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Cats can’t talk. Their aggressive or destructive behavior, vocalization, or house soiling can be their only way of communicating a problem. By being aware of what constitutes “normal” behavior and learning to watch for warning signs, you can work to correct bad behavior and recognize potential health problems such as diabetes, arthritis, and senility. Nutrition and Exercise Obesity has become a chronic problem in cats, one that can lead to other health problems such as loss of mobility, chronic arthritis, chronic constipation, and endocrine-related illnesses such as hypothyroidism, diabetes, and Cushing’s disease. Good nutrition is one way to fight obesity. At Arroyo, we offer a range of pet foods for specific dietary needs, including weight loss, as well as ideas for healthy foods you can prepare yourself and for feeding schedules. Regular exercise is equally important. To prevent injuries, parasites, life-threatening diseases, and other health threats, and to protect indigenous animals, we recommend keeping cats indoors. Exercise your indoor kitty with toys, especially wands, that get him or her chasing and dancing after tempting items. When you come to Arroyo for your pet’s examination, be sure to find out his or her weight and how it measures up on our body scale system. You can be a partner in fostering your cat’s health and well-being.Arroyo’s services include behavior consultation. Spaying and neutering are common and highly recommended procedures, ones that can help protect the health and safety of your cat and control the animal population. Arroyo offers spay and neuter programs that adhere to the highest medical standards and provide total pre- and post-operative care, all at a competitive, predetermined price. Science can’t explain the phenomenon, but numerous studies have shown that animal companions—just by their presence—can help lower your blood pressure and cholesterol levels, increase your chances of survival after a heart attack, reduce loneliness and depression, and spread all-around good cheer. Your presence, affection, and attention have an equally powerful and positive effect on your pet’s well-being. If your pet becomes extremely ill or severely injured, sometimes the kindest thing you can do is have your veterinarian induce his or her death quietly and humanely through euthanasia. This decision is always serious and seldom easy. At Arroyo, we understand the special relationship you have with your pet and can help you weigh what is best for the animal as well as for you and your family. If you choose euthanasia, we can guide you through the medical and grieving process with care and compassion. Arroyo Veterinary Hospital offers wellness programs that cover all aspects of preventive health for kittens and for cats in their active and senior years. Learn more about our full range of services. Arroyo Veterinary Hospital is proud to be accredited by the American Animal Hospital Association, a member of the Sonoma Valley Chamber of Commerce, The Better Business Bureau and a certified Green Business

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Posted on August 6, 2010 by saya 3D technology is an important emerging technique developed quickly during the past few years and it has been widely applied in the fields of advertising, furniture and electronics. And recently, three designers have even collaborated with a new 3D printer that can spit out fabric structures for clothing. When three-dimensional body data is fed into the computer, certain software will then start to work and have the printer produce fabric structures, just as what you can see from the video below. On the other hand, the new technology will also result in great changes, such as much better efficiency, less needed labor and various customized fabric structures.

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James Ford Rhodes (18481927). History of the Civil War, 18611865 1917. responsibility that was not clearly his, probably prevented him from urging his President to negotiate a peace; but, if the memories of private conversation may be believed, he had lost all hope of success. It was Jefferson Davis who in this matter imposed his will on all his subordinates and it was he more than anybody else who stood in the way of an attempt to secure favorable terms for the South in a reconstruction of the Union. If Davis, Lee and the Confederate Congress could have made up their minds to sue for peace, the contemporaneous occurrences in Washington reveal the magnanimous spirit in which they would have been met by Abraham Lincoln. Two days after the Hampton Roads Conference, on Sunday evening, February 5, the President called his Cabinet together to consult them in regard to a message he proposed to send recommending that Congress empower him to pay to the eleven slave States of the Southern Confederacy then in arms against the Union and to the five Union slave States four hundred million dollars as compensation for their slaves provided that all resistance to the national authority should cease on April first next. The Cabinet unanimously disapproved this project and Lincoln with a deep sigh said, You are all opposed to me and I will not send the message. Such a proposal to the Southern Confederacy, tottering to her fall, only sixty-three days before Lees surrender to Grant would have shown magnanimous foresight. Had the Confederate States accepted it, there would have been an immediate fraternal union after the Civil War. Had they rejected it, the President and Congress would have made a noble record. The offer, however, was too wise and too generous to be widely approved of men; Lincoln of all those in authority had reached a moral height where he must dwell alone and impotent. But when reflecting on the

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|.: Formations of Natural Catastrophes :.| Before thunderstorms develop, a change in wind direction and an increase in wind speed with increasing height, creating an invisible, horizontal spinning effect in the lower atmosphere. Warm rising within the thunderstorm updraft tilts the rotating funnel of air from horizontal to vertical. An area of vertical rotation, ranging from 3-9.5 kilometres (2-5 miles) wide, extends through most of the storm. Progressively, with increasingly warm air and a constant updraft, a tornado forms within this area of rapid rotation.

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Office of the Federal Register The Office of the Federal Register The Office of the Federal Register (OFR), an agency within the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), is a resource for anyone reporting on the federal government's day-to-day operations or assigned to a beat involving the environment, health care, exports, education or other major public policy issues. Through the OFR and the Government Printing Office (GPO), journalists can access the official text of federal laws, presidential documents, administrative regulations and notices about scheduled hearings and grant applications. In addition to administering the Electoral College and the Constitutional Amendment Process, the OFR publishes the Federal Register, The Code of Federal Regulations, United States Statutes At Large, Privacy Act Issuances and other document compilations. The Federal Register: The Daily Journal of the US Government The Federal Register is perhaps the OFR's most useful resource for journalists. Published by 6 a.m. Monday through Friday, with the exception of federal holidays, the Federal Register, also referred to as the Fed. Reg., is the official journal of the US federal government. The Fed. Reg. contains proposed rules, executive orders, proclamations and any other presidential documents. It is a useful research tool and a great way for journalists to find story ideas. The Fed. Reg. is available in print, on microfiche and on the Internet. To access the publication for free online visit the Federal Register 2.0, the GPO’s Federal Digital System. Archives dating back to 1994 are available online. Archives dating back to the Federal Register's creation in 1935 are accessible at any Federal Depository Library. Click here to find one near you. Reporters do not have to waste time skimming through endless pages to find out whether or not something of interest to their beat is included in the day’s edition of the Fed. Reg. The index breaks down all of the content alphabetically by agency and includes one sentence synopses of the content that journalists can read and decide whether or not its contents are worth their time. The Federal Register for Busy Journalists Don't have time for the hard copy or the full online text of the Federal Register? Journalists can subscribe to Federal Register email notifications and RSS feeds. The Federal Register email notifications will not flood your inbox with updates irrelevant to your beat. Journalists can tailor e-mail updates and feeds so they are only notified when there is information relevant to their news beat. For directions on how to customize email notifications or to receive pre-configured notifications visit the Federal Register Blog. For standard agency notifications visit the National Archives website. The Federal Register 2.0 is easy to navigate and loaded with information that may help you come up with a story idea that hasn't yet caught the attention of the mainstream media. The Federal Register's blog can be another story-generator tool. A list of all topics that have appeared in the Federal Register is available here. It includes everything from exports and government contracts to straw, watermelons and dry cleaners. Click here for more information on the how to maximize your search results. The Public Papers of the US Presidents The Public Papers of the US Presidents are also published twice a year and contain all Executive Orders, Proclamations, Administrative Orders and text of addresses and remarks of a public nature made by the President.The search can be narrowed by time frame, subject or addressed agency. Up until the inauguration of Pres. Barack Obama, the OFR printed a weekly compilation of presidential documents. It now publishes a daily compilation on its website. The US Government Manual Online Edition In April 2011, The OFR announced the first-ever Internet release of the new United States Government Manual (the Manual), the official handbook of the Federal Government. The Manual provides easy access to agency organizational charts, definitions of the federal government's commonly used abbreviations and acronyms, and a detailed section on Federal agencies that have been terminated, transferred, or changed in name since March 1933. View Office of the Federal Register in a larger map Does this agency's information need updating? email@example.com

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samedi 7 avril 2012 13:24tell me. - Modifié TEJ2911 samedi 7 avril 2012 13:26 Toutes les réponses samedi 7 avril 2012 16:23 You need at least the one class for a program to run. Creating a new project will automatically create the class for you . If you have older code, create a new project and drop the old code into the new project. A console application wil automatically generate a main function. Take you old main function code an paste it into the new main function. If you have any additioanl functions just place the code after the main function keeping the code inside the same class as main. samedi 7 avril 2012 17:42 No you cannot execute it. C# at least need one system defined or user defined class. That is what an objects oriented programming language should be. I am bit curious to know what you want to achieve. dimanche 8 avril 2012 07:04 do you mean you don't required .net framework to run your program ? then you have to you use c++ to create your Project.

