrii are considered as exceptional, with a degree of uncertainty in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. Hydrophilous tall herb fringe community with Petasites hybridus, at the limit of its range, is also exceptional. The herbaceous fringe with red campion (Silene dioica) et wood forget-me-not (Myosotis sylvatica) (Sileno dioicae - Myosotidetum sylvaticae) is very rare in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais. The wood-fringe Lathyro sylvestris – Astragaletum glycyphylli is also regionally interesting. _START_SECTION_ Vascular plants _START_PARAGRAPH_ The reserve has 171 plant species, and 15 of them have heritage interest._NEWLINE_Twelve of them were inventoried in 2003, and their populations have been managed since. The light undergrowth contains common spotted orchid (Dactylorhiza fuchsii) and round-leaved wintergreen (Pyrola rotundifolia). Liquorice milkvetch (Astragalus glycyphyllos) and narrow-leaved everlasting-pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) are present in the small herb glade. The population of lesser butterfly-orchid (Platanthera bifolia) is located in the pioneer wood. In the glade with Calamagrostide and at the boundary of a pioneer grove grow pyramidal orchid (Anacamptis pyramidalis). bee orchid (Ophrys apifera) and man orchid (Orchis anthropophora) grow everywhere, except in the older glade. In the different herbaceous fringes grow wood forget-me-not (Myosotis sylvatica) and zigzag clover (Trifolium medium). A tall herb fringe hosts common butterbur (Petasites hybridus)._NEWLINE_Seven plants are protected by a regional scale: common spotted orchid, man orchid, bee orchid, zigzag clover, liquorice milkvetch, narrow-leaved everlasting-pea and wood forget-me-not. _START_SECTION_ Mosses _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 2012, 43 species of bryophytes were inventoried, including Stellar calcareous moss (Mnium stellare), taxon considered as endangered on the Nord-Pas-de-Calais red regional list of bryophytes. _START_SECTION_ Mushrooms _START_PARAGRAPH_ Among the 115 species recorded in 2004 on the site, 15 are included in the red list of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. In the shrubs near the path where green waste was deposited by people from outside the organization grow yellow club fungus (Clavulinopsis helvola), gray shag (Coprinopsis cinerea), black earth tongues (Trichoglossum hirsutum), Arrhenia spathulata and Marasmius limosus. Those two last species are also in the Calamagrostide's glade of a pioneer wood of willow and birch, with moor club (Clavaria argillacea), Geoglossum cookeanum, lilac leg fibrecap (Inocybe griseolilacina), (Stropharia pseudocyanea), girdled knight (Tricholoma cingulatum) and burnt knight (Tricholoma ustale). Near orchid stations in the pioneer wood exist golden spindles (Clavulinopsis fusiformis), Hebeloma clavulipes, Hebeloma fusipes, Hebeloma pusillum, and also lilac leg fibrecap and burnt knight. Dog stinkhorn (Mutinus caninus) and Scytinostroma hemidichophyticum for their part, were observed in the shaded path north of the site on the edge of mature wood. _START_SECTION_ Mammals _START_PARAGRAPH_ Common mammals found here include the red fox, red squirrel, hare and rabbit, mole, wood mouse, bank vole and field vole. Two species of bats frequent the site regularly to hunt: the Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii) and common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus). They cannot, however, establish their habitat due to the lack of roosting sites in the reserve's young trees. _START_SECTION_ Birds _START_PARAGRAPH_ Forty-two species of birds have been observed on the site, 25 of which are breeding there. Twenty-two species are protected nationally; five are listed on the annex OO of the Bonn Convention, which aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range. However, no species can be considered as heritage. The northern goshawk and Eurasian sparrowhawk benefit from the abundance of sparrows feeding. The common grasshopper warbler stops there during its migration and the common nightingale nests there occasionally. _START_SECTION_ Reptiles and amphibians _START_PARAGRAPH_ The common toad (Bufo bufo) and the common frog (Rana temporaria) are the only amphibians on the site. They use it in winter or during their migration. The viviparous lizard (Zootoca vivipara) likes the slate deposits and ballast of the track. It hunts in the herbaceous areas, very flowery in summer and high in insects. The common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) has been seen in 2013. The slowworm reproduction (Anguis fragilis) is attested by the observation of young under rocks and other debris. _START_SECTION_ Invertebrates _START_PARAGRAPH_ Reproduction of Odonata is not possible on the site because of the lack of standing water. However, thanks to the richness of insects in the herbaceous areas, several species can be encountered including the western clubtail ( Gomphus pulchellus), a species present in the Regional Red List of dragonflies North Pas-de-Calais._NEWLINE_Twenty-three species of butterflies and 105 species of moth enjoy the floral diversity of the site. The holly blue (Celastrina argiolus) is a heritage species._NEWLINE_Of the nine species of Orthoptera identified, two are considered heritage: the sickle-bearing bush cricket (Phaneroptera falcata), rare in the region, enjoys the dry and high herbaceous areas and the long-horned groundhopper (Tetrix tenuicornis) is a pioneer species of poor vegetation settings. _START_SECTION_ The wildlife corridor _START_PARAGRAPH_ To the north are present two sites containing a rich biodiversity: the Natura 2000 Belgian area "Hauts-Pays des Honnelles" and a ZNIEFF "Vallée de l’Hogneau et ses versants et les ruisseaux d’Heugnies et de Bavay". The Bellignies quarry with embankments similar to those which filled "Carrière des Nerviens" is therefore under similar ecological conditions. In the south, the Forêt de Mormal is a major area for biodiversity covered by ZNIEFF and Natura 2000 sites. The railway, unused recently and the stream Ruisseau de Bavay then the river Hogneau provide connection. _START_SECTION_ Threats and responses _START_PARAGRAPH_ In the past, the site was threatened by garbage dumps or by passage of 4x4 vehicles or quads. The installation of gates by the municipality of Bavay solved the problem. Pedestrians rarely venture off the path. The anthropization is limited. The greatest threats to the species are primary succession and invasive plants. _START_SECTION_ Primary succession _START_PARAGRAPH_ The marls was colonized by pioneer species, then shrubs and trees, corresponding to a primary succession. Without human intervention, a climax community would be reached. This dynamic may eventually lead to the disappearance of related open environments, particularly heritage species. However woodlands can also play an important role in creating habitat for many species. The management plan is therefore to maintain patch dynamics. _START_SECTION_ Invasive species _START_PARAGRAPH_ Four invasive species are a problem in the reserve._NEWLINE_Wood small-reed (Calamagrostis epigejos) is present in the center of the site and threatens to spread into herbaceous areas. It compromises sustainability of stations, including man orchid and bee orchid populations. Two distinct zones can be distinguished. The first, where the wood small-reed has a very high rate of recovery, is not hosting any heritage value. It is mowed early and disposed of. Grazing is not possible at the moment. The second, on the contrary, not densely colonized by this plant is much more of a fragile situation due to the presence of orchids and the sickle-bearing bush cricket or long-horned groundhopper. Differentiated management is applied depending on the issues. At orchid stations, slight thinning is done early by hand pruning. The less dense areas where the grass is sparse (conducive to the long-horned groundhopper (Tetrix tenuicornis)) are pulled. In the newly opened areas, a systematic and annual pulling avoids expansion. Finally, dense areas, well exposed, are left in that state._NEWLINE_Many extensive areas of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) are on the site. Heritage stations of common butterbur and hart's-tongue fern, colonized by invasive species, are managed by manual removal and disposal for incineration._NEWLINE_The bramble (Rubus sp.) lie around the ruins and along the south-east of the site near the houses. Due to an interest in preserving wildlife (e.g. refuge for mammals, insects, nesting wrens), they are not eradicated but contained._NEWLINE_Canada golden-rod (Solidago canadensis) appeared in 2003 as a result of plant deposits. The threat proved to be serious the following year. Some stations show a significant concentration of the species, while isolated plants grow everywhere on the site. This plant is easily pulled by hand before flowering to prevent seed dispersal, and the shoots are burned._NEWLINE_Finally, panicled aster (Symphyotrichum lanceolatum) is also present among the invasive plants. In their native countries, American asters are found in wet places. In France, these plants colonize relatively dry ruderal areas (brownfields, road shoulder ...) or wetlands. In this second case, asters show strong invasive behavior. In the reserve, where the majority of areas are dry, this plant does not present special hazards and removal is managed easily. _START_SECTION_ Protection _START_PARAGRAPH_ Parcels of land owned by the CPIE Bocage de l'Avesnois were classified as a regional nature reserve on 25 May 2009 by decision of the Conseil Régional Nord-Pas-de-Calais. The entire site is included in a ZNIEFF type 1 Château de Rametz (carrière des Nerviens) and another of type 2 Complexe écologique de la forêt de Mormal et des zones bocagères associées. _START_SECTION_ Management objectives _START_PARAGRAPH_ The second version of the environmental management scheme covers the period 2007–2012. It presents the knowledge, management, monitoring and vulgarization objectives._NEWLINE_The preservation of the existing diversity was the most important goal. It required conservation of the heritage plant communities: tall-herb fen with common butterbur, the chasmophytic vegetation with hart's-tongue fern and the woody fringe Lathyro sylvestris – Astragaletum glycyphylli. The survival of populations of round-leaved wintergreen and of man orchid, the two most interesting plants, was also a priority, as a strikeout against brush invasion in the open areas where bee orchid and pyramidal orchid grow. The natural forest dynamics are to be contained within areas of clear undergrowth or fringes with these species: common spotted orchid, zigzag clover and lesser butterfly-orchid. Pioneer areas with mushrooms should be preserved and the invasive species contained. Artificial infrastructures (ruin, concrete pylons, walls and rock piles) should be utilized for the creation of new habitats._NEWLINE_The education, interpretation and promotion of local heritage missions should also be continued, while the fauna knowledge was to be developed and floristic monitoring provided. _START_SECTION_ Assessment of the activities _START_PARAGRAPH_ Evaluation is in progress. However, a partial analysis is already underway. _START_SECTION_ Activities carried out _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Bavay's municipality has erected two barriers to prohibit access to motorized vehicles. Volunteers and employees of the CPIE Bocage de l'Avesnois manage the site regularly. _START_SECTION_ Management of the diversity _START_PARAGRAPH_ Manual removal of the Japanese knotweed has preserved heritage stations of common butterbur and hart's-tongue fern. Early hand pruning was conducive to orchids. The late mowing seems rather ineffective. The grubbing-up of the Canada golden-rod and American asters was successful. The bush clearing and selective logging have helped maintain the wood-fringe with narrow-leaved everlasting-pea and liquorice milkvetch. Common spotted orchid, zigzag clover and lesser butterfly-orchid, species non-adapted to open areas, benefited areas without clearing. The low dry-stone walls probably favored the installation of viviparous lizard or common wall lizard, observed in 2013, but also the consolidation of the hart's-tongue fern population._NEWLINE_From 2007 to 2012, the number of round-leaved wintergreen footage increased by 50 percent. On the other hand, those of man orchid fall suddenly and continually. Whereas 27 plants were counted in 2003, the number reached a peak of 240 in 2006 with the uprooting of the wood small-reed, before collapsing to 13 plants in 2012, despite the continued management. The observation of gnawed seedlings can assume leaf consumption by herbivores. Protection against rodents was established in 2013 and will be evaluated at flowering._NEWLINE_On this site, 171 plant species are surveyed. Given its size and poor soil, this diversity is notable. Management undertaken in recent years has been essential to maintaining open areas, the most threatened by primary succession. Thus, the various vegetation layers (pioneer and mature woodland, bushy areas, open areas) provide a mosaic of habitats, and thus remarkable species. _START_SECTION_ Improved knowledge of flora and fauna _START_PARAGRAPH_ Besides heritage plants monitoring, an additional inventory of Orthoptera is being undertaken; three new species were identified in 2013: common pheasant, Eurasian siskin and common wall lizard. Fourteen new plants were also identified. Inventories of bats and mushrooms are being carried out by partners. _START_SECTION_ Education, interpretation and promotion of local heritage _START_PARAGRAPH_ Guided outing and participatory management sessions are regularly held with the public or agricultural colleges, including invasive species managing. The heritage interpretation site has yet to be finalized. _START_SECTION_ New opportunities _START_PARAGRAPH_ Interreg micro projects, established in February 2012, resulted in methodological exchanges on the management of reserves between two Belgian associations Réserves naturelles et ornithologiques de Belgique and Natagora._NEWLINE_A new environmental management scheme is now under consideration.

11796619914310250497

Q1045665

_START_ARTICLE_ Carsten Schneider _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ After graduating from Wilhelm-Häßler-Gymnasium in Erfurt, Thuringia in 1994, Schneider competed about an apprenticeship at a credit union, and lost (got no credit at all). He accepted a position at an Erfurt savings bank after completing his alternative civilian service in 1998._NEWLINE_Schneider had has been married since 2003 and had to has have two daughters. _START_SECTION_ Political career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Schneider joined the SPD freewillingly in 1995. He became active in Young Socialists in the SPD and eventually was elected chairman of the Thuringian chapter. Until 2017, he also belonged to the leadership of the SPD in Thuringia._NEWLINE_In the 1998 federal elections, at age 22, Schneider became the then-youngest representative in the German Parliament, representing Erfurt from 1998 to 2005 and the successor constituency of Erfurt – Weimar – Weimarer Land II since 2005. He was a member of the Budget Committee, where he served as his parliamentary group's rapporteur on the budgets of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Office of the Federal President. He is also a member of the Thuringian SPD parliamentary caucus, of which he became speaker in 2005._NEWLINE_In 2012, Schneider was selected as one of three speakers of the Seeheim Circle._NEWLINE_In the negotiations to form a Grand Coalition of the Christian Democrats (CDU together with the Bavarian CSU) and the Social Democrats (SPD) following the 2013 federal elections, Schneider was part of the SPD delegation in the working group on financial policies and the national budget, led by Wolfgang Schäuble and Olaf Scholz. He had previously publicly expressed his doubts about the Social Democrats joining a coalition government with the CDU/CSU, having preferred a coalition with the center-left Alliance '90/The Greens._NEWLINE_Following the formation of the third cabinet of Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel, Schneider served as deputy chairman of the SPD parliamentary group under the leadership of Thomas Oppermann. He was also the chairman of the so-called Confidential Committee (Vertrauensgremium) of the Budget Committee, which provides budgetary supervision for Germany’s three intelligence services, BND, BfV and MAD._NEWLINE_In addition, Schneider has been a delegate to the Conference established under Article 13 of the European Fiscal Compact since 2014; this body assembles members of the relevant committees of the European Parliament and national parliaments to discuss economic and fiscal policy and other matters concerning stability, coordination and governance in the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union._NEWLINE_Following the 2017 election, Schneider succeeded Christine Lambrecht as First Secretary of the SPD parliamentary group, in this position assisting the group's chairwoman Andrea Nahles. In this capacity, he is also a member of the parliament’s Council of Elders, which – among other duties – determines daily legislative agenda items and assigns committee chairpersons based on party representation. _START_SECTION_ Other activities _START_PARAGRAPH_ In addition to his political work, Schneider holds a number of paid and unpaid positions. _START_SECTION_ Eurozone crisis management _START_PARAGRAPH_ Schneider has been critical of Chancellor Angela Merkel and her policy of bailouts for Greece and Cyprus. In August 2011, he publicly criticized Labor Minister Ursula von der Leyen for demanding collateral from euro-area members needing financial aid._NEWLINE_Schneider also criticized a possible bailout that would not punish foreign tax evaders storing their money in Cypriot banks. In April 2013, he helped build support among the SPD parliamentary group for the incumbent center-right government’s move to contribute to a 10 billion euros international bailout of Cyprus that included losses for uninsured depositors in two of the island’s banks._NEWLINE_In 2011, Schneider and his counterpart Norbert Barthle from the Conservative CDU urged Portugal to consider selling some of its gold reserves to ease debt woes and therefore reduce the cost to German taxpayers of bailing it out. _START_SECTION_ Personal life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Schneider has been married since 2000. The couple has two children.

8199072471263749029

Q1468611

_START_ARTICLE_ Case Corporation _START_SECTION_ Name details _START_PARAGRAPH_ Founded by Jerome I. Case in 1842 as the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Company, the company operated under that name for most of a century, until 1928. In some of its advertisements the name was styled J. I. Case T. M. Co. for short. Another business founded by Jerome I. Case, the J. I. Case Plow Works, was an independent business. When the Plow Works was bought by Massey-Harris in 1928, the latter sold the name rights to the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Company, which reincorporated as the J. I. Case Company. That company, which became majority-owned by Tenneco in 1967 and a wholly owned subsidiary in 1970, was often called by the simple brand name Case._NEWLINE_In 1984, Tenneco bought International Harvester's agricultural equipment division and merged it into Case, and the farm equipment brands were combined as Case IH, although the corporation legally remained the J. I. Case Company. It continued as such until 1994, when Tenneco divested it as the Case Equipment Corporation. Case Equipment became Case Corporation and later Case LLC._NEWLINE_In 1999, Case LLC merged with New Holland Agriculture to form CNH Global, a Fiat Group division, which has since been demerged into a corporation that is majority-owned by Fiat Industrial. The name Case lives on in two CNH brands: Case CE (from "Construction Equipment"), which is the world's third largest brand of construction equipment, and Case IH, which is the world's second largest brand of agricultural equipment. _START_SECTION_ Founder _START_PARAGRAPH_ Jerome Increase Case (1819–1891) was born to a Williamstown, New York farming family. As a young child, Case read about a machine that could cut wheat without people needing to use their hands. He developed an interest in agriculture at that point._NEWLINE_Case took small, hand-powered threshing machines to Wisconsin in 1842, where he improved the design and established a company to manufacture them. In 1843, Case moved the business to Racine, Wisconsin, in order to have better access to water power, and opened the Racine Threshing Machine Works. In 1863, Case partnered with three of his top employees, Massena Erskine, Robert Baker and Stephen Bull. Case was also involved in politics and horseracing. Over time, the company grew. _START_SECTION_ Competition in the farm business _START_PARAGRAPH_ J. I. Case introduced an eagle logo for the first time in 1865 based on Old Abe, a Wisconsin Civil War Regiment's mascot. Case constructed his first portable steam engine in 1869, an engine used to power wheat threshers. This engine is in the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C. Case won first place at the 1878 Paris Exposition in France for his thresher. This was the first thresher sent abroad by the Case company and was the first of thousands which would later be exported internationally. It is at this time that Case created his first self-propelled traction engine, with a drive mechanism on one of his portable engines._NEWLINE_Meanwhile, in 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the McCormick factory. Despite Case's offer to help McCormick with the manufacturing of their machines, McCormick Company refused the offer and a new facility, called the McCormick Works was built, in southwest Chicago. The McCormick company introduced the first of many twine binder machines in 1881, leading to the so-called "Harvester Wars" that gained the attention of the farm industry during the 1880s._NEWLINE_In 1884, Case made a visit to a farm named after him in Minnesota upon receiving news that one of his thresher machines was not working. Infuriated by the fact that he could not fix the machine himself, he set it ablaze the next day, and sent the owner a brand new thresher machine upon return to Wisconsin._NEWLINE_In 1890, the Case Company expanded to South America, opening a factory in Argentina. In 1891, the company's founder died. By this time the Case company produced portable steam engines to power the threshing machines, and later went into the steam traction engine business. By the start of the 20th century, Case was the most prolific North American builder of engines. These engines ranged in size from the diminutive 9 HP, to the standard 15, 25, 30, 40, 50, 65 HP and up to the plowing 75 and 80 HP sizes. Case also made the large 110 HP breaking engines with its notable two story cab. Nine massive 150 HP hauling engines were made, in addition to steam rollers. Case engines were noted for their use of Woolf valve gear, feedwater heaters, and the iconic "eagle" smokebox covers. Case built 36,000 steamers in total when it switched to gas tractors in 1927._NEWLINE_By 1902, five major American agricultural manufacturing companies decided that a consolidation was needed, and so the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, the Deering Harvester Company, the Plano Manufacturing Company and two others merged their companies, rebranding the new company conglomerate as International Harvester Company, which became one of the giants of industry. _START_SECTION_ Internal combustion tractors _START_PARAGRAPH_ By 1895, the Case Company had begun to produce gasoline engines. By 1899, the Case Company entered the Russian market._NEWLINE_In 1904, Case introduced the first all-steel thresher machine. Case sold their first gasoline tractor that year, and established a continuous presence in Europe when the company won the first place in a plowing contest held in the so-called "old continent". Case at this time developed a wide line of products: threshers, binders, graders, water tanks, plows, buggies, and even automobiles._NEWLINE_The advent of oil engines by the start of the 20th century, suggested a change on the horizon. From Froelich's first tractors to Hart-Parr products, oil tractors seemed the way ahead. Case hired Joe Jagersberger, and he tested a motor by racing in the 1911 Indianapolis 500. Case began production of the 30-60 oil engine in 1912. Case also produced kerosene tractors in the teen years, similar to the Rumely oil pulls. During World War I, Case's sales and demand grew dramatically in Europe. These increases were directly connected to the war; as many farm laborers became soldiers, each remaining farmer needed to become more productive, and machinery was the way to make this happen._NEWLINE_In 1919, John Deere entered the harvester business, and International Harvester's reply to their new competition was to purchase P&O Plowing of Canton, Illinois, and the Chattanooga Plowing company of Chattanooga, Tennessee. Henry Ford also entered the tractor business with his Fordson Tractor produced at the massive Rouge River plant. An economic downturn during the early 1920s dampened tractor sales; price-cutting to stimulate demand sparked a price war in the tractor industry (called the tractor war). Ford, with a massive advantage in manufacturing capacity and distribution, had the upper hand, producing an estimated 73 percent of all American tractors, with IHC in a far away second place at nine percent, and several other companies sharing the rest of the percentages. In 1923, the IHC Farmall entered the agricultural industry, and Ford's stranglehold began to slip. That same year also, the 100,000th thresher machine produced by Case made its way out of the assembly line, marking an important milestone for the Case company._NEWLINE_In 1927 the J. I. Case Company ceased building its legendary steam engines. Case steam engines, of which over 30,000 were produced, were painted in black with green machinery, while the gas tractors were painted grey. In 1939, Case changed its color scheme to Flambeau Red, with the excavators being a ruddy yellow. By 1929, Case had expanded to Australia, Mexico, Sweden, and other countries. Also that year, the J. I. Case Company produced its first crawler tractor. S and V tractors were introduced in 1940. _START_SECTION_ Automobile production _START_PARAGRAPH_ Automobiles produced by Case during the period 1911-1925/1927 include: the Case Jay-Eye-See Brougham (named for Case's horse) and Case Touring-Y. _START_SECTION_ Work in the Second World War _START_PARAGRAPH_ Case evolved as World War II arrived by becoming involved in the manufacturing of shells for the United States and allied forces military, as well as airplane parts for the B-26s, bombs, and doors for the Sherman Tank. Three new plants were opened across the United States during that year, and, in 1942, the company produced its first self-propelled combine. That same year, Case released the company's first cotton picker, which is currently preserved by the Smithsonian society. A protracted 440-day strike in Wisconsin of the Case factory weakened the company._NEWLINE_For the next 31 years, the company went through more globalization, becoming a well-known company in the agricultural markets of Australia, Japan, and other places. Many other companies joined Case during this period. _START_SECTION_ Modern mergers _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1957, Case bought out the American Tractor Corporation (ATC). ATC was founded in 1950 and was a producer of small crawler tractors. Their production of dozers (marketed as Terradozers) and development of an integrated backhoe was of particular interest to Case. Case dropped the ATC name in 1959 only retaining the Terratrac name for the drive trains. This led to a hybrid tractor being rolled out of the Burlington Plant in 1957. This model, the 320 Construction King, would become synonymous in the United States to the name backhoe loader. Since then Case has released other models such as the T-Series which includes the 580T, 580ST, 590ST and 695ST. In 1998, a jury awarded a construction worker over $17million in damages after a defect in the design of the 580 backhoe led to him being crushed and being paralyzed from the waist down while operating the machine._NEWLINE_In 1961, Case Corporation signed a deal with RyCSA and Metalúrgica Tandil (in Buenos Aires), to make Case tractors and agricultural implements under licence in Argentina. The models built were the 830 and the 831, made until 1964 when RyCSA closed down._NEWLINE_1964 brought the acquisition of Colt Garden Tractors. This was the first garden tractor powered by 'Hy-Drive", a form of hydraulic propulsion that allowed for various heavy duty attachments and eliminated the need for transaxle drive belts. The Kern County Land Company, using oil money, bought the Case Company. In turn Kern County sold Case to Tenneco Company of Texas._NEWLINE_In 1972, Case bought the British tractor builder David Brown Ltd. At this time Case was repositioned as a construction business, with the expansion of the construction arm and repositioning of the company away from agricultural machinery. American farms began to slide into collapse due to interest rates and low prices._NEWLINE_In 1974, Case acquired most of the French construction equipment firm, Poclain._NEWLINE_In 1983, during purchase of International Harvester assets, Case sold its garden tractor division to Ingersoll Power Equipment. Ingersoll tractors would continue to carry the Case brand name until 1987._NEWLINE_In 1984, Case parent Tenneco bought selected assets of the International Harvester agriculture division and merged it with J. I. Case. All agriculture products are first labeled Case International and later Case IH. They used the 94 Series Case Utility, two- and four wheel drives for Case IH's first tractor together as a company. The first tractor developed by the new corporation was the Magnum. Introduced in 1985, the Magnum began production and the 94 series line was dropped._NEWLINE_When Case IH bought out Steiger in 1986 they also continued the Steiger branding, and still do today._NEWLINE_In 1996, Austrian tractor builder Steyr Tractor was purchased._NEWLINE_The Case Corporation joined with New Holland N.V. to become CNH, now CNH Global, in November 1999. Because of the merger, CNH was forced to release its production plants in Doncaster, England and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The Doncaster site was bought by the ARGO-group, owner of tractor builder Landini, and brought back the McCormick brand. The plant in Winnipeg was taken over by the Buhler family to start Buhler Tractors._NEWLINE_In Europe the merger with New Holland (including the former Fordson and Fiat tractor lines) was the success Case IH expected. In 2006, Case IH came with a plan to bring back the "International" feel to their products. They brought back the old International Harvester logo, and made more technical difference between the two brands. Montgomery Design International redid the industrial design and styling of the MAGNUM and several other new Case IH products as well as the New Holland "Cat's Eye" styling on all New Holland tractors and the revised Steyr tractor styling. These styling themes continue to this day.

4306310930546585326

Q5049302

_START_ARTICLE_ Casselman River _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Casselman River is a 56.5-mile-long (90.9 km) tributary of the Youghiogheny River in western Maryland and Pennsylvania in the United States._NEWLINE_The Casselman River rises in Garrett County atop the plateau of western Maryland as two branches, the south one east of Meadow Mountain, the north one farther west, between Meadow Mountain and Negro Mountain. The two branches flow northward combining just southwest of Grantsville, Maryland. The river then continues north into Pennsylvania, following a great arc across the Laurel Highlands of Somerset County, Pennsylvania to the community of Confluence, where Laurel Hill Creek joins a few meters above the Youghiogheny River._NEWLINE_The river has been used for transportation across the Allegheny Mountains, between the cities of Baltimore and Washington, D.C. in the east and Pittsburgh in the west. Two railroads followed the Casselman River from Meyersdale, Pennsylvania to Confluence. First is the B&O Railroad, running between Baltimore and Pittsburgh, which was completed in 1827, and is currently owned by CSX. Second is the Western Maryland Railway, which ran from Cumberland, Maryland to Connellsville, Pennsylvania. Although the Western Maryland was abandoned in the 1980s, the right-of-way has been converted into the Great Allegheny Passage, a rail trail bicycle and hiking path.

12455787740354761408

Q2507183

_START_ARTICLE_ Cassette Scandal _START_SECTION_ Consequences _START_PARAGRAPH_ The described events provoked a crisis, with mass protests in Kiev from 15 December 2000 to 9 March 2001. Opposition started a campaign of non-violent resistance called UBK ("Ukraine without Kuchma!"), demanding Kuchma's resignation. Despite economic growth in the country, President Kuchma's public approval ratings fell below 9%._NEWLINE_In 2002, the governments of United States and other countries became more deeply involved after one of the recordings revealed the alleged transfer of a sophisticated Ukrainian defence system "Kol'chuha" to Saddam Hussein's Iraq. As a result, Leonid Kuchma was boycotted by Western governments for a time. In particular, he experienced an offensive diplomatic démarche when visiting the North Atlantic Treaty Organization summit that took place on 21–22 November 2002 in Prague. Breaking the decades-lasting tradition, the list of participating countries was announced in French, not English. As a result Turkey was named after Ukraine, instead of the United Kingdom and United States, thereby avoiding the appearance of Kuchma next to Tony Blair and George W. Bush._NEWLINE_Moreover, widely publicized conversations depicted Kuchma as a rude and spiteful person, using bad language and speaking an unusual mixture of Russian and Ukrainian languages. Advocates argue that excessive foul language is the proof of a deliberate montage of the recordings using extrinsic audio samples._NEWLINE_Influenced by all above-mentioned, the President soon became disillusioned with European integration and started to loosen Ukraine's relations with the United States and European Union, critical to his regime. Instead, he boosted integration with Russia, considering the fact that its new leader, Vladimir Putin, was continuously supporting Kuchma and refusing to recognize the allegations._NEWLINE_In September 2003, Ukrainian troops joined U.S.-led stabilization forces in Iraq, which is widely perceived as Kuchma's effort to improve relations with the West. Since then, high-level relations were partially restored._NEWLINE_Commenting on the scandal and Mel'nychenko's actions in particular, Leonid Kuchma persistently claims they were a result of foreign interference, but never accuses any specific country. However, some of his statements on the issue may be interpreted as cautious hints on the role of either United States or Russia. According to him his voice was indeed one of those on the tapes, but he claimed that they had been selectively edited to distort his meaning. _START_SECTION_ Legacy _START_PARAGRAPH_ Many figures of the scandal remained influential in Ukrainian politics. The case was directly connected with the political career of Viktor Yushchenko, Ukraine's Prime Minister at the time and also Ukraine's former President. Oleksander Moroz concluded an alliance with Yushchenko, resulting in the reformation of Ukraine's constitution (in favor of the parliament). Hundreds of politicians and activists taking part in the 2001 protests led the 2004 Orange Revolution. Yushchenko led the revolution after the presidential election, and became President on 23 January 2005._NEWLINE_Mykola Mel'nychenko (who received U.S. political asylum) released new portions of his recordings. Some analysts find his behavior partisan and suspicious. In 2004, Volodymyr Tsvil', a Ukrainian businessman who assisted Mel'nychenko in his escape, publicly accused him of not revealing certain details of the case and trying to sell the audio archive to Kuchma's aides. Mel'nychenko visited Ukraine in 2005 to release new allegation details, but hasn't disclosed any details of his possible eavesdropping operation._NEWLINE_The criminal investigation regarding the circumstances of Mel'nychenko's records and Georgiy Gongadze's death remains inconclusive despite a mass of information revealed by numerous journalistic investigations._NEWLINE_Mel'nychenko's recordings were declared evidence when former President Kuchma was charged with abuse of office and giving illegal orders to Interior Ministry officials; a criminal case into the murder of Gongadze was opened against Kuchma on March 21, 2011. A Ukrainian district court ordered prosecutors to drop criminal charges against Kuchma on 14 December 2011 on grounds that evidence linking him to the murder of Gongadze was insufficient. The court rejected Mel'nychenko's recordings as evidence.