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07-10-2012 (Dayton, OH) - A recent outbreak of E. Coli in Germantown, OH has led health officials to remind citizens to take caution when preparing and handling food. This is especially important during outdoor picnics in the high temperatures of the summer months which can intensify the bacteria in the food. “Human infection of E.Coli is acquired through contaminated food or water or by direct contact with an infected person,” says Terrie Koss, infection preventionist at Dayton Children’s. Infections due to Escherichia coli bacteria can cause severe, bloody diarrhea. Some cases can result in kidney failure or other serious complications. Fortunately, most healthy kids who get the infection recover on their own without the need for treatment. “If you suspect your child might have E.Coli you should consult their pediatrician or visit the Dayton Children’s urgent care or emergency department,” says Koss. “The biggest concern is making sure the child stays hydrated.” The incubation period generally lasts anywhere from 10 hours to six days. An infection is contagious for at least as long as the person has diarrhea, and sometimes longer. A doctor might take a stool sample to detect the presence of E. coli bacteria. Blood tests may be used to check for possible complications. Antibiotics have not been found to be helpful in treating infections caused by E. coli O157:H7 and can, in fact, be harmful. Likewise, anti-diarrheal medicines can increase the risk of complications and should not be used. Kids with an E. coli infection should rest as much as possible and drink plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration. Those who are dehydrated might need to be hospitalized to get IV fluids. “While recovering from an infection, kids can resume normal activities after two stool cultures are free of the bacteria” says Koss. “Refrain from letting kids use swimming pools or water slides until 2 weeks after their symptoms have gone away.” E. colioutbreaks have been related to a wide variety of foods, such as fresh spinach, hamburgers, ground beef, bologna, hazelnuts, packaged cheeses, shredded lettuce, and prepackaged cookie dough. Being vigilant about safe food preparation can go a long way toward protecting your family from E. coli infections: - Cook meat thoroughly until it reaches a temperature of at least 160ºF/70ºC at its thickest point. - Thoroughly clean anything that comes into contact with raw meat. - Choose pasteurized juices and dairy products. - Clean raw produce well before eating. Teach your kids the importance of regular, thorough hand washing, especially after going to the bathroom, touching animals, or playing outside, and before eating or preparing food. They should avoid swallowing water while swimming. When to Call the Doctor Call your doctor if your child has any symptoms of an E. coli infection, especially stomach pain or persistent, severe, or bloody diarrhea. Call immediately if your child shows signs of dehydration, such as decreased urination. For more information, contact: Marketing Communications Specialist We believe there are 18 ways we're just right for our region's kids! Learn more and share your story at justrightforkids.org.

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Preaching and Evangelism Preaching is a work within the church - Men were called evangelist: Acts 21:8; II Timothy 4:5 - Christ appointed some men as evangelists - Ephesians 4:11 - The word translated evangelism comes from a Greek word used to describe the bringing the joyous news of victory from the battlefront. It is often translated as "preaching the gospel" as in Romans 1:15. - The same work is called preaching - II Corinthians 1:19, I Timothy 2:7, II Timothy 1:11 - The word translated preaching comes from a Greek word for a herald or town-crier. - The same work is called ministry - Romans 15:15-16; Ephesians 3:6-7; Colossians 1:23; I Timothy 4:6 - The word translated ministering comes from a Greek word for a serving. This same word is used for a servant, a deacon, and a preacher. The context defines its usage. - Preaching and ministering are used for the same work - Colossians 1:24 - Evangelism and ministering are used for the same work - II Timothy 4:5 - Preachers hold authority - Titus 2:15 The work of a preacher - An evangelist is to build up Christians to maturity - Ephesians 4:11-13 - A minister reaches out to the lost - Romans 15:15-16 - A preacher proclaims the good news of salvation - Romans 1:15-16, I Timothy 4:16 - A preacher rebukes those in error - II Timothy 4:2, I Timothy 4:1-6 - A preacher reproves those who teach error - II Timothy 4:2 - A preacher exhorts people to live in accordance with God's will - I Timothy 4:13; II Timothy 4:2; Titus 2:15 - A preacher teaches - I Timothy 4:11, 13 - A preacher speaks, which can include speaking in the worship service - Titus 2:1, 15; 3:8; I Corinthians 14:26 - A preacher teaches other Christians to become teachers - II Timothy 2:2 - A preacher sets an example for others to follow - I Timothy 4:12 - A preacher is involved in the selection of elders - Titus 1:5 - A preacher is involved in the rebuking of elders who sin - I Timothy 5:17-21 - A preacher is involved in organizing a congregation - Titus 1:5 - A preacher guards the truth - I Timothy 6:20-21; 1:3-4; 1:18-19; II Timothy 1:13-14; Titus 1:13-14 - A preacher must study - II Timothy 2:15 Who can be a preacher? - A woman cannot be a preacher - Titus 2:15; I Timothy 2:12 - A man can serve as both a preacher and an elder - I Timothy 5:17

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The sky is big. Searching it for potentially hazard objects like asteroids and comets is hard. The best way to do it? A big ‘scope, equipped with a BIG camera, and a wide, wide field of view. That’s just what the Panoramic Survey Telescope & Rapid Response System — PanSTARRS — brings to the table. It’s just a prototype, but it has a 1.8 meter ‘scope on — wait for it, wait for it — Mount Haleakala, and it sports a 1.4 gigapixel camera. You read that right: 1.4 billion pixels. It scans the skies looking for threatening objects, and astronomers just announced they have found their first one: 2010 ST3, an asteroid 50 meters (150 feet or so) across. It was found September 16, when it was still 30+ million kilometers (20 million miles) from Earth. Here’s the object in question: How big a threat is this object? Well, not very: there’s "a very slight chance" it will hit Earth in 2098, so I’m not terribly concerned. When astronomers map an orbit of an object, there’s some uncertainty in the measurements. It’s hard to get the exact position of the object, and its motion over a day or two isn’t enough to get a good idea of its trajectory. The farther you try to project where it’ll be in the future, the fuzzier the prediction gets. For something like 2010 ST3, there’s a huge volume of potential space it might occupy come 2098, and it so happens that the Earth is in that same volume of space at that time. But the Earth is near the edge of the projected position, and as time goes on, and the orbit is better determined, the volume of space the asteroid might be in will shrink. Eventually, what almost always happens is that the Earth winds up outside that volume as our data get better. That’s why the odds of it hitting us are so low. Now, if it did hit us, it would be bad. An object a bit smaller than that carved out Meteor Crater in Arizona, a hole over 1.5 kilometers across (that’s me posing in front of it; click it to get an idea of how big this scar is, and bear in mind the far rim is almost a mile away). An impact by something like that is about the same as exploding a 20 megaton bomb. So yeah, bad. The good news here… let me correct myself: the great news here is that Pan-STARRS found this thing at all! From that distance, an object this small is really hard to see, and no other asteroid survey could’ve found it. That means that as time goes on, Pan-STARRS will find lots and lots of threatening objects. And they’re out there whether we look for them or not! So it’s best to find the beasties before they find us. And when we do find them, we need to keep a really good eye on them. We need accurate orbits, and good statistics, so that we can figure out just how big a threat these guys are. 2010 ST3 is almost certainly benign, at least for the next century. But there are thousands more like it roaming the sky. We don’t get hit very often, but we do get hit. For those of you who fret about such things, I like to say that this is something to be concerned about, but not something to worry about. Worry accomplishes nothing, but concern means we’re turning our brains to the problem. And that’s the very best way to solve problems. Image credit: PS1SC Links to this Post - Astronews Daily (2455468) | September 28, 2010 - Android OS news » Fifty Meter Asteroid Might Hit Earth In 2098 | September 28, 2010 - 20 Million Miles To Earth « Movie Mania | September 29, 2010 - ‘potentially hazardous’ asteroid to pass Earth Earth in mid-October - Dateline Zero | September 29, 2010 - Un nuevo peligro para la Tierra | La mentira está ahí fuera | September 30, 2010 - Un meteorito de 50 metros podría impactar la Tierra en el 2098 — Tecnoculto | October 5, 2010

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Some of the kids at Cape May Elementary School, fourth- to sixth-graders, got a chance the other day to show off a little science project they've been working on lately. Well, make that a science and technology and engineering and math and writing and art and communications - and maybe a few more subjects - project they're working on. These kids broke out the remotely operated vehicles and motorized controllers they built and put them through their paces - underwater, in the school's pool. Right, remotely operated vehicles doing tricks, on and under the surface of the water. And no, this isn't science fiction. This is grade school. Edgar Ramirez, 10, got his ROV to pick up and spin a ball as he navigated the submersible craft around the surface, at the end of a wire maybe 30 feet long. Along the pool to his right, Gabriella Hristov and Chandler Herr were getting their battery-powered motors to pull a floating hoop around the water. And that gave the other kids, including Sadie Jensen and Abby Simcox, a target to chase when they got their turns at the controls. By the way, this was just about the first time these kids got to practice with the ROVs, which they started building last month from scratch - or at least from kits provided by Seaperch. That's a project sponsored by a branch of the U.S. Navy, the Office of Naval Research, and developed by professors and scientists from MIT, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The idea is to get students interested in careers in science, technology, engineering and math - or STEM, in education terms. So while these kids may think they're getting out of class - and out of their shoes into bare feet - to mess around with a submersible boat in a pool, the real lesson in the project is that science and all those related subjects don't have to be dull. They can be challenging, fascinating, even fun. And the kids obviously get that point. "To find the Titanic, they used one of these," explains Jensen, an 11-year-old fifth-grader, as she tools an ROV around the pool. "But it was bigger, and it was attached to a ship." Sandy Sandmeyer-Bryan, a veteran Cape May Elementary teacher who's in charge of the Seaperch project, adds the technology her kids are working with has plenty more important uses in today's world. "After the oil spill (in the Gulf of Mexico), when they had to go down and cap the wells, they used ROVs," she said. But the kids' Seaperch journey doesn't end once they finish building boats they can control by wires. (The wires are still needed, even in today's increasingly wireless world, because radio waves don't travel well through water, the teacher explains.) "We're learning about ROVs, but we're also going to learn about AUVs" - autonomous unmanned vehicles, which are pre-programmed on land and then sent on missions underwater. And another focus of study will be HOVs, or human-occupied vehicles, Sandmeyer-Bryan says. She's getting volunteer help with Seaperch from Sue Slotterback, an environmental-education consultant from Dennis Township who has run popular programs at local schools on monarch butterflies and horseshoe crabs. Slotterback was at an education conference in Virginia a few years ago when she heard about Seaperch, and she talked her friend, Sandmeyer-Bryan, into trying it out at her school. They knew Cape May Elementary had a natural head start on an underwater project - it has had its own built-in pool since the 1960s. But this particular school also had one potential disadvantage when it came to advanced undersea exploration, Slotterback adds: "This is normally done by high-school and middle-school students," she says. And the project is about to get much more complicated for these grade-school engineers. They have to add lights and cameras to their ROVs, and even operate the vehicles without looking at them. One Seaperch challenge forces the operator to control the ROV while looking away from the pool - only seeing where the craft is, and what it's doing, by watching it on a monitor for that camera. Jensen adds she looks forward to another part of the project, when the kids have to add arms and hooks to the vehicles, and work them remotely too. The teachers say they're getting a lot more lessons than just hard science into the kids' underwater work. Sandmeyer-Bryan, whose specialties include literacy and the school's enrichment programs, has all the Seaperch students keeping journals of their progress and discoveries. Plus they're creating art in sketchbooks - and they got together to create one joint book that's scheduled to be on display soon at the Brooklyn Art Library, through its annual Sketchbook Project. Then there's plenty of oceanography and other environmental education involved. The teachers know their kids have a huge lead over most American students on doing actual undersea exploration, given they all live within a few miles of the Atlantic Ocean and the Delaware Bay. Victoria Zelenak, the school's principal and Cape May's district superintendent, liked all that when Sandmeyer-Bryan pitched Seaperch to her. "The fact that we have a pool, and we're by the ocean and the bay - it's using our resources to help the children explore the environment in which they live," said Zelenak, who adds the Cape May Elementary pool is open to the public out of school hours, and it's a popular feature around the town. She happens to know first-hand that controlling a ROV isn't as easy as it looks - more on that later - but she says she was confident Sandmeyer-Bryan could make it work for grade-school kids. The school plans to show off the project in public next month when it holds an annual community festival Feb. 26. This year's theme is "Dive Into Ocean Exploration," and everybody involved expects the Seaperch mission to be a highlight of that night. Shortly after the kids finished the submersible boats she'd heard so much about, Zelenak asked to take a turn running one. Alas, at least that science experiment was apparently not a great success. By some reports, the students had to work on their social skills - by bravely, politely stifling their laughter - as this highly educated adult tried to do what she'd just seen them do so easily. "I kind of felt like, 'Are you smarter than a fifth grader?'" says Zelenak, who can laugh about her own performance. "But that's OK. They can be smarter than their superintendent, their principal." In fact, you could even say that's a good definition of success in education. (For more details on the program, visit seaperch.org.) Contact Martin DeAngelis:

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John P. Cunha, DO, FACOEP John P. Cunha, DO, is a U.S. board-certified Emergency Medicine Physician. Dr. Cunha's educational background includes a BS in Biology from Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, and a DO from the Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences in Kansas City, MO. He completed residency training in Emergency Medicine at Newark Beth Israel Medical Center in Newark, New Jersey. - Why does reflux laryngitis occur? - What are the typical symptoms of reflux laryngitis? - How are reflux laryngitis evaluated? - What is the conservative therapy of reflux? - What types of medications are used to treat reflux? - What are the difficulties in diagnosing reflux laryngitis? - Reflux Laryngitis At A Glance - Find a local Gastroenterologist in your town Why does reflux laryngitis occur? Reflux is caused by weakness in the muscle at the junction of the esophagus with the stomach. Normally, this muscular valve, or sphincter, functions to keep food and stomach acid from moving upward from the stomach to the esophagus and larynx. This valve opens to allow food into the stomach and closes to keep the stomach's contents from coming back up. The backward movement of stomach contents (gastric contents) up into the esophagus is referred to as gastroesophageal reflux. Additionally, any increase in abdominal pressure (such as obesity), which can push acid back from the stomach up the esophagus, or a patient with a hiatal hernia, will have an increased risk for reflux. When it causes symptoms, it is referred to as gastroesophageal reflux disease (or GERD). When the acid backs up into the voice box (larynx), the condition is referred to as reflux laryngitis. Stomach acid can cause irritation of the lining of the esophagus, larynx, and throat. This can lead to: - erosion of the lining of the esophagus (erosive esophagitis), - narrowing of the esophagus (stricture), - chronic hoarseness, - difficulty swallowing, - foreign body sensation in the throat, - asthma or cough, - spasms of the vocal cords, - sinusitis, and - growths on the vocal cords (granulomas). Viewers share their comments Get the latest treatment options.

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Space weather "storms" can cause electricity to flow in Earth's atmosphere. That can cause unusual electrical currents in the wires that carry electricity to homes. Sometimes space weather storms mess up the flow of electricity in our power system so much that they cause blackouts. Click on image for full size Image courtesy John G. Kappenman, Minnesota Power, Duluth, Minnesota. Space Weather Effects on Electrical Power Systems Space weather "storms" can cause problems on Earth. They can even mess up our systems that make electricity and that deliver electricity to peoples' houses. Sometimes really big space weather storms can cause massive blackouts over large areas. In March of 1989 six million people in eastern Canada lost their electrical power for nine hours because of really big space weather storm. Our electrical systems are designed to use alternating current (AC) electricity. Space weather disturbances can cause large flows of direct current (DC) electricity in power transmission wires. Electrical systems use very high voltage electricity to transmit power over long distances from power plants to peoples' homes and to businesses. However, high voltage electricity is dangerous, so the power is converted to lower voltage before it is delivered to homes and other users. Transformers are devices that convert high voltage electricity to lower voltage electricity. Transformers work fine with AC electricity, but can be damaged or destroyed if too much DC electricity flows into them. That's what can happen during big space weather storms. If many transformers fail at once, the whole electrical system over a large area can go down. That's how space weather can cause a blackout. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store on science education, ranging from evolution , classroom research , and the need for science and math literacy You might also be interested in: There are two types of electrical currents that can flow through wires: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Direct current (DC) flows in the same direction all the time through an electric...more Space weather causes electricity to flow in our atmosphere. Sometimes that electricity lights up the sky by causing the aurora (the Southern and Northern Lights). Electric currents in the atmosphere can...more Our electrical power system supplies our homes and businesses with electricity. Space weather storms can mess up the power system, leaving us without electricity. A transformer is a piece of equipment...more Sometimes a whole electric power system shuts down. This can happen after a strong space weather storm. It is hard to get the whole system running again after it has been shut down all the way. The main...more In 1989 a space weather storm caused an electrical blackout over a large area. Six million people in eastern Canada lost electrical power for 9 hours or longer. The blackout of the HydroQuebec power grid...more Earth's magnetosphere shields our planet from most of the solar wind. Some solar wind particles do leak in and combine with ions escaping from the top of Earth's atmosphere to populate the magnetosphere...more There is a giant magnetic "bubble" in space around the Sun. That "bubble" is called the heliosphere. In a sense, we Earthlings live within the outer atmosphere of our Sun. The solar...more