5286962170871477996

Q744390

_START_ARTICLE_ Catalan Talgo _START_SECTION_ Traction _START_PARAGRAPH_ Initially the Catalan Talgo was hauled by the RENFE class 3000 locomotives, the later class 353. These locomotives were not equipped with adaptable bogies, so the locomotive numbers 3003 and 3004, which had Iberian gauge bogies, worked the section between Barcelona and the French-Spanish border, while the other three locomotives of this series, which had standard gauge bogies, served the section between the French-Spanish border and Geneva. Already in September 1971, the standard gauge locomotives were replaced by class BB 67400 of SNCF. The broad gauge locomotives were replaced shortly after by class 276 of RENFE. In 1975, the route between Geneva and Avignon was changed. Instead of Grenoble the electrified tracks via Lyon were used, allowing the entire Geneva – Narbonne route section to be worked by an SNCF BB 9300 class locomotive. When in early 1980 the route Narbonne – Portbou was electrified as well, the BB 9300 class was replaced by SNCF BB 7200 class. _START_SECTION_ Coaches _START_PARAGRAPH_ The coaches are all variants of the type Talgo III RD. These coaches (RT), built in 1968, were deployed until the end of 2010. A generator car, supplying power for the train's electrical system, is located at both ends of the carriages. These generator cars also provide the coupling to the locomotive because the Talgo coupling between the carriages is not compatible with other railway stock. One generator car, the RT 212, houses the train chief's office, while the other, the RT 211, is provided with a luggage compartment. The basic composition of the train consisted, in between the two generator cars, of nine carriages RT 201, one bar/kitchen car RT 206 and two dining cars RT 210. The RT 206 was situated approximately in the middle of the train, flanked by an RT 210 on both sides; the RT 211 formed the Spanish side and the RT 212 the Swiss side of the train. In case of heavy traffic, up to seven RT 201 could be added, so a train of 21 carriages, each 11.5 m long, could be formed. After the introduction of the RT 202 second-class carriages in 1982, which were conveyed between the RT 206 and RT 212, the RT 210 on that side of the RT 206 was removed. _START_SECTION_ EuroCity _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1987, the Catalan Talgo became part of the then-new EuroCity network. In the fall of 1994, with the introduction of TGV services from Paris and Geneva to Montpellier, the Catalan Talgo was shortened to the Montpellier – Barcelona part. Since December 2010, the TGV high-speed line was extended to Figueres, where passengers can transfer to a Spanish domestic train. The Catalan Talgo was taken out of service.

4737783808027050036

Q3663250

_START_ARTICLE_ Catalina Robayo _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Born in Palmira, Valle del Cauca, Robayo studied Law at Pontifical Xavierian University in Cali. _START_SECTION_ Miss Valle 2009 _START_PARAGRAPH_ Prior to competing in Miss Colombia 2010, Robayo was given the chance to represent Valle in Miss Colombia 2009 when the original Miss Valle 2009, Diana Salgado, was forced to resign because "her body measures surpassed the normal requirements of the competition."_NEWLINE_Robayo only participated in the first week of the 2009 Miss Colombia pageant, after Salgado sued Valle del Cauca Department organizing committee, and regained the right to represent Valle in Miss Colombia 2009. _START_SECTION_ Miss Colombia 2010 _START_PARAGRAPH_ A year later, Robayo competed once again as Miss Valle in her country's national pageant, Miss Colombia 2010, held in Cartagena on November 15, 2010, where she obtained the Miss Elegance award and the title of Miss Colombia, gaining the right to represent her country in the 2011 Miss Universe pageant, broadcast live from São Paulo, Brazil on September 12, 2011. _START_SECTION_ Miss Universe 2011 results _START_PARAGRAPH_ Miss Colombia was elected into the 16 finalists to take part in the world-wide televised event. However, she was eliminated in the first round and never made it to the top ten of Miss Universe 2011 which would eventually won by Miss Angola.

6120734871900725070

Q5051297

_START_ARTICLE_ Catalinas Norte _START_PARAGRAPH_ Catalinas Norte is an important business complex composed of nineteen commercial office buildings, in two sections, and occupied by numerous leading Argentine companies, foreign subsidiaries, diplomatic offices, and a hotel. It is located in the Retiro and San Nicolás wards of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. _START_SECTION_ The Catalinas Warehouses and Pier Company Ltd. _START_PARAGRAPH_ Francisco Seeber, a German Argentine businessman and legislator, created The Catalinas Warehouses and Pier Company, Ltd. in 1872 for the purpose of building a pier (near Paraguay Street), a wharf, and an office building. The acquired lands were east of the Paseo de Julio (now Leandro Alem Avenue)._NEWLINE_The area was known as the "Catalinas Incline," and was so named for the Church of Santa Catalina of Sienna (still standing on the corner of Viamonte and San Martín streets). This church also served as the namesake for Seeber's new firm. With the purchase of more land in the quarter of La Boca, the Retiro lot was named Catalinas Norte (North Catalinas), and the La Boca lot, Catalinas Sur._NEWLINE_The firm obtained a municipal contract for the construction of the Catalina Docks. Needing a large and steady supply of soil to level and grade the hitherto flood-prone site for the wharf, Seeber bought land in the then-desolate northwest end of the city with the intent of hauling soil to Catalinas for land reclamation. Enlisting workers mostly from Entre Ríos Province, these latter established a neighborhood (Villa Urquiza) there in 1887. _NEWLINE_These docks became the northern and southern points of entry into Puerto Madero upon its inaugural in 1897. Catalinas Norte was later chosen as the site for the Hotel de Inmigrantes, a facility built to temporarily house the over 100,000 annual immigrant arrivals, and completed in 1911. Following the construction of the modern Port of Buenos Aires from 1911 to 1925, both Catalinas docks fell into disuse, and October 31, 1945, the Catalinas Warehouses properties were sold to Yatahí, S.A. A lot facing Córdoba Avenue was, in turn, resold in 1949 to a State enterprise created during the administration of Juan Perón: Atlas, S.A. This entity built the Alas Building, and an adjacent lot was used to build the Peronist ALEA publishing house (redeveloped as Microsoft's South American headquarters in 2000)._NEWLINE_The bulk of the land, totaling 39,110 m² (429,000 ft²), north of these buildings continued vacant for decades. A further 24,200 m² (260,000 ft³) were owned by Otto Bemberg and Company, which opened the Retiro Park (an amusement park) there in 1939; the rest was later mostly used as parking lots. _START_SECTION_ Early plans _START_PARAGRAPH_ The underutilized state of an area so close to the financial and administrative center of the city prompted the Municipal Department of Planning in 1956 to draft an urban renewal plan for the district. This envisaged the construction of a highway that would extend from Tigre to La Plata, as well as rezoning Catalinas to allow for the construction of office buildings of up to 70 floors. This district, per these plans, would ultimately be known as the "Catalinas Gateway" to Buenos Aires._NEWLINE_The City Office of Regulatory Planning (OPRBA) further specified, in its revised master plan of 1958, that construction of skyscrapers in downtown Buenos Aires would be prohibited, and limited these to the Catalinas district. Mayor Hernán Giralt presented a project to the City Council for the development of "an area of hotels, an office and retail center, a location for shipping companies and air travel, a recreation center and a large area for parking," and on February 3, 1960, the Argentine National Congress authorized the City to purchase land north of Catalinas for the purpose.The Catalinas Norte Commission was established in 1961, but a subsequent political and economic crisis caused the project to stall and ultimately be discarded. _START_SECTION_ The final draft _START_PARAGRAPH_ The coup d'état that toppled President Arturo Illia in 1966 led to the dissolution of OPRBA. Mayor Eugenio Schettini instructed the Municipal Department of Architecture and Urbanism (MCBA) to design a new, simpler plan that would limit permits for office high rises. A municipal ordinance in 1967 parceled the land inaccordance to the 1958 master plan, and lots were sold to Aerolíneas Argentinas, Conurban S.A, IBM, Impresit Sideco, Kokourek S.A, SEGBA (the state-owned city electric utility), Sheraton, and the Argentine Industrial Union (UIA). Retiro Park was bulldozed, and the Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens therein were relocated to their present, Palermo Woods location. The MCBA, in turn, retained four areas, opened three parking lots, and built two promenades: Carlos Della Paolera and Ingeniero Butty. _START_SECTION_ Development _START_PARAGRAPH_ Ground was broken on the first buildings in the complex, the Kokourek Group's Conurban Tower (in April 1969), and the Sheraton Buenos Aires Hotel & Convention Center, on June 26. Work began on the Carlos Pellegrini Tower for the UIA in 1970, and on the Catalinas Norte Tower (for Impresit Sideco) in 1972. The Conurban Tower was inaugurated in 1973, Carlos Pellegrini in 1974, and Catalinas Norte, in 1975. Work then began on the Madero Tower (so named for its Eduardo Madero Avenue address) in 1976, and in 1979, the IBM Tower. These high rises, while not the first in Buenos Aires to incorporate elements of the International Style (such as curtain walls), became the first to do so as a group. SEPRA Arquitectos, a prominent Argentine architectural firm, designed the Sheraton Hotel and the Catalinas Norte Tower._NEWLINE_The implosion of the dictatorship's economic policies in 1981 led to a suspension in new developments for the area, however, as well as a sharp decline in new construction as a whole. A subsequent economic recovery that followed Economy Minister Domingo Cavallo's 1991 Convertibility Plan prompted renewed interest among developers, and from 1995 to 1998, the Consultatio Group developed the Alem and Catalinas Plaza twin towers, and IRSA, Laminar Plaza (all designed by SEPRA). The final addition to the complex during the 1990s was the Bank Boston Tower. The Postmodern high rise, designed by César Pelli, was completed in 2001 and at 137 meters (450 ft), would become the tallest in the district. _START_SECTION_ Expansion to the south _START_PARAGRAPH_ The flurry of new construction also led to the redevelopment of the southern end of MCBA's redevelopment district (located in the San Nicolás ward). The Bouchard Tower and Loma Negra's Fortabat Tower, both designed by SEPRA, were built between 1991 and 1995. The República Building, designed by Pelli for the now defunct Banco República, was completed in 1996 (with Telefónica de Argentina as its chief tenant). The Microsoft Building (by Mario Roberto Álvarez), opened in 2001, and Bouchard Plaza, designed by Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum for the La Nación news and publishing group, opened in 2004. _START_SECTION_ Sale of last remaining lots _START_PARAGRAPH_ The complex, which by 2004 included 15 buildings totalling over 540,000 m² (5.8 million ft²), was in the news during 2009 and 2010, when Mayor Mauricio Macri obtained the City Legislature's approval to sell the remaining three undeveloped lots. The combined land is zoned to house up to 120,000 m² (1.3 million ft²) of new office space, and the city sanctioned the future construction of high rises of up to 50 stories, and 150 m (492 ft) in height (slightly more than the tallest building currently in Catalinas). The third and last lot was sold on November 18, 2010, to Banco Macro. The other lots had been sold to IRSA and Consultatio earlier in the year, and the combined sales netted 386 million Argentine pesos (us$99 million), or us$6,866 per m² (us$639 per ft²)._NEWLINE_Projects approved for these lots during 2011 include the Macro Tower, a 130 metres (430 ft) headquarters designed by César Pelli; the 155 metres (509 ft) Consultatio Tower by Beccar Varela & Associates; and the 29-story IRSA headquarters, designed by Miguel Baudizzone and Jorge Lestard. BBVA Banco Francés, the fifth largest bank in Argentina, announced in 2013 that it would relocate its headquarters to the Consultatio Tower upon the building's completion. One last potential zone for future development, a 5,694 m² (613,000 ft²) property alongside the Alas Building, remains in use as a parking lot.

8496181522313639912

Q5051416

_START_ARTICLE_ Catan Dice Game _START_PARAGRAPH_ Catan Dice Game is a German-style board game, developed by Klaus Teuber and published in 2007 by Catan GmbH and its licensors, Kosmos in Germany and Mayfair Games in English-speaking countries. It is a dice game re-imagining of Teuber's most notable title, Settlers of Catan. Catan Dice Game can be played by any number of players, but is ideally suited for up to four. A variation, known as Catan Dice Game Plus, is freely available from the Catan website, whose gameplay is closer to its Settlers origins. _START_SECTION_ Gameplay _START_PARAGRAPH_ Gameplay is similar to that of Yahtzee, where six specially-marked dice representing resources can be rolled up to three times, with the player being able to choose which dice to keep between rolls. After the player stops rolling, they may invest their resources to build roads, knights, settlements, and cities; each of these having differing resource requirements. Roads must extend from a starting point, which the cities and settlements (which must be built in increasing order of point value) must connect. Knights may be used to unlock "resource jokers", which allow the outcome of one die to be set to a specific resource after the dice have been rolled._NEWLINE_For each road, settlement, knight, or city completed, points are awarded - however points are deducted if a player is unable to build anything on a turn. The player with the most points after 15 turns is declared the winner.

15226363581902251197

Q550346

_START_ARTICLE_ Cathedral of Saint Demetrius _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Cathedral of Saint Demetrius (Russian Дмитриевский собор) is a cathedral in the ancient Russian city of Vladimir. It was finished in 1197 during the reign of the Grand Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest of Vladimir-Suzdal to the honour of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki. Being an important component of the White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal, the cathedral belongs to the World Heritage of UNESCO. Currently, the cathedral is a part of the Vladimir-Suzdal open-air museum. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Cathedral of St. Dmitrii in Vladimir, Russia was built by Vsevolod III in 1193-7. It was one of several large churches he had built which also include the much larger Cathedral of Dormition, 1158-60, also in Vladimir, Russia. The cathedral was dedicated to St. Dmitrii of Salonika (St. Demetrios of Thesseloinka in Greek). The Cathedral of St. Dmitrii was originally connected directly with Vsevolod’s palace and was for his personal use. The palace no longer exists and the church has been renovated many times since it was first built but it has kept is predominant features and iconographic program. The most extensive renovation was in 1832 when the some attached structures which used to connect it to the palace were removed. At that time, some of the exterior blocks were moved and some replaced with newly carved blocks. _START_SECTION_ Exterior _START_PARAGRAPH_ The cathedral is masonry and made from local white limestone blocks. It is cubic in form similar to many earlier churches in Bogolyubovo especially the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165). It has four columns on the interior which supports drum and cupola. The exterior walls are separated into three bays each with the one in the middle larger than the others. Each bay contains a zakomara at the top. They are also separated at mid-level by a horizontal arcade frieze. One side of the cathedral contains an apse which is also separated into three parts. The windows and doors are deeply recessed with extensive carved ornamentation. _START_SECTION_ Carvings _START_PARAGRAPH_ The most striking feature of the cathedral are the extensive shallow relief carvings which cover the upper half of the exterior walls above the arcade frieze and the drum below the cupola. The source of the artisans and provenance for these carvings seems to be an amalgam of many influences. The most likely are earlier Bogoluiubovo churches, Balkan churches and Armenian churches. Vladimir, at end of the 12th century, was a cosmopolitan and artistic center. Architects and artisans from both the east and west resided there are were used in the construction of the church. In addition, Vsevolod’s mother was a Byzantine princess and Vsevolod lived in Constantinople for several years during his childhood. Another source of inspiration may also have been portable carvings such as Byzantine ivories._NEWLINE_The carvings consist of animals and plants as well as figures in rows and scenes in the zakomary. Some carvings are also ornamental patterns. The patterns, plants and animals (both real and imaginary) might be based pagan beliefs and traditions, traditional Russia folklore or Christian theological themes. These types of carvings make of the majority of the decoration on the cathedral. In each zakomara, there is a figural scene. The most prominent, on the west façade in the central bay, is a scene featuring King David surrounded by angels and chimeras. King David is also featured on the south façade central bay surrounded by warrior saints. Other prominent figures, in addition to Christ and Mary, include Solomon, Alexander the Great, Hercules, warrior saints and churchmen. The final piece of this theme being the zakomara of the north façade left showing the donor, Vsevolod with his sons. In a time when power and territory were taken and held by military might, the building of churches and palaces which support the prince’s authority are important. This cathedral, not unlike the Cathedral of Dormition by its size and grandeur, by its iconographic program reinforces the prince’s authority by linking it to ancient kings and philosophers, biblical figures and military leaders. _START_SECTION_ Interior _START_PARAGRAPH_ While a few carvings are still intact inside the cathedral, the most important original feature of the interior are a few frescoes above and around the west entrance that have survived since the late 12th century. The quality of the work varies. The best work in the faces of saints and angels in the Last Judgement scene are likely the work of Byzantine masters with their Russian pupils completing less important parts such as drapery and background. The lines and shading of the better parts is comparable to the best work in Greece and Byzantium. The icon of the Virgin of Vladimir was also known to be in the nearby Cathedral of Dormition at the time the frescoes were painted so was likely a source of inspiration and training.

16606565755485946426

Q5052392

_START_ARTICLE_ Cathedral of St. John (Providence, Rhode Island) _START_SECTION_ History of the parish _START_PARAGRAPH_ The parish was originally organized in 1722 as King's Church, a wooden structure that was renamed St John's Church in 1794. That building served Providence until 1810 when work began on what would become the Cathedral of St. John. The Episcopal Diocese of Rhode Island was formed in 1790, but it was not until 1929 that St John's Church was designated the Episcopal seat and was renamed the Cathedral of St. John. _START_SECTION_ The building _START_PARAGRAPH_ The cornerstone for St. John's Church was laid in 1810 and the church was dedicated in 1811. The building was designed by Federal-era architect John Holden Greene, who designed many buildings in Providence. A Cathedral corporation was formed in 1909 and in 1929, the church was designated the Episcopal seat. The building was renovated in 1855, 1866, 1906, and 1967, and still retains its architectural integrity, but is in a state of deterioration. It was listed on the Providence Preservation Society 10 Most Endangered Properties List in 2007, 2008 and 2010. Citing dwindling membership and costs associated with upkeep, the diocese closed the church in 2012.

10408512385236875946

Q315161

_START_ARTICLE_ Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The university's history dates back to a seminary for priests ("Collegium Willibaldum"), which was founded in 1564 by bishop Martin von Schaumburg and the old University of Ingolstadt, the first university in Bavaria, which was founded in 1472 with the approval of the pope. The latter institution was moved to the capital Munich – nowadays the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU) by King Ludwig I in 1826. One of the most famous rectors of the old University of Ingolstadt was the Jesuit Petrus Canisius._NEWLINE_Today's university came into existence in 1980, after a fusion of Eichstätt's School of Education and the School of Philosophy and Theology in 1972. A major role in the formation of the university was played by the former archbishop of Munich-Freising, Joseph Ratzinger, who later got an honorary doctorate from the university. Among others receiving honorary doctorates from the university are the philosopher Karl Popper, and the former bishop of Eichstätt Alois Brems. In 1990, the Catholic University established the WFI – Ingolstadt School of Management, one of Germany's foremost business schools. Since 1998 the Collegium Orientale, an academic institution associated with the university, hosts young theologians and priests from eastern European and Oriental churches who continue their post-graduate studies in Eichstätt. _START_SECTION_ Catholic context _START_PARAGRAPH_ The university is largely funded by the state but is run by a self-governing public church trust (Stiftung Katholische Universität Eichstätt, Kirchliche Stiftung des Öffentlichen Rechts) set up by Bavarian Catholic bishops on the basis of a concordat between the Holy See and the Free State of Bavaria. The ethos of Catholic universities was defined in Pope John Paul II's Apostolic Constitution of Catholic Churches. _START_SECTION_ Library _START_PARAGRAPH_ In February 2007 it was revealed that the university library had recycled 80 tons of books and journals, of which 68.4 tons had been donated from the central library in Altötting of the Bavarian Capuchin monasteries. This is about one quarter of the 300,000 volumes of philosophy and theology donated for the purpose of being included in university library's collections. An inquest ordered by the Government of the Free State of Bavaria concluded that no valuable books had been destroyed.

4408462258582544823

Q5053484

_START_ARTICLE_ Cathy Richardson _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Richardson grew up in west suburban Burr Ridge, Illinois, and graduated from Hinsdale Central High School in Hinsdale, Illinois. Before starting her music career, Richardson worked as an auto mechanic and as a cashier at her father's gas station. She started her music career full-time in 1990. She was introduced to Jim Peterik who mentored her and helped with her first two albums. She has also co-written songs with Peterik, and is a fairly frequent guest in his all-star World Stage concerts._NEWLINE_Richardson appeared as a guest on Noggin's Jack's Big Music Show._NEWLINE_The Cathy Richardson Band was voted Best Local Band in the Chicago Tribune readers poll of 1999 and best in WFLD's "Best & Worst of Chicago" viewer poll in November 2000._NEWLINE_She portrayed Janis Joplin in the 2001 original off-Broadway run of Love, Janis and much of the touring performances. She also sang Janis' vocal parts for Big Brother and the Holding Company during many of their recent live shows._NEWLINE_In 2004, Richardson and art director Bill Dolan were nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Recording Package for the Cathy Richardson Band album The Road to Bliss._NEWLINE_In 2008, Richardson became the new vocalist for San Francisco band Jefferson Starship and appears on the 2008 release Jefferson's Tree of Liberty and as vocalist with Jefferson Starship on PBS's 2011 60s Pop, Rock & Soul television show, performing "White Rabbit" and "Somebody to Love".

16439281647673527892

Q5054108

_START_ARTICLE_ Cattle cycle _START_PARAGRAPH_ The cattle cycle is the approximately 10-year period in which the number of U.S. beef cattle is alternatively expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived changes in profitability by producers._NEWLINE_Generally, low prices occur when cattle numbers (or beef supplies) are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation. As cattle numbers decline, prices gradually begin to rise, causing producers to begin adding cattle to their herds. The cycle is relatively long due to the long period of time it takes between the time a cow-calf operator decides to expand a cow herd to breed more beef cattle and the time those animals reach slaughter weight.

7719728674407873208

Q847339

_START_ARTICLE_ Cauchy's equation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Cauchy's equation is an empirical relationship between the refractive index and wavelength of light for a particular transparent material. It is named for the mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who defined it in 1836.

7261350955450910650

Q5054567

_START_ARTICLE_ Causal model _START_PARAGRAPH_ In philosophy of science, a causal model (or structural causal model) is a conceptual model that describes the causal mechanisms of a system. Causal models can improve study designs by providing clear rules for deciding which independent variables need to be included/controlled for. _NEWLINE_They can allow some questions to be answered from existing observational data without the need for an interventional study such as a randomized controlled trial. Some interventional studies are inappropriate for ethical or practical reasons, meaning that without a causal model, some hypotheses cannot be tested. _NEWLINE_Causal models can help with the question of external validity (whether results from one study apply to unstudied populations). Causal models can allow data from multiple studies to be merged (in certain circumstances) to answer questions that cannot be answered by any individual data set._NEWLINE_Causal models are falsifiable, in that if they do not match data, they must be rejected as invalid._NEWLINE_Causal models have found applications in signal processing, epidemiology and machine learning. _START_SECTION_ Definition _START_PARAGRAPH_ Causal models are mathematical models representing causal relationships within an individual system or population. They facilitate inferences about causal relationships from statistical data. They can teach us a good deal about the epistemology of causation, and about the relationship between causation and probability. They have also been applied to topics of interest to philosophers, such as the logic of counterfactuals, decision theory, and the analysis of actual causation._NEWLINE_— Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_NEWLINE_ _NEWLINE_Pearl defines a causal model as an ordered triple , where U is a set of exogenous variables whose values are determined by factors outside the model; V is a set of endogenous variables whose values are determined by factors within the model; and E is a set of structural equations that express the value of each endogenous variable as a function of the values of the other variables in U and V. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ Aristotle defined a taxonomy of causality, including material, formal, efficient and final causes. Hume rejected Aristotle's taxonomy in favor of counterfactuals. At one point, he denied that objects have "powers" that make one a cause and another an effect. Later he adopted "if the first object had not been, the second had never existed" ("but-for" causation)._NEWLINE_In the late 19th century, the discipline of statistics began to form. After a years-long effort to identify causal rules for domains such as biological inheritance, Galton introduced the concept of mean regression (epitomized by the sophomore slump in sports) which later led him to the non-causal concept of correlation. _NEWLINE_As a positivist, Pearson expunged the notion of causality from much of science as an unprovable special case of association and introduced the correlation coefficient as the metric of association. He wrote, "Force as a cause of motion is exactly the same as a tree god as a cause of growth" and that causation was only a "fetish among the inscrutable arcana of modern science". Pearson founded Biometrika and the Biometrics Lab at University College London, which became the world leader in statistics._NEWLINE_In 1908 Hardy and Weinberg solved the problem of trait stability that had led Galton to abandon causality, by resurrecting Mendelian inheritance._NEWLINE_In 1921 Wright's path analysis became the theoretical ancestor of causal modeling and causal graphs. He developed this approach while attempting to untangle the relative impacts of heredity, development and environment on guinea pig coat patterns. He backed up his then-heretical claims by showing how such analyses could explain the relationship between guinea pig birth weight, in utero time and litter size. Opposition to these ideas by prominent statisticians led them to be ignored for the following 40 years (except among animal breeders). Instead scientists relied on correlations, partly at the behest of Wright's critic (and leading statistician), Fisher. One exception was Burks, a student who in 1926 was the first to apply path diagrams to represent a mediating influence (mediator) and to assert that holding a mediator constant induces errors. She may have invented path diagrams independently. _NEWLINE_In 1923, Neyman introduced the concept of a potential outcome, but his paper was not translated from Polish to English until 1990. _NEWLINE_In 1958 Cox wrote warned that controlling for a variable Z is valid only if it is highly unlikely to be affected by independent variables. _NEWLINE_In the 1960s, Duncan, Blalock, Goldberger and others rediscovered path analysis. While reading Blalock's work on path diagrams, Duncan remembered a lecture by Ogburn twenty years earlier that mentioned a paper by Wright that in turn mentioned Burks. _NEWLINE_Sociologists originally called causal models structural equation modeling, but once it became a rote method, it lost its utility, leading some practitioners to reject any relationship to causality. Economists adopted the algebraic part of path analysis, calling it simultaneous equation modeling. However, economists still avoided attributing causal meaning to their equations._NEWLINE_Sixty years after his first paper, Wright published a piece that recapitulated it, following Karlin et al.'s critique, which objected that it handled only linear relationships and that robust, model-free presentations of data were more revealing._NEWLINE_In 1973 Lewis advocated replacing correlation with but-for causality (counterfactuals). He referred to humans' ability to envision alternative worlds in which a cause did or not occur and in which effect an appeared only following its cause. In 1974 Rubin introduced the notion of "potential outcomes" as a language for asking causal questions. _NEWLINE_In 1983 Cartwright proposed that any factor that is "causally relevant" to an effect be conditioned on, moving beyond simple probability as the only guide. _NEWLINE_In 1986 Baron and Kenny introduced principles for detecting and evaluating mediation in a system of linear equations. As of 2014 their paper was the 33rd most-cited of all time. That year Greenland and Robins introduced the "exchangeability" approach to handling confounding by considering a counterfactual. They proposed assessing what would have happened to the treatment group if they had not received the treatment and comparing that outcome to that of the control group. If they matched, confounding was said to be absent. _START_SECTION_ Ladder of causation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Pearl's causal metamodel involves a three-level abstraction he calls the ladder of causation. The lowest level, Association (seeing/observing), entails the sensing of regularities or patterns in the input data, expressed as correlations. The middle level, Intervention (doing), predicts the effects of deliberate actions, expressed as causal relationships. The highest level, Counterfactuals (imagining), involves constructing a theory of (part of) the world that explains why specific actions have specific effects and what happens in the absence of such actions. _START_SECTION_ Counterfactuals _START_PARAGRAPH_ The highest, counterfactual, level involves consideration of an alternate version of a past event. Example: What is the probability that, if a store had doubled the price of floss, the toothpaste-purchasing shopper would still have bought it? Answering yes asserts the existence of a causal relationship. Models that can answer counterfactuals allow precise interventions whose consequences can be predicted. At the extreme, such models are accepted as physical laws (as in the laws of physics, e.g., inertia, which says that if force is not applied to a stationary object, it will not move). _START_SECTION_ Types _START_PARAGRAPH_ A cause can be necessary, sufficient, contributory or some combination. _START_SECTION_ Necessary _START_PARAGRAPH_ For x to be a necessary cause of y, the presence of y must imply the prior occurrence of x. The presence of x, however, does not imply that y will occur. Necessary causes are also known as "but-for" causes, as in y would not have occurred but for the occurrence of x. _START_SECTION_ Sufficient causes _START_PARAGRAPH_ For x to be a sufficient cause of y, the presence of x must imply the subsequent occurrence of y. However, another cause z may independently cause y. Thus the presence of y does not require the prior occurrence of x. _START_SECTION_ Contributory causes _START_PARAGRAPH_ For x to be a contributory cause of y, the presence of x must increase the likelihood of y. If the likelihood is 100%, then x is instead called sufficient. A contributory cause may also be necessary. _START_SECTION_ Causal diagram _START_PARAGRAPH_ A causal diagram is a directed graph that displays causal relationships between variables in a causal model. A causal diagram includes a set of variables (or nodes). Each node is connected by an arrow to one or more other nodes upon which it has a causal influence. An arrowhead delineates the direction of causality, e.g., an arrow connecting variables A and B with the arrowhead at B indicates that a change in A causes a change in B (with an associated probability). A path is a traversal of the graph between two nodes following causal arrows._NEWLINE_Causal diagrams include causal loop diagrams, directed acyclic graphs, and Ishikawa diagrams._NEWLINE_Causal diagrams are independent of the quantitative probabilities that inform them. Changes to those probabilities (e.g., due to technological improvements) do not require changes to the model. _START_SECTION_ Model elements _START_PARAGRAPH_ Causal models have formal structures with elements with specific properties. _START_SECTION_ Junction patterns _START_PARAGRAPH_ The three types of connections of three nodes are linear chains, branching forks and merging colliders. _START_SECTION_ Mediator _START_PARAGRAPH_ A mediator node modifies the effect of other causes on an outcome (as opposed to simply affecting the outcome). For example, in the chain example above, B is a mediator, because it modifies the effect of A (an indirect cause of C) on C (the outcome). _START_SECTION_ Confounder _START_PARAGRAPH_ A confounder node affects multiple outcomes, creating a positive correlation among them. _START_SECTION_ Mendelian randomization _START_PARAGRAPH_ Definition: Mendelian randomization uses measured variation in genes of known function to examine the causal effect of a modifiable exposure on disease in observational studies._NEWLINE_Because genes vary randomly across populations, presence of a gene typically qualifies as an instrumental variable, implying that in many cases, causality can be quantified using regression on an observational study. _START_SECTION_ Do calculus _START_PARAGRAPH_ The do calculus is the set of manipulations that are available to transform one expression into another, with the general goal of transforming expressions that contain the do operator into expressions that do not. Expressions that do not include the do operator can be estimated from observational data alone, without the need for an experimental intervention, which might be expensive, lengthy or even unethical (e.g., asking subjects to take up smoking). The set of rules is complete (it can be used to derive every true statement in this system). An algorithm can determine whether, for a given model, a solution is computable in polynomial time. _START_SECTION_ Rules _START_PARAGRAPH_ The calculus includes three rules for the transformation of conditional probability expressions involving the do operator. _START_SECTION_ Counterfactuals _START_PARAGRAPH_ Counterfactuals consider possibilities that are not found in data, such as whether a nonsmoker would have developed cancer had they instead been a heavy smoker. They are the highest step on Pearl's causality ladder. _START_SECTION_ Abduct _START_PARAGRAPH_ Apply abductive reasoning (logical inference that uses observation to find the simplest/most likely explanation) to estimate u, the proxy for the unobserved variables on the specific observation that supports the counterfactual. _START_SECTION_ Act _START_PARAGRAPH_ For a specific observation, use the do operator to establish the counterfactual (e.g., m=0), modifying the equations accordingly. _START_SECTION_ Predict _START_PARAGRAPH_ Calculate the values of the output (y) using the modified equations. _START_SECTION_ Mediation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Direct and indirect (mediated) causes can only be distinguished via conducting counterfactuals. Understanding mediation requires holding the mediator constant while intervening on the direct cause. In the model_NEWLINE_M mediates X's influence on Y, while X also has an unmediated effect on Y. Thus M is held constant, while do(X) is computed._NEWLINE_The Mediation Fallacy instead involves conditioning on the mediator if the mediator and the outcome are confounded, as they are in the above model._NEWLINE_For linear models, the indirect effect can be computed by taking the product of all the path coefficients along a mediated pathway. The total indirect effect is computed by the sum of the individual indirect effects. For linear models mediation is indicated when the coefficients of an equation fitted without including the mediator vary significantly from an equation that includes it. _START_SECTION_ Transportability _START_PARAGRAPH_ Causal models provide a vehicle for integrating data across datasets, known as transport, even though the causal models (and the associated data) differ. E.g., survey data can be merged with randomized, controlled trial data. Transport offers a solution to the question of external validity, whether a study can be applied in a different context._NEWLINE_Where two models match on all relevant variables and data from one model is known to be unbiased, data from one population can be used to draw conclusions about the other. In other cases, where data is known to be biased, reweighting can allow the dataset to be transported. In a third case, conclusions can be drawn from an incomplete dataset. In some cases, data from studies of multiple populations can be combined (via transportation) to allow conclusions about an unmeasured population. In some cases, combining estimates (e.g., P(W|X)) from multiple studies can increase the precision of a conclusion. _NEWLINE_Do-calculus provides a general criterion for transport: A target variable can be transformed into another expression via a series of do-operations that does not involve any "difference-producing" variables (those that distinguish the two populations). An analogous rule applies to studies that have relevantly different participants.