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A Terrier-Improved Orion suborbital sounding rocket carrying the experiment of four Drexel Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics Students blasted off from NASA’s Wallops Island Flight Facility at 6:40 a.m. this morning. Kelly Collett, Christopher Elko, Danielle Jacobson and their advisor Dr. Jin Kang, of the Drexel Space Systems Laboratory were on hand to watch the rocket carrying their experiment take flight. The launch was expected at 6 a.m., however, it was delayed to allow boats moving through the danger zone to clear the area. “Before it launched we were all really anxious, but as soon as it went of it was the coolest thing,” Collett said. “It was the most incredible experience of my life,” she added. The rocket contained 17 educational experiments from universities around the country. Among them, was the Drexel team’s piezoelectric cantilevers experiment designed to test the feasibility of using piezoelectric materials to convert vibrations in to storable energy. The rocket is capable of reaching speeds up to 2,902 mph. After completing its mission NASA will collect the experiments and deliver them to the students for analysis.

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Calculating Cash flow from Operations Here are the steps for calculating the cash flow from operations using the indirect method: Start with net income. Add back non-cash expenses. (Such as depreciation and amortization) Adjust for gains and losses on sales on assets. Add back losses Subtract out gains Account for changes in all non-cash current assets. Account for changes in all current assets and liabilities except notes payable and dividends payable. In general, candidates should utilize the following rules: Increase in assets = use of cash (-) Decrease in assets = source of cash (+) Increase in liability or capital = source of cash (+) Decrease in liability or capital = use of cash (-) Cash Flow from Investment Activities Cash Flow from investing activities includes purchasing and selling long-term assets and marketable securities (other than cash equivalents), as well as making and collecting on loans. Cash Flow from Financing Activities Cash Flow from financing activities includes issuing and buying back capital stock, as well as borrowing and repaying loans on a short- or long-term basis (issuing bonds and notes). Dividends paid are also included in this category, but the repayment of accounts payable or accrued liabilities is not.

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F. Hou et al., “MAVS forms functional prion-like aggregates to activate and propagate antiviral innate immune response,” Cell, 146:448-61, 2011. In trying to tease apart the signaling pathway that activates an innate immune response, Zhijian “James” Chen and colleagues at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center discovered that an intermediary mitochondrial protein called MAVS acts like a prion—activating other MAVSs and aggregating—and in this form potently initiates the next signal in the cascade that leads to innate cytokine production. This finding is the first report of a prion-like protein in mammalian cells. A cell infected with an RNA virus such as influenza alerts other cells by activating innate immune pathways. A cytoplasmic receptor, RIG-1, detects viral RNA particles and activates the mitochondrial membrane protein MAVS, which in turn activates the next step in the signaling cascade. Chen and colleagues showed that once RIG-1 had turned on the MAVS proteins, those MAVSs could activate other MAVSs in vitro, even when RIG-1 was absent. “They form the seed that cause the other MAVS to aggregate,” says Chen. Chen thinks that the prion-like activation and aggregation of MAVS proteins can amplify the signal from just a few molecules of activated RIG-1. By multiplying the next step, the activated MAVS convey a stronger downstream signal. With such a simple way to amplify a signal, “one wonders how common this is in signal transduction,” says The Scripps Research Institute’s Bruce Beutler, as many signal transduction pathways could benefit from such an amplifying step.

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The Mahabharata is India’s greatest epic. ‘Mahabharata’ means ‘Great India,’ India the Sublime. This unparalleled epic is six times the size of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. The great sage Vyasa was inspired to write this epic, but he found that it was impossible for him to write it all down. So he prayed to Brahma, the Creator. In the Hindu Trinity, Brahma is the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, Siva the Transformer. Vyasa prayed to Brahma and Brahma descended in human form. The sage said to Brahma, “Please send me someone who can write down what I say.” Brahma said, “Well, there is only one person on earth who can do that, and that is Ganapati. You invoke him, he can take down your dictation.” So he invoked Ganapati, the son of Lord Siva. Ganapati came and agreed to write on one condition. The condition was that Vyasa could not pause; he had to dictate continuously, without interruption. If he hesitated or if he paused, then Ganapati would leave him. Vyasa consented and said, “Now, I also want to dictate to you on one condition, and that condition is, that unless and until you know the meaning of what I dictate you will not write. You have to wait and ask me if there is anything you do not comprehend.” Vyasa was very clever. He thought that he would use complex sentences and it would take time for Ganapati to understand them, and in the meantime he would be able to get more inspiration and get ready for dictation. Thus the Mahabharata was composed. from Tales of the Mahabharata by Sri Chinmoy Published by Citadel Books

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The ice birds of SUMMIT COUNTY — You had to know it was coming sometime. I’m actually surprised I was able to resist posting a penguin photoblog for as long as I have. They’re so cute and photogenic, as well as incredibly tame, so you don’t even have to have any special wildlife photography skills to photograph them. But I have an ulterior motive, or two of them, actually. I’m hoping these birds are cute enough to drive a record number of page views to a single post — call it a social media experiment. And, I’m concerned about penguins. They are one of the species that just don’t really have anywhere to go as the Earth heats up. Some other species of plants and animals may be able to adapt, or find new niches with suitable habitat, but some ice-dependent species may be doomed. In fact, the simple and prolific food chain in the entire Antarctic region is under the global warming gun. In the last half century, winter temperatures on the Antarctic Peninsula — the skinny spit of land sticking up toward South America — have climbed five times faster than the global average. Subarctic conditions around the peninsula have given way to a moist maritime climate, with impacts to Antarctic birds and mammals, who all depend on krill for sustenance. Krill are tiny shrimp-like crustaceans found in great abundance in Antarctic waters. The krill feeds on tiny free-floating plants called phytoplankton. In turn, the krill is eaten in mass quantities by whales, sea birds, seals and penguins. But changing weather patterns linked to global warming are altering the system. Travelers to Antarctica can witness the changes first-hand, since many of the tourist voyages to the region explore the Peninsula and nearby islands. Some recent studies have shown that more cloudiness and less sea ice near the northern end of the peninsula combined to slow plankton growth. Farther south, sunnier skies and more sea ice spurred greater plankton growth. Ice-loving Adelie penguins are following the phytoplankton, and the krill who feed on them. In the process, sub-Antarctic species — including Chinstrap and Gentoo penguins–are replacing the Adélies in their former range. Though the Chinstraps and Gentoos are faring better than the Adélies, they, too, are pushing south in pursuit of food. Satellite imagery helps reveal changes in ocean color, temperature, sea ice distribution and wind. Many researchers, including a team from the University of Hawaii, are collecting data from the sea to help pinpoint the changes.

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What is RSS?RSS stands for Really Simple Syndication. Using RSS, you can easily stay up to date with changes to a website without having to check it on a regular basis. For example, this classroom website syndicates its home page, and announcements, and it will automatically refresh the feed if one of these is updated. How do I use RSS?Several modern browsers, such as Firefox and Apple's Safari 2.0, support RSS in some way. Websites like Google and Yahoo! can also act as free RSS readers. To view the RSS feed in your RSS reader:1. Copy the URL. 2. Paste the URL into your reader. Firefox 1.5 users:1. Click the orange RSS icon in the address bar of your browser. 2. Add the Live Bookmark to your bookmarks list. Safari 2.0 users:1. Click the URL above. 2. Select "Add to bookmarks" in the menu to the right. Google users:1. Click on the "Add to Google" button. 2. Follow the instructions for adding the feed either to Google Reader or your Google homepage. My Yahoo! users:1. Click on the "Add to My Yahoo!" button. 2. Follow the instructions for adding the feed to your My Yahoo! homepage.

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Botanically, bulbs are buds, commonly subterranean, producing roots from their undersides, and consisting of layers of fleshy rudimentary leaves, called scales, attached to abbreviated stems. There is considerable uncertainty in the minds of many gardeners as to the difference between bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers, for their function is the same—to tide the plant over a period of adverse conditions, such as summer droughts and winter cold. All have common factors: food storage; rapid growth under suitable conditions; and the same life-cycle, in that during growth and flowering, next year's flower is formed in miniature, the foliage soon reaching maturity and dying away, as do the roots in most cases when the whole plant enters a period of rest. A true bulb, such as that of a tulip, hyacinth or narcissus, is a bud surrounded by fleshy or scaly leaves, arising from a flat disc of 'basal plate'. In `tunicated' bulbs the fleshy leaves are rolled close together, as in the tulip. In 'imbricated' bulbs the bulb leaves are thick and overlapping, as in the lily. The determination of whether or not a particular plant is a bulb depends upon the structure of the storage organ. If the botanical definition of the bulb i s strictly accepted, many plants that gardeners ordinarily consider bulbs, such as crocuses, calla lilies, cannas and dahlias, must be eliminated. These and many other plants not technically true bulbs have bulb-like organs that function in the same way as bulbs but are not structurally scaly buds. They include rounded or flattish, solid, swollen stem bases called corms as in gladioli, crocuses; elongated thickened stems called rhizomes as in cannas, calla lilies, lily-ofthe-valley; thickened terminal portions of stems called tubers as in anemones, begonias, caladiums ; and swollen tuber-like roots as in dahlias. Nearly all bulbs produce offsets sooner or later, and these, except for rarities, give sufficient stock for the ordinary gardener. All that needs to be done is to dig up the clumps, separate the bulbs, sort out the small ones and replant them, treating them like mature bulbs until they reach the flowering stage. Rhizomes and tuberous roots may be treated in the same way, so each eye will produce another plant if care is taken of it. The exceptions are erythroniums, which rarely produce offsets, and cyclamen, which never do, and therefore can only be increased from seeds. This leads to a consideration of raising bulbs from seed. Except for the most enthusiastic of amateurs, this should be left to the specialist. Where seed is produced, it is easy to obtain a supply, but the seed of many bulbs does not come true. That is the seedlings raised have characteristics which differ from their parents. There is also the question of cross fertilization to take into account, and, of course, raising bulbs from seed is a lengthy undertaking, often a risky one as well. However, with these provisos it may be said that raising lilies from seed is an interesting process. Corms replace themselves annually. After having thrown up their leaves and flowers, each corm shrivels away and a new corm, sometimes several, forms while the leaves and flowers of the old one are growing. Without bulbs all gardens would be the poorer the whole year round, but particularly in autumn, spring and summer Bulbs are so popular because they yield such big rewards for so little in terms of money and care. Bulbs make it possible to have a continuous succession of color outdoors and indoors throughout the year. Bulbs will flourish in virtually any kind of well-drained soil. Bulbs will thrive in almost every conceivable position or situation in the garden, in sun or partial shade. Bulbs offer infinite variety in color, form and texture. When in bloom they vary from an inch or two in height to several feet and the characteristics of their foliage are as diverse as their flowers. The flowers of most bulbs last well when cut and are ideal for flower arrangements. Gardening with bulbs requires a minimum of work. Bulbs are easy to cultivate, giving a high percentage of successful results even for the beginner. Bulbs are not only inexpensive but are easily obtainable. Always purchase good-size, healthy bulbs from a reputable dealer. Early ordering is vital to ensure the best selection. Plant immediately the bulbs arrive and if this is inconvenient open the bags for ventilation and keep the bulbs in a cool, dry place until you are ready to plant them. Plant in well-drained soil. The vast majority of bulbs will do well in any soil provided it is well drained. It is advisable, however, to treat heavy soils with applications of peat or well-rotted leaf mold. The planting period for bulbs will depend upon their flowering season. The planting period for spring-flowering bulbs extends from September 1 to December 15 in Northern Hemisphere, but daffodils should be planted before the end of October. Autumn-flowering bulbs (crocus and colchicum) should be planted in August. Most summer-flowering bulbs should be planted in March and April, although some, such as lilies, should be planted in November and December. Stem-rooting lilies can also be successfully set out in early spring. Plant bulbs at the right depth. Although there are exceptions, bulbs are generally set with their tops about three times the diameter of the bulb below ground; small bulbs deeper proportionately. Usually it is the pointed end of the bulb which should be uppermost, but some tubers are planted horizontally. Some bulbs, such as anemones, give no indication which end is up, but there are usually signs of previous stem or root sources. Spring-flowering bulbs such as hyacinths, daffodils and tulips are planted 16cm (6in) deep and most spring-flowering small or miscellaneous bulbs are planted 8-10cm (3-4in) deep. Variation in depth depends upon the height of the stem and on the type of soil—the longer the stem and the lighter the soil, the deeper the planting. No general guidance can be given on spacing of bulbs, for this may range from 2.5cm (1 in) to 0.6m (2ft) apart, depending upon the size of the plant, its flower and foliage. Bulbs planted in groups or clusters produce the best effects, and if flowers are wanted for indoor decoration extra bulbs should be planted in the vegetable garden or special cutting garden. Bulbs can be grown virtually anywhere in the garden. There is a place in every garden for some kinds of bulbs in beds, borders, edges, shrubberies, rock gardens, orchards, woodlands, lawns, on walls, between paving stones, in tubs or window-boxes. Many bulbs can be naturalized, that is, planted in informal groups or drifts and left to increase naturally. This is often done in rough grass or woodland, The grass should be left uncut until the bulb foliage has died down naturally, usually in June. Most bulbs do not require full sun but can be planted in partial shade. Indeed, partial shade makes for longer lasting blooms. Flowers should be removed when petals fade and the foliage should not be cut off, but should be allowed to die down naturally, permitting the bulb to replace energy and flower the following season. Most spring-flowering bulbs (the exceptions are lilies, anemones and ranunculuses which require winter protection) should be lifted. Lift bulbs carefully only after the foliage has died down and store them in a cool, frost-free and well-ventilated place until it is time to replant them again. Generally, if bulbs are doing well, natural increase will make lifting of the clumps and separation of the bulbs necessary every few years. Be careful when separating clumps of bulbs not to damage them. Bulbs should always be handled carefully to avoid physical injury. The most commonly grown bulb flowers in our gardens are narcissi, tulips and hyacinths, with lilies, snowdrops, grape hyacinths and several others also represented in the list. Daffodil is merely the common name for narcissus, of which there are more than 10,000 named varieties, with some 500 in normal commercial cultivation. With the exception of one or two kinds, such as tazettas, narcissi are hardy, tolerant and adaptable plants. They will grow in almost any situation except heavy shade or in badly-drained soil. In open ground they flower from February to the end of May. Normally most varieties remain in flower for three to four weeks and if they are picked in bud for cut flowers they will last in water for ten days or more. Narcissi will flourish in beds and borders, naturalized in meadows, open woodlands, lawns, orchards or under scattered trees, among shrubs, in tubs and window boxes. The smaller kinds do well in rock gardens and many varieties are suitable for forcing. Out of doors daffodils will flourish in any well-drained soil although N. bulbocodium prefers sandy soil and N. cyclamineus peaty soil. The best sites are in sun or light shade with shelter from sweeping winds. Plant the bulbs as early in the autumn as they can be obtained Robust kinds that have large bulbs should be planted 13-16cm (5-6in) deep, less vigorous kinds with smaller bulbs 8-l0cm (3-4in) deep, and tiny species 8cm (3in) deep. Space vigorous growers 16-23cm (6-9in) apart, moderately vigorous growers 10-13cm (4-5in) apart, and small species 6-l0cm (2-4in) apart. In naturalized plantings these distances are varied considerably and it is best to scatter the bulbs at random, in groups or drifts, planting them exactly where they fall. For planting bulbs out of doors, especially in turf, special planting tools are available. Some of these are long-handled tools, shod with a circularmetal cutter which is forced into the soil. When the tool is lifted a core of turf and soil is removed intact. A bulb is then placed in the hole and the core of turf replaced over it and firmed with the foot. To enable the cutter to be driven easily into hard turf the tool is fitted with a foot bar. There are versions of this tool with short handles, without the foot bar. Otherwise, when planting in soil or in the rock garden it is always advisable to do so with a trowel, never with a dibber. If a dibber is used an air pocket may be left below the bulb, into which the roots will not grow, thus preventing proper development. If the soil is dry, water thoroughly after planting. Where winters are severe, protect bulbs which are not planted in grass with a covering of leaves or other suitable material. Feed established plantings in early autumn and early spring, using a complete fertilizer in spring and a slower-acting organic fertilizer in the autumn Water copiously during dry spells when the foliage is above ground. Never remove the foliage until it has died down naturally. When plantings become crowded so that the bloom deteriorates in quantity and quality, lift, separate and replant the bulbs as soon as the foliage has died down. Tulips are equally numerous, with several thousand named varieties and some 800 in commercial cultivation. They differ more than narcissi and are divided into 23 main groups of classes, of interest mainly to the specialist. Some tulips flower early (in mid-April, some in mid-season (late April), and others bloom late, in May. The color range is from white to almost black, from softest pink to deepest purple; there are broken colors, self-colors, striped, streaked, shaded and tinged. Some have oval flowers, some are shaped like turbans, and others are square at the base. Some tulips resemble paeonies, others have lily-like flowers. There are tulips with fringed or curled petals and others with pointed petals. A number produce several flowers on a stem. Some have tiny flowers, while others produce blooms up to 38cm (15in) in diameter. Heights range from a few cm to nearly m (3ft). Cultivation Bulbs can be planted out of doors between mid-September and mid-December. Species or botanical tulips should be planted 10cm (4in) deep and about 13cm (5in) apart with the exception of T. fosteriana, which should be planted 13-16cm (5-6in) deep and some 16cm (6in) apart, like all divisions of garden tulips. Good drainage is essential; they will thrive in virtually any well-drained soil, but in light sandy soils the bulbs should be planted a little deeper than normal. Tulips can be interplanted with roses or with annuals or with other bulbs flowering at the same time, taking into account the differing heights of other plants when interplanting. Species tulips do best in sunny positions, but garden tulips can be planted in sun or in partial shade. Early-flowering garden tulips planted in sheltered sunny spots will come into flower sooner, or if late-flowering tulips are planted in partial shade, they will last longer. Apart from kaufmanniana tulips which are naturalized, all tulips should be lifted every year when the foliage has turned completely yellow and begun to die off. The old flower stems should be cut off a little above the newly formed bulbs at the end of June or early July. They should, under no circumstances, be left on the bulb in storage trays. If the bulbs must be cleared from the ground before the foliage begins to die, to make way for other bedding plants, they may be lifted and heeled into a shallow trench in a spare corner until the leaves yellow. The lifted bulbs should be kept out of sunlight, cleaned and stored in a cool, airy, frost-free place until planting time comes round again. Indoor cultivation is the same procedure as narcissus, but forced tulip bulbs are not really worth keeping for later outdoor planting. There are far fewer hyacinths than tulips or daffodils, but because of their beauty and their perfume they continue to be firm favorites for the garden. Cultivation Bedding hyacinths are best planted in late October about 10cm (4in) deep in well-drained soil and in a sunny position. Space the bulbs about 20cm (8in) apart for maximum color effect. Bone meal forked into the soil before planting at the rate of 112g (4oz) to the sq m (sq yd) will ensure good heads of flower in April. Watering, feeding, mulching It is essential for all bulbs to have plenty of moisture when growing actively, but excess water during the dormant period is harmful. Like all plants, bulbs respond to fertile soil, but manures and fertilizers must be used carefully. Well-rotted manure improves soil structure and provides nutrients for all plants and may be used to advantage with bulbs as long as there is a protective layer of soil between the bulbs and the manure. Fresh manure should never be used. Slow-acting fertilizers other than manure are particularly recommended for feeding bulbs. Bonemeal is one of the best and 3kg (61b) to a 11sq m (100 sq ft) is not too heavy an annual application. Mulches are useful in the summer to help the soil to retain moisture and peat is excellent for this purpose. Mulches intended for protective winter covering should be applied to the surface of the ground after the ground has frozen and should be removed after bulb growth is under way in the spring. Weeds, pests, diseases Areas planted with bulbs should be kept as free of weeds as possible and the surface soil 1. Should be loosened from time to time. 2. Injured or infected foliage should be removed and burned. Diseases can be avoided by buying only healthy, top quality bulbs, and few gardeners who do this are troubled by diseases. The major pests are slugs and snails and fortunately these can be controlled by modern slug killers. In dealing with any diseases or pests, proper diagnosis is important before resorting to drastic measures. Should a disease appear among a planting, lift the healthy bulbs, disinfect them, and move them to an area not previously used for growing bulbs of the same kind. This will usually save them from infection.