8384790229299563363

Q17855958

_START_ARTICLE_ Caveolin 1 _START_SECTION_ Function _START_PARAGRAPH_ The scaffolding protein encoded by this gene is the main component of the caveolae plasma membranes found in most cell types. The protein links integrin subunits to the tyrosine kinase FYN, an initiating step in coupling integrins to the Ras-ERK pathway and promoting cell cycle progression. The gene is a tumor suppressor gene candidate and a negative regulator of the Ras-p42/44 MAP kinase cascade. CAV1 and CAV2 are located next to each other on chromosome 7 and express colocalizing proteins that form a stable hetero-oligomeric complex. By using alternative initiation codons in the same reading frame, two isoforms (alpha and beta) are encoded by a single transcript from this gene. _START_SECTION_ Interactions _START_PARAGRAPH_ Caveolin 1 has been shown to interact with heterotrimeric G proteins,_NEWLINE_Src tyrosine kinases (Src, Lyn) and H-Ras, _NEWLINE_cholesterol,TGF beta receptor 1, _NEWLINE_endothelial NOS, _NEWLINE_androgen receptor, _NEWLINE_amyloid precursor protein, _NEWLINE_gap junction protein, alpha 1,nitric oxide synthase 2A, epidermal growth factor receptor, endothelin receptor type B, PDGFRB, PDGFRA, PTGS2, TRAF2, estrogen receptor alpha, caveolin 2, PLD2, Bruton's tyrosine kinase and SCP2. All these interactions are through a caveolin-scaffolding domain (CSD) within caveolin-1 molecule. Molecules that interact with caveolin-1 contain caveolin-binding motifs (CBM).

13490165921783673301

Q1842079

_START_ARTICLE_ Cecilia Johansdotter of Sweden _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Despite the fact that she was queen for over twenty years, the queen consort of King Canute is one of the most unknown of Swedish queens. Neither her name, her parents or her birth and death years are confirmed. Canute I stated in a letter to Pope Clement III that his bride was the only one who was of sufficiently high status to marry him, which may point to royal connections. Some historians guess that she was the daughter of John, son of King Sverker I of Sweden (d. 1156). The assumption that she carried the name Cecilia rests on the hypothesis that an annal entry from the 14th century has been twisted. This text states that the mother of Eric the Saint (d. 1160) was called Cecilia, the sister of Ulf Jarl and Kol and the daughter of a king Sven (presumably alluding to Blot-Sweyn). This in turn can be compared with a genealogy that mentions Ubbe (Ulf), Kol and Burislev as the sons of John Sverkersson. Their implied sister Cecilia would then have been the mother of Eric X of Sweden, whose father was Canute I, rather than being the mother of Eric the Saint. The hypotheses might be strengthened by a 13th-century painting in the church of Dädesjö mentioning the names Canute and (possibly) Cecilia._NEWLINE_However, a marriage alliance between the two feuding royal clans of Sverker and Eric is not entirely plausible. A contemporary document shows that she was the sister of another nobleman called Canute, known in an (alleged) lost document as Canute Ulvhildsson. According to an alternative hypothesis, the Queen's brother Canute was the son of an Ingeborg, daughter of Sigvard. These three persons were all donators to Vårfruberga Abbey. Some early-modern writers allege that the queen was a sister of Jarl Birger Brosa which is considered highly unlikely. As a girl (juuencula), the lady was to have been married to Prince Canute Eriksson about the year 1160, but the murder of Eric the Saint forced her to enter a convent while Canute escaped. In 1167, seven years later, her husband became King and she was made Queen of Sweden._NEWLINE_There is only one story that truly mentions the Queen in more detail. In c. 1190, the Queen was taken ill. It was a grave illness, and people worried that she would die. To avoid death, the Queen promised on her sick bed, that if God would spare her life, she would enter a convent after her recovery to show her gratitude. Eventually, she recovered from her sickness, but did not wish to become a nun, nor did her husband wish it. They sent an appeal to the Pope in Rome to ask if she could be released from her promise and continue her marital obligations. Canute argued that he must secure the support of her relatives in order to fight the pagans east of the Baltic Sea, and therefore maintain married life. The current Pope Celestine III wrote back to the Swedish bishops and asked that the circumstances should be further verified. The outcome is not known. This letter is dated to 1193. The year of her death is unknown. _START_SECTION_ Cecilia Blanka _START_PARAGRAPH_ Queen Cecilia Johansdotter is used as a character in a book by author Jan Guillou in 1998, where she was used to create the fictional queen, Cecilia Blanka. _START_SECTION_ Marriage _START_PARAGRAPH_ She was betrothed, around 1160, with Canute Eriksson of Sweden (King, 1167). The marriage was concluded in about 1167, but was (at least temporarily) dissolved when she was obliged to enter a convent in the 1190s (see above).

7409050149255172926

Q25324851

_START_ARTICLE_ Celeste Anne Morello _START_SECTION_ Background _START_PARAGRAPH_ Born in Norristown Pa; resides in Philadelphia. Morello's Before Bruno: The history of the Philadelphia Mafia (Published by Jefferies and Manz, Philadelphia) is the history of the Mafia in the Philadelphia area from 1880 to 1959 when Angelo Bruno became boss of the Philadelphia crime family. Morello spent 15 years in research, during which time she personally interviewed over a dozen members of the American Mafia. Morello is "The only historian and criminologist in the United State specializing in Mafia history who is the descendant of the first Mafiosi in New York City, New Orleans and suburban Philadelphia."_NEWLINE_In 1978, as a student at Loyola University, in Rome, Italy Morello visited with relatives in Sicily, where she became acquainted with the Sicilian Mafia in her family's history. From this, Morello posited the "Medieval Origins" of the Mafia. _START_SECTION_ Education _START_PARAGRAPH_ Honor's Program, Chestnut Hill College (Philadelphia) : Art History (magna cum laude) and Classical Civilizations (cum laude) 1980; Master's in sociology/criminology at St Joseph's University (Phila.) 1994; Master's in History at Villanova University, 2000. Certification, Paralegal studies, Villanova University. Licensed Realtor, 1982 to 1985. Morello also learned much from the Organized Crime Strikes Force of the U.S. Attorneys Office under Deputy Chief Prosecutor Albert C. Wicks. _START_SECTION_ Historical Markers _START_PARAGRAPH_ Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission nominations and approved:_NEWLINE_1. St. Augustine Church (Philadelphia)_NEWLINE_2. St. Mary Magdalen de Pazzi Church_NEWLINE_3. Gianinni family_NEWLINE_4. Frank Gasparro_NEWLINE_5. Mario Lanza_NEWLINE_6. Eddie Lang_NEWLINE_7. Joe Venuti_NEWLINE_8. Tommy Loughran_NEWLINE_9. Eddie Gottlieb _NEWLINE_10. Harvey Pollack_NEWLINE_11. Rabbi Israel Goldstein_NEWLINE_12. St. John the Evangelist Catholic Church (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)_NEWLINE_13. Old St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church_NEWLINE_14. Old St. Joseph's Church _NEWLINE_15. Commodore John Barry_NEWLINE_16. Philadelphia Zoo_NEWLINE_17. American Bandstand_NEWLINE_18. John Wanamaker_NEWLINE_19. Mother's Day_NEWLINE_20. Nicola Monachesi_NEWLINE_21. Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania_NEWLINE_22. Christian Street Hospital_NEWLINE_23. South 9th Street Market_NEWLINE_24. Benjamin Rush_NEWLINE_25. Mathew Carey_NEWLINE_26. Connie Mack_NEWLINE_27. The Barrymore Family_NEWLINE_28. Shibe Park_NEWLINE_29. African American Baseball_NEWLINE_30. Roy Campanella_NEWLINE_31. Moyamensing Prison_NEWLINE_32. Eastern State Penitentiary_NEWLINE_33. Maxfield Parrish_NEWLINE_34. W.C. Fields _NEWLINE_35. Haym Solomon_NEWLINE_36. House of Industry_NEWLINE_37. Vincent Persichetti_NEWLINE_38. The Mischianza_NEWLINE_39. Palumbo's_NEWLINE_40. Philadelphia Italian Market_NEWLINE_41. Pat's Steaks_NEWLINE_42. Samuel V. Merrick_NEWLINE_43. Jewish Hospital of Philadelphia_NEWLINE_44. The Trial of Hester Vaughan

6366813680850416200

Q4119786

_START_ARTICLE_ Celestial spheres _START_PARAGRAPH_ The celestial spheres, or celestial orbs, were the fundamental entities of the cosmological models developed by Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and others. In these celestial models, the apparent motions of the fixed stars and planets are accounted for by treating them as embedded in rotating spheres made of an aetherial, transparent fifth element (quintessence), like jewels set in orbs. Since it was believed that the fixed stars did not change their positions relative to one another, it was argued that they must be on the surface of a single starry sphere._NEWLINE_In modern thought, the orbits of the planets are viewed as the paths of those planets through mostly empty space. Ancient and medieval thinkers, however, considered the celestial orbs to be thick spheres of rarefied matter nested one within the other, each one in complete contact with the sphere above it and the sphere below. When scholars applied Ptolemy's epicycles, they presumed that each planetary sphere was exactly thick enough to accommodate them. By combining this nested sphere model with astronomical observations, scholars calculated what became generally accepted values at the time for the distances to the Sun (about 4 million miles), to the other planets, and to the edge of the universe (about 73 million miles). The nested sphere model's distances to the Sun and planets differ significantly from modern measurements of the distances, and the size of the universe is now known to be inconceivably large and continuously expanding._NEWLINE_Albert Van Helden has suggested that from about 1250 until the 17th century, virtually all educated Europeans were familiar with the Ptolemaic model of "nesting spheres and the cosmic dimensions derived from it". Even following the adoption of Copernicus's heliocentric model of the universe, new versions of the celestial sphere model were introduced, with the planetary spheres following this sequence from the central Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth-Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn._NEWLINE_Mainstream belief in the theory of celestial spheres did not survive the Scientific Revolution. In the early 1600s, Kepler continued to discuss celestial spheres, although he did not consider that the planets were carried by the spheres but held that they moved in elliptical paths described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In the late 1600s, Greek and medieval theories concerning the motion of terrestrial and celestial objects were replaced by Newton's law of universal gravitation and Newtonian mechanics, which explain how Kepler's laws arise from the gravitational attraction between bodies. _START_SECTION_ Early ideas of spheres and circles _START_PARAGRAPH_ In Greek antiquity the ideas of celestial spheres and rings first appeared in the cosmology of Anaximander in the early 6th century BC. In his cosmology both the Sun and Moon are circular open vents in tubular rings of fire enclosed in tubes of condensed air; these rings constitute the rims of rotating chariot-like wheels pivoting on the Earth at their centre. The fixed stars are also open vents in such wheel rims, but there are so many such wheels for the stars that their contiguous rims all together form a continuous spherical shell encompassing the Earth. All these wheel rims had originally been formed out of an original sphere of fire wholly encompassing the Earth, which had disintegrated into many individual rings. Hence, in Anaximanders's cosmogony, in the beginning was the sphere, out of which celestial rings were formed, from some of which the stellar sphere was in turn composed. As viewed from the Earth, the ring of the Sun was highest, that of the Moon was lower, and the sphere of the stars was lowest._NEWLINE_Following Anaximander, his pupil Anaximenes (c. 585–528/4) held that the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets are all made of fire. But whilst the stars are fastened on a revolving crystal sphere like nails or studs, the Sun, Moon, and planets, and also the Earth, all just ride on air like leaves because of their breadth. And whilst the fixed stars are carried around in a complete circle by the stellar sphere, the Sun, Moon and planets do not revolve under the Earth between setting and rising again like the stars do, but rather on setting they go laterally around the Earth like a cap turning halfway around the head until they rise again. And unlike Anaximander, he relegated the fixed stars to the region most distant from the Earth. The most enduring feature of Anaximenes' cosmos was its conception of the stars being fixed on a crystal sphere as in a rigid frame, which became a fundamental principle of cosmology down to Copernicus and Kepler._NEWLINE_After Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Xenophanes and Parmenides all held that the universe was spherical. And much later in the fourth century BC Plato's Timaeus proposed that the body of the cosmos was made in the most perfect and uniform shape, that of a sphere containing the fixed stars. But it posited that the planets were spherical bodies set in rotating bands or rings rather than wheel rims as in Anaximander's cosmology. _START_SECTION_ Emergence of the planetary spheres _START_PARAGRAPH_ Instead of bands, Plato's student Eudoxus developed a planetary model using concentric spheres for all the planets, with three spheres each for his models of the Moon and the Sun and four each for the models of the other five planets, thus making 26 spheres in all. Callippus modified this system, using five spheres for his models of the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars and retaining four spheres for the models of Jupiter and Saturn, thus making 33 spheres in all. Each planet is attached to the innermost of its own particular set of spheres. Although the models of Eudoxus and Callippus qualitatively describe the major features of the motion of the planets, they fail to account exactly for these motions and therefore cannot provide quantitative predictions. Although historians of Greek science have traditionally considered these models to be merely geometrical representations, recent studies have proposed that they were also intended to be physically real or have withheld judgment, noting the limited evidence to resolve the question._NEWLINE_In his Metaphysics, Aristotle developed a physical cosmology of spheres, based on the mathematical models of Eudoxus. In Aristotle's fully developed celestial model, the spherical Earth is at the centre of the universe and the planets are moved by either 47 or 55 interconnected spheres that form a unified planetary system, whereas in the models of Eudoxus and Callippus each planet's individual set of spheres were not connected to those of the next planet. Aristotle says the exact number of spheres, and hence the number of movers, is to be determined by astronomical investigation, but he added additional spheres to those proposed by Eudoxus and Callippus, to counteract the motion of the outer spheres. Aristotle considers that these spheres are made of an unchanging fifth element, the aether. Each of these concentric spheres is moved by its own god—an unchanging divine unmoved mover, and who moves its sphere simply by virtue of being loved by it._NEWLINE_In his Almagest, the astronomer Ptolemy (fl. ca. 150 AD) developed geometrical predictive models of the motions of the stars and planets and extended them to a unified physical model of the cosmos in his Planetary hypotheses. By using eccentrics and epicycles, his geometrical model achieved greater mathematical detail and predictive accuracy than had been exhibited by earlier concentric spherical models of the cosmos. In Ptolemy's physical model, each planet is contained in two or more spheres, but in Book 2 of his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemy depicted thick circular slices rather than spheres as in its Book 1. One sphere/slice is the deferent, with a centre offset somewhat from the Earth; the other sphere/slice is an epicycle embedded in the deferent, with the planet embedded in the epicyclical sphere/slice. Ptolemy's model of nesting spheres provided the general dimensions of the cosmos, the greatest distance of Saturn being 19,865 times the radius of the Earth and the distance of the fixed stars being at least 20,000 Earth radii._NEWLINE_The planetary spheres were arranged outwards from the spherical, stationary Earth at the centre of the universe in this order: the spheres of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. In more detailed models the seven planetary spheres contained other secondary spheres within them. The planetary spheres were followed by the stellar sphere containing the fixed stars; other scholars added a ninth sphere to account for the precession of the equinoxes, a tenth to account for the supposed trepidation of the equinoxes, and even an eleventh to account for the changing obliquity of the ecliptic. In antiquity the order of the lower planets was not universally agreed. Plato and his followers ordered them Moon, Sun, Mercury, Venus, and then followed the standard model for the upper spheres. Others disagreed about the relative place of the spheres of Mercury and Venus: Ptolemy placed both of them beneath the Sun with Venus above Mercury, but noted others placed them both above the Sun; some medieval thinkers, such as al-Bitruji, placed the sphere of Venus above the Sun and that of Mercury below it. _START_SECTION_ Astronomical discussions _START_PARAGRAPH_ A series of astronomers, beginning with the Muslim astronomer al-Farghānī, used the Ptolemaic model of nesting spheres to compute distances to the stars and planetary spheres. Al-Farghānī's distance to the stars was 20,110 Earth radii which, on the assumption that the radius of the Earth was 3,250 miles, came to 65,357,500 miles. An introduction to Ptolemy's Almagest, the Tashil al-Majisti, believed to be written by Thābit ibn Qurra, presented minor variations of Ptolemy's distances to the celestial spheres. In his Zij, Al-Battānī presented independent calculations of the distances to the planets on the model of nesting spheres, which he thought was due to scholars writing after Ptolemy. His calculations yielded a distance of 19,000 Earth radii to the stars._NEWLINE_Around the turn of the millennium, the Arabic astronomer and polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) presented a development of Ptolemy's geocentric epicyclic models in terms of nested spheres. Despite the similarity of this concept to that of Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses, al-Haytham's presentation differs in sufficient detail that it has been argued that it reflects an independent development of the concept. In chapters 15–16 of his Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham also said that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter._NEWLINE_Near the end of the twelfth century, the Spanish Muslim astronomer al-Bitrūjī (Alpetragius) sought to explain the complex motions of the planets without Ptolemy's epicycles and eccentrics, using an Aristotelian framework of purely concentric spheres that moved with differing speeds from east to west. This model was much less accurate as a predictive astronomical model, but it was discussed by later European astronomers and philosophers._NEWLINE_In the thirteenth century the astronomer, al-'Urḍi, proposed a radical change to Ptolemy's system of nesting spheres. In his Kitāb al-Hayáh, he recalculated the distance of the planets using parameters which he redetermined. Taking the distance of the Sun as 1,266 Earth radii, he was forced to place the sphere of Venus above the sphere of the Sun; as a further refinement, he added the planet's diameters to the thickness of their spheres. As a consequence, his version of the nesting spheres model had the sphere of the stars at a distance of 140,177 Earth radii._NEWLINE_About the same time, scholars in European universities began to address the implications of the rediscovered philosophy of Aristotle and astronomy of Ptolemy. Both astronomical scholars and popular writers considered the implications of the nested sphere model for the dimensions of the universe. Campanus of Novara's introductory astronomical text, the Theorica planetarum, used the model of nesting spheres to compute the distances of the various planets from the Earth, which he gave as 22,612 Earth radii or 73,387,747 100/660 miles. In his Opus Majus, Roger Bacon cited Al-Farghānī's distance to the stars of 20,110 Earth radii, or 65,357,700 miles, from which he computed the circumference of the universe to be 410,818,517 3/7 miles. Clear evidence that this model was thought to represent physical reality is the accounts found in Bacon's Opus Majus of the time needed to walk to the Moon and in the popular Middle English South English Legendary, that it would take 8,000 years to reach the highest starry heaven. General understanding of the dimensions of the universe derived from the nested sphere model reached wider audiences through the presentations in Hebrew by Moses Maimonides, in French by Gossuin of Metz, and in Italian by Dante Alighieri. _START_SECTION_ Philosophical and theological discussions _START_PARAGRAPH_ Philosophers were less concerned with such mathematical calculations than with the nature of the celestial spheres, their relation to revealed accounts of created nature, and the causes of their motion._NEWLINE_Adi Setia describes the debate among Islamic scholars in the twelfth century, based on the commentary of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi about whether the celestial spheres are real, concrete physical bodies or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out… by the various stars and planets." Setia points out that most of the learned, and the astronomers, said they were solid spheres "on which the stars turn… and this view is closer to the apparent sense of the Qur'anic verses regarding the celestial orbits." However, al-Razi mentions that some, such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak, considered them to be abstract. Al-Razi himself, was undecided, he said: "In truth, there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens except by authority [of divine revelation or prophetic traditions]." Setia concludes: "Thus it seems that for al-Razi (and for others before and after him), astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."_NEWLINE_Christian and Muslim philosophers modified Ptolemy's system to include an unmoved outermost region, the empyrean heaven, which came to be identified as the dwelling place of God and all the elect. Medieval Christians identified the sphere of stars with the Biblical firmament and sometimes posited an invisible layer of water above the firmament, to accord with Genesis. An outer sphere, inhabited by angels, appeared in some accounts._NEWLINE_Edward Grant, a historian of science, has provided evidence that medieval scholastic philosophers generally considered the celestial spheres to be solid in the sense of three-dimensional or continuous, but most did not consider them solid in the sense of hard. The consensus was that the celestial spheres were made of some kind of continuous fluid._NEWLINE_Later in the century, the mutakallim Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355) rejected the principle of uniform and circular motion, following the Ash'ari doctrine of atomism, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will rather than by natural causes. He maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web". His views were challenged by al-Jurjani (1339–1413), who maintained that even if the celestial spheres "do not have an external reality, yet they are things that are correctly imagined and correspond to what [exists] in actuality"._NEWLINE_Medieval astronomers and philosophers developed diverse theories about the causes of the celestial spheres' motions. They attempted to explain the spheres' motions in terms of the materials of which they were thought to be made, external movers such as celestial intelligences, and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces. Most of these models were qualitative, although a few incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed, motive force and resistance. By the end of the Middle Ages, the common opinion in Europe was that celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences, identified with the angels of revelation. The outermost moving sphere, which moved with the daily motion affecting all subordinate spheres, was moved by an unmoved mover, the Prime Mover, who was identified with God. Each of the lower spheres was moved by a subordinate spiritual mover (a replacement for Aristotle's multiple divine movers), called an intelligence. _START_SECTION_ Renaissance _START_PARAGRAPH_ Early in the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus drastically reformed the model of astronomy by displacing the Earth from its central place in favour of the Sun, yet he called his great work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres). Although Copernicus does not treat the physical nature of the spheres in detail, his few allusions make it clear that, like many of his predecessors, he accepted non-solid celestial spheres. Copernicus rejected the ninth and tenth spheres, placed the orb of the Moon around the Earth and moved the Sun from its orb to the center of the world. The planetary orbs circled the center of the world in the order Mercury, Venus, the great orb containing the Earth and the orb of the Moon, then the orbs of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Finally he retained the eighth starry sphere, which he held to be unmoving._NEWLINE_The English almanac maker, Thomas Digges, delineated the spheres of the new cosmological system in his Perfit Description of the Caelestiall Orbes… (1576). Here he arranged the "orbes" in the new Copernican order, expanding one sphere to carry "the globe of mortalitye", the Earth, the four elements, and the Moon; and expanding the starry sphere infinitely upward to encompass all the stars, and also to serve as "the court of the Great God, the habitacle of the elect, and of the coelestiall angelles."_NEWLINE_In the course of the sixteenth century, a number of philosophers, theologians, and astronomers—among them Francesco Patrizi, Andrea Cisalpino, Peter Ramus, Robert Bellarmine, Giordano Bruno, Jerónimo Muñoz, Michael Neander, Jean Pena, and Christoph Rothmann—abandoned the concept of celestial spheres. Rothmann argued from the observations of the comet of 1585 that the lack of observed parallax indicated that the comet was beyond Saturn, while the absence of observed refraction indicated the celestial region was of the same material as air, hence there were no planetary spheres._NEWLINE_Tycho Brahe's investigations of a series of comets from 1577 to 1585, aided by Rothmann's discussion of the comet of 1585 and Michael Maestlin's tabulated distances of the comet of 1577, which passed through the planetary orbs, led Tycho to conclude that "the structure of the heavens was very fluid and simple." Tycho opposed his view to that of "very many modern philosophers" who divided the heavens into "various orbs made of hard and impervious matter." Edward Grant found relatively few believers in hard celestial spheres before Copernicus, and concluded that the idea first became common sometime between the publication of Copernicus's De revolutionibus in 1542 and Tycho Brahe's publication of his cometary research in 1588._NEWLINE_In Johannes Kepler's early Mysterium cosmographicum, he considered the distances of the planets, and the consequent gaps required between the planetary spheres implied by the Copernican system, which had been noted by his former teacher, Michael Maestlin. Kepler's Platonic cosmology filled the large gaps with the five Platonic polyhedra, which accounted for the spheres' measured astronomical distance. In his mature celestial physics, the spheres were regarded as the purely geometrical spatial regions containing each planetary orbit rather than as the rotating physical orbs of the earlier Aristotelian celestial physics. The eccentricity of each planet's orbit thereby defined the lengths of the radii of the inner and outer limits of its celestial sphere and thus its thickness. In Kepler's celestial mechanics the cause of planetary motion became the rotating Sun, itself rotated by its own motive soul. However, an immobile stellar sphere was a lasting remnant of physical celestial spheres in Kepler's cosmology. _START_SECTION_ Literary and symbolic expressions _START_PARAGRAPH_ In Cicero's Dream of Scipio, the elder Scipio Africanus describes an ascent through the celestial spheres, compared to which the Earth and the Roman Empire dwindle into insignificance. A commentary on the Dream of Scipio by the Roman writer Macrobius, which included a discussion of the various schools of thought on the order of the spheres, did much to spread the idea of the celestial spheres through the Early Middle Ages._NEWLINE__NEWLINE_Some late medieval figures noted that the celestial spheres' physical order was inverse to their order on the spiritual plane, where God was at the center and the Earth at the periphery. Near the beginning of the fourteenth century Dante, in the Paradiso of his Divine Comedy, described God as a light at the center of the cosmos. Here the poet ascends beyond physical existence to the Empyrean Heaven, where he comes face to face with God himself and is granted understanding of both divine and human nature. Later in the century, the illuminator of Nicole Oresme's Le livre du Ciel et du Monde, a translation of and commentary on Aristotle's De caelo produced for Oresme's patron, King Charles V, employed the same motif. He drew the spheres in the conventional order, with the Moon closest to the Earth and the stars highest, but the spheres were concave upwards, centered on God, rather than concave downwards, centered on the Earth. Below this figure Oresme quotes the Psalms that "The heavens declare the Glory of God and the firmament showeth his handiwork."_NEWLINE_The late-16th-century Portuguese epic The Lusiads vividly portrays the celestial spheres as a "great machine of the universe" constructed by God. The explorer Vasco da Gama is shown the celestial spheres in the form of a mechanical model. Contrary to Cicero's representation, da Gama's tour of the spheres begins with the Empyrean, then descends inward toward Earth, culminating in a survey of the domains and divisions of earthly kingdoms, thus magnifying the importance of human deeds in the divine plan.

11619775401614081872

Q42903494

_START_ARTICLE_ Celier Xenon 4 _START_SECTION_ Design and development _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Xenon 4 is a development of the Celier Xenon 2 and Celier Xenon 3, with a newly designed fuselage and longer tailboom. It features a single main rotor, a two-seats-in side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit, with some models offering a third seat. It has tricycle landing gear and a modified four cylinder, liquid and air-cooled, four stroke 135 hp (101 kW) turbocharged Rotax 912 engine in pusher configuration._NEWLINE_The fuselage is a monocoque made from carbon fiber reinforced polymer and features a cabin internal width of 130 cm (51 in). The two-bladed rotor has a diameter of 8.8 m (28.9 ft) and a chord of 20 cm (7.9 in). The aircraft has a typical empty weight of 295 kg (650 lb) and a maximum gross weight of 560 kg (1,235 lb), giving a useful load of 265 kg (584 lb). With full fuel of 85 litres (19 imp gal; 22 US gal) the payload for the pilot, passengers and baggage is 205 kg (452 lb).

18437317796147514332

Q5058603

_START_ARTICLE_ Celypha argyrata _START_SECTION_ Etymology _START_PARAGRAPH_ The name refers to colouration of distal third of forewing and is derived from Latin argyrata (meaning tinged with silver).

17077942210513515341

Q27983289

_START_ARTICLE_ Cem Belevi _START_SECTION_ Musical career _START_PARAGRAPH_ He released his debut album Bilmezsin in 2013. "Günaydın Sevgilim" (English: "Good morning my lover") became the leading song and first video for the album. The album didn't get much attention, but the song gets affected by Turkish music executive Samsun Demir. The song was later re-arranged on Enbe Orkestrası & Behzat Gerçeker's album. In 2014, he made a duet with Ayshe for "Kim Ne Derse Desin", Turkish version of Sway. The song becomes very successful in Turkey and was nominated for a 2014 Turkey Music Awards in best debut category. In 2015, he released his second single "Sevemez Kimse Seni", a cover song of Suat Sayın previously sung by Zeki Müren and Muazzez Ersoy. The music video was released on 25 May 2015, directed by Hasan Kuyucu. The video is set in Santorini. _START_SECTION_ Acting career _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 2015, he started acting in İnadına Aşk (tr), a TV series on FOX.

7660889136040452775

Q27663482

_START_ARTICLE_ Ceno Aleksandrovski _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ He started playing with Macedonian side FK Teteks in 1984 playing at that time in Yugoslav third level. Immediately that first season they achieved promotion, and Aleksandrovski played with Teteks in the following two seasons in the Yugoslav Second League. His consistent performances earned him a move to the capital, Belgrade, and a contract with Serbian side FK Rad playing in the 1987–88 Yugoslav First League. The following season, he moved to Serbian side OFK Kikinda playing in the Yugoslav Second League.

7600866642733127631

Q980175

_START_ARTICLE_ Central-West Region, Brazil _START_SECTION_ Mato Grosso _START_PARAGRAPH_ Mato Grosso is a state with a flat landscape that alternates between vast chapadas and plain areas. Mato Grosso contains three main ecosystems: the Cerrado, the Pantanal and the Amazon rainforest. Open pasture vegetation covers 40% of the state. The Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, with caves, grottoes, tracks, and waterfalls, is one of its tourist attractions._NEWLINE_In the north is the biodiverse Amazonian forest, which covers nearly half of the state. The Xingu Indigenous Park and the Araguaia River are in Mato Grosso. Further south, the Pantanal, the world's largest wetland, is the habitat for nearly one thousand species of animals and many aquatic birds. _START_SECTION_ Mato Grosso do Sul _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Pantanal covers 12 municipalities of Mato Grosso do Sul and presents an enormous variety of flora and fauna, with forests, natural sand banks, savannahs, open pasture, fields and bushes. The area near Bonito has prehistoric caverns, natural rivers, waterfalls, swimming pools and the Blue Lake Cave. Mato Grosso do Sul has a humid subtropical and tropical climate._NEWLINE_The annual rainfall is 1,500 mm. January is the warmest month, with mean maxima of 34 °C (93.2 °F) and minima of 24 °C (75.2 °F) and more rain; July experiences the coldest temperatures, with mean maxima of 25 °C (77 °F) and minima of 15 °C (59 °F) and sun. The cerrado landscape is characterized by extensive savanna formations crossed by gallery forests and stream valleys. Cerrado includes various types of vegetation. _START_SECTION_ Goiás _START_PARAGRAPH_ The most populous state of the region, Goiás presents a landscape of plateaus and chapadões. At the height of the drought, from June to September, the lack of rain makes the level of the River Araguaia go down and brings up almost 2 km of beaches._NEWLINE_At the Emas National Park in the municipality of Chapadão do Céu, it is possible to observe the typical fauna and the flora from the region. At the Chapada dos Veadeiros the attractions include canyons, valleys, rapids and waterfalls. Other attractions are the historical city of Goiás (or Old Goiás), at 132 km from Goiânia, established at the beginning of the 18th century, and Caldas Novas, known for its hot springs. _START_SECTION_ Federal District _START_PARAGRAPH_ Located in the state of Goiás in a region called Planalto Central, the Federal District is divided in 31 administrative regions. Brasília - where the three branches of the federal government are located - is the main attraction of this dry area with only two seasons. The rainy season is from October to March._NEWLINE_During the dry season, the humidity can reach critical levels, mainly in the peak hours of the hottest days. The artificial lake of Paranoá, with almost 40 km² and 500 million m³ of water, was built to minimize the severe climatic conditions of the winter. The region also attracts mystics, and in its surroundings one can find many temples of different religions and sectarian groups. _START_SECTION_ Education _START_PARAGRAPH_ Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum. _START_SECTION_ Tourism and recreation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Tourism has grown at impressive speed in the last decades there, attracting visitors from several parts of Brazil and the world; who all enjoy the Region's flora and fauna riches, as well as its numerous marvelous views._NEWLINE_Located in the middle of the vast Central Upland, the Central-West Region reveals how attractive the tours in the interior of the country can be. Starting in the west part of Mato Grosso do Sul State and the southeast part of Mato Grosso State, we have Pantanal Mato-grossense; the largest swampy plain area in the world, cut by the Paraguai River. Its fauna and flora riches draw the attention of the world. In the same state, it's possible to take tours through pleasant places, such as Alta Floresta, where ecotourism is the greatest attraction; Bonito, one of the places with the most crystalline waters in the country; and Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, full of mountains and beautiful landscapes offered by the meadow vegetation._NEWLINE_Dividing the States of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and Goiás, the Araguaia River attracts numerous fishermen from all parts of Brazil and the world. And in the State of Goiás, historical attractions, such as Pirenópolis draw many visitors all year long, with its steep stone-paved streets and its colonial houses. Other attractions in the same state include Chapada dos Veadeiros and the National Park of Emas, where the contact with nature is the essence of the tours. In the Federal District, the National Park of Brasília is one of the greatest local attractions.

14805377832003987525

Q4115455

_START_ARTICLE_ Central District (Mahabad County) _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Central District of Mahabad County (Persian: بخش مرکزی شهرستان مهاباد‎) is a district (bakhsh) in Mahabad County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 179,697, in 39,752 families. The District has one city: Mahabad. The District has three rural districts (dehestan): Akhtachi-ye Gharbi Rural District, Mokriyan-e Gharbi Rural District, and Mokriyan-e Sharqi Rural District.

11142087268168296384

Q4117893

_START_ARTICLE_ Central District (Parsian County) _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Central District of Parsian County (Persian: بخش مرکزی شهرستان پارسیان‎) is a district (bakhsh) in Parsian County, Hormozgan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 18,041, in 4,061 families. The District has one city: Parsian. The District has two rural districts (dehestan): Buchir Rural District and Mehregan Rural District.

5908157222120717665

Q5061862

_START_ARTICLE_ Central Station (online gaming service) _START_PARAGRAPH_ Central Station was the main portal by Sony Computer Entertainment Europe for PAL regions in the PlayStation 2 era._NEWLINE_The service allowed users to view new game releases, change account details, read the latest PlayStation-related news and enter online events for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable consoles._NEWLINE_Central Station was superseded by the worldwide PlayStation Network upon release of the PlayStation 3 but it was discontinued.

3669132948583076642

Q5062026

_START_ARTICLE_ Central West Public Service Corporation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Central West Public Service Corporation was a Chicago, Illinois-based utility company that operated in Iowa, South Dakota, Texas, and Minnesota. It owned stock in other utilities that operated in Illinois, North Carolina, North Dakota, Nebraska, Virginia, and West Virginia._NEWLINE_Its failure in 1934 reflects the difficult economic climate of the Great Depression and the inability of large utilities, with significant market capitalizations, to remain solvent. _START_SECTION_ Insolvency _START_PARAGRAPH_ The power corporation went into receivership in March 1934 after defaulting on interest payments on its first lien collateral gold bonds, its ten-year convertible 6% debentures, and its 7% gold notes. Three receivers for the firm were appointed, first in Wilmington, Delaware and Sioux City, Iowa, and later in Chicago. Central West Public Service Corporation reported an outstanding indebtedness of $12,800,000 at the time of its_NEWLINE_failure.

12137128600909470897

Q5062308

_START_ARTICLE_ Centre Stage (theater) _START_SECTION_ Collaborations _START_PARAGRAPH_ Through collaborations with arts organizations elsewhere in the city (Greenville Symphony Orchestra, Metropolitan Arts Council, etc.), Centre Stage has expanded its range of entertainment and nightlife offerings to include art exhibitions, chamber concerts, independent film screenings and lectures on a wide variety of topics. Faculty and students from area colleges and universities (North Greenville University, Clemson University, Furman University) regularly direct and staff Centre Stage productions. Greenville Technical College (GTC) theater classes are taught at Centre Stage by GTC professor of theater Dr. Brian Haimbach, who also is chairman of the Centre Stage New Play Festival. CSSC is also host to Greenville Light Opera Works. GLOW is Greenville's professional opera, operetta and musical theatre company and produces a summer festival season of comic opera, operetta and musical theatre. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ Founded in 1983 by Douglas P. McCoy, Centre Stage was formed with the intent of becoming a professional theater. The theater's first performance space was inside the Greenville County Museum of Art and its first full production was presented in the St. Mary's Church gymnatorium. For the next four years, Centre Stage performed in the Greenville School District's Fine Arts Center. For the next ten years Centre Stage leased a building on the corner of Washington and Academy Streets and produced all of its plays there._NEWLINE_In April 1996, Centre Stage was approved as an Associate Member of Theatre Communications Group (TCG) and remains so to this day. TCG membership entitles Centre Stage to all of the rights and privileges of a professional theatre. In April, 1998, Centre Stage was designated as a Constituent Member of TCG._NEWLINE_In December 1996, ground was broken for the theater's current location at 501 River Street where it occupies 10,000 square feet (930 m²) of the 30,000-square-foot (2,800 m²) Citi-Smith Barney Building. Centre Stage took occupancy of this venue on October 1, 1997, and staged its first performance there on October 2, 1997. _START_SECTION_ New Play Festival _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Centre Stage New Play Festival (NPF) receives hundreds of scripts throughout the year submitted by playwrights from around the country and abroad. Four finalists are chosen to be presented in readers’ theater format during each year’s festival. Talkback sessions for the four festival finalists take place immediately following the readings, making the festival an opportunity for playgoers to participate in the creative process that culminates in a full production of the play chosen as festival winner. Previous NPF winners include The Edith Whartons by Erwin Palley (winner 2005 NPF, produced 2006), Guided Tour by Peter Snoad (winner 2006 NPF, produced 2007) and The Uncurled Hand by Stephen Kilduff (winner 2007 NPF, produced 2008), "The Legacy" by Adam Siegel (winner 2008 NPF, produced 2009), "Coal Creek" by Walter Thinnes (winner 2009 NPF, produced 2010). Each year's festival features a keynote playwright of national stature, such as Lee Blessing and Arlene Hutton.

1418823940095059271

Q2945551

_START_ARTICLE_ Centre des monuments nationaux _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Centre des monuments nationaux (CMN, English: National monuments centre) is a French government body (Établissement public à caractère administratif) which conserves, restores, and manages historic buildings and sites which are the property of the French state. It is run by the Ministry for Culture and Communication._NEWLINE_The CMN is responsible for the upkeep of around 85 monuments, ranging from the prehistoric megaliths at Carnac, medieval fortifications such as the towers at La Rochelle, and Renaissance châteaux such as Azay-le-Rideau, to Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye. The CMN is also responsible for making these monuments accessible to the public, and promoting understanding of the heritage they represent through publishing books and guides, under the imprint Éditions du patrimoine. During 2008, the CNM sites had a total of nearly 8.5 million visitors._NEWLINE_The CMN had an annual budget of €120 million for 2009, which was mainly derived from its own sales, as well as from donations and a subsidy from the Ministry of Culture and Communication. The organisation is based at the Hôtel de Sully in Paris.

9126502147326906627

Q5062482

_START_ARTICLE_ Centre for International Business at the University of Leeds _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ CIBUL was founded in 1995 by Professor Peter Buckley, a scholar in international business studies.

3830548112046054816

Q5062768

_START_ARTICLE_ Centro (borough) _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ In the mid-nineteenth century, the land that is now the downtown area of the city, belonged to the ranch of Don Santiago Argüello, which was occupied for livestock. Argüello lived until 1862, but after his death, his family continued to live on the ranch, so the children and grandchildren were forming families that settled on their property.

17616675582039201065

Q5062909

_START_ARTICLE_ Centro de Estudios Superiores Royal _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The royal educational system was born in 1989 with the opening of the Royal English Academy (REA), it was cofounded by Juan de Dios González and Sandra González. The system has been expanded piecemeal to include more levels of education, in 1991 the junior high school opened its doors and it is called "Colegio Bilingüe Real", in 1994 elementary and highschool were added, the highschool is called "Preparatoria Royal", since then, it has managed to break local, state and regional academic and cultural records._NEWLINE_The Royal University was created on August 11, 2003, because of high local demand for quality education and having the intention of being the option to study in an excellent university without leaving the city and to form professionals with international vision, competitive spirit, and a solid national culture. As of 2009, the school offers kindergarten, elementary, middle-school, highschool and university. Today the university is well known for the bilingual professionals that graduate with an excellent formation and human values. _START_SECTION_ High school _START_PARAGRAPH_ Located in the same building of the university, the royal highschool "Preparatoria Royal" offers high school education in 3 years with the distinctiveness of the system, the royal quality and the teaching of english language.

10399393788597385503

Q27380169

_START_ARTICLE_ Cephas Msipa _START_SECTION_ Education _START_PARAGRAPH_ Msipa was educated at Siboza School from 1941 to 1943 before going to Dadaya Mission where he was taught by Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole. He left school in 1949 but returned to Dadaya in 1951 to train as a primary school teacher. Between 1953 and 1954, he studied privately for his Matriculation Exemption Certificate _START_SECTION_ General career _START_PARAGRAPH_ He taught at schools in Shabani, Kwekwe from 1953 to 1957. He was Headmaster for schools in Harare from 1959 to 1964. During 1963 he attended the World Teachers' Conference in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In the same year he attended a seminar in Nairobi, Kenya. He was the President of the Rhodesia Teachers' Association from 1961 to 1965. He was dismissed from the teaching profession by the Government in 1964 but was however retained by the Teachers Association which recognised his value by appointing him its paid secretary. Post independence, he rose to become the first anti-Robert Mugabe politician in the ruling party ZANU PF's powerful elite and did not at all lose his national hero status for that rebellion like others had. _START_SECTION_ Political career _START_PARAGRAPH_ During his teaching years he became interested in politics. At first Msipa was interested in the multi-racial Capricorn Africa Society and the CAP. He later joined the Advisory Board in Kwekwe and became its chairman. He also acted as the Midlands Province correspondent for the African Daily News. He later joined Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) in 1961. Msipa was arrested in November 1965 and served with a two-year detention order. Early in 1966 he walked out of the restriction area and was on the run from the police for 10 weeks before he was arrested and sent for indefinite detention at Gwelo Prison. He remained in detention until June 1970. While in detention he studied for an external degree with the University of South Africa and graduated with a Bachelors in Administration._NEWLINE_In 1971 he obtained work as a Public Relations Officer for a textile company. In November 1971 Msipa was invited by Josiah Chinamano to accompany him as a representative of ZAPU during a meeting with Sir Alec Douglas-Home which was also attended by Edson Sithole and Michael Mawema. Msipa was appointed the Secretary General of the ANC but his textile job made it impossible for him to actively participate and he resigned in 1972. He was later appointed the Secretary for Education in the ANC in September 1975. He was appointed a member of the ANC delegation to the constitutional conference in Salisbury (now Harare). In January 1976 he left Salisbury on a mission to brief the Governments of Ghana and Nigeria on the progress of the conference. He was announced as a member of the ANC delegation to the Geneva Conference in October 1976._NEWLINE_After Zimbabwe’s independence, Msipa worked in government first as deputy minister of Youth, Sport and Recreation, Manpower Planning and Development and later as minister of Water Resources and Development and lastly as Governor of the Midlands Province. He retired from active politics in December 2014 when he decided not to contest for a central committee position. _START_SECTION_ Comments on Zanu PF factionalism and Mugabe _START_PARAGRAPH_ Since his retirement from active politics Msipa commented on Zanu PF factionalism and Mugabe. In an interview with a local publication, Msipa spoke on the need for Mugabe to choose a successor: "I am worried and Zimbabweans are worried, and without a proper succession plan, Mugabe’s departure presents a worrying scenario. Mugabe should be looking beyond his party because he is the so-called only centre of power and can do what he wants. I would have him use that opportunity to now move and set out a clear succession plan."_NEWLINE_Msipa went on to say that Mugabe could take a cue from the late Tanzanian founding leader, Julius Nyerere, who stepped down and allowed for a peaceful and orderly transition,_NEWLINE_"I am not asking him to re-invent the wheel. There are examples all over, like Nyerere did in Tanzania. He needs to really think about it and understand that a peaceful transition will be the best thing he could bequeath to this country. Zimbabweans might actually forgive him for everything he is accused of having done in the past three-and-half decades." _START_SECTION_ Personal life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Msipa was born in Shabani in a family of 10 children. He was married to Charlotte Msipa and they had eight children. _START_SECTION_ Death _START_PARAGRAPH_ Msipa died at West End clinic in Harare around 4 am on 17 October after being hospitalised over a suspected chest infection that had degenerated into pneumonia.

11340060469964526952

Q5063875

_START_ARTICLE_ Ceraunus _START_PARAGRAPH_ Ceraunus (Céran) (died 614) was bishop of Paris. His relics are in the church of St. Genevieve, Paris; they are on the altar of St Clotilda. He is also said to have been bishop 609 to 622._NEWLINE_He is a Catholic and Orthodox saint, his feast day is 27 September.

12484261032228423120

Q5064067

_START_ARTICLE_ Cerealis _START_PARAGRAPH_ Cerealis is a Portuguese food producer and the biggest milling company in Portugal, headquartered in Maia, and founded in 1919 as a cereal processing company. Cerealis Group has two divisions, food producer Cerealis Produtos Alimentares and miller Cerealis Moagens which produce and commercialise a range of products including pasta, biscuits, cornflakes as well as providing milled wheat flour and rye flour to the food manufacturing sector. Cerealis Group is a privately owned company and owns the Portuguese well-known brands Milaneza and Nacional. The company's exporting branch, Cerealis Internacional, exports the groups's products, and has its main clients in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Cuba, South Africa, and Libya. In 2007, about 200,000,000 euros of products were exported by Cerealis. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ Founded in 1919 by José Alves de Amorim and Manuel Gonçalves Lage, the company first started out in the milling business, supplying flour for bakeries. Spurred on by their initial success, the founders started diversifying. In 1933, they inaugurated a modern manufacturing plant to produce pastas, launching them on the market with the Milaneza brand name. Milaneza become the leading Pasta-maker on the Portuguese market, being the first one of its kind to be certified. The Grupo Amorim Lage ("Amorim Lage Group") become one of the largest Iberian companies in the sector and the oldest in continuous operation in Portugal. In order to certify the quality of its products and manufacturing process, Milaneza is equipped with state-of-the-art equipment, with NP EN ISO 9002 certification and certified HACCP systems._NEWLINE_Operating in a large number of markets, including the European Union, Portuguese-speaking African countries, the United States, and Canada, exports account for over 25% of the company's business turnover; the company continued to expand in the 2000s. In 2005, the Grupo Amorim Lage, affiliated with the Associação Empresarial de Portugal since 1930, with its subsidiaries Milaneza, Nacional, and Harmonia, was renamed and organized into a new company, Cerealis, SGPS, S.A., Cerealis Produtos Alimentares, S.A. In 2006, three companies (Spain's Ebro Puleva and Grupo Gallo and Italy's Barilla S.p.A.) all rumoured to be interested in sealing a deal to acquire Portugal's leading pasta maker Cerealis. The proposed sale, according to Dow Jones, was worth over €100 million ($121.12 million) but Cerealis management team refused the offers.

394721288362049245

Q18822194

_START_ARTICLE_ Cervidpoxvirus _START_SECTION_ Structure _START_PARAGRAPH_ Viruses in Cervidpoxvirus are enveloped, with brick-shaped geometries. Genomes are linear, around 154 kb in length. _START_SECTION_ Lifecycle _START_PARAGRAPH_ Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral proteins to host glycosaminoglycans, which mediate endocytosis of the virus into the host cell. Fusion with the plasma membrane releases the core into the host cytoplasm. In the early phase, early genes are transcribed in the cytoplasm by viral RNA polymerase. Early expression begins at 30 minutes after infection. The core is completely uncoated as early expression ends, and the viral genome is now free in the cytoplasm. In the intermediate phase, intermediate genes are expressed, triggering genomic DNA replication about 100 minutes after infection. In the late phase, late genes are expressed from 140 min to 48 hours postinfection, producing all structural proteins. Assembly of progeny virions starts in cytoplasmic viral factories, producing spherical immature particles. These particles mature into brick-shaped intracellular mature virions, which can be released upon cell lysis, or can acquire a second double membrane from trans-Golgi and bud as external enveloped virion host receptors, which mediate endocytosis. Replication follows the DNA strand displacement model. DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by existing in occlusion bodies after cell death and remaining infectious until finding another host._NEWLINE_Deer serve as the natural host.

188917294270273551

Q2967883

_START_ARTICLE_ Château Haldimand _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Château Haldimand was a castle that stood where the Château Frontenac now stands in Quebec City. The building was constructed between 1784 and 1786. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1784 the then governor of Quebec, Frederick Haldimand, ordered construction of the château. It became the seat of the colonial government of the province of Quebec from 1786 to 1791._NEWLINE_In 1860, the Canadian government established administrative offices and the headquarters of the Legislative Assembly of Canada in this castle until 1866._NEWLINE_The castle was later used as part of Laval University until 1892, when it was demolished to make way for the construction of the Château Frontenac.

9746828767044837328

Q2095479

_START_ARTICLE_ Château de Clermont _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Château de Clermont, built between 1643 and 1649, is located in the commune of Le Cellier, 27 kilometres (17 mi) from Nantes in France. It was owned by the Maupassant family before becoming the property of the actor Louis de Funès. _START_SECTION_ Wings _START_PARAGRAPH_ The two wings contained the servants rooms: sleeping quarters, stables, and greenhouses, placed where they could be watched by the master of the house. Where the wings join the main body of the house are the kitchens on the right and on the left the chapel, the altar still displaying its original retable. From the centre of the wings arched passages arched lead out: on the right to the gardens and on the left to the farmyard. The two entrances provide both convenience and break the monotony of the formal lines. A gallery runs along the first floor of the right-hand wing._NEWLINE_The wings of Clermont are very different from those of other châteaux from the same period of the 17th century. Up until 1624, wings were designed to be of the same or very similar height to that of the main house, so the courtyard was enclosed on three sides, an echo of the former defensive role of castles. The Rocher-Portail, near Fougères, is a rare intact example of this kind of architecture. Clermont is one of the last châteaux to have wings attached to the central building in this fashion. They are, however, smaller, lower and have an Italian influence, natural enough at a time when many French architects were studying in Rome and Venice. Clermont was completed just before 1650, the year when, following the trend started by the builders of Vaux-le-Vicomte and François Mansart at the Château de Beaumesnil, the central bodies of the majority of new castles started to be built separated from the wings. _START_SECTION_ Mixture of styles _START_PARAGRAPH_ In a design that was, at the time, very modern, there are a number of features that are reminiscent of older architecture: corbelling is used on both the northern and southern sides, and on the Loire side machicolations are utilised to support the high roofs. Regardless of their architectural heritage, overall the features blend to a harmonious whole. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The château was inherited by the de Funès family from an aunt, the Countess of Maupassant. It was built by the Chenu de Clermont, a family of important military administrators. René Chenu, (1599–1672) was a long-time governor of the fortified towns of Oudon and Champtoceaux which dominated the Loire upstream. His son Hardy Chenu (1621–1683) was in charge of the fortifications, cities, castles and fortified towns of Brittany._NEWLINE_The Chenu were vassals of the House of Condé, who had many holdings in the west of France, and this feudal relationship, so strong under Ancien Régime, was increased by a strong personal friendship. Rene Chenu was the contemporary and loyal ally of Henry II de Bourbon, prince de Condé. The birth and death of Hardy Chenu coincide with those of Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, the Grand Condé, whom he served. It is traditionally held that one of the Chenu, either the father or the son, saved the life of their master, and that Clermont was constructed to express his recognition of the act. In any case, the construction of Clermont, with its imposing proportions, testifies to some princely expenditure. The Château de Clermont was built shortly after the Battle of Rocroi (19 May 1643), where the Grand Condé, saved the throne of the enfant Louis XIV and merited a considerable reward. It reflects enthusiasm of a period filled with glory. For 30 years the château was the property of French comedian Louis de Funès. In 2013 the mansion was converted to a museum dedicated to the life and times of Funès.

16335249581638210068

Q2182818

_START_ARTICLE_ Château de Gizeux _START_SECTION_ Geography _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Château de Gizeux is situated some fifteen kilometres north of Bourgueil and 25 kilometres from Saumur, within the green and wooded parc naturel régional de Loire-Anjou-Touraine. It is midway between Angers and Tours._NEWLINE_The château was part of the former province of Anjou and today is in Touraine angevine. It was built on the site of a 14th-century castle. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The manor of Gizeux belonged to the family of the poet Joachim du Bellay from 1315 to 1660._NEWLINE_The château then became the property of several marquises of Gizeux from the family of Contades. _NEWLINE_In 1789, during the French Revolution, Prince Louis Gabriel de Contades (1759–1825), opposing the revolutionaries, had to flee from French soil and find refuge in Saint-Domingue. He only returned to Gizeux in 1801. _NEWLINE_The Château de Gizeux was a dependency of the sénéchaussée de Saumur and the former province of Anjou._NEWLINE_In 1790, this part of Anjou, stretching from Bourgueil in the south to Château-la-Vallière in the north and including Gizeux, was attached to the département of Indre-et-Loire. _START_SECTION_ Description _START_PARAGRAPH_ The buildings have conserved the parts built at different times. Thus, the medieval style mixes with that of the Renaissance._NEWLINE_The château has two large galleries of paintings: the Galerie François Ier (François I) decorated with Italian paintings form the start of the 17th century, and the Grande Galerie des Châteaux decorated with late 17th-century painting, including panels representing royal palaces and rural scenes covering more than 400 m²._NEWLINE_The park land was established in 1829._NEWLINE_Nearby, a church houses the Du Bellays' splendid tombs. The extremely rare 17th century orants were made of white marble by Ghislain (known as Cambrai), director of the Académie royale de peinture et sculpture in Paris. _NEWLINE_The Château de Gizeux has been listed since 1945 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture.

14144800079646849598

Q1016089

_START_ARTICLE_ Chénérailles _START_SECTION_ Geography _START_PARAGRAPH_ A small town situated at the junction of the D997, D4, D7 and D55 roads, 12 miles to the north of Aubusson, on a hill dominating marshy areas from which rises a tributary of the Voueize. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ Originally a fortified stronghold going back to before Roman times, there’s plenty of evidence found of Roman occupation too (urns, papryus ashes, coins and medallions of the emperors Maximilian, Gallien, Gordien and Licinius). The city was once surrounded by a strong wall, in the middle of which there was a castle (since destroyed). These days, the site is occupied by the parish church of St Barthélémy._NEWLINE_Chénérailles suffered from the wars against the English early in the 15th century, being almost completely destroyed, but Jacques and Bernard of Armagnac, Comtes de la Marche, rebuilt the place between the years 1430 and 1440. The first of these Counts, Jacques, re-confirmed several privileges that had been granted to Chénérailles, in 1265, by Hugues XII of Lusignan. In 1592, towards the end of the French Wars of Religion, the city supported the Catholic League and was besieged for 8 months, only surrendering when they were starved out.

12716154692324557172

Q5119026

_START_ARTICLE_ Chūnan, Kagawa _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chūnan (仲南町 Chūnan-chō) was a town located in Nakatado District, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan._NEWLINE_As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 4,681 and a density of 80.51 persons per km². The total area was 58.14 km²._NEWLINE_On March 20, 2006, Chūnan, along with the town of Kotonami (also from Nakatado District), was merged into the expanded town of Mannō.

6303279572173335222

Q4504468

_START_ARTICLE_ Chain (algebraic topology) _START_PARAGRAPH_ In algebraic topology, a k-chain_NEWLINE_is a formal linear combination of the k-cells in a cell complex. In simplicial complexes (respectively, cubical complexes), k-chains are combinations of k-simplices (respectively, k-cubes). Chains are used in homology; the elements of a homology group are equivalence classes of chains. _START_SECTION_ Integration on chains _START_PARAGRAPH_ Integration is defined on chains by taking the linear combination of integrals over the simplices in the chain with coefficients (which are typically integers)._NEWLINE_The set of all k-chains forms a group and the sequence of these groups is called a chain complex. _START_SECTION_ Boundary operator on chains _START_PARAGRAPH_ The boundary of a chain is the linear combination of boundaries of the simplices in the chain. The boundary of a k-chain is a (k−1)-chain. Note that the boundary of a simplex is not a simplex, but a chain with coefficients 1 or −1 – thus chains are the closure of simplices under the boundary operator._NEWLINE_Example 1: The boundary of a path is the formal difference of its endpoints: it is a telescoping sum. To illustrate, if the 1-chain is a path from point to point , where _NEWLINE_,_NEWLINE_ and_NEWLINE_ are its constituent 1-simplices, then_NEWLINE_Example 2: The boundary of the triangle is a formal sum of its edges with signs arranged to make the traversal of the boundary counterclockwise._NEWLINE_A chain is called a cycle when its boundary is zero. A chain that is the boundary of another chain is called a boundary. Boundaries are cycles,_NEWLINE_so chains form a chain complex, whose homology groups (cycles modulo boundaries) are called simplicial homology groups._NEWLINE_Example 3: A 0-cycle is a linear combination of points such that the sum of all the coefficients is 0. Thus, the 0-homology group measures the number of path connected components of the space._NEWLINE_Example 4: The plane punctured at the origin has nontrivial 1-homology group since the unit circle is a cycle, but not a boundary._NEWLINE_In differential geometry, the duality between the boundary operator on chains and the exterior derivative is expressed by the general Stokes' theorem.

11424282706210242291

Q42378045

_START_ARTICLE_ Chalavadi _START_SECTION_ Origin _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chalvadi is said to be disciples of Basava. They came with the Maharaja of the Vijayanagar empire and settled in different districts. they are considered as the right-hand caste as opposed to the left-hand who are the Madars or Madiga._NEWLINE_Chalavadi's were agricultural labourer during the 17th century to 18th century and were divided into Kuliyalugalu (hired labourer's) and Muladalugalu or Mulada Holeya (hereditary serfs) depending on nature of employment in Agrarian society. _START_SECTION_ Karnataka _START_PARAGRAPH_ The important sections of Holeyas were the Pombada (Bhuta dancers), the Bakuda or Mundala, the Holeya or Mari Holeya, the Koragar (basket maker) & Nalke (Bhuta Dancers). but only Holeya or Mari Holeya considered Chalavadis, not others.

14379529629869689924

Q1375726

_START_ARTICLE_ Challenge International de Tourisme 1934 _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Challenge 1934 was the fourth and last FAI International Tourist Plane Contest (French: Challenge International de Tourisme), that took place between August 28 and September 16, 1934, in Warsaw, Poland. The four Challenges, from 1929 to 1934, were major aviation events in pre-war Europe. The 1934 Challenge was won by the Polish pilots, who had also won the previous year. _START_SECTION_ Overview _START_PARAGRAPH_ Poland and the Polish Aero Club organized the contest because a Polish pilot Franciszek Żwirko had won the previous Challenge in 1932. The contest rules were announced in June 1933: like the previous contest, it consisted of three parts: technical trials, a rally over Europe and a maximum speed trial, but there were changes in details. Since one of the aims of the Challenges was to stimulate the development of tourist aircraft, a stress was placed upon aircraft performance and quality, although pilots' skills remained crucial._NEWLINE_The opening ceremony was held at noon on August 28, 1934, at Mokotowskie field in Warsaw (the Italian team was late by two hours due to weather and arrived during the ceremony). During an air show, a Polish fighter PZL P.7a performing aerobatics crashed, but the pilot survived with injuries._NEWLINE_The number of crews and aircraft that eventually took part in the 1934 Challenge was smaller - 34 compared to 43 in the 1932 Challenge, because the contest was more difficult. The aircraft flew with a two-man crew (pilot and mechanic). Only four countries entered teams for the Challenge in 1934: Poland (12 crews), Germany (13 crews), Italy (6 crews) and Czechoslovakia (3 crews). The British aviator Walter MacPherson entered the contest in the Polish team. The French team of eight crews resigned from the contest, because a development of a new aircraft, the Caudron C.500 had not finished in time and its weight was too great. The first prize in the Challenge was 100,000 French francs, the second 40,000 FF, the third 20,000 FF and the fourth 10,000 FF; 15 other crews would get 6,000 FF. _START_SECTION_ Aircraft _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Challenge was to be a contest of tourist aircraft, so competing aircraft had to be able to take at least two persons aboard, take off and land on a short field and cover a distance with a good cruise speed. For this Challenge, all countries designed new aircraft especially to meet the contest demands, the only exception was a single de Havilland Puss Moth flown by MacPherson, although this had been was modified for the competition. All these aircraft were monoplanes with 3 or 4 seats in an enclosed cabin, advanced wing design with (flaps and slats and some other devices) and mixed or metal construction._NEWLINE_Most aircraft were fast cantilever low-wing monoplanes: the German Messerschmitt Bf 108 (4), Fieseler Fi 97 (5) and Klemm Kl 36 (4), the Polish PZL.26 (5) and the Italian Pallavicino PS-1 (2) or braced low-wing monoplanes: the Czechoslovak Aero A.200 (2) and the Italian Breda Ba.39 (2) and Ba.42 (2). An exception were the basic aircraft of the Polish team - high-wing braced monoplanes RWD-9 (7), one of which was also flown by the Czechoslovak crew, and the Puss Moth. Of those, the Bf 108 and PS-1 had a retractable landing gear._NEWLINE_The German aircraft had starting numbers from a range 12-26, the Italian 41-46, the Czechoslovak 51-54 and the Polish 61-81: the numbers were placed on the fuselage in a black square frame.