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The observance of Purim was thus originally ordained by the Sages: "To observe these days of Purim in their times. 'In their times:' In the specific time of each." The reason for the different dates designated for the observance of Purim is that the Jews of Shushan originally observed the festival on a different day than the Jews who lived elsewhere. Whereas Jews in Shushan waged war on both the 13th and the 14th of the month, and observed the 15th as a day of festivity and rejoicing, in all other provinces the Jews waged war on the 13th and observed only the 14th as a day of festivity and rejoicing. Therefore our Sages chose to distinguish between Shushan and all other places in accordance with the original event. Wishing however, to accord honor to the Land of Israel which then was desolate, they determined as follows: The capital city of Shushan, in which the miracle occurred enjoys special preeminence and the festival is to be observed there on the 15th. This is despite the fact that in the days of Yehoshua, under whose leadership the Jewish People first entered and conquered the Land of Israel, Shushan was not yet surrounded by a wall, and hence enjoyed only minor status as a city. All other cities which were already settled and were surrounded by walls in the days of Yehoshua, are to be accorded the preeminence of Shushan - although they might presently lack surrounding walls and might be in a state of ruin - and they are to observe Purim the 15th. Cities which were not surrounded by walls in the days of Yehoshua though they may have surrounding walls presently - are not to be accorded the status of Shushan, and they are to observe the festival on the 14th. What then is the criterion for judging the status of a city? The condition of the city during the days of Yehoshua. That is to say, walled cities either found by Yehoshua in the Land of Israel, or built with walls in his time, are assured of eternal existence. Their present destruction is viewed as passing. Cities outside the Land of Israel - though they later acquired the status of walled cities - are not regarded as assured of permanent existence. Therefore the Purim which is observed on the 14th is called 'Purim-of-the-open-cities;' (Purim De'Prazot) and the Purim observed on the 15th is named the 'Purim-of-the-walled-cities' (Purim De'Mukafot). In our times, the only city besides Shushan in which Purim is observed the 15th of Adar is Jerusalem, "Yerushalayim." In a number of other places, the Megillah is also read the 15th - but only because of doubt. In these communities, the essential observance of Purim is fixed for the 14th, and though the Reading of the Megillah is repeated in them the 15th as well, the required brachah which precedes the Megilah-Reading, is not recited. PURIM KATAN - Little Purim On a leap year when, according to the Hebrew calendar there are two months of Adar, I and II, Purim is observed for two days in Adar II, which is followed by Nissan. However, the 14th and 15th of Adar A on a leap year are traditionally called "Little Purim". On these days also one is supposed to celebrate, is forbidden to mourn or fast and omits certain prayers. Sometimes Purim falls on a Friday, therefore making the next day, Shabbat, Shushan Purim. However, it is forbidden to read the Megilla on Shabbat, and of course, Shabbat cannot be postponed because of Purim. For Jerusalem and other walled cities, the procedure is as follows: “Mikra Megillah” is done on Thursday night and Friday morning, as in the “open” cities; “Matanot La-Evyonim” are given on Friday. The reading of “Parashat Amalek” and the insertion of “Al HaNisim” into the “Shemoneh Esray” and the “Birchat HaMazon” are done on Shabbat, their regular Purim in ordinary years. “Seudat Purim” is served and “Mishloach Manot” are exchanged on Sunday, the sixteenth of Adar. Thus, the holiday is felt and marked in Jerusalem for three days, and therefore Purim in such a year is called “Purim MeShulash,” Triple Purim. Learning from the Purim experience, a custom has evolved for Jewish communities to celebrate the anniversary of their escape from destruction. These special communal Purims are also called 'Purim Katan.' This is a day of rejoicing, feasting and the distribution of gifts which Jewish communities, families, or even individuals set aside in commemoration of a miraculous event through which they were rescued from catastrophe or destruction or from evil and oppressive edicts. There are such festivities which are established for a definite period of years and others which are to continue through all the generations. These were called "Second Purim" and an effort was made to celebrate them like the first Purim following the pattern which Mordecai and Esther established for all the generations. In honour of the Second Purim special megillot were written and read in the synagogue on that day in the cantillation of the Book of Esther (the megillot of the Purim of Castile, of Saragossa and of the Casablanca Hitler). Poets composed special poems on the pattern of "On account of the miracles" to be said during the "Amidah" (Shmona Esreh) and as part of the grace after meals (Purim of Candea, of Carpentras, France, and others). In other places they would recite the Hallel during the morning prayers as is done on Hanuka and the first day of the month even though the Hallel is not said on Purim. The number, both in the Diaspora and in the Land of Israel during foreign rule, comes to hundreds. Many have been forgotten or have disappeared in the course of time, and others are recalled only in community annals and in history books. Sometimes such a Second Purim was even established on a day of national mourning if the redemption occurred on that day; thus Purim of Candea falls on the 18th of Tammuz (1538) even though Tammuz is a month of mourning according to Jewish tradition. The Purim of Ibrahim Pasha on the first day of Av (when festivities are reduced to a minimum) commemorates the miracle by which the Jews of Hebron were rescued from the army of Ibrahim Pasha. And there are others. Sometimes a Second Purim is established on a holiday without qualms about mixing celebrations: For example, the Purim of Ancona (Italy, 1740), on the second day of Succoth, the Second Purim of the community of Carpentras (France, 1651) on the eighth day of Pesach, when the community was rescued from a blood libel. At times a Second Purim was established for a family as happened in Vilna where the 16th of Kislev (1803) is called "the Purim of Abraham Danzig". In a nearby military camp there occurred a heavy explosion. Many houses were destroyed and there were many killed and wounded. The house of Rabbi Abraham Danzig, scholar and poet, was in the area of the catastrophe but was undamaged and its occupants unharmed. In 1629 Rabbi Yom Tov Lipman Heller, the Rabbi of Prague and the author of the famous commentary on the Mishnah, "Tosefet Yom Tov", proclaimed as a Second Purim for his descendants the second day of Rosh Hodesh Adar to commemorate his deliverance from death. A famous Second Purim is that of Frankfurt-am-Main on the 20th of Adar (1614-15). The baker, Vincent Fettmilch, who called himself the "New Haman", organized attacks on the Jews, who defended themselves. However, after a battle which lasted a full day and night they were forced to surrender and were expelled from the city, despoiled of all their belongings. After several months the king of Germany learned that a flagrant injustice had been done to the Jews. He commanded that the baker be killed, his house destroyed, his body beheaded, quartered, and hung on the gates of the city. The story of Vincent Fettmilch's crimes and of his punishment were inscribed in German and Latin on a column erected on the site of his house. The king called upon the Jews of Frankfurt to return to their homes with full honours, accompanied by a military band and with a reception by the local authorities. This Purim the Jews called "Vincent Purim" and they also proclaimed a special fast and penitence. Rabbi Elhanan Ha'elen composed a "Vincent Megillah" in Hebrew and Yiddish. A "Hitler Purim" was proclaimed by the Jewish community of Casablanca (North Africa) on the 20th of Kislev (1942) because on that day it was saved from the Nazi invaders and their followers. A special Megillah, the "Hitler Megillah", was composed ("...and the month which was turned for us from sorrow to rejoicing and the making of holiday and the giving of gifts to the poor. Cursed be Hitler, cursed be Mussolini... etc...." From the Hitler Megillah). - Casablanca Purim Katan, celebrated on the 2nd of Kislev, commemorates the Jewish community there being saved from anti-Jewish riots and Nazi occupation in 1943. - Purim Winz was established by the Jews of Frankfort on the Main (Germany) on the 20th of Adar in 1616, and celebrates the expelled Jews being admitted into the town, as well as the execution of the chief Jew-baiter and anti-Semite, Fettmilch. - The Jews of Tiberias celebrate a Purim Katan on the 7th of Elul dating from 1743 when they were saved from the danger of war from the surrounding Arab countries and their foreign allies. - Cairo: called 'Purim Mizrayom,' the Jews of Cairo celebrated the 28th of Adar, 1524, when they were saved from extermination.