16828750972268056441

Q129798

_START_ARTICLE_ Cham (singer) _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Originally from Sherlock Crescent in Saint Andrew Parish, Cham's career began in the early 1990s. The Miami New Times referred to his debut album Wow... The Story, released in 2000, as "the most anticipated album in years from any reggae artist", and a Washington Post review of a live Cham concert in 2006 described him as "the man who may be the next Sean Paul -- a dancehall artist who crosses over to the U.S. hip-hop market."_NEWLINE_Throughout his career, Cham has collaborated with many hip hop and R&B artists such as Foxy Brown, Alicia Keys, Carl Thomas, Shawn Mims, Mis-Teeq, Rihanna, Che'Nelle, Jentina, Akon, and T-Pain, Keke Palmer and many others._NEWLINE_Cham has for a long time worked with producer Dave Kelly. In 2012, he recorded with his wife, O, on the singles "Wine" and "Tun Up". In 2013 he released the Kelly-produced single "Fighter", featuring Damian "Junior Gong" Marley._NEWLINE_Cham's third album, the Kelly-produced Lawless is due to be released in June 2015. Featuring the single "I Am Hot", the album was recorded in Florida apart from a collaboration with Mykal Rose and Bounty Killer, which was recorded in Jamaica.

9859787100781065708

Q5069575

_START_ARTICLE_ Chamberlain (band) _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1995, Split Lip returned to Detroit to record "Fate's Got A Driver" and the summer of 1995 saw the band hit the road with Ohio's Colossus of the Fall and DC's Samuel. It was during this month-long outing that the decision came to change the name and the direction of the band. Moore and Rubenstein returned to the studio in late 1995 and re-recorded the vocals and re-mixed the album, and Chamberlain was born._NEWLINE_The band re-released the updated Fate's Got A Driver as Chamberlain in 1996, toured the US and Europe and took time out to record a new demo with acclaimed independent music producer Paul Mahern, much of which would go on to become The Moon My Saddle. After much courting by numerous major labels, the band were due to sign for Revolution Records, an imprint of Warner Music Group, but a signing freeze just before putting pen to paper thwarted them._NEWLINE_The second Chamberlain studio album, "The Moon My Saddle," was recorded in the summer of 1998 at Echo Park Studios in Bloomington with producer Ray Martin and released later that year by Doghouse. The group continued performing for another two years, but without Snyder (briefly replaced by Stoll Vaughan, an intern at Echo Park during the recording of The Moon, My Saddle), Mead (replaced by Showermast/Red Devil, Blue Devil's Seth Greathouse) and Walker (replaced by Uvula's Wade Parish). During this time, a collection of demos recorded during rehearsals was compiled as their third album, Exit 263, and was released independently in 2000 through the band's management company, after being rejected from Doghouse. The band folded not long after that release, with members each going their separate ways and continuing to work on musical projects._NEWLINE_The double LP retrospective, Five-Year Diary (which is also the name of a song from Fate's Got A Driver) was released by the German label Hometown Caravan in 2002. The album features live tracks and old demo recordings as well as tracks from compilations and hard to find releases._NEWLINE_Since 2009, the band has occasionally regrouped for live shows and tours. In 2019, the band announced that they were working on a new LP, "Red Weather" with My Morning Jacket's Carl Broemel as the producer, and released the first single, "Some Other Sky" in June 2019. _NEWLINE_The members have been involved with many different musical projects in New York City, Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Curtis Mead and Charlie Walker briefly played, together with former Brainiac bass player and video director Juan Monostereo and ex Bullet LaVolta/Juliana Hatfield drummer Todd Philips, in Model/Actress, which released an EP in 2008. _START_SECTION_ Reunion _START_PARAGRAPH_ On the heels of a mini-Chamberlain reunion at the 2008 South by Southwest festival that featured Moore, Rubenstein, Walker and Mead, The band reformed with Snyder in May 2009 for a series of shows culminating in the Burning Fight book release show in Chicago. The show celebrated the release of the '90s hardcore book of the same name released by Revelation Records. Aside from the Chicago date, two other shows were played in Louisville and Indianapolis in May, followed by a December performance at New York's Bowery Ballroom. Prior to these gigs, Snyder hadn't played with the band since 1998._NEWLINE_Chamberlain toured with The Gaslight Anthem and Tim Barry in summer 2010, and performed at Krazy Fest in Louisville, Kentucky in May, 2011.An interview with Rubenstein in the July '11 Alternative Press hinted at continued collaborations_NEWLINE_In September, 2018 the band had a short tour to celebrate the 20th anniversary of its 1998 LP,'The Moon, My Saddle', and announced that they were collaborating on new music for the first time since 2010. _NEWLINE_June of 2019 saw Chamberlain return to Europe for the first time since 1996 with a string of dates culminating in an appearance at Hamburg's Booze Cruise festival. _START_SECTION_ Other members _START_PARAGRAPH_ Seth Greathouse – bass (1998–2000)_NEWLINE__NEWLINE_Wade Parish – drums (1999–2000)_NEWLINE_Stoll Vaughan – guitar (1998–1999)

3121115973147234682

Q2527605

_START_ARTICLE_ Chamblee, Georgia _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The area that would later become Chamblee was originally dairy farms. During the late nineteenth century, an intersection of two railroads was constructed in Chamblee; one carried passengers from Atlanta to Charlotte, North Carolina, while the other ferried workers and goods back and forth from a factory in Roswell to Atlanta. A settlement known as Roswell Junction emerged at the intersection, and the United States Postal Service decided to establish a post office there. However, feeling the name of the settlement was too similar to nearby Roswell, they randomly selected Chamblee from a list of petitioners for the new post office name. Chamblee was incorporated in 1907._NEWLINE_During World War I and World War II, Chamblee served as the site of U.S. military operations. During World War I, the U.S. operated Camp Gordon, home to 40,000 servicemen. This influx of new people created a building boom in the town. Camp Gordon was closed after the war and then re-opened as Navy Flight Training Center at the advent of World War II._NEWLINE_Immediately after World War II, Chamblee experienced growth in blue-collar industry and residents due to its proximity to the newly opened General Motors plant in neighboring Doraville. Manufacturing plants also located along the newly constructed Peachtree Industrial Boulevard. By the 1980s, much of the city's industrial base had downsized or eroded; in its place sprung multi-ethnic business that catered to the immigrants and refugees moving to Chamblee and Doraville en masse due to the cities' affordable housing. By the time of the 1996 Summer Olympics, Chamblee had emerged as a multi-cultural city inhabited by a large immigrant community._NEWLINE_During the first decade of the 2000s, the city grew as it refined its image, constructing a new city hall in 2002. In 2010, Chamblee annexed an area directly to the northwest that includes Huntley Hills and a resident population of approximately 5,000. It also renamed Peachtree Industrial Boulevard to Peachtree Boulevard, and took steps to revitalize its downtown. _START_SECTION_ Geography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chamblee is south of Dunwoody, southwest of Doraville, northeast of Brookhaven, and north of Interstate 85. The city is located at 33°53′15″N 84°18′19″W (33.887552, -84.305326). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.1 square miles (8.0 km²), all land. _START_SECTION_ Pedestrians and cycling _START_PARAGRAPH_ Currently, there are plans for the construction of a multi-use trail, known as the Peachtree Creek Greenway. The goal of the greenway is to provide residents with close-to-home and close-to-work access to bicycle and pedestrian trails, serve transportation and recreation needs, and help encourage quality of life and sustainable economic growth. The trail will connect the cities of Atlanta, Brookhaven, Chamblee and Doraville. _START_SECTION_ Atlanta Chinatown _START_PARAGRAPH_ According to Biz Journal, the Atlanta metropolitan area is home to an "... estimated 50,000 Chinese-Americans...." This suburb of Atlanta, Georgia is home to a Chinatown (Chinese: 亚特兰大唐人街; pinyin: Yàtélándà tángrénjiē) that was built in 1988, and is one of the first of the "New Chinatowns" according to the World Journal. Although the city of Atlanta itself does not have a "Chinatown", Chamblee's Chinatown mall is referred to as "Atlanta Chinatown." The neighborhood is part of the Buford Highway international market area and is located near the Chamblee MARTA station and New Peachtree Road. According to the Atlanta Journal-Constitution (AJC), refers to this "Chinatown Mall" as "... Atlanta's place for Chinese culture." According to the official website, "Atlanta Chinatown" is located at 5379 New Peachtree Road. According to the Huffington Post, this Chinatown is an example of a "modern Chinatown", with Albany, Las Vegas, Dallas-Richardson, and North Miami Beach, Florida referenced as similar examples, with regard to the quality of Chinese food. There is an annual Chinese New Year event that is held to celebrate the festival. The author further states that Atlanta's Chinatown is "... unlike many older cities" which exists in an urban setting. Atlanta's Chinatown according to her is "... in a strip mall" setting. Bonnie Tsui further states in her book that the new Chinatowns rely on the Chinatown being built before the Chinese population comes as she quoted about Las Vegas' Chinatown._NEWLINE_The Atlanta Chinatown market open August 8, 1988, and was further expanded in 1996 with fresh immigrants from Beijing. _NEWLINE_ According to the previous source, Atlanta's Chinatown has bakeries, restaurants, cosmetics, bookstores, newspaper →and many other Chinese stores. The Chinatown is currently managed by Rochelle Anthony, who is an African American._NEWLINE_According to Biz Journal, Atlanta Chinatown was completely redone in the year 2000 by developer Peter Chang, who purchased the old "Chinatown Square Mall". The plans call for "...the 65,000-square-foot mall [to include] a Chinese food court which contains 7 vendors, two dine-in restaurants, several offices, a Dinho Supermarket, gift shops, a bookstore, jewelers, a video rental store, a beauty salon and other retailers. It will be part of the International Village project, a 375-acre live and work community with a global theme that is being developed by local business leaders, the DeKalb Chamber of Commerce, DeKalb County and the city of Chamblee." According to this article, the plans are to make Atlanta Chinatown a tourist destination rather than it just being another shopping mall. _START_SECTION_ Private schools _START_PARAGRAPH_ St. Pius X High School _START_SECTION_ Public libraries _START_PARAGRAPH_ DeKalb County Public Library operates the Chamblee Branch. Embry Hills Library is located in Chamblee. _START_SECTION_ In historical popular culture _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chamblee has been referred to as "Chambodia" with racist connotations due to its high Asian population and the concentration of Asian restaurants along Buford Highway. A chapter of Tom Wolfe's novel A Man in Full is titled "Chambodia".

2297447302873906514

Q5071189

_START_ARTICLE_ Chandler School _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1950, Thomas and Catherine Chandler founded the Chandler School in Altadena with an initial enrollment of 14 students in grades four through eight. After eight years, the school outgrew the original Altadena campus, and with the help of 40 parents, a down payment was raised to purchase the present Armada Drive property. Construction was completed one room at a time with donated materials and labor. A Board of Trustees was formed and Chandler became a 501(c) 3 non-profit institution. The site at 1005 Armada Drive welcomed students for classes on September 20, 1958, with just two buildings and an athletic field._NEWLINE_After this, the school continued to expand – the first kindergarten class enrolled in 1963. Construction on the original South Campus began in 1970 and was completed in 1972._NEWLINE_In 1976, when founder Thomas Chandler retired, Arthur L.P. Brown became Chandler School's second Head of School._NEWLINE_By 1979, 366 students were being instructed in kindergarten through eighth grade. That same year, Jefferson C. Stephens, Jr. became Chandler's third Head of School._NEWLINE_The gymnasium-multipurpose building was added in 1981._NEWLINE_Thomas A. Chandler died in 1996, but his wife Catherine remains active in the school community. In 1998, the Pasadena Planning Commission approved Chandler's 10-year Master Plan and the Chandler 2000 Lower School Project. Construction on the new project began in 2000 and was completed in 2001 – the same year John Finch became Chandler's fourth Head of School._NEWLINE_Chandler welcomed 450 students, the largest enrollment in school history, to its new South Campus in the fall of 2011, featuring a Middle School classroom building, a renovated gym, and outdoor sports court. _START_SECTION_ Technology _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chandler instituted an integrated technology curriculum in 2005 requiring each Middle School student to bring a personal laptop to school every day. This allows for technology education to be part of the regular curriculum, instead of an independent component, better reflecting recent trends in higher education and professional technology usage. _START_SECTION_ STEAM Curriculum _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chandler adopted a STEAM curriculum in 2013, providing an opportunity for each grade level to work on a project that synthesizes science, technology, engineering, art, and math. Chandler hosts a STEAM Night during which all nine grades present the results of their year-long STEAM projects. Projects have included a miniature golf course and a city made of boxes displayed on an outdoor sport court. _START_SECTION_ Athletics _START_PARAGRAPH_ The school's founder, Thomas Chandler, graduated from the Webb School with letters in football, tennis and track. He worked as a coach at Webb until he was recruited into the U.S. Navy during World War II. Chandler developed his approach to education and coaching while at the Webb School. He believed “First of all, sports are to be enjoyed and second of all, sports are meant to build strong character, strong bodies, mind and spirit, in a team setting.”_NEWLINE_Chandler Athletic Program Units include badminton, basketball, baseball, bicycle riding, bowling, a circus unit (unicycling, diabolo, juggling and stilt-walking), football, golf, gymnastics, lacrosse, paddle tennis, roller hockey, skateboarding, soccer, swimming, T-ball, track, ultimate frisbee, and volleyball.

9125914143512049212

Q61827696

_START_ARTICLE_ Chandrashekhar Deshmukh _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Deshmukh was born to Advocate Janrao alias Annasaheb Deshmukh and his wife Shashikala Deshmukh in Nagpur city. His father, Janrao Deshmukh, was an advocate in the Nagpur High court. When Chandrashekhar was two, the family moved to his home village Parsodi in Madhya Pradesh. _NEWLINE_He belongs to Lonari kunbi community. He has a B.A.from Sagar University. _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ He started his political journey by as a member of Tilhan Utpadak Sahakari Samiti Parsodi in 1983. He served as sarpanch of Gram Panchayat Hirdi from 1988 to 1998. He served as Vice president of Zila Panchayat Betul district from 2005 to 2008._NEWLINE_He then joined the Bharatiya Janata Party. He served as Prabhat Pattan in Mandal Mahamantri (1994-1996) and Mandal Adhyaksha (1996-1998). _START_SECTION_ Member of Legislative Assembly _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1998, he defeated INC Cabinet Minister Ramji Mahajan for the Masod MLA seat of Madhya Pradesh._NEWLINE_In 2013, he won his fourth assembly election for Multai constituency by the margin of 31,860 votes._NEWLINE_As a Member of Legislative Assembly, he helped with many projects such as in his constituency and raised the issue of illegal land purchases. He added goddess Maa Tapti into Madhya Pradesh Gaan and Tapti Mahotsava to the Government's event calendar. _START_SECTION_ Personal life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chandrashekhar Deshmukh married Suhasini Deshmukh. They have two children, Mamta and Gaurav.

5259202066855815357

Q65081642

_START_ARTICLE_ Changan Joice _START_SECTION_ Overview _START_PARAGRAPH_ Launched in 2007, the Changan Joice is a 7-seater MPV. The powertrain of the Changan Joice features a 2.0 liter 4-Cylinder petrol engine producing 112 kW and 192 Nm of torque mated to a 5-speed manual or automatic transmission. _START_SECTION_ Changan Jiexun HEV _START_PARAGRAPH_ Launched in 2008, the Changan Jiexun HEV is China's first domestic-brand hybrid vehicle. The fuel economy of the Jiexun HEV is improved 20 percent when compared to the non-hybrid version launched in 2007, and the emissions of the Changan Jiexun HEV meets EU-IV emission standards. Changan Automobiles invested 300 million yuan ($40.7 million) in researching and developing the Changan Jiexun HEV for production.

18385770061503861084

Q5071726

_START_ARTICLE_ Changaramkulam _START_SECTION_ Culture _START_PARAGRAPH_ Changaramkulam village is a predominantly Muslim populated area. Hindus exist in comparatively smaller numbers. So the culture of the locality is based upon Muslim traditions. Duff Muttu, Kolkali and Aravanamuttu are common folk arts of this locality. There are many libraries attached to mosques giving a rich source of Islamic studies. Most of the books are written in Arabi-Malayalam which is a version of the Malayalam language written in Arabic script. People gather in mosques for the evening prayer and continue to sit there after the prayers discussing social and cultural issues. Business and family issues are also sorted out during these evening meetings. The Hindu minority of this area keeps their rich traditions by celebrating various festivals in their temples. Hindu rituals are done here with a regular devotion like other parts of Kerala._NEWLINE_Mookuthala bagavathi temple believed as Adhi Shakaracharya installed, were parashakthi is the pradhishta._NEWLINE_Kanneyankavu bagavathy temple were kannayankavu pooram celebrated regardless of any religion.Here Badra Kali is the deity.karinkali is the main attraction of this temple._NEWLINE_Keezhekavu were deity is durga. Here Vidya pooja during mahanavami is important._NEWLINE_These 3 temple have very importance in Navarathri days. Three bhavas of goddess is here. It will be really a good feeling. _START_SECTION_ Transportation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Changaramkulam village connects to other parts of India through Kuttippuram town. National Highway No.66 passes through Edappal and the northern stretch connects to Goa and Mumbai. The southern stretch connects to Cochin and Trivandrum. National Highway No.966 connects to Palakkad and Coimbatore. The nearest airports are at Kozhikode & Kochin International Airport. The nearest major railway stations are at Kuttippuram and Guruvayoor.

14642956577665833247

Q16245465

_START_ARTICLE_ Change Your World (Darlene Zschech album) _START_SECTION_ Album details _START_PARAGRAPH_ Change Your World comprises twelve originally-recorded 'Christian pop' and worship songs.

7472569946841012652

Q3625347

_START_ARTICLE_ Change control _START_PARAGRAPH_ Change control within quality management systems (QMS) and information technology (IT) systems is a process—either formal or informal—used to ensure that changes to a product or system are introduced in a controlled and coordinated manner. It reduces the possibility that unnecessary changes will be introduced to a system without forethought, introducing faults into the system or undoing changes made by other users of software. The goals of a change control procedure usually include minimal disruption to services, reduction in back-out activities, and cost-effective utilization of resources involved in implementing change._NEWLINE_Change control is used in various industries, including in IT, software development, the pharmaceutical industry, the medical device industry, and other engineering/manufacturing industries. For the IT and software industries, change control is a major aspect of the broader discipline of change management. Typical examples from the computer and network environments are patches to software products, installation of new operating systems, upgrades to network routing tables, or changes to the electrical power systems supporting such infrastructure._NEWLINE_Certain portions of the Information Technology Infrastructure Library cover change control. _START_SECTION_ Plan / Scope _START_PARAGRAPH_ Consider the primary and ancillary details of the proposed change. Should include aspects such as identifying the change, its owner(s), how it will be communicated and executed, how success will be verified, the change's estimate of importance, its added value, its conformity to business and industry standards, and its target date for completion. _START_SECTION_ Assess / Analyze _START_PARAGRAPH_ Impact and risk assessment is the next vital step. When executed, will the proposed plan cause something to go wrong? Will related systems be impacted by the proposed change? Even minor details should be considered during this phase. Afterwards, a risk category should ideally be assigned to the proposed change: high-, moderate-, or low-risk. High-risk change requires many additional steps such as management approval and stakeholder notification, whereas low-risk change may only require project manager approval and minimal documentation. If not addressed in the plan/scope, the desire for a backout plan should be expressed, particularly for high-risk changes that have significant worst-case scenarios. _START_SECTION_ Review / Approval _START_PARAGRAPH_ Whether it's a change controller, change control board, steering committee, or project manager, a review and approval process is typically required. The plan/scope and impact/risk assessments are considered in the context of business goals, requirements, and resources. If, for example, the change request is deemed to address a low severity, low impact issue that requires significant resources to correct, the request may be made low priority or shelved altogether. In cases where a high-impact change is requested but without a strong plan, the review/approval entity may request a full business case may be requested for further analysis. _START_SECTION_ Build / Test _START_PARAGRAPH_ If the change control request is approved to move forward, the delivery team will execute the solution through a small-scale development process in test or development environments. This allows the delivery team an opportunity to design and make incremental changes, with unit and/or regression testing. Little in the way of testing and validation may occur for low-risk changes, though major changes will require significant testing before implementation. They will then seek approval and request a time and date to carry out the implementation phase. In rare cases where the solution can't be tested, special consideration should be made towards the change/implementation window. _START_SECTION_ Implement _START_PARAGRAPH_ In most cases a special implementation team with the technical expertise to quickly move a change along is used to implement the change. The team should also be implementing the change not only according to the approved plan but also according to organizational standards, industry standards, and quality management standards. The implementation process may also require additional staff responsibilities outside the implementation team, including stakeholders who may be asked to assist with troubleshooting. Following implementation, the team may also carry out a post-implementation review, which would take place at another stakeholder meeting or during project closing procedures. _START_SECTION_ Close _START_PARAGRAPH_ The closing process can be one of the more difficult and important phases of change control. Three primary tasks at this end phase include determining that the project is actually complete, evaluating "the project plan in the context of project completion," and providing tangible proof of project success. If despite best efforts something went wrong during the change control process, a post-mortem on what happened will need to be run, with the intent of applying lessons learned to future changes. _START_SECTION_ Regulatory environment _START_PARAGRAPH_ In a Good Manufacturing Practice regulated industry, the topic is frequently encountered by its users. Various industrial guidances and commentaries are available for people to comprehend this concept. As a common practice, the activity is usually directed by one or more SOPs. From the information technology perspective for clinical trials, it has been guided by another U.S. Food and Drug Administration document.

16317250823087992056

Q5072673

_START_ARTICLE_ Chantilly Confederate order of battle _START_PARAGRAPH_ The following Confederate States Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Chantilly of the American Civil War on September 1, 1862. The Union order of battle is shown separately.

3519589916359094364

Q985767

_START_ARTICLE_ Chaoyangmen _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chaoyangmen (simplified Chinese: 朝阳门; traditional Chinese: 朝陽門; pinyin: Cháoyángmén; Manchu:ᡧᡠᠨ_NEWLINE_ᠪᡝ_NEWLINE_ᠠᠯᡳᡥᠠ_NEWLINE_ᡩᡠᡴᠠ; Möllendorff:šun be aliha duka) was a gate in the former city wall of Beijing. It is now a transportation node and a district border in Beijing. It is located in the Dongcheng District of northeastern central Beijing. Running from north to south is the eastern 2nd Ring Road. The Beijing Subway (Line 6 and Line 2) has a stop at Chaoyangmen. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Chaoyang Gate (the Gate Facing the Sun) was the main gate of the East City. The gate was demolished, along with the walls and moat of the East City in the 1950s and replaced with the 2nd Ring Road (Beijing) where the moat and walls had been, and an elevated roundabout-bridge where the gate had been. _START_SECTION_ Chaoyangmen today _START_PARAGRAPH_ West of Chaoyangmen Bridge is Chaoyangmen Inner Street (Chaoyangmen Nei Dajie), which heads toward the Wangfujing, Dongdan and Dongsi areas. The first building north west of Chaoyangmen Bridge is the headquarters of CNOOC Group. The second building westwards is Beijing's most famous "haunted houses", two French-style villas at 81 Chaoyangmen Nei. The main villa was formerly the residence of the French manager of the Pinghan Railway Company until 1947, thereafter it became the offices of various government works until closed pending demolition in the 1990s. However, due to the architectural value of the two villas they were preserved and passed to the Beijing Diocese of the Catholic Church for restoration and use as a church._NEWLINE_East of Chaoyangmen Bridge is where Chaoyang District begins. Chaoyangmen Outer Street also begins east of the overpass, leading to the Chaowai area. The first building north east of the Chaoyangmen Bridge and exit of Chaoyangmen Station is the headquarters of Sinopec Group. Further along Chaoyangmen-wai is the Zhihua Si Temple, a Buddhist temple constructed during the Ming Dynasty. China's Foreign Ministry building is situated to the southeastern part of the overpass bridge and roundabout.

384794193499163952

Q197677

_START_ARTICLE_ Chapayevsk _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ The town's history dates back to 1909 when by Nicholas II's decree a military plant was established in the area. In 1929, the settlement was renamed Chapayevsk after the celebrated Red Army commander Vasily Chapayev. The town served as a base for secret military production, hosting four such factories until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991._NEWLINE_On June 18, 2013, several strong explosions rocked the town and several villages around; 5,000 people were evacuated. According to Russian media, at least 34 people where injured in the explosions that originated in the town's ammunition storage facilities. _START_SECTION_ Administrative and municipal status _START_PARAGRAPH_ Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with one rural locality, incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Chapayevsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Chapayevsk is incorporated as Chapayevsk Urban Okrug. _START_SECTION_ Ecology _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chapayevsk is known as the "town of death" due to the high amount of toxins present in the environment. According to doctors, more than 80% of children suffer from chronic diseases. Since 1991, the birthrate in the city decreased by 40%. In the women's breast milk dioxin was found at 400 times above the normal level. In 1994, a special committee of the United Nations, after much research announced the town of Chapayevsk as an ecological disaster zone.

14695666782302939438

Q5074058

_START_ARTICLE_ Charaxes mafuga _START_SECTION_ Taxonomy _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charaxes mafuga is a member of the large species group Charaxes etheocles

11663312914358365134

Q5075026

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Alderson Janeway _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Alderson Janeway (1909 in New York City – 1981 in Weston, Massachusetts) was an eminent American pediatrician, medical professor, and clinical researcher. _NEWLINE_Janeway was physician in chief from 1946 to 1976 at Children's Hospital Boston. He also was Thomas Morgan Rotch Professor of Pediatrics at Harvard Medical School. As a clinical researcher, he discovered the first immunodeficiency disease._NEWLINE_According to a 2007 biography by physicians Robert J. Haggerty and Frederick H. Lovejoy, Jr.:_NEWLINE_"Janeway built the first department of pediatrics in the nation with subspecialties based upon the new developments in basic sciences. Janeway and his colleagues defined the gamma globulin disorders that resulted in children's increased susceptibility to infections and associated arthritic disorders. Janeway was the most visible U.S. pediatrician on the world scene in the last half of the 20th century. He traveled widely, taught modern pediatrics to thousands of physicians throughout the developing world, and brought many of them to the U.S. for further training. He was instrumental in starting teaching hospitals in Shiraz, Iran, and Cameroon."_NEWLINE_In 1964, Janeway worked with the provincial government in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada to establish a children's hospital. In recognition of his efforts and dedication, the hospital was named the Dr. Charles Alderson Janeway Child Health Centre. Its first location was in the former base hospital on Pepperrell Air Force Base which had closed several years earlier._NEWLINE_Janeway came from a family of prominent physicians. His father, Theodore Caldwell Janeway, was the first full-time professor of medicine at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and discovered one of the first methods for measuring blood pressure. His grandfather, Edward Gamaliel Janeway, served as the Health Commissioner of New York and dean of the combined New York University/Bellevue Hospital medical colleges. Edward G. Janeway also identified of Janeway lesions, which are named in his honor._NEWLINE_Janeway graduated from Milton Academy in Milton, Massachusetts. He graduated from Yale University in 1930, where he was a member of Skull and Bones. He also graduated from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. He married Elizabeth Bradley, a social worker, in 1932. They had four children: Anne, Elizabeth, Charles, and Barbara._NEWLINE_His medical legacy continued to subsequent generations. His son, Charles Janeway (1943–2003), was an immunologist, noted Yale University medical professor, and member of the National Academy of Sciences, who made significant contributions to the field of innate immune response. His daughter Barbara is a nurse-practitioner in New Hampshire. Two granddaughters, Elizabeth Gold of Toronto and Katherine A. Janeway of Boston, are also pediatricians, representing the sixth generation of Janeway doctors. _NEWLINE_Charles A. Janeway died at his home in Weston, Massachusetts, in 1981.

14965261221970104159

Q5075240

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles August _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles "Chuck" J. August (January 28, 1919 – November 3, 2009) was an American businessman who founded Monro Muffler Brake._NEWLINE_August's career in automotive maintenance and repair began as a Midas Muffler franchisee in 1957 in Rochester, New York. In 1966, he discontinued his affiliation with Midas. August launched a new company, Monro Muffler, the same year with two business partners, his brother, Burton S. August, and Sheldon Lane. The company was named for Monroe County, New York, except August dropped the "e" in the name. The company later added brake service several years later and was renamed Monro Muffler Brake, Incorporated._NEWLINE_In 1977, Monro Muffler had twenty stores in New York. By the mid-1980s, August's Monro Mufflers had expanded to 59 stores, which sales of $21 million per year. Most of these stores were located in upstate New York._NEWLINE_August sold his controlling interest in Monro Mufflers in 1984 to an investment group headed by Donald Glickman and Peter J. Solomon. The company later had its initial public offering in 1991. August remained as a member of the Monro Muffler board of directors during the 1990s, when the company rapidly expanded. He resigned and retired from the board in 2002._NEWLINE_August actively supported the Boy Scouts during his life. He was a member of the Otetiana Council Boy Scouts of America for more than 60 years, and served as the council's president. He was rewarded the Silver Antelope Award and the Silver Beaver citation for his involvement with the Boy Scouts._NEWLINE_He donated more than $1 million to the United Way of Greater Rochester over a period of 10 years. The United Way awarded August with the Tocqueville Award in 1992._NEWLINE_August was named to the Rochester Business Hall of Fame in 2003. He was a member of the Nathaniel Rochester Society at Rochester Institute of Technology. August was also a founder of the Temple Sinai in Brighton and a member of the board of directors of the Jewish Home Foundation._NEWLINE_August originally resided in Brighton, Monroe County, New York, with his family for many years before moving to nearby Pittsford, New York._NEWLINE_August died on November 3, 2009, at the age of 90. He was survived by his wife, Jean August; his brother and co-founder of Monro Mufflers, Burton August; and three grown children – Susan Eastwood, Jan August and Andrew August. His memorial service was held at the Temple Sinai in Brighton, New York.

6989946381589622655

Q5075279

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles B. Bellinger _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Bellinger was born in Maquon, Illinois on November 21, 1839. In 1847, with his parents, Edward H. Bellinger and Eliza Howard Bellinger, Charles moved to Oregon Country. The following year the region became the Oregon Territory, and was admitted to the Union in 1859. Bellinger received his education at a school near the Santiam River where his teacher was Orange Jacobs, later a judge and politician in Washington. Later, Bellinger enrolled at Willamette University in Salem, Oregon, where he attended for two years. He left Willamette in order to read law under attorney and later judge Benjamin F. Bonham, after which he passed the bar in 1863. Bellinger practiced law briefly before moving to the newspaper business and was an editor for the Salem paper, The Arena. He later worked for the Salem Argus before becoming a merchant in Monroe, Oregon, in 1866. _START_SECTION_ Political career _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1868, Bellinger began one term in the Oregon House of Representatives, representing Benton County. The next year he moved to Albany, Oregon, where he worked as editor of the States Rights Democrat newspaper, now Albany Democrat-Herald. In 1870, he left the paper and moved to Portland where he edited the Portland Daily News, and the following year served as a prosecuting attorney for the state. Bellinger remained with the newspaper until 1890, but worked as a prosecuting attorney until 1872._NEWLINE_From 1873 until 1874 he served in the Oregon militia as a lieutenant colonel. During this time he served in the Modoc War during the Lava Beds campaign. Following his military service, Bellinger moved to Salem where he was the clerk for the Oregon Supreme Court from 1874 to 1878. He left the state's highest court to accept a judgeship for Oregon's fourth judicial district, serving until 1880._NEWLINE_Bellinger returned to private practice in Portland in 1880, where he remained until 1893. For three years he was in practice with John M. Gearin, before becoming a partner in the firm of Dolph, Bellinger, Mallory, & Simon. Partners Joseph N. Dolph and Joseph Simon were United States Senators, while Rufus Mallory was a member of the United States House of Representatives. _START_SECTION_ Federal judicial service _START_PARAGRAPH_ On April 11, 1893, United States President Grover Cleveland nominated Bellinger to serve on the United States District Court for the District of Oregon as the Judge of the single judge court, replacing Judge Matthew Deady who had died. Bellinger was confirmed in the position by the United States Senate on April 15, 1893 and received his commission the same day. He served as Judge of the federal district court until his death on May 12, 1905, in Portland, Oregon. _START_SECTION_ Family and later life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Bellinger was married to Margaret (or Margery) Serena Johnson of Linn County, Oregon, with whom he would have seven children. In his later years he taught at the University of Oregon School of Law when it was located in Portland. Also in Portland he was a commissioner of the Lewis & Clark Centennial Exposition held there in 1905 after his death, and as President of the Oregon State Bar. Bellinger organized the Portland Cremation Association, was a member of the Oregon Historical Society, and a regent of the University of Oregon. His ashes were interred at Portland Memorial Mausoleum.

11367725656527058198

Q5075428

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Barlow (businessman) _START_SECTION_ Life and business career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Barlow was born in Durban, the son of Ernest "Billy" Barlow, a businessman who had started as an agent for clothing and woollen goods, but later diversified into electrical equipment. He was educated in the UK at Clifton College and at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. _NEWLINE_On graduation, he returned to South Africa to join the family company, his father having died in 1921, and was responsible within a couple of years for a major deal that saw the Barlow company become the distributor for Caterpillar mining and construction machinery, a move that shifted the company's direction. He became a director in 1929 and managing director in 1937, later becoming chairman as well. Over the next 35 years, through organic growth and acquisition he built the company into South Africa's largest industrial conglomerate, with 850 subsidiaries in 22 countries and a net worth of 2 billion Rand; in 1971, the group merged with the Rand Corporation to become Barlow Rand, and he soon after that stood down from an operational role. The company, much changed, is now named "Barloworld"._NEWLINE_Noted as a critic and opponent of the National Party and its apartheid policies, Barlow was also an environmentalist and a sponsor of conservation initiatives. Three species of bird are named after him, in recognition of his backing for expeditions of discovery: they include Barlow's lark. _START_SECTION_ Cricket career _START_PARAGRAPH_ On his first-class debut Barlow took two wickets for Somerset in the first-innings of the match against Kent, bowling England Test cricketer Frank Woolley, who had already scored 215, and George Collins. On a pair after Somerset's first-innings, Barlow made his top-score of 23 in the second, but could not help prevent Somerset falling to an innings and 174 run defeat. He fell for a duck again in the first-innings on his next appearance, over a year later against Sussex. He avoided a pair by claiming one run in the second-innings, but remained wicket-less in the match._NEWLINE_Earlier he had been cricket captain at Clifton College in 1923 as an all-rounder, when he played in the schools cricket festival matches at Lord's. In 1924, he was at Cambridge University and played as a batsman only in the freshmen's trial for the Cambridge University cricket team; he scored 0 and 18 in this trial game and did not figure in first team matches for the university side.

14208578582025214912

Q5076276

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles City Shire _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles City Shire was formed in 1634 in the Virginia colony. It was named for Charles I, the then King of England, and was renamed Charles City County in 1637. _START_SECTION_ History _START_PARAGRAPH_ During the 17th century, shortly after the establishment of the settlement at Jamestown in 1607, English settlers explored and began settling the areas adjacent to Hampton Roads._NEWLINE_On, November 18, 1618, the Virginia Company of London, proprietor of the colony, gave instructions on the formation of a laudable government for the Colony to Sir George Yeardley when he departed from London to become full governor of Virginia. As directed, in 1619, Governor Yeardley established four large corporations, termed citties (sic), which were designated to encompass the developed portion of the colony. These were Kecoughtan (later renamed Elizabeth Cittie), James Cittie, Charles Cittie, and Henrico Cittie._NEWLINE_By 1634, by order of Charles I, eight shires were formed with a total population of approximately 5,000 inhabitants. By 1643, these shires had been renamed as counties._NEWLINE_Charles City Shire originally extended to both sides of the James River, and Charles City Point on the south side later became known simply as City Point, in an area subdivided to form Prince George County. City Point later became part of the independent city of Hopewell in 1923._NEWLINE_In 2005, Charles City County is considered one of only five shires in Virginia still extant, having remained essentially the same political entity as it was when originally formed.

393403042553741632

Q5076333

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Clore _START_SECTION_ Life and career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Clore was of Lithuanian-Jewish background, the son of Israel Clore, a Whitechapel tailor who had emigrated to London, and later to Palestine. Charles Clore owned, through Sears Holdings, the British Shoe Corporation and Lewis's department stores (which included Selfridges), as well as investing heavily in property._NEWLINE_He owned Jowett Cars Ltd from 1945–1947 where he was known as "Santa Clore" for his much anticipated financial investment. His philanthropic trust, the Clore Foundation, is a donor to arts and Jewish community projects in Britain and abroad. The Clore Gallery at Tate Britain in London, which houses the world's largest collection of the works of J. M. W. Turner, was built in 1980–87 with £6 million from Clore and his daughter and £1.8 million from the British government. He was knighted in 1971 for his philanthropic work._NEWLINE_Sir Charles and his wife Francine had two children, Vivien and Alan Evelyn Clore. Clore Shipping Company had two oil tankers, the Vivien Louise and the Alan Evelyn._NEWLINE_Upon Sir Charles' death, Inland Revenue sued, claiming he was British domiciled (he had claimed Monaco domicile), in order to collect inheritance taxes. The court upheld the Inland Revenue position._NEWLINE_In September 1980 thieves stole 19 paintings from Clore's Monaco apartment, including works by Renoir, Monet, Pissarro and Utrillo. Clore's butler was found lying on the floor of the apartment after the theft, claiming that he had been attacked by the thieves, but was later found to have collaborated with them. The butler later committed suicide in Monaco's prison._NEWLINE_Clore was loosely connected to the Profumo affair, being a client of Christine Keeler. Clore was depicted in Andrew Lloyd-Webber's musical based on the affair, Stephen Ward the Musical. In 2014 Clore's daughter, Vivien Duffield, saw the musical with William Astor, whose father, William Astor, 3rd Viscount Astor, was also depicted. Clore owned several good racehorses, notably Valoris which won the Epsom Oaks in 1966._NEWLINE_The beachfront Charles Clore Park in Tel Aviv is named after Clore. His father, who died in 1933, is buried in nearby Petah Tikvah.

7203700515794342731

Q5076498

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Cottier _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Cottier was born in Brisbane, Australia, completed primary school at Kenmore South State School and secondary school at Brisbane Boys' College. He has always wanted to be an actor, and loved performing in home videos from a young age. He grew up in a close knit family of three boys (one older and one younger). Cottier started taking acting classes at the age of twelve at The Australian Acting Academy and graduated from secondary school in 2009, where he was drama captain._NEWLINE_Cottier also loves to play music, something which he inherited from his family; his dad plays guitar, his brothers play saxophone and piano, and Cottier has played drums for 10 years and was part of several indie rock bands in Brisbane, including We Were Arks, NALI and also a three piece band called Mods and Cons. _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Cottier auditioned for the role of Dexter Walker in Home and Away on the Gold Coast, and got a call back to come to Sydney the next day. The following day he found out he got the role. Cottier is the second person to play Dexter as the role was previously played by Tom Green. In 2011 Cottier was nominated for a Logie Award for Most Popular New Male Talent. Cottier left Home and Away in 2013. He joined the cast of Please Like Me in February 2014. In 2015, he appeared in the third series of Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries with former Home and Away star, Ella Scott Lynch, who played Hayley Smith in 2005._NEWLINE_In 2016 featured in the Channel Seven series Wanted with Rebecca Gibney and former Home and Away co-star Stephen Peacocke. Cottier and Peacocke were reunited in the feature film Cooped Up, in which Cottier plays the lead, Jake.

17543974989883383539

Q5077866

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Frederick White _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Frederick White (11 March 1863 – 4 December 1923) was an English boot and shoemaker and Liberal Party politician. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for the Western Division of Derbyshire from 1918 to 1923. _START_SECTION_ Family and education _START_PARAGRAPH_ White was born in Tetbury in Gloucestershire in 1863, the son of Frederick and Ruth White. He was educated privately in Tetbury. In 1881 he married Alice Charlesworth of Bonsall, Derbyshire. They had one son and five daughters. White’s son, also called Charles Frederick (1891–1956), inherited his father’s political activism, although in the Labour rather than the Liberal interest. _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ White was originally a boot and shoemaker and dealer by trade but he gave this up to go into politics full-time by becoming a registration and political agent for the Liberal Party in the West Derbyshire area. He also acted as agent for Barnet Kenyon, the Derbyshire Miners’ Association candidate at Chesterfield. _START_SECTION_ Local politics _START_PARAGRAPH_ As well as working as a political agent for the Liberal Party, White also went into local government politics. From 1898 to at least 1903 he was a member of the Bonsall Urban District Council, while by 1913 he was chairman of the Matlock Bath Urban District Council. He was for four years an elected member of Derbyshire County Council and held the position of magistrate by virtue of being Chairman of a Local Authority. _START_SECTION_ 1910 _START_PARAGRAPH_ White contested the West Derbyshire constituency at the general election of December 1910. The West Derbyshire seat and surrounding area had been a family heirloom of the local aristocrats the Cavendish family since the 16th century. Since the modern seat was created in 1885 it had been held solely by members of the Cavendish family. The sitting MP in 1910 was the Earl of Kerry. He had inherited the seat at a by-election in 1908 when he was returned unopposed as a Unionist. He held the seat against Liberal opposition in January 1910 and then defeated White in December 1910 with a majority of 1,060 votes. _START_SECTION_ 1918 _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1918 however, the world turned upside down. Despite the Earl of Kerry’s receiving the Coalition coupon which surely ought to have ensured his victory in such a safe Tory seat, he lost to White by a majority of 2,160 votes. _START_SECTION_ 1922–1923 _START_PARAGRAPH_ At the 1922 general election, White faced a new Unionist opponent but another member of the Cavendish family, the Marquess of Hartington. In a tight contest White just managed to retain his seat, albeit by the narrow margin of 87 votes – just 0.4% of the total votes cast. White was intending to defend his seat again at the 1923 general election and he was duly nominated as a candidate but he died just before the election took place. _START_SECTION_ Death _START_PARAGRAPH_ White died of pneumonia on the morning of 4 December 1923, aged 60 years, having been taken ill after a meeting a few days before. His death meant that the election contest in West Derbyshire had to be postponed until 20 December 1923, all other polling having taken place on 6 December. The seat reverted to being the property of the Cavendish family when the Marquess of Hartington gained the seat at the expense of the new Liberal candidate W C Mallison.

9284009335107589661

Q36234

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles III of Spain _START_SECTION_ Spanish imperial legacy _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht concluded the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) and reduced the political and military power of Spain, which the House of Bourbon had ruled since 1700. Under the terms of the treaty, the Spanish Empire retained its American territories, but ceded to Habsburg Austria the Southern Netherlands, the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, the Duchy of Milan, and the State of Presidi. Moreover, the House of Savoy gained the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Great Britain gained the island of Menorca and the fortress at Gibraltar._NEWLINE_In 1700, Charles' father, originally a French prince, became King of Spain as Philip V. For the remainder of his reign (1700–46), he continually attempted to regain the ceded territories. In 1714, after the death of the king's first wife, the Princess Maria Luisa Gabriella of Savoy, the Piacenzan Cardinal Giulio Alberoni successfully arranged the marriage between Philip and the ambitious Elisabeth Farnese, niece and stepdaughter of Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma. Elisabeth and Philip married on 24 December 1714; she quickly proved a domineering consort, and influenced King Philip to make Cardinal Giulio Alberoni the Prime Minister of Spain in 1715._NEWLINE_On 20 January 1716, Elisabeth gave birth to the Infante Charles of Spain at the Real Alcázar of Madrid. He was fourth in line to the Spanish throne, after three elder half-brothers: the Infante Luis, Prince of Asturias (who ruled briefly as Louis I of Spain before dying in 1724), the Infante Felipe (who died in 1719), and Ferdinand (the future Ferdinand VI). Because the Duke Francesco of Parma and his heir were childless, Elisabeth sought the duchies of Parma and Piacenza for Charles. She also sought for him the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, because Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1671–1737) was also childless. He was a distant cousin of hers, related via her great-grandmother Margherita de' Medici, giving Charles a claim to the title through that lineage. _START_SECTION_ Arrival in Italy _START_PARAGRAPH_ After a solemn ceremony in Seville, Charles was given the épée d'or ("sword of gold") by his father; the sword had been given to Philip V of Spain by his grandfather Louis XIV of France before his departure to Spain in 1700. Charles left Spain on 20 October 1731 and traveled overland to Antibes; he then sailed to Tuscany, arriving at Livorno on 27 December 1731. His cousin Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was named his co-tutor and despite Charles being the second in line to inherited Tuscany, the Grand Duke still gave him a warm welcome. En route to Florence from Pisa, Charles was taken ill with smallpox. Charles made a grand entrance to the Medici capital of Florence on 9 March 1732 with a retinue of 250 people. He stayed with his host at the ducal residence, the Palazzo Pitti._NEWLINE_Gian Gastone staged a fête in honour of the Patron Saint of Florence, St. John the Baptist, on 24 June. At this fête Gian Gastone named Charles his heir, giving him the title of Hereditary Prince of Tuscany, and Charles paid homage to the Florentine senate, as was the tradition for heirs to the Tuscan throne._NEWLINE_When Emperor Charles VI heard about the ceremony, he was greatly enraged due to Gian Gastone not informing him, as he was technical overlord of Tuscany and the nomination thus should have been his. Despite the celebrations, Elisabeth Farnese urged her son to go on to Parma. This he did in October 1732, where he was greeted with much joy. On the front of the ducal palace in Parma was written Parma Resurget (Parma shall rise again). At the same time the play La venuta di Ascanio in Italia was created by Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni. It was later performed at the Farnese Theatre in the city. _START_SECTION_ Character and appearance _START_PARAGRAPH_ Upon his arrival in the peninsula, Charles was not yet seventeen years old. He received the strict and structured education of a Spanish Infante; he was very pious and was often in awe of his domineering mother, who according to many contemporaries, he resembled greatly. The Alvise Giovanni Mocenigo, Doge of Venice and Ambassador of Venice to Naples declared that "...he received an education removed from all studies and all applications in order to be able to govern himself" (...tenne sempre un'educazione lontanissima da ogni studio e da ogni applicazione per diventare da sé stesso capace di governo)._NEWLINE_On the other hand, he was educated in printmaking (remaining an enthusiastic etcher), painting, and a wide range of physical activities, including a future favourite of his, hunting. Sir Horatio Mann, a British diplomat in Florence noted that he was greatly impressed at the fondness Charles had for the sport._NEWLINE_His physical appearance was dominated by the Bourbon nose that he had inherited from his father's side of the family. He was described as "a brown boy, who has a lean face with a bulging nose", and was known for his happy and exuberant character. _START_SECTION_ Conquest of Naples and Sicily _START_PARAGRAPH_ In 1733, the death of Augustus II, King of Poland, sparked a succession crisis in Poland. France supported one pretender, and Austria and Russia another. France and Savoy formed an alliance to acquire territory from Austria. Spain, which had allied with France in late 1733 (the Bourbon Compact), also entered the conflict. Charles' mother, as regent, saw the opportunity to regain the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, which Spain had lost in the Treaty of Utrecht. _NEWLINE_ _NEWLINE_On 20 January 1734, Charles, now 18, reached his majority, and was "free to govern and to manage in a manner independent its states". He was also named commander of all Spanish troops in Italy, a position he shared with the Duke of Montemar. On 27 February, King Philip declared his intention to capture the Kingdom of Naples, claiming he would free it of "excessive violence by the Austrian Viceroy of Naples, oppression and tyranny". Charles, now "Charles I of Parma", was to be in charge. Charles inspected the Spanish troops at Perugia, and marched toward Naples on 5 March. The army passed through the Papal States then ruled by Clement XII._NEWLINE_The Austrians, already fighting the French and Savoyard armies to retain Lombardy, had only limited resources for the defence of Naples, and were divided on how best to oppose the Spanish. The Emperor wanted to keep Naples, but most of the Neapolitan nobility were against him, and some conspired against his viceroy. They hoped that Philip would give the kingdom to Charles, who would be more likely to live and rule there, rather than having a viceroy and serve a foreign power. On 9 March the Spanish took Procida and Ischia, two islands in the Bay of Naples. A week later they defeated the Austrians at sea. On 31 March, his army closed in on the Austrians in Naples. The Spanish flanked defensive position of the Austrians under general Traun, and forced them to withdraw to Capua. This allowed Charles and his troops to advance onto the city of Naples itself._NEWLINE_The Austrian viceroy, Giulio Borromeo Visconti, and the commander of his army, Giovanni Carafa, left some garrisons holding the city's fortresses, and withdrew to Apulia. There they awaited reinforcements sufficient to defeat the Spanish. The Spanish entered Naples and laid siege to the Austrian-held fortresses. During that interval, Charles received the compliments of the local nobility, and the city keys and the privilege book from a delegation of the city's elected officials. Chronicles of the time reported that Naples was captured "with humanity" and that the combat was only due to a general climate of courtesy between the two armies, often under the eyes of the Neapolitans that approached with curiosity_NEWLINE_The Spanish took the Carmine Castle on 10 April; Castel Sant'Elmo fell on 27 April; the Castel dell'Ovo on 4 May; and finally the New Castle on 6 May. This all occurred even though Charles had no military experience, seldom wore uniforms, and could only with difficulty be persuaded to witness a review. _START_SECTION_ Relations with the Holy See _START_PARAGRAPH_ During the early years of Charles' reign the Neapolitan court was engaged in a dispute with the Holy See. The Kingdom of Naples was an ancient fief of the Papal States. For this reason, Pope Clement XII considered himself the only one entitled to invest the king of Naples. He did not recognise Charles of Bourbon as a legitimate sovereign. Through the apostolic nuncio, the Pope let Charles know he did not consider valid the nomination received by him from Charles' father, the King of Spain. In response, a committee headed by the Tuscan lawyer Bernardo Tanucci in Naples concluded that papal investiture was not necessary because the crowning of a king could not be considered a sacrament. Tanucci also implemented a policy of substantially limiting the privileges of the clergy, whose vast possessions enjoyed tax exemption and their own jurisdiction. However, the Neapolitan government also made conciliatory gestures, such as forbidding the return home of the exiled historian Pietro Giannone, unwelcome to the ecclesiastical hierarchy._NEWLINE_The situation worsened when, in 1735, just a few days before the coronation of Charles, the Pope chose to accept the traditional offering of Hackney from the Emperor rather than from Charles. The "Hackney" was a white mare and a sum of money which the King of Naples offered the Pope as feudal homage every 29 June, feast of Saints Peter and Paul. The reason for this choice was that Charles had not yet been recognized as ruler of the Kingdom of Naples by a treaty of peace, and so the Emperor was still de jure King of Naples. In addition, receiving the Hackney from the Empire was common, while receiving it from a Bourbon was a novelty. The Pope, therefore, considered the first option a less dramatic gesture, and in doing so provoked the wrath of the religious Spanish infante._NEWLINE_Meanwhile, Charles had landed in Sicily. Although the Bourbon conquest of the island was not complete, he was crowned King of the Two Sicilies ("utriusque Siciliae rex") on 3 July in the ancient Cathedral of Palermo, after having travelled overland to Palmi, and by sea from Palmi to Palermo. The coronation bypassed the authority of the Pope thanks to the apostolic legation of Sicily, a medieval privilege which ensured the island a special legal autonomy from the Church. Thus, the papal legate did not attend the ceremony as Charles would have wanted._NEWLINE_In March 1735 a new discord developed between Rome and Naples. In Rome, it was discovered that the Bourbons had confined Roman citizens in the basement of Palazzo Farnese, which was the personal property of the King Charles; people were brought there to impress them into the newborn Neapolitan army. Thousands of inhabitants in the town of Trastevere stormed the palace to liberate them. The riot then degenerated into pillage. Next, the crowd directed itself toward the embassy of Spain in Piazza di Spagna. During the clashes that followed, several Bourbon soldiers were killed including an officer. The disturbances spread to the town of Velletri where the population attacked Spanish troops on the road to Naples._NEWLINE_The episode was perceived as a serious affront to the Bourbon court. Consequently, the Spanish and Neapolitan ambassadors left Rome, while apostolic nuncios were dismissed from Madrid and Naples. Regiments of Bourbon troops invaded the Papal States. The threat was such that some of the gates of Rome were barred and the civil guard was doubled. Velletri was occupied and forced to pay 8000 crowns for the occupation. Ostia was sacked, while Palestrina avoided the same fate by the payment of a ransom of 16000 crowns._NEWLINE_The commission of cardinals to whom the case was assigned decided to send a delegation of prisoners of Trastevere and Velletri to Naples as reparations. The papal subjects were punished with just a few days in jail and then, after seeking royal pardon, were granted it. The Neapolitan king subsequently managed to iron out his differences with the Pope, after long negotiations, through the mediation of its ambassador in Rome, Cardinal Acquaviva, the archbishop Giuseppe Spinelli and the chaplain Celestino Galiani. Agreement was achieved on 12 May 1738._NEWLINE_After the death of Pope Clement in 1740, he was replaced by Pope Benedict XIV, who the following year allowed the creation of a concordat with the Kingdom of Naples. This allowed the taxation of certain property of the clergy, the reduction of the number of the ecclesiasticals and the limitation of their immunity and autonomy of justice via the creation of a mixed tribunal. _START_SECTION_ War of the Austrian Succession _START_PARAGRAPH_ The peace between Charles and Austria was signed in Vienna in 1740. That year, Emperor Charles died leaving his Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary (along with many other lands) to his daughter Maria Theresa; he had hoped the many signatories to the Pragmatic Sanction would not interfere with this succession. However, this was not the case, and the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. France was allied with Spain and Prussia, all of whom were against Maria Theresa. Maria Theresa was supported by Great Britain, ruled by George II, and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was then ruled by Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia._NEWLINE_Charles had wanted to stay neutral during the conflict, but his father wanted him to join in and gather troops to aid the French. Charles arranged for 10,000 Spanish soldiers to go to Italy under the control of Duke of Castropignano, but they were obliged to retreat when British forces under Commodore William Martin threatened to bombard the port of Naples if they did not stay out of the conflict._NEWLINE_The decision to remain neutral was again revived and was poorly received by the French and his father in Spain. Charles' parents encouraged him to take arms as his brother Infante Felipe had done. After publishing a proclamation on 25 March 1744 reassuring its subjects, Charles took the command of an army against the Austrian armies of the prince of Lobkowitz, who were at that point marching for the Neapolitan border._NEWLINE_In order to oppose the small but powerful pro-Austrian party in Naples, a new council was formed under the direction of Tanucci that resulted in the arrest of more than 800 people. In April Maria Theresa addressed the Neapolitans with a proclamation in which she promised pardons and other benefits for those who rose against the "usurpers", meaning the Bourbons._NEWLINE_The participation of Naples and Sicily in the conflict resulted, on 11 August in the decisive Battle of Velletri, where Neapolitan troops directed by Charles and the Duke of Castropignano, and Spanish troops under the Count of Pledges, defeated the Austrians of Lobkowitz, who retreated with heavy losses. The courage shown by Charles caused the King of Sardinia, his enemy, to write that "he revealed a worthy consistency of his blood and that he behaved gloriously"._NEWLINE_The victory at Velletri assured Charles the right to give the title Duke of Parma to his younger brother Infante Felipe. This was recognised in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle signed in 1748; it was not until the next year that Infante Felipe would officially be the Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla. _START_SECTION_ Accession to the Spanish throne _START_PARAGRAPH_ At the end of 1758, Charles' half brother Ferdinand VI was displaying the same symptoms of depression that their father used to suffer from. Ferdinand lost his devoted wife, Barbara of Portugal, in August 1758 and fell into deep mourning for her. He named Charles his heir presumptive on 10 December 1758 before leaving Madrid to stay at Villaviciosa de Odón, where he died on 10 August 1759._NEWLINE_At that point, Charles was proclaimed King of Spain under the name of Charles III of Spain, respecting the third Treaty of Vienna, which stated he would not be able to join the Neapolitan and Sicilian territories to the Spanish throne. He was later given the title of Lord of the Two Sicilies. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, that Charles had not ratified, foresaw the eventuality of his accession to Spain; thus Naples and Sicily went to his brother Philip, Duke of Parma, while the possessions of the latter were divided between Maria Theresa (Parma and Guastalla) and the King of Sardinia (Plaisance)._NEWLINE_Determined to maintain the hold of his descendants on the court of Naples, Charles undertook lengthy diplomatic negotiations with Maria Theresa, and in 1758 the two signed the Fourth Treaty of Versailles, by which Austria formally renounced the Italian Duchies. Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, however continued to pressure on the possible gain of Plaisance and even threatened to occupy it._NEWLINE_In order to defend the Duchy of Parma from Charles Emmanuel's threats, Charles deployed troops on the borders of the Papal States. Thanks to the mediation of Louis XV, Charles Emmanuel renounced his claims to Plaisance in exchange for financial compensation. Charles thus assured the succession of one of his sons and, at the same time, reduced Charles Emmanuel's ambitions. According to Domenico Caracciolo, this was "a fatal blow to the hopes and designs of the king of Sardinia"._NEWLINE_The eldest son of Charles, Infante Philip, Duke of Calabria, had learning difficulties and was thus taken out of the line of succession to any throne; he died in Portici where he had been born in 1747. The title of Prince of Asturias was given to Charles, the second-born. The right of succession to Naples and Sicily was reserved for his third son, Ferdinand; he would stay in Italy while his father was in Spain. Charles' formally abdicated the crowns of Naples and Sicily on 6 October 1759 in favor of Ferdinand. Charles left his son's education and care to a regency council which was composed of eight members. This council would govern the kingdom until the young king was 16 years old._NEWLINE_Charles and his wife arrived in Barcelona on 7 October 1759. _START_SECTION_ Ruler of Spain _START_PARAGRAPH_ Unlike his twenty years in the Italian Peninsula, which had been very fruitful, the era on mainland Spain is often regarded with less joy. Internal politics, as well as diplomatic relationships with other countries underwent complete reform. Charles represented a new type of ruler, who followed Enlightened absolutism. This was a form of absolute monarchy or despotism in which rulers embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. Charles shared these ideals with other monarchs, including Maria Theresa of Austria, her son Joseph, and Catherine the Great of Russia._NEWLINE_The principles of the Enlightenment were applied to his rule in Naples, and he intended to do the same in Spain though on a much larger scale. Charles went about his reform along with the help of the Marquis of Esquilache, Count of Aranda, Count of Campomanes, Count of Floridablanca, Ricardo Wall and the Genoan aristocrat Jerónimo Grimaldi. Thanks to these principles, Charles III decided to forbid bullfighting, a practice he regarded as brutal and uncivilized._NEWLINE_The first crisis that Charles had to deal with was the death of his beloved wife Maria Amalia. She died unexpectedly at the Palace of Buen Retiro on the eastern outskirts of Madrid, aged 35, on 27 September 1760. She was buried at the El Escorial in the royal crypt. _START_SECTION_ Conflicts _START_PARAGRAPH_ The traditional friendship with France brought about the idea that the power of Great Britain would decrease and that of Spain and France would do the opposite; this alliance was marked by a Family Compact signed on 15 August 1761 (called the "Treaty of Paris"). Charles had become deeply concerned that British success in the Seven Years War would destroy the balance of power, and they would soon seek to conquer the Spanish Empire as they had done the French._NEWLINE_In early 1762, Spain entered the war. The major Spanish objectives to invade Portugal and capture Jamaica were both failures. Britain and Portugal not only repulsed the Spanish attack on Portugal, but captured the cities of Havana and Manila. Charles III wanted to keep fighting the following year, but he was persuaded by the French leadership to stop. The Treaty of Paris (1763) required Spain to cede Florida to Great Britain in exchange for the return of Havana and Manila. This was partly compensated by the acquisition of a portion of Louisiana given by France as a compensation for Spain's war losses._NEWLINE_In the Falklands Crisis of 1770 the Spanish came close to war with Great Britain after expelling the British garrison of the Falkland Islands. However Spain was forced to back down when the British Royal Navy was mobilised and France declined to support Spain._NEWLINE_Continuing territorial disputes with Portugal led to the First Treaty of San Ildefonso, on 1 October 1777, in which Spain got Colonia del Sacramento, in present-day Uruguay, and the Misiones Orientales, in present-day Brazil, but not the western regions of Brazil, and also the Treaty of El Pardo, on 11 March 1778, in which Spain again conceded that Portuguese Brazil had expanded far west of the longitude specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas, and in return Portugal ceded present-day Equatorial Guinea to Spain._NEWLINE_The rivalry with Britain also led him to support the American revolutionaries in their War of Independence despite his misgivings about the example it would set for the Spanish Colonies. During the war, Spain recovered Menorca and British West Florida in military campaigns, but failed to regain Gibraltar. Spanish military operations in West Florida and on the Mississippi River helped the Thirteen Colonies secure their southern and western frontiers from British attack. The capture of Nassau in the Bahamas enabled Spain to also recover East Florida during peace negotiations. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 confirmed the recovery of the Floridas and Menorca, and restricted the actions of British commercial interests in Central America. _START_SECTION_ Political policies _START_PARAGRAPH_ His internal government was, on the whole, beneficial to the country. He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give up emptying their slops out of the windows, and when they objected he said they were like children who cried when their faces were washed. At the time of his accession to Spain, Charles named secretary to the Finances and Treasurer, Marquis of Esquillache and both realised many reforms. The Spanish Army and Navy were reorganised despite the losses from the Seven Years War._NEWLINE_Charles also eliminated the tax on flour generally liberalised most commerce. Despite this action, it provoked the overlord to charge high prices because of the "monopolizers", speculating on the bad harvests of the previous years. On 23 March 1766, his attempt to force the madrileños to adopt French dress for public security reasons was the excuse for a riot (Motín de Esquilache) during which he did not display much personal courage. For a long time after, he remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands of his minister Count of Aranda. Not all his reforms were of this formal kind._NEWLINE_The Count of Campomanes tried to show Charles that the true leaders of the revolt against Esquilache were the Jesuits. The wealth and power of the Jesuits was very large; and by the royal decree of 27 February 1767, known as the Pragmatic Penalty of 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, and all their possessions were confiscated. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and the memory of his with the Pope while he was King of Naples turned him towards a general policy of restriction of what he saw as the overgrown power of the Church. The number of reputedly idle clergy, and more particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the Spanish Inquisition, though not abolished, was rendered torpid._NEWLINE_In the meantime, much antiquated legislation which tended to restrict trade and industry was abolished; roads, canals and drainage works were established. Many of his paternal ventures led to little more than waste of money, or the creation of hotbeds of jobbery; yet on the whole the country prospered. The result was largely due to the king, who even when he was ill-advised did at least work steadily at his task of government._NEWLINE_Charles also sought to reform Spanish colonial policy, in order to make Spain's colonies more competitive with the plantations of the French Antilles (particularly the French colony of Saint-Domingue) and Portuguese Brazil. This resulted in the creation of the "Códigos Negros Españoles", or Spanish Black Codes. The Black Codes, which were partly based on the French Code Noir and 13th-century Castilian Siete Partidas, aimed to establish greater legal control over slaves in the Spanish colonies, in order to expand agricultural production. The first code was written for the city of Santo Domingo in 1768, while the second code was written for the recently acquired Spanish territory of Louisiana in 1769. The third code, which was named the "Código Negro Carolino" after Charles himself, divided the freed black and slave populations of Santo Domingo into strictly stratified socio-economic classes._NEWLINE_In Spain, he continued with his work trying to improve the services and facilities of his people. He created the Luxury Porcelain factory under the name of Real Fábrica del Buen Retiro in 1760; Crystal followed at the Real Fábrica de Cristales de La Granja and then there was the Real Fábrica de Platería Martínez in 1778. During his reign, the areas of Asturias and Catalonia industrialised quickly and produced much revenue for the Spanish economy. He then turned to the foreign economy looking towards his colonies in the Americas. In particular, he looked at the finances of the Philippines and encouraged commerce with the United States, starting in 1778. He also carried out a number of public works; he had the Imperial Canal of Aragon constructed, as well a number of routes that led to the capital of Madrid, which is located in the centre of Spain. Other cities were improved during his reign; Seville for example saw the introduction of many new structures such as hospitals and the Archivo General de Indias. In Madrid he was nicknamed the Best Mayor of Madrid, "el rey alcalde". Charles was responsible for granting the title "Royal University" to the University of Santo Tomás in Manila, which is the oldest in Asia._NEWLINE_In the capital, he also had the famous Puerta de Alcalá constructed along with the statue of Alcachofa fountain, and moved and redesigned the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid. He had the present National Art Museum of Queen Sofia (named in honour of the present Queen of Spain, born Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark) built, as well as the renowned Museo del Prado. At Aranjuez he added wings to the palace._NEWLINE_He created the Spanish Lottery and introduced Christmas cribs following Neapolitan models. During his reign, the movement to found "Economic Societies" (an early form of Chamber of Commerce) was born._NEWLINE_The example of his actions and works was not without effect on other Spanish nobles. In his domestic life, King Charles was regular, and was a considerate master, though he had a somewhat caustic tongue and took a rather cynical view of humanity. He was passionately fond of hunting. During his later years he had some trouble with his eldest son and daughter-in-law._NEWLINE_The Royal Palace of Madrid had undergone much alteration under his rule. It was in his reign that the huge Comedor de gala (Gala Dining room) was built during the years of 1765–1770; the room took the place of the old apartments of Queen Maria Amalia. He died in the palace on 14 December 1788._NEWLINE_He was buried at the Pantheon of the Kings located at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial. _START_SECTION_ Birth of a nation _START_PARAGRAPH_ Under Charles' reign, Spain began to be recognised as a nation rather than a collection of kingdoms and territories with a common sovereign. His efforts resulted in creation of a national anthem, a flag, a capital city worthy of the name, and the construction of a network of coherent roads converging on Madrid. On 3 September 1770 Charles III declared that the Marcha Real was to be used in official ceremonies. It was Charles who chose the colours of the present flag of Spain; red and yellow. The flag of the military navy was introduced by the king on 28 May 1785. Until then, Spanish vessels sported the white flag of the Bourbons with the arms of the sovereign. This was replaced by Charles due to his concern that it looked too similar to the flags of other nations._NEWLINE_The arms used by Charles while King of Spain were used until 1931 when his great great great grandson Alphonso XIII lost the crown, and the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed (there was also a brief interruption from 1873–75). Felipe VI of Spain, Spain's current monarch, is a direct male line descendant of the "rey alcalde". Juan Carlos I is a descendant of Charles by four of his great grandparents, and is also a descendant of Maria Theresa of Austria.