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It depends on the camera and the situation, but as a rule of thumb, it's usually better not to -- at least toward a bright mid-day sun. I think a possible reason for the caution about pointing the camera at the sun comes from early video sensors which would quickly get a burn on them which was difficult to get rid of. With today's 3 CCD chips, it is highly unlikely the same burn will occur but it is always wise to take caution and look after your gear in a normal manner and don't expose it to unneccessary risk. Many videographers take exquisite video of sunrises and sunsets, and these do virtually no harm to the camera since the light is far less bright than mid-day sun. Others use extremely dark filters (such as those found in welding goggles) to photograph the sun during solar eclipses. However, the biggest reason to be careful when pointing a video camera toward the sun is because the lens of the camera can actually act like a magnifying glass and focus the rays of the sun into a very small area on the lens. If left in place long enough, this can burn a hole. Remember doing this as a kid when you took a magnifying glass outside and burned holes in a leaf by focusing the sun on it? You're using the same principle when pointing a camera lens at a bright mid-day sun. It's actually OK to point your camera toward the sun when you're shooting video (this means you're using the sun as a back light in your pictures, which can yield quite dramatic results). Just don't keep it in the same position for a long period of time. Also, with electronic sensors, the direct sun can sometimes cause "blooming" problems where the sensor is overloaded and it won't record properly afterward. In newer cameras, this is only temporary. However, in some older cameras, it can cause permanent damage. Filters to use Neutral Density (ND) A colour-neutral filter which absorbs light evenly throughout the visible spectrum. Used to reduce the amount of light coming through the lens in strong lighting situations. Ultra Violet (UV) Video cameras are sensitive to both visible light and ultra violet (UV) light. UV is invisible to humans but it can create a blue tinge and/or washed-out effect on video, especially outside. A UV filter removes UV light while leaving visible light intact. UV filters are also commonly used as a protective filter for the lens. Polarizing A special type of lens which removes polarized light, reducing the washed-out effect sometimes created by reflected light. This results in more saturated, vibrant colours. Polarized filters are usually mounted with a rotational adjustment to align the polarization. Last update: 01:21 PM Saturday, July 5, 2008