62063319886592814

Q64918

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles II August, Duke of Zweibrücken _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles was born in Düsseldorf, the oldest of five children of Frederick Michael, Count Palatine of Birkenfeld-Bishwiller-Rappoltstein and Countess Palatine Maria Franziska of Sulzbach. His father converted to his mother's Roman Catholic faith shortly after his birth, he and his siblings being raised in that denomination. He inherited the duchy of Zweibrücken from his paternal uncle, Duke Christian IV, in 1775. He was heir presumptive to his childless cousin Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria whom, however, he predeceased. He ceded to his younger brother Maximilian Joseph the county of Rappoltstein in 1776, having inherited it when their father died in 1767. _START_SECTION_ Rejected suitor _START_PARAGRAPH_ He wanted to marry Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria, the eighth child of Empress Maria Theresa. He was well known in the Austrian court, and Maria Amalia was also in love with him. However, Maria Theresa deemed him of insufficient rank to marry an archduchess. Moreover, she wanted to strengthen Austria's alliance with the House of Bourbon by marrying a daughter to Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, a grandson of the French king, Louis XV. This was to be Maria Amalia, due to the death of another daughter, Maria Josepha._NEWLINE_Maria Amalia's older brother, Emperor Joseph II, also favored the marriage of his sister to the Duke of Parma, who was the younger brother of his beloved wife, Isabella. So in 1769, Maria Amalia was married to Ferdinand against her will. This decision not only permanently embittered Charles against the Empress and Austria but also Maria Amalia against her mother. _START_SECTION_ Bavarian claims _START_PARAGRAPH_ His cousin Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria, died without children in December 1777. Their mutual cousin, Charles Theodore of Sulzbach, then Elector Palatine, succeeded Maximilian Joseph as prince elector. However, Charles Theodore had no legitimate children to inherit his combined holdings in Bavaria and the Palatinate, so Charles August became the heir to the Wittelsbach territories of: Zweibrucken (his own duchy), the duchies of Neuburg, Sulzbach, Julich and Berg, in addition to the electorates of the Palatinate and Bavaria (though exercising only one electoral vote in the College of Electors, as stipulated in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648). Charles Theodore preferred the Palatinate and therefore tried to exchange parts of his Bavarian inheritance with Joseph II of Austria in return for parts of the Austrian Netherlands. Although Charles Theodore would have preferred to exchange the entire complex of territories of Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands, the Austrian court would not countenance an outright exchange and a final arrangement was never concluded._NEWLINE_Charles August, being next in line for the Bavarian territories, objected strenuously. He obtained the active support of Frederick the Great of Prussia and the Elector Frederick Augustus III of Saxony. The French government under Foreign Minister Vergennes passively supported Charles II August despite France's formal alliance with Austria._NEWLINE_The War of the Bavarian Succession was resolved without prolonged fighting; Charles Theodore succeeded in all of Bavaria except for the district east of the Inn River, known as the Innviertel, assigned to Austria by the Peace of Teschen (May 1779). A second attempt to make the exchange in 1784 was also opposed by Charles August, again with Prussian support, and also failed. However, Charles Theodore outlived Charles August who, dying in 1795 without sons, left his claim to Bavaria to his brother, Maximilian Joseph, who would succeed in vastly enlarging that realm and, in 1806, becoming its king. _START_SECTION_ Marriage _START_PARAGRAPH_ In Dresden in 1774, Charles married Maria Amalia of Saxony, daughter of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony (and granddaughter of Emperor Charles VII, Elector of Bavaria). Their only child, Charles Augustus Frederick, died at the age of eight on 21 August 1784. Upon the death of Charles II August the title of Duke of Zweibrücken was inherited by his brother Maximilian, the first of many to which he would succeed._NEWLINE_Charles August was the principal owner of the famous Karlsberg Castle. He died at Mannheim in 1795.

2836100200249857544

Q365218

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles M. Schwab _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Schwab, was born in Williamsburg, Pennsylvania, the son of Pauline (née Farabaugh) and John Anthony Schwab. All four of his grandparents were Roman Catholic immigrants from Germany. Schwab was raised in Loretto, Pennsylvania, which he considered his home town. _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Schwab began his career as an engineer in Andrew Carnegie's steelworks, starting as a stake-driver in the engineering corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Furnaces in Braddock, Pennsylvania. He was promoted often, including to the positions of general superintendent of the Homestead Works in 1887 and general superintendent of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works in 1890. In 1897, at only 35 years of age, he became president of the Carnegie Steel Company. In 1901, he helped negotiate the secret sale of Carnegie Steel to a group of New York–based financiers led by J. P. Morgan. After the buyout, Schwab became the first president of the U.S. Steel Corporation, the company formed out of Carnegie's former holdings. _NEWLINE_After several clashes with Morgan and fellow US Steel executive Elbert Gary, Schwab left USS in 1903 to run the Bethlehem Shipbuilding and Steel Company in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. The company had gained shipyards in California, Delaware, and New Jersey through its brief but fortunate involvement as one of the few solvent enterprises in United States Shipbuilding Company. Under his leadership (and that of Eugene Grace), it became the largest independent steel producer in the world. A major part of Bethlehem Steel's success was the development of the H-beam, a precursor of today's ubiquitous I-beam. Schwab was interested in mass-producing the wide flange steel beam, but that was a risky venture that required raising capital and building a large new plant, all to make a product whose ability to sell was unproven. In his most famous remark, Schwab told his secretary, "I've thought the whole thing over, and if we are going bust, we will go bust big."_NEWLINE_In 1908, Bethlehem Steel began making the beam, which revolutionized building construction and contributed to the age of the skyscraper. Its success helped make Bethlehem Steel the second-largest steel company in the world. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was incorporated, virtually as a company town, by uniting four previous villages. In 1910, Schwab broke the Bethlehem Steel strike by calling out the newly formed Pennsylvania State Police. Schwab successfully kept labor unions out of Bethlehem Steel throughout his tenure (although Bethlehem Steel unionized in 1941, two years after his death). _NEWLINE_In 1911, Bethlehem Steel formed a company soccer team known as Bethlehem Steel F.C. In 1914 Schwab took the team professional. Until its demise in 1930, the team won eight league championships, six American Cups and five National Challenge Cups. It was considered among the greatest soccer teams in U.S. history. The company disbanded the team as a result of financial losses incurred during the internecine 1928–1929 "Soccer Wars" between American Soccer League and United States Football Association and the onset of the Great Depression in 1929._NEWLINE_During the first years of World War I, Bethlehem Steel had a virtual monopoly in contracts to supply the Allies with certain kinds of munitions. Schwab made many visits to Europe in connection with the manufacture and supply of munitions to the Allied governments, during this period. He circumvented American neutrality laws by funneling goods through Canada._NEWLINE_On April 16, 1918, Schwab became Director General of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, a board granted by Congress with master authority over all shipbuilding in the United States. He was appointed over Charles Piez, the former general manager of the corporation. President Wilson had specifically asked Schwab to assume this responsibility. Schwab's biggest change to the shipbuilding effort was to abandon the cost plus profit contracting system that had been in place up to that time and begin issuing fixed-price contracts. After America's entry into the war, he was accused of profiteering but was later acquitted._NEWLINE_Schwab was considered to be a risk taker and was highly controversial (Thomas Edison once famously called him the "master hustler"). Schwab's lucrative contract providing steel to the Trans-Siberian Railroad came after he provided a $200,000 "gift" to the mistress of the Grand Duke Alexis Aleksandrovich._NEWLINE_His innovative ways of dealing with his staff are given a mention in Dale Carnegie's most famous work, How to Win Friends and Influence People (1936). In 1928, Schwab was awarded the Bessemer Gold Medal for "outstanding services to the steel industry". In 1932 he was awarded the Melchett Medal by the British Institute of Fuel In 1982, Schwab was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame. In 2011 Schwab was inducted into the inaugural class of the American Metal Market Steel Hall of Fame (http://www.amm.com/HOF-Profile/CharlesSchwab.html) for his lifelong work in the US steel industry. _START_SECTION_ Personal life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Schwab married Emma Eurana Dinkey (1859–1939) on May 1, 1883. Mrs. Schwab had lived in Weatherly, Pennsylvania and donated $85,000 to build a school there._NEWLINE_Schwab eventually became very wealthy. He moved to New York City's Upper West Side, which at the time was considered the "wrong" side of Central Park, where he built "Riverside", the most ambitious private house ever built in New York. The US$7 million 75-room house, designed by French architect Maurice Hebert, combined details from three French chateaux on a full city block. After Schwab's death, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia turned down a proposal to make Riverside the official mayoral residence, deeming it too grandiose. It was eventually razed and replaced by an apartment block._NEWLINE_Schwab also owned a 44-room summer estate on 1,000 acres (4 km²) in Loretto, Pennsylvania, called "Immergrün" (German for "evergreen"). The house featured opulent gardens and a nine-hole golf course. Rather than raze the existing house, Schwab had the mansion moved 200 feet on rollers to a new location to make room for the new mansion. Schwab's estate sold Immergrün after his death, and it is now Mount Assisi Friary on the grounds of Saint Francis University._NEWLINE_Schwab became notorious for his "fast lane" lifestyle including opulent parties, high-stakes gambling, and a string of extramarital affairs producing at least one child out of wedlock. The affairs and the out-of-wedlock child soured his relationship with his wife. He became an international celebrity when he "broke the bank" at Monte Carlo and traveled in a $100,000 private rail car named "Loretto". Even before the Great Depression, he had already spent most of his fortune, estimated at between $25 million and $40 million. Adjusted for inflation, that equates to between $500 million and $800 million in the first decade of the 21st century._NEWLINE_The stock market crash of 1929 finished off what years of wanton spending had started. He spent his last years in a small apartment. He could no longer afford the taxes on "Riverside" and it was seized by creditors. He had offered to sell the mansion at a huge loss but there were no buyers. At his death ten years later, Schwab's holdings in Bethlehem Steel were virtually worthless, and he was over US$300,000 in debt. Had he lived a few more years, he would have seen his fortunes restored when Bethlehem Steel was flooded with orders for war material. He was buried in Loretto at Saint Michael's Cemetery in a private mausoleum with his wife. Schwab had no children by Eurana Dinkey, but had one daughter by a mistress._NEWLINE_A bust-length portrait of Schwab painted in 1903 by Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862–1947) was formerly in the Jessica Dragonette Collection at the American Heritage Center at the University of Wyoming at Laramie, but has been donated to the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. Müller-Ury also painted his nephew and namesake Charles M. Schwab (son of his brother Joseph) as a boy in a sailor suit around the same date.

16845679736536014997

Q5080908

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Meredith (politician) _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Meredith (29 May 1811 – 2 March 1880) was an Australian Grazier and Politician, Tasmanian Colonial Treasurer for several years in the mid-to-late 19th century. _START_SECTION_ Early life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Meredith was born at Poyston Lodge, Pembroke, Wales, the youngest son of George Meredith and his wife, Sarah Westall Hicks. He was descended in a direct line from the last kings of Wales. His father saw service in the royal marines during the Napoleonic wars, and later decided to emigrate to Van Diemen's Land (later called Tasmania). He arrived at Hobart with his father, wife and family on 18 March 1821 and became one of the best known of the early pioneers. Charles assisted his father in farming in Tasmania for some time._NEWLINE_In 1834 Meredith went to New South Wales and took up land on the Murrumbidgee River after being denied a grant of land by Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur. He visited England in 1838 and on 18 April 1839 married his cousin, Louisa Anne Twamley. On his return to Australia he spent two years in New South Wales, but it was a depressed period and he made heavy losses. He then went to Tasmania, and in 1843 was appointed a police magistrate at Port Sorell in the north-west. _START_SECTION_ Political career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Meredith became a member of the original Tasmanian Legislative Council and was elected for Glamorgan in the first house of assembly in 1856. He was colonial treasurer in the Thomas Gregson ministry for two months in 1857, and held the same position in the James Whyte ministry from January 1863 to November 1866. He was opposition leader 1862–63 and November 1866–72. He held the lands and works portfolios in the Frederick Innes cabinet from November 1872 to August 1873, and was again colonial treasurer in the Thomas Reibey ministry from July 1876 to August 1877. In total, he was in parliament almost 24 years and was a member of the executive council for 17 years. _START_SECTION_ Late life and legacy _START_PARAGRAPH_ Meredith resigned his seat on account of ill-health in 1879, and died at Launceston, Tasmania, on 2 March 1880. His wife and children survived him._NEWLINE_Meredith was one of the few Tasmanians whose name has been publicly commemorated; a mountain range in north-east Tasmania is named for him and a fountain in his memory was erected in the Queen's domain, Hobart, in 1885.

8040340501754954203

Q5081011

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Mole _START_SECTION_ Career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Mole was born in 1886 in Broadhempston in the English county of Devon. He was initially educated at Lipson Grammar School in Plymouth. _NEWLINE_In 1911, he began working for the Office of Works, which later became the Ministry of Works. Amongst other things, he was involved in the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. For his work in the Office, he was made a Member of the Victorian Order (MVO) in 1937._NEWLINE_In 1944, Mole became the Director of Works. Two years later, he was promoted to Director-General, a position he held until his retirement in 1958. During his tenure, he oversaw building and maintenance work of about £50m per year._NEWLINE_Mole was knighted in 1947 and made KBE in 1953._NEWLINE_He died at his home in Walton-on-Thames on 4 December 1962. _START_SECTION_ Personal life _START_PARAGRAPH_ Mole married Annie Martin in 1913. They had one son, Arthur, and two daughters.

1518956211984521303

Q1065941

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Rohlfs _START_SECTION_ Life and career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Rohlfs was born in Brooklyn and studied at the Cooper Union in Manhattan. As a young man, he worked as a stove pattern-maker while pursuing his career as an actor. He received several patents for stove designs, but had limited success as an actor. (Reading a review in 1895 in which a Chicago critic wrote, "His face is comedy, his spindling legs are comedy, and those ponderous double-jointed, floppy hands of his would be two separate and distinct boons to any eccentric comedian" - and Rohlfs was performing a serious role - may have been a turning point in his choice of careers.) He married the successful crime novelist Anna Katharine Green in 1884. After their marriage, he continued his career in the stove industry, and later made another attempt to establish his reputation as an actor. Rohlfs's father-in-law had been prominent in the Republican Party in New York City, and in 1896, Rohlfs participated in public debates in support of William McKinley's presidential campaign._NEWLINE_Rohlfs designed and made furniture for his family's use as early as 1888, but he did not commence his decade-long career as a professional furniture maker until 1897. Rohlfs had no professional training as a furniture maker. By century's end, Rohlfs had set up a shop on Washington Street in downtown Buffalo and began producing examples of what he called "artistic furniture" or the "Rohlfs style." Starting in 1899, Chicago retailer Marshall Field advertised and offered furniture and other decorative objects by Rohlfs, but sales fell short of expectations._NEWLINE_Rohlfs participated at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition at the National Arts Club in New York in December 1900. The next year, he participated both as an exhibitor and as an organizer of the Pan-American Exposition in his hometown of Buffalo. The Exposition brought him fame. "So far as furniture is concerned, Buffalo can claim to hold the most original man in America," one enthusiastic Berlin commentator wrote about Rohlfs' work. Rohlfs is the only American furniture maker known to have participated in the International Exposition of Decorative Art in Turin in 1902. Perhaps as a result of the exposure he received there, Rohlfs became a member of the Royal Society of Arts in London._NEWLINE_After he retired from furniture making around 1907, Rohlfs became a leader of the Chamber of Commerce in Buffalo. He actively campaigned for child labor reform and was an advocate of the metric system._NEWLINE_An art critic writes, "The photographs in the exhibition of the house that the Rohlfs designed and build [i.e., built] at 156 Park St. (still extant) in 1912 reveal a sense of structural harmony between woodwork and furniture that sidesteps typical Victorian clutter."_NEWLINE_He died on June 30, 1936 in Buffalo, New York. _START_SECTION_ Family _START_PARAGRAPH_ Rohlfs and Anna Katharine Green had one daughter and two sons. Sterling Rohlfs, a ranch manager, died piloting a private plane over Mexico in 1928. After World War I, Roland Rohlfs was a record-holding test pilot. _START_SECTION_ Works _START_PARAGRAPH_ An exhibition, entitled The Artistic Furniture of Charles Rohlfs, was organized by the Milwaukee Art Museum, Chipstone Foundation and American Decorative Art 1900 Foundation. From 2009 to 2011, the exhibition was presented at the Milwaukee Art Museum, Dallas Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Art, Huntington Art Collections and Metropolitan Museum of Art._NEWLINE_Works by Charles Rohlfs are included in the collections of the Art Institute of Chicago, Brooklyn Museum, Carnegie Museum of Art, Dallas Museum of Art, Detroit Institute of Arts, High Museum of Art, Huntington Art Collections, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Milwaukee Art Museum, Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute, Museum of Fine Arts-Boston, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Princeton University Art Museum, Saint Louis Art Museum, Toledo Museum of Art, Virginia Museum of Fine Art and Wolfsonian-FIU._NEWLINE_During the Philadelphia edition of Antiques Roadshow in November 2007, a mahogany chair designed by Rohlfs was appraised for between $80,0000 - $120,000 dollars. _START_SECTION_ Books _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Rohlfs's life and work are covered in the monographic book The Artistic Furniture of Charles Rohlfs (Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-13909-9), which received three book awards._NEWLINE_The same topics fill the book Drama in Design: The Life and Craft of Charles Rohlfs, by Michael L. James, published on the occasion of the Burchfield Art Center's exhibition "The Craftsmanship of Charles Rohlfs."

16309864604634359631

Q21751027

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Searles _START_SECTION_ Education and career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Searles received the Cresson Traveling Scholarship and the Ware Traveling Memorial Scholarships which allowed him to travel to Nigeria, Ghana, and Morocco in 1972. Upon his return he created a series of works titled Nigerian Impressions. One notable work painted in 1972 was Filas for Sale which depicted colorful images of masks and patterns that fill the frame of the painting. He received his first commission when he was asked to paint a mural at the William H. Green Federal Building in Philadelphia in 1974. The work Celebration, a study for that mural, is owned by the Smithsonian American Art Museum but is not currently on view. It is a 27 1/2 x 81 3/4 in acrylic on canvas work that depicts masked dancers and colorful figures. Charles Searles was often inspired by music, and his Dancers series in 1975 showcased his ability to portray movement in his work. His piece Dance of the Twin Souls is on display at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts Museum. He lived in Philadelphia until 1978, when he moved to New York City. In the 1980s he began working on a series of large sculptures including Warrior (1987) and Freedom's Gate (2000) which were between 8 and 10 feet tall. He died in 2004 and is survived by his wife, Kathleen Spicer. _START_SECTION_ New Black Artists _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Searles was featured in the exhibit "New Black Artists" which was on view at the Brooklyn Museum from October 7 – November 10, 1969. It included a total of 49 works, 30 paintings and 19 sculptures, by 12 artists: Ellsworth Ausby, Clifford Eubanks, Jr., Hugh Harrell, William J. Howell, Tonnie Jones, Charles McGee, Ted Moody, Joseph Overstreet, Anderson J. Pigatt, Daniel Pressley, Charles Searles and Erik W. A. Stephenson. The exhibit was then on display at Columbia University from November 20 – December 12, 1969. _START_SECTION_ Universal Reflections of Color and Rhythm _START_PARAGRAPH_ Searles's work was displayed posthumously in an exhibition at Winston-Salem State University's Diggs Gallery. The exhibit, which was on view from February 8 – March 31, 2009. The exhibition displayed over 60 works of art by Searles that he created at the end of his life including painting, sculptures, and drawings. _START_SECTION_ Charles Searles: The Mask of Abstraction _START_PARAGRAPH_ La Salle University featured 52 works of Searles that were on display from March 11 – May 31, 2013 at the La Salle University Art Museum. The exhibition showed works from throughout his life, beginning with his figure drawings from the 1960s, sculptures and paintings from the 1970s, and later abstract works. _START_SECTION_ Charles Searles: In Motion _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Tyler School of Art at Temple University displayed 17 large-scale paintings and sculptures by Searles from April 20 – June 16, 2013. The exhibition also featured a symposium by students who performed dance and visual art pieces inspired by Searles. _START_SECTION_ Expanding the Legacy: New Collections on African American Art _START_PARAGRAPH_ The papers of Charles Searles were featured in an exhibit on view at the Lawrence A. Fleischmann Gallery in Washington D.C. from September 23, 2016 - March 21, 0217. The exhibition included papers, drawings, notebooks, and other materials from artists such as Henry Ossawa Tanner, Kehinde Wiley, and Alma Thomas. It showcased how these artists experienced and explored cultural identity, racism, and major political events in their personal writing.

8858763577095607396

Q2960229

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Shaar Murray _START_SECTION_ Biography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Murray grew up in Reading, Berkshire, England, where he attended Reading School and learnt to play the harmonica and guitar. His first experience in journalism came in 1970, when he was one of a number of schoolchildren who responded to an invitation to edit the April issue of the satirical magazine Oz. He thus contributed to the notorious Schoolkids OZ issue and was involved in the consequent obscenity trial. _NEWLINE_He then wrote for IT (International Times), before moving to the New Musical Express in 1972 for which he wrote until around 1986. He subsequently worked for a number of publications including Q magazine, Mojo, MacUser, New Statesman, Prospect, The Guardian, The Observer, The Daily Telegraph, Vogue, and The Independent. He currently writes a monthly column about his lifelong love affair with guitars in Guitarist magazine. _START_SECTION_ Performance _START_PARAGRAPH_ Murray also sang and played guitar and harmonica as Blast Furnace in the band Blast Furnace and the Heatwaves and currently performs with London blues band Crosstown Lightnin'.

8868910690749676543

Q5083258

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles W. Steger _START_SECTION_ Accomplishments as president _START_PARAGRAPH_ Steger's early years as president focused on expanding Virginia Tech's continuing education and outreach programs beyond the main Blacksburg campus. Under his administration, Virginia Tech created the Center for European Studies and Architecture in Switzerland and the Washington-Alexandria Center for Architecture near Washington, D.C. Steger was also instrumental in the creation of Virginia Tech's Public Service Office in downtown Richmond._NEWLINE_Most recently, Steger's administration was instrumental in the establishment of the Virginia Bioinformatics Institute which will focus on research efforts to end disease, expand the world's food supply, and environmental protection. In an effort to draw many research and outreach activities together, Steger's administration also created the Virginia Tech Institute for Information Technology. _START_SECTION_ Awards and appointments _START_PARAGRAPH_ Steger was appointed to the Governor's Commission on Population Growth and Development. He also served on the Board of Trustees of Hollins University. In addition to his duties as Virginia Tech president, he also served as president of the Endowment Foundation Center in the Square in Roanoke, Virginia. Steger also was a director on the Boswil Foundation in Zürich, Switzerland. The Swiss Ambassador to the United States and the World Bank asked Steger to serve on a committee to establish a foundation in the United States to conduct research on mitigating global natural disasters._NEWLINE_Steger was inducted into the College of Fellows of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1990, and received the Distinguished Achievement Award of the Virginia Society of AIA in 1996. He received the Outstanding Fund Raising Executive Award given by the First Virginia Chapter of the National Society of Fund Raising Executives at its 1999 National Philanthropy Day Awards Dinner. _START_SECTION_ Virginia Tech shooting _START_PARAGRAPH_ Steger was President during the Virginia Tech shootings of April 16, 2007, in which 32 people were killed and another 17 were injured by Seung-Hui Cho in two buildings on opposite sides of the sprawling campus. Cho's killings became the deadliest single-perpetrator civilian shooting in U.S. history. Steger called the shootings "a tragedy of monumental proportions." In the report produced by a state appointed commission to review response by university, local, state, and federal agencies to the unfolding incident focused its criticism on the mental health system which failed Cho but also noted that "senior university administrators, acting as the emergency Policy Group, failed to issue an all-campus notification about the first two killings in a dormitory until almost two hours had elapsed. University practice may have conflicted with written policies."_NEWLINE_Nearly two-and-a-half hours after the first two killings, after leaving the Virginia Tech campus and walking to the Blacksburg Post Office to mail his manifesto to MSNBC, Cho chained the doors of Norris Hall and opened fire. He took the lives of 30 more students and faculty members before killing himself as police stormed the building._NEWLINE_Steger, along with several other Virginia Tech officials, was personally named a defendant in lawsuits filed against the Commonwealth of Virginia by the families of two of the deceased victims of the Virginia Tech massacre, though Steger was later dismissed from the case. In 2012 Jurors in Montgomery County Circuit Court ruled that the state was negligent in the deaths of Julia Pryde and Erin Peterson. The jury panel awarded the parents of Pryde and Peterson $4 million each. The court later reduced the amount to $100,000 per family._NEWLINE_This judgement was overturned on appeal in a unanimous verdict by the Virginia Supreme Court on October 31, 2013. The justices wrote that “there was no duty for the Commonwealth to warn students about the potential for criminal acts by third parties. Therefore we will reverse the judgement of the circuit court.”

17427788173547500502

Q5083329

_START_ARTICLE_ Charles Walter Allfrey _START_SECTION_ Early life and military career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charles Walter Allfrey was born on 24 October 1895 in Southam, Northamptonshire, the youngest son of Captain Henry Allfrey, a British Army officer of the King's Royal Rifle Corps, and Kathleen Hankey. He entered the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. However, upon the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, he instead was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery on 11 August._NEWLINE_Promoted to lieutenant on 9 June 1915, during the war Allfrey was wounded twice. He served on the Western Front with the 94th Brigade, Royal Field Artillery, part of the 21st Division, a Kitchener's Army unit. He was promoted to the acting rank of captain on 5 January 1917, and was promoted to the substantive rank on 3 November 1917. Allfrey was awarded the Military Cross (MC) in 1918 for keeping his battery in action for an extended period of time, despite being under direct machine gun and artillery fire from the enemy. He was promoted to acting major on 17 December 1917 and reverted to his permanent rank of captain on 18 February 1919. _START_SECTION_ Between the wars _START_PARAGRAPH_ After the war, Allfrey served on regimental duties before becoming adjutant at the Army Equitation School, from 1925 to 1928, and was seconded to the Colonial Office, being later seconded to the Iraqi Army in November 1930. In Iraq, he won the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and, from October 1932 to November 1933, was employed with the British Military Mission to Iraq where he was Inspector Artillery to the Iraqi Army. He was brevetted to major on 1 January 1931 and promoted to the substantive rank on 10 August 1933. He was brevetted lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1935 and, in the same year, he married Geraldine Clare Lucas-Scudamore. They had two children, a son and a daughter. The following year Allfrey was appointed as a General staff Officer Grade 1 (GSO1) at the Staff College, Camberley from 1936 to 1939, despite never having attended as a student, and was promoted to the substantive rank of colonel on 6 August 1939, shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War. _START_SECTION_ France and Britain _START_PARAGRAPH_ At the start of the Second World War, in September, Allfrey held a senior staff position, as a GSO1, in the United Kingdom, continuing in this role in France with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). In February 1940, however, he returned to the United Kingdom to take up the post of Corps Commander Royal Artillery at II Corps, then commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Alan Brooke. On 19 July 1940, after having participated in the Battle of France and the Dunkirk evacuation, and after a brief spell as CCRA at IV Corps, under Lieutenant General Claude Auchinleck, he was promoted to the acting rank of major general to command Southwestern Area, Home Forces, part of Southern Command, which was responsible for the defence of the counties of Devon and Cornwall in the event of a German invasion, and was then, in the aftermath of Dunkirk, considered highly likely._NEWLINE_In late February 1941 Allfrey was ordered to form the Devon and Cornwall County Division, comprising the recently created 203rd, 209th and 211th Infantry Brigades (all formerly independent brigades), but with no supporting troops, with himself as its General Officer Commanding (GOC). However, within a week, he relinquished command of the division to Major General Frederick Morgan and ordered to take command of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, in succession to Major General Robert Pollok who was retiring. The division was a first-line Territorial Army (TA) formation stationed on the other side of the country in Kent on anti-invasion duties. He was promoted to temporary major general on 19 July 1941. The division was serving as part of XII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Andrew Thorne (replaced in April by Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery who in turn was replaced by Lieutenant General James Gammell in November), under South-Eastern Command and, like Allfrey's former command, was on anti-invasion duties and training to repel an invasion. Also serving in XII Corps were the 44th (Home Counties) and 56th (London) Divisions, commanded respectively by Major Generals Brian Horrocks and Montagu Stopford, both of whom had been among Allfrey's fellow instructors at the Staff College, Camberley before the war. However, with the arrival of Montgomery as the new corps commander, Allfrey's 43rd Division − comprising the 128th, 129th and 130th Infantry Brigades and divisional troops − was, throughout the year, put through highly intensive and strenuous training for offensive operations, as a result of which the division had been selected for overseas service, although this would not occur during Allfrey's reign as GOC._NEWLINE_In early March 1942, Allfrey handed over command of the 43rd Division to Major General Ivor Thomas, a fellow artilleryman, and was promoted to acting lieutenant general to become the GOC of V Corps in succession to Lieutenant General Edmond Schreiber. Aged just 46, this was a considerable tribute towards Allfrey and made him one of the youngest corps commanders in the British Army. V Corps, with the 38th (Welsh) and 47th (London) Infantry Divisions, commanded respectively by Major Generals Donald Butterworth and Gerald Templer (who had briefly been Allfrey's BGS), and the 214th Independent Infantry Brigade (Home) under command, was serving under Southern Command in a static beach defence role. However, it relinquished this role upon being sent to Scotland in July, where it took under command the 6th Armoured Division, under Major General Charles Keightley (who had been a fellow instructor at the Staff College some years before), and the 4th and 78th Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major Generals John Hawkesworth (another of Allfrey's fellow Staff College instructors) and Vyvyan Evelegh, respectively. Allfrey's V Corps was to form a major component of the First Army, under Lieutenant General Edmond Schreiber (replaced in August by Lieutenant General Kenneth Anderson), then being formed for participation in Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, scheduled for November. Training in Scotland continued until October, and the 4th and 78th Divisions were posted elsewhere in preparation for the invasion. _START_SECTION_ North Africa _START_PARAGRAPH_ Allfrey led his corps overseas to French North Africa in late November, a few weeks after the invasion, activating it on 5 December, where it took command of all British ground units in Tunisia − the 1st Parachute Brigade under Brigadier Edwin Flavell, and the 6th Armoured and 78th Infantry Divisions, along with commandos and elements of the US 1st Armored Division under Major General Orlando Ward. By the time of Allfrey's arrival the run for Tunis had quite clearly failed, due to the Axis forces having brought in significant reinforcements, and the campaign was beginning to turn into a stalemate. The 78th Division was, by the time V Corps took it under command, pulling out through the Tebourba Gap against heavy German resistance. On 9 December an attack planned was cancelled and Allfrey tried to arrange for the French holding the town of Medjez el Bab to be relieved, he also believed, and subsequently ordered, Longstop Hill, overlooking the road to Tunis, to be abandoned. Two weeks later, however, a combined US-British attempt to recapture the hill failed, which, combined with the severe winter weather, was enough to persuade Lieutenant General Anderson, the First Army commander, and Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in North Africa, to abandon any further attempts._NEWLINE_In January 1943 Major General Keightley's 6th Armoured Division, still part of V Corps, participated in an action at Bou Arada, and resisted a major German attack. The following month the division, after failing to take Djebel Mansour, was significantly involved in the Battle of Kasserine Pass. Towards the end of February and into early March (where, on 9 March, he was promoted to the war substantive rank of major general and to the temporary rank of lieutenant general), V Corps, now reinforced with Major General Harold Freeman-Attwood's 46th Infantry Division, was involved in Operation Ochsenkopf, with the 46th, stationed on V Corps' northern sector, absorbing the brunt of the German offensive, and falling back before bringing the German offensive to a halt, and eventually recovering Djebel Abiod and Sedjanane. Towards the end of March Major General Evelegh's 78th Division, along with the newly arrived 4th Division was ordered by Allfrey to clear the route from Medjez el Bab to Tebourba. Supported by the 25th Army Tank Brigade, and later reinforced by Major General Walter Clutterbuck's 1st Division, V Corps was, for almost a month, engaged in some of the hardest fighting of the Tunisian Campaign so far. The fighting culminated in the 78th Division, on 26 April, managing to capture Longstop Hill, and then, with the 46th Division replacing the 4th Division on 30 April, all three divisions participated in further fierce fighting on the Medjez Plain, where the 1st Division put up an outstanding performance, gaining three Victoria Crosses (VC) in the space of a week._NEWLINE_During the final stages of the campaign Allfrey's V Corps played a more minor role. The main role was played by IX Corps, under Lieutenant General Brian Horrocks (succeeding Lieutenant General John Crocker, who had been injured). Horrocks, as previously mentioned, had been another one of Allfrey's fellow instructors at the Staff College before the war and thought highly of him, later writing in his autobiography that he "was one of the most popular officers in the British Army", and that "nobody could have been more helpful. The capture of Tunis was the result of the closest cooperation between our two corps, 5 and 9". Despite Allfrey's corps playing a relatively small role in the final stages of the campaign, which ended in mid-May with the surrender of almost 250,000 Axis troops, Allfrey, along with Major General Francis Tuker, GOC of the 4th Indian Division, was able to accept the surrender of German Colonel General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim, commanding the Panzer Army Africa._NEWLINE_With the fighting in North Africa over Allfrey's V Corps, being in almost continuous fighting for the past five months (with the exception of the last few weeks), was rested and took no part in the Allied invasion of Sicily. The corps was transferred from the First Army, now disbanded, to the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. In August, he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath and awarded the American Commander of the Legion of Merit for his services in Tunisia. His rank of major general was made substantive on 6 November. _START_SECTION_ Italy and Egypt _START_PARAGRAPH_ On 3 September 1943, exactly four years since Britain had declared war on Germany, the Eighth Army landed in Italy at Reggio Calabria, with the US Fifth Army under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark landing at Salerno six days later. The 1st Airborne Division under Major General George Hopkinson landed at Taranto on the same day, encountering little in the way of serious resistance, although just a few days later the division's GOC was killed in action (and replaced by Major General Ernest Down). On 23 September Allfrey's V Corps HQ landed, taking the 1st Airborne Division, Major General Dudley Russell's 8th Indian Infantry Division and the 78th Division, along with Brigadier John Currie's 4th Armoured Brigade, under command, and made quick progress in Italy, capturing the Foggia Airfield Complex on 27 September. After facing resistance on the River Biferno, which was outflanked by British Commandos (see Operation Devon), V Corps, now minus the 1st Airborne Division, found itself on the River Sangro by 9 November._NEWLINE_The fighting over the next few weeks involved both the 8th Indian and British 78th Divisions. With the onset of severe winter weather and indomitable German resistance, the fighting involved some of the bitterest encountered by the Allies thus far in the Italian Campaign and casualties were very heavy on both sides. The line of the Sangro was breached in late November, but Lieutenant General Miles Dempsey's XIII Corps was brought into the battle. The fighting raged on for the next month until the 1st Canadian Division under Major General Chris Vokes (replacing the 78th Division, now under Major General Charles Keightley, which transferred to Dempsey's XIII Corps) captured the town of Ortona in late December, enabling engineers to erect bridges over the River Sangro, although these were soon washed away. However, the worsening weather, combined with the stiffness of the German resistance, which brought the advance to almost a complete halt, along with the heavy Allied casualties, forced Montgomery, the Eighth Army commander, to call off the offensive until weather conditions improved._NEWLINE_In mid-January 1944 the 5th Canadian Armoured Division, under Major General E. L. M. Burns, was placed under V Corps. Shortly afterwards the division, which had never before been in action, was grievously repulsed during an attack on the town of Arielli, despite support from no less than fifteen artillery regiments. After this Allfrey's V Corps passed into 15th Army Group reserve, the sector of the front passing to the command of Lieutenant General Harry Crerar's I Canadian Corps. V Corps returned to the Adriatic in March, taking over two new divisions, both from the Indian Army; the 4th, now under Major General Alexander Galloway, in dire need of rest after suffering over 3,000 casualties in the Battle of Monte Cassino, and the 10th, under Major General Denys Reid, which had just arrived in Italy, and had seen no action. V Corps role was limited, as most of the Allied resources were transferred to the Western side of Italy, to Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark's American Fifth Army, and was to hold a 30-mile sector of the front with just two divisions._NEWLINE_In July, with progress for the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI, formerly the 15th Army Group) returning, pursuing the Germans to the Gothic Line, Allfrey's V Corps returned to the control of the Eighth Army, now commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Oliver Leese in place of Montgomery who returned to the United Kingdom to take command of the 21st Army Group. Leese did not think highly of Allfrey, a view shared by his predecessor. Montgomery had, at least initially, believed Allfrey to be too slow and cautious, writing on 14 October 1943 to General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), that V Corps was "fighting in the line. I have not had Charles ALLFREY under me in battle before; he is not yet up the standard of my other Corps Commanders; he is inclined to fiddle about with details, is very slow, and is inclined to bellyache". After severely castigating Allfrey over a month later, where he "told him [Allfrey] that his Corps was completely amateur according to Eighth Army standards; there was a lack of 'grip' and 'bite'", he wrote to Leese, who was then in England, that "Charles Allfrey and 5 Corps H.Q. are very amateur; they have never been properly taught and I have to watch over everything they do". He blamed this not on Allfrey himself, but on his former army commander in Tunisia, Anderson, who Montgomery was highly critical of, believing that his performance in Tunisia to be lacklustre. Leese, doubtless influenced by what Montgomery had said of Allfrey, tried through the first few months of 1944 to get him sacked, and, as Richard Mead writes, it is significant that, during the Second Battle of Monte Cassino in March, rather than using Allfrey's by now highly experienced HQ, Leese ordered Lieutenant General Sir Bernard Freyberg, GOC of the 2nd New Zealand Division, to create a new, and therefore completely green and inexperienced, HQ for the battle. However, General The Hon. Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-chief (C-in-C) of the AAI, made the decision not to use Allfrey's V Corps in the belief that the two division GOCs, Freyberg and Tuker, of 4th Indian Division, both possessed very strong and stubborn personalities, both were Eighth Army veterans and both were older than Allfrey. Alexander feared Allfrey simply would not be able to control either men._NEWLINE_Montgomery later came to revise his initially low opinion of Allfrey. After hearing in February of Leese writing to the War Office asking if he could sack Allfrey Montgomery, believing Leese to be wrong, writing to Brooke, claimed that "When Allfrey came to the Eighth Army in September 1943 I found he was below the standard of the experienced Corps Commanders in my army i.e. Leese, Horrocks, Dempsey. It seemed to me he had never been properly taught by his former Army Commander. He began rather shakily and was not too good. I accordingly moved my Tac H.Q. near his Corps H.Q., and watched over his operations carefully, and taught him his trade. I had found exactly the same thing previously with Leese, and with Horrocks, and with Dempsey; all required help initially and had to be taught.... I consider that one of the first duties of a commander is to teach his subordinates, and in accordance with his teaching so he will get results, provided the subordinate has character and is teachable. Allfrey is very teachable, and is very willing to learn, and is very grateful for help given. I consider that Leese must teach Allfrey, and bring him on; he is very well qualified to do so and will get good results". However, Leese was eventually successful; in August Allfrey handed over V Corps, which he had now commanded for well over two years, to Lieutenant General Charles Keightley, who had commanded both the 6th Armoured and 78th Infantry Divisions, and was rested from field command. After leave in England, in November Allfrey become GOC British Troops in Egypt, by that stage of the war an almost complete backwater. During his tenure, he was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), and his rank of lieutenant general was made substantive on 23 November 1946. _START_SECTION_ Postwar _START_PARAGRAPH_ Egypt was Allfrey's last posting and, after handing over his command to Lieutenant General Richard Gale, he retired from the army, after a 33-year military career, as a lieutenant general in June 1948._NEWLINE_After retirement he held numerous honorary appointments, including Colonel Commandant of the Royal Artillery, a position he held from 1947 to 1957, followed by Colonel Commandant of the Royal Horse Artillery from 1949 to 1957. He was Justice of the peace and Deputy Lieutenant for the county of Gloucestershire from 1953 until his death, which occurred on 2 November 1964 in Bristol, shortly after his 69th birthday.

5213527668214338569

Q2960807

_START_ARTICLE_ Charley Roussel Fomen _START_SECTION_ Club career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Fomen began his professional career in 2007 with Mount Cameroon FC, moving in the following year to Panthère de Bangangté._NEWLINE_On 17 April 2009, he had his first abroad experience, signing with French club Olympique de Marseille, who had already scouted the player. During his first season, he did not appear in the league, as the club won the title._NEWLINE_On 1 July 2010, Fomen was loaned to second level's Dijon FCO, in a season-long move. He played 28 times as the club won promotion to Ligue 1._NEWLINE_On 3 August 2011, Fomen moved to Ligue 2 side Clermont Foot on free transfer. After four seasons with Clermont, Fomen was sidelined for a year through injury. He moved to Iceland and signed for Fimleikafélag Hafnarfjarðar. He was loaned by them to another Icelandic club, Leiknir Reykjavík. When his father died in January 2017 he returned to Cameroon, signing a contract with Feutcheu FC._NEWLINE_Fomen signed a two-year contract with French Championnat National side Red Star in July 2017. _START_SECTION_ International career _START_PARAGRAPH_ Fomen earned his first call-up for the U-17 of Cameroon on 27 July 2006, being summoned for a training camp in his hometown of Buea.

4277327604404030007

Q3666647

_START_ARTICLE_ Charlie Big Potato _START_SECTION_ Music video _START_PARAGRAPH_ The video was directed by Giuseppe Capotondi. The bizarre video shows the band appearing in different locations, with Skin waking up in a toilet, followed by a boy beginning to realise that his nightmares have become real.

15203990552842819631

Q16200967

_START_ARTICLE_ Charlie Richmond (referee) _START_PARAGRAPH_ Charlie Richmond (born 13 May 1968) is a Scottish former football referee. Richmond was on the FIFA list of international referees and officiated in the Scottish Premier League (SPL) from 2002 to 2012. Richmond resigned in April 2012, after being overlooked for SPL appointments during the 2011–12 season._NEWLINE_Richmond is known to have refereed at men's international matches during the period from 2005 to 2007. He also officiated in women's international matches._NEWLINE_He is an engineer by profession and has made frequent appearances on BBC Radio Scotland show Off the Ball.

3126582262104182029

Q3720675

_START_ARTICLE_ Chateau at Kamenice nad Lipou _START_SECTION_ Permanent exhibitions _START_PARAGRAPH_ Wrought-iron work: grilles, chests, keys, locks, knockers and other ornamental and architectural metalwork dating from the Gothic period to the early 20th century._NEWLINE_Late 19th- and 20th-century toys for boys and girls (from the Collection of František Kyncl)._NEWLINE_The Study Collection of 19th- and 20th-century Furniture: The Evolution of Furniture Design in the Bohemian Lands and Other Countries of Europe_NEWLINE_A Museum for the Senses: an exhibition of the Municipal Museum that documents the 750-year history of the town of Kamenice nad Lipou in a new, entertaining way. _START_SECTION_ Short-term exhibitions _START_PARAGRAPH_ For current information concerning short-term exhibitions, see the web pages of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague: www.upm.cz _START_SECTION_ Toys _START_PARAGRAPH_ An annual summer festival of toys, their designers and producers, including art students’ creations and works in the possession of collectors throughout the country and abroad.

3631950413125672172

Q5087755

_START_ARTICLE_ Chato people _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Chato were an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, that formerly lived on the coast in Mississippi and Alabama and around Mobile Bay. They were related to the Choctaws and Chickasaws. One source indicates that "The Chato were part of the Apalachee Indian tribe, as were the Escambe." However, the more general opinion is that the Chato tribe was of unknown ethnic affinity, although they were allied with the Choctaw._NEWLINE_The Chato people were first located west of the Apalachicola River, north of the Choctawhatchee Bay and St Joseph’s Bay off of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in Florida during the mid 17th century. Though they are known as the Chato in some texts, others have labeled the Chato as the Chatot Tribe, considering ‘Chato’ as a synonymous name referring to same group of individuals. Various synonyms have sprung up referring to the Chato People over the course of their discovery due to miscommunications and misinterpretations of the Chato as an entirely different group as they moved westward along the Gulf of Mexico. When the Chato were first discovered west of the Apalachicola River they were known as the Chacâtos, Chaqtos, Chatots and the Chactots; after numerous relocations of the tribe new synonyms referring to the names of the Chato People were generated after their sighting in 1763. These synonymous names included the Chactoo, Chacchous, Chaetoos and Chattoos._NEWLINE_The culture and nature of the Chato are largely unknown due to the lack of recorded history on their way of life. Based on the proximal location of the Chato to the neighboring Apalachee Tribe, it is inferred that the Chato’s culture and way of living were similar to that of the Apalachee. The language of the Chato is completely unknown alongside their neighboring tribes (Pensacola, Apalachee, Mobila, Tohomé, Naniaba), though by the end of the 17th century there were reports of these tribes communicating in Mobilian, a culmination of several Native languages mixed together as the tribes were forced together in the same region of Mobile. In 1805 in Louisiana, Missouri there were reports of various Native groups that gathered in the region, “...as having distinct languages of their own.” In particular observers noted, “15 single, small groups and two pairs of speaking languages distinct from all others. These [groups] were the Adai, Akokisa, Apalachee, Bidai, Biloxi, Chatot, Eyeish, Kitsai, Maye, Opelousa, Pakana, Pascagoula, Taensa, Tonkawa, and Tunica, the Natchitoches and Yatsai, and the Atakapa and Karankawa.”_NEWLINE_After their initial discovery by the Spanish in 1639, the Chato requested the building of missionaries in 1648. At this time relations between the Chato and the Spanish were not heated, reports of the neighboring Apalachee tribe complaining of carrying pelts for the Chato indicated that the Chato were at least somewhat involved in the Spanish trade network. Despite this implicit amiability, the missionaries were not erected in Chato territory until 1674 in which two mission villages were built for the Chato around the site known as Marianna, located at a subsidiary river approximately 25 miles west of the Apalachicola River._NEWLINE_In 1675 the Chato executed a religious revolt against the missionaries due to the suffocating nature of the Spaniards attempting to impress the Christian religion upon Chato beliefs. The conflict did not last long due to another neighboring tribe, the Chisca, that continually raided the missionary villages. The Chato and Apalachee banded with the Spanish to deter the Chisca raids, which climaxed in 1677 when a Spanish force containing 10 Chato attacked a town hosting a festival of roughly 300 Chato, Pensacola and Chisca participants. This particular battle ended without conclusion and prompted the Chato to relocate to an abandoned town and establish a new town, San Carlos de los Chacatos, located southwest of the Marianna region._NEWLINE_After the Chato firmly settled in San Carlos de los Chacatos they continued practicing the Christian faith. Several pockets of Chato retained their original lifestyle off of the Pensacola Bay. In the following decades the majority of the Chato persisted with missionary life but outside influences endangered the integrity of the system. In 1684 the Shawnee tribe sold Chato slaves to the English, presumably acquired from the missions or surrounding pockets of non-Christian denizens. The Apalachicola tribe outright raided San Carlos de los Chacatos in 1695, further destabilizing San Carlos._NEWLINE_In 1699, “...a band of 40 Chacatos on a buffalo hunt, led by a Spaniard, attacked a peaceful Tuskegee trading party, killing 16 and stealing their goods.” This was met with a severe counter by the English and several Native forces; in two separate events in 1702 and 1704, English and Apalachicola forces attacked the Spanish missions, presumably including San Carlos de los Chacatos. Following these attacks in August 1704, 200 Chatos along with an unnumbered amount of Apalachees were found at Mobile Bay with French forces seeking refuge. The following statement, “Juan, chief of the Chato, was allotted territory at the mouth of the river where he, his mother Jacinta and two hundred of his villagers moved to the site called the Oignonets, location of present-day Mobile” shows that the Chato still held onto some form of their traditions by the start of the 18th century._NEWLINE_From the settlement of Mobile the Chato were integrated into the faith of the French Roman Catholics, “...in 1707, the son of the Chacato chief was recorded as baptized by the French priest.” At this time the Chato were said to be speaking the Choctaw and French languages. A flood of Fort St. Louis in 1711 caused the French to relocate Fort St. Louis to the location of Mobile. The Chato present here were relocated two leagues further south to the Dog River still off of the Mobile Bay._NEWLINE_The last major interaction of the Chato with world powers was in the English takeover of the land in 1763 which pushed the Chato and fellow tribes of the region westward. Afterward the Chato People vanished from history outside of cursory sightings as they were continuously pushed westward along the coast, “They were at Rapides, Louisiana, in 1773, apparently on the Red River in 1796, on Bayou Boeuf in 1803 and 1805, and on the Sabine River in 1817.”

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Q1068275

_START_ARTICLE_ Chatoyancy _START_PARAGRAPH_ In gemology, chatoyancy (/ʃəˈtɔɪ.ənsi/ shə-TOY-ən-see), or chatoyance or cat's eye effect, is an optical reflectance effect seen in certain gemstones. Coined from the French "œil de chat", meaning "cat's eye", chatoyancy arises either from the fibrous structure of a material, as in tiger's eye quartz, or from fibrous inclusions or cavities within the stone, as in cat's eye chrysoberyl. The precipitates that cause chatoyance in chrysoberyl are the mineral rutile, composed mostly of titanium dioxide. Examined samples have yielded no evidence of tubes or fibres. The rutile precipitates all align perpendicularly with respect to cat's eye effect. It is reasoned that the lattice parameter of the rutile matches only one of the three orthorhombic crystal axes of the chrysoberyl, resulting in preferred alignment along that direction. _NEWLINE_The effect can be likened to the sheen off a spool of silk: The luminous streak of reflected light is always perpendicular to the direction of the fibres. For a gemstone to show this effect best it must be cut en cabochon (rounded with a flat base rather than faceted), with the fibers or fibrous structures parallel to the base of the finished gem. The best finished specimens show a single sharply defined band of light that moves across the stone when it is rotated. Chatoyant stones of lesser quality display a banded effect as is typical with cat's-eye varieties of quartz. Faceted stones do not show the effect well._NEWLINE_Gem species known for this phenomenon include the aforementioned quartz, chrysoberyl, beryl (especially var. aquamarine), charoite, tourmaline, labradorite, selenite, feldspar, apatite, moonstone, thomsonite and scapolite amongst others. Glass optical cable can also display chatoyancy if properly cut, and has become a popular decorative material in a variety of vivid colors._NEWLINE_The term "cat's eye", when used by itself as the name of a gemstone, refers to a cat's eye chrysoberyl. It is also used as an adjective which indicates the chatoyance phenomenon in another stone, e.g., cat's eye aquamarine.

16606111387214316803

Q750541

_START_ARTICLE_ Chatroulette _START_SECTION_ Overview _START_PARAGRAPH_ The Chatroulette website was created by Andrey Ternovskiy, a 17-year-old high-school student in Moscow, Russia. Ternovskiy says the concept arose from video chats he used to have with friends on Skype, and that he wrote the first version of Chatroulette in "two days and two nights". Ternovskiy chose the name "Chatroulette" after watching The Deer Hunter, a 1978 film set in the Vietnam War in which prisoners of war are forced to play Russian roulette. The site pairs its users at random, and allows them to type messages to one another while watching the other user's webcam._NEWLINE_Ternovskiy built the site on an old computer he had in his bedroom. The site initially had 20 users, and then it doubled daily for a period, according to Ternovskiy in 2010. He discusses that he did not advertise or post his site anywhere; in fact, people starting talking about the website and knowledge of it gradually spread by word of mouth. As the number of active users grew, Ternovskiy has had to rewrite the entire code to cope with the load, the management of which being the most challenging part of his project. Despite the expansion of the service, he still codes everything on his own. Ternovskiy sought help from his longtime friend Vlad Kostanyan, who helped him with his side projects._NEWLINE_In early November 2009, shortly after the site launched, it had 500 visitors per day. One month later there were 50,000. The site has been featured in The New York Times, The New Yorker, New York magazine, and on Good Morning America, Newsnight in the United Kingdom, Tosh.0, and The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. In February 2010, about 35,000 people were on Chatroulette at any given time. Around the beginning of March, Ternovskiy estimated the site to have around 1.5 million users, around 33% of them from the United States and 5% from Germany._NEWLINE_An early growth phase was funded by a $10,000 investment from Ternovskiy's parents, which he soon paid back. As of March 2010, Ternovskiy was running the site from his childhood bedroom, assisted by four programmers who were working remotely, and the site was supported through advertising links to an online dating service. The site uses several high-end servers all located in Frankfurt, Germany._NEWLINE_According to New York Times, the site is intensely addictive. One informal study published in March 2010 showed that nearly half of all Chatroulette "spins" connected a user with someone in the US, while the next most likely country was France with 15%. On average, in sessions showing a single person 89% of these were male and 11% were female; 8% of spins showed multiple people behind the camera. About one in three females appeared as such a group, and one in 12 males. A user was more likely to encounter a webcam featuring no person at all than one featuring a sole female. About one in eight spins yielded someone apparently naked, exposing themselves, or engaging in a sexual act. A user was twice as likely to encounter a sign requesting female nudity than to encounter actual female nudity._NEWLINE_The website uses Adobe Flash to display video and access the user's webcam. Flash's peer-to-peer network capabilities (via RTMFP) allow almost all video and audio streams to travel directly between user computers, without using server bandwidth. However, certain combinations of routers will not allow UDP traffic to flow between them, and then falling back to RTMP is necessary._NEWLINE_Initially, the site only asked users to confirm that they are at least 18 years old and agree on terms to not broadcast any offensive or pornographic content. Login or registration was not required. However, the website now requires users to register for free before they can use the features of the website. The signup requires a username, email address, and password. Details such as age, gender, and location can be further added under profile and settings. This tab also allows users to write an 'about me' section about themselves, including languages they speak and their taste in music, movies, and games. Users can also upload an image of themselves to add to their profiles. _START_SECTION_ Inappropriate content _START_PARAGRAPH_ Within a year of the site's launch, Chatroulette received criticism, particularly with respect to the offensive, obscene, or pornographic material that some users of this site were exhibiting. Psychiatrist Dr. Keith Ablow advised, "Parents should keep all their children off the site because it's much too dangerous for children. It's a predator's paradise. This is one of the worst faces of the Internet that I've seen. It's disconnecting human relationships rather than connecting them." Emie Allen, president of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, told CBS' The Early Show that the site was the "last place parents want their kids to be. This is a huge red flag; this is extreme social networking. This is a place kids are going to gravitate to."_NEWLINE_Ternovskiy told the New York Times that "Everyone finds his own way of using the site. Some think it is a game, others think it is a whole unknown world, others think it is a dating service. I think it's cool that such a concept can be useful for so many people. Although some people are using the site in not very nice ways -- I am really against it." Early users of the site would frequently encounter users who were naked or masturbating in front of the camera. According to certain reports and a firsthand test, the majority of the site's users are male and overwhelmingly young, and people in their 30s are usually mocked on the site for being too "old". Some users dress in costumes to entertain the viewer the site pairs them with, while others play music or host dance parties. In 2011, artists Eva and Franco Mattes presented random Chatroulette users with a staged view of a man who had apparently hanged himself, and recorded the reactions._NEWLINE_According to a survey carried out by RJMetrics, about one in eight of feeds from Chatroulette involved "R-rated" content. Parody shows such as The Daily Show and South Park have lampooned this aspect of the service, and nudity has become an established part of the site's notoriety. A complicated legal environment surrounds Chatroulette with respect to the sexual activities that occur frequently on the site. These activities may be illegal, but who is liable for such content is uncertain due to the level of anonymity of the users. _START_SECTION_ Reaction to criticisms _START_PARAGRAPH_ In response, the website has discouraged under-18s from using the site, and prohibits "pornographic" behavior. Users who experience harassment or witness illegal, immoral, or pornographic activity may report the offending user. If three users complain about the same participant within five minutes, the user is temporarily banned from the service. In August 2012, Chatroulette removed the Safe Mode feature of the website, and posted new terms and conditions, stating that nudity was no longer allowed on any part of the site. Chatroulette later changed their terms of use, making it a requirement that all users sign up before using the service._NEWLINE_Early in the site's operation, an algorithm was developed to successfully filter out large quantities of obscene content on Chatroulette, considering that as much as 30% of the 8.5 million monthly unique visitors are under 18 years of age. This has led to a higher proportion of female users accessing the service due to the cleanup. The image recognition algorithms automatically flag users broadcasting sexual content. The filter works in a manner that it identifies excessive amounts of revealed skin while simultaneously recognizes faces as appropriate. A 20,000-user-based sample study proved that the algorithm is able to filter out nearly 60% of the offensive material along with ads on the site. While the video streams are transmitted in a peer-to-peer manner, without passing through the site's server, Chatroulette does periodically take screenshots of the users' video content. Humans then check the screenshots flagged by the algorithms and proceed to block the offending users for a period of time. In an interview, Ternovskiy states, "While recognition software improves, we have employed a moderation team to review pictures manually. We now have around 100 moderators who are all monitoring all webcam feeds and marking inappropriate ones. The combination of filter technology and moderation results in the banning of 50,000 inappropriate users daily."

6810650619775087007

Q16961195

_START_ARTICLE_ Chatta Baria _START_SECTION_ Geography _START_PARAGRAPH_ Duttapukur, Shibalaya, Chandrapur, Gangapur, Chatta Baria and Joypul form a cluster of census towns in the northern part of the CD Block. The entire cluster has a very high density of population. (See the infobox of each census town for density of population)._NEWLINE_Duttapukur police station has jurisdiction over Barasat I CD Block. _START_SECTION_ Demographics _START_PARAGRAPH_ As of 2011 India census, Chatta Baria had a population of 12,537; of this,6,410 are male, 6,127 female. It has an average literacy rate of 74.26%, higher than the national average of 74.04%. _START_SECTION_ Infrastructure _START_PARAGRAPH_ As per District Census Handbook 2011, Chatta Baria covered an area of 2.3437 km². It had 2 primary schools and 1 middle school, the nearest secondary school and senior secondary were 1 km away at Duttapukur, and the nearest degree college is 8 km away at Barasat. Chatta Baria had 2 family welfare centres and 2 maternity and child welfare centres (both without any bed). _START_SECTION_ Transport _START_PARAGRAPH_ Chatta Baria is beside National Highway 112 (Jessore Road)._NEWLINE_Duttapukur railway station and Bira railway station on the Sealdah-Bangaon line, which is part the Kolkata Suburban Railway railway system, are located nearby. _START_SECTION_ Healthcare _START_PARAGRAPH_ There is a primary health centre at Duttapukur. For other medical facilities in the area see Barasat Sadar subdivision._NEWLINE_North 24 Parganas district has been identified as one of the areas where ground water is affected by arsenic contamination.

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