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The question soon arose of how to actually implement the Chinese Exclusion Act. Initially, customs service officers individually and arbitrarily administered Exclusion; in time, procedures became standardized and as they did, Exclusion enforcement eventually fell upon the Bureau of Immigration, forerunner of today’s Bureau of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), formerly Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). Fast forward thirty years: by the first decade of the 20th century, a national system had formed for specifically regulating Asian immigration. This system invoked fear and loathing in the community, remainied a baleful memory for generations. As part of this system, Immigration officials planned a new facility on Angel Island, the largest island in the San Francisco Bay, far from the mainland. It would replace the old two-story shed at the Pacific Mail Steamship Company wharf previously used to house and process incoming and outgoing migrants. The new station would prevent Chinese immigrants from communicating with those in San Francisco, isolate immigrants with communicable diseases, and, like the prison on nearby Alcatraz Island, be escape proof. In January 1910, over the late objections of Chinese community leaders, this hastily built immigration station was opened on the northeastern edge of Angel Island, ready to receive its first guests. The first stop on disembarking at the pier was the Administration Building. Men were separated from women and children, then proceeded for medical exams, a humiliating experience for Asians, whose medical practice does not include disrobing before the leering eyes of strangers or being probed and measured by metal calipers. Here, they would also be tested for parasitic infections. Consequences could be severe for failing this test, including hospitalization at their own expense or deportation. After the examinations they were then assigned a detention dormitory and a bunk, where they would await their interrogators, the Board of Special Inquiry. Circumventing the Chinese Exclusion Act became a first order concern for most immigrants from China, as it allowed only merchants, clergy, diplomats, teachers, students as “exempt” classes to come here. Many Chinese immigrants resorted to buying false identities at great cost, which allowed them to immigrate as either children of exempt classes or children of natives. In 1906, the San Francisco earthquake and fire destroyed municipal records which created an opportunity for the city’s Chinese residents to claim that they were born here and therefore were American citizens. As citizens Chinese could bring their children to this country, and on return visits to their ancestral villages, claim new children had been born to them. Some of these were “paper sons” or less frequently “paper daughters” — children on paper only without a direct family connection. These paper children were in effect “slots” which people could sell to allow new immigrants to come to this country. For more information about paper sons, view this 2009 CNN news story by Richard Liu. To counter this practice, Immigration inspectors developed grueling interrogations, and by 1910 they had refined this procedure. The immigrant applicant would be called before a Board of Special Inquiry, composed of two immigrant inspectors, a stenographer, and a translator, when needed. Over the course of several hours or even days, the applicant would be asked about minute details only a genuine applicant would know about — their family history, location of the village, their homes. These questions had been anticipated and thus, irrespective of the true nature of the relationship to their sponsor, the applicant had prepared months in advance by committing these details to memory. Their witnesses — other family members living in the United States — would be called forward to corroborate these answers. Any deviation from the testimony would prolong questioning or throw the entire case into doubt and put the applicant at risk of deportation, and possibly everyone else in the family connected to the applicant as well. These details had to be remembered for life. Because of return trips to China, the risk of random immigration raids and identity card checks on the street, a paper son often had to keep these details alive throughout their life. In the meantime, immigrants suffered through long waits on Angel Island for these accounts to be taken or to arrive in a world before instantaneous electronic communication. This period could range from several weeks if the testimony was taken locally to several months to years if the applicant was rejected and appealed the decision. The length of stay varied for travelers from other countries; Japanese immigrants held documents provided by their government that sometimes expedited the process of entering the country, and thus, the majority of the detainees were Chinese. Often, one’s relatives might be on the other side of the country in New York or Chicago. Wherever they were, until their testimony was taken and corroborated and found its way back to San Francisco, the applicant would languish in detention. In the end, the complaints of the community and public officials regarding the safety of the Immigration Station proved true when the Administration Building burned to the ground in August 1940. All applicants were relocated to a mainland facility by November. In 1943, Congress finally repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act in consideration of its ally in the Pacific Theater, thus ending 61 years of official Exclusion. But there was a twist: while the repeal finally allowed Chinese to become naturalized citizens at last, it continued to limit immigration from China to a mere 105 people a year until 1965. Once closed due to fire, the Immigration Station site was used as a World War II prisoner of war processing center by the U.S. military. After the war, the site was abandoned and deteriorated. In 1963, Angel Island was established as a state park and the California Department of Parks and Recreation (State Parks) assumed stewardship of the immigration site. Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation is pleased to present a 5-part series designed for upper elementary, middle and high students and their teachers, and readers everywhere. This series first appeared in the San Francisco Chronicle Spring 2003 and highlights the experience of a few of the immigrant groups that passed through Angel Island Immigration Station (1 page each, downloadable PDFs, aprox 100 KB): Special thanks to our graphic designer Stephen Lowe, our field trip sponsor Blue and Gold Fleet, and Jennifer Gee, Jay Gonzales, Harjit Gosal, Hardeep Gosal, Bill Green, Jeff Ow, Maria Sakovich, Ted Sibia, Jaideep Singh, and Judy Yung for their assistance with this series.

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The Human Brain Project: following CERN’s example by Prof. Henry Markram (Blue Brain Project, Founder & Director - Brain Mind Institute, EPFL) at CERN ( 40-S2-D01 - Salle Dirac ) The Human Brain Project aims to lay the technical foundations for a new model of ICT-based brain research, driving integration between data and knowledge from different disciplines, and catalyzing a community effort to achieve a new understanding of the brain, new treatments for brain disease and new brain-like computing technologies. This will enable collaborative research in brain research and its applications similar to the way that CERN has pioneered this type of large-scale collaborative science for high engery physics. The HBP aims to build 6 ICT platforms: Neuroinformatics Platform, Medical Informatics Platform, Brain Simulation Platform, High Performance Computing Platform, Neuromorphic Computing Platform and Neurorobotics Platform as part of the mission. The primary reason that we do not understand the brain is because what we know is highly fragmented. The overarching strategy of the HBP is therefore to bind researchers from different disciplines together in a grand attempt at putting the fragmented pieces of data and knowledge together into a unifying computer model of the Human brain. Major trends in ICT indicate the time is ripe to begin this international effort. The potential benefits are huge: in brain research we could begin to understand how the brain codes physical reality and gives rise to cognition and behavior by exploiting 9 orders of magnitude on the spatial scale and 18 orders of magnitude on the temporal scale; in clinical brain research, we will be able to begin mapping out the vulnerabilities of the different brain diseases and develop personalized medicine; in future computing we will be able to extract tested architectures and validated principles to build brain-inspired interactive supercomputers and tailored neuromorphic computing systems that could increase efficiency of certain types of computing by several orders of magnitude. Coordinator of the Human Brain Project, EPFL

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Fidel Alejandro Castro was born on August 13, 1926 in Cuba. He was brought up by wealthy parents and had five siblings. Fidel’s parents, both illiterate, were determined their children should receive a good education. Fidel was sent to a Jesuit boarding school where he learnt discipline and soon showed that he was extremely intelligent. However even as a teenage Fidel was a rebellious boy, he helped organize a strike of sugar workers on his father’s plantation. Fidel went on to become a lawyer in Havana, often taking on the cases of people who could not afford to pay him, leaving himself constantly short of money. Fidel’s experience as a lawyer made him extremely critical of the great inequalities in wealth that existed in Cuba. Fidel resented the wealth and power of the American businessmen who appeared to control the country. In 1947 Fidel joined the Cuban People’s Party. Fidel was attracted to this new party’s campaign against corruption, injustice, poverty, unemployment and low wages. By 1952 he was a candidate for congress for the Cuban People’s Party. A powerful public speaker Fidel soon built up a following amongst the young members of the party. The party was expected to win the election but during the campaign with the support of the armed forces General Batista took control of the country. For the Cuban People’s Party to gain power Fidel came to the conclusion that revolution was the only way. By 1953 Fidel planed to overthrow Batista by attacking the Moncada Army Barracks with an armed group. The plan ended in disaster with eight of his group killed in the fighting and another eighty murdered by the army after they were captured. Fidel avoiding execution was put on trial and charged with organising an armed uprising. Using this opportunity Fidel made a speech about the problems of Cuba and how they could be solved, this speech later became a book entitled ‘History Will Absolve Me’. Fidel was found guilty and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. Fidel became famous in Cuba from the trial and the publication of the book. His attempted revolution had considerable support in the country. Batista decided to release Fidel after he had served only two years of his sentence due to considerable pressure from the Cuban population. Castro left for Mexico where he began to plan another attempt to overthrow the Cuban government. The Batista’s soldiers arrested, tortured and questioned many innocent people. Suspects, including children, were publicly executed then left hanging in the streets for several days as a warning to others who were considering joining Fidel. Despite Batista having the backing of the United States government, Castro was confident he could beat him in a battle to rule Cuba. Castro’s troops began to march into the main towns and soon after Batista fled Cuba. In response the remaining government Generals attempted to rule, however Castro called for a general strike and the workers of Cuba supported him, forcing the military to accept their desire for change. As a result in 1959 Fidel Castro became Cuba’s new leader. Castro’s government passed many new laws. Rent was cut for low paid workers by as much as 50 percent and land owned by Batista and his former ministers confiscated. Cuba’s US owned Telephone Company was nationalised and land redistributed among peasants. Morally opposed to racism, drugs, prostitution and gambling, Castro abolished segregation laws in public places such as swimming pools and cemeteries, and passed laws to close down casinos and night clubs. He believed in education for all. In Cuba at this time particularly in poor rural areas, many people were illiterate and children did not attend school. Following the revolution Castro set about changing this. At Castro’s request students travelled to rural areas, teaching people to read and write. Eventually free education was made available to all Cubans. To help improve the health of the young the government introduced a free health service and began a mass inoculation program. During the three years following the revolution a quarter of a million Cubans out of a population of six million left the country. Many were middle and upper class Cubans who found they were worse off financially as a result of Castro’s policies. Whilst most Cubans who remained in the country supported him, many began to resent Castro. He did not keep his promise to hold free elections and was becoming less tolerant to those who disagreed with him. He sacked ministers and replaced them with people who were often young and inexperienced. Politicians who disagreed with him faced being arrested and considered as deviants, as were homosexuals who were often imprisoned. Castro used his power to achieve many good things in Cuba including social welfare, universal education, almost guaranteed employment and quality health care. However his one- party state jailed those who opposed him, ruined the economy and led hundreds of thousands of Cubans to flee. This abuse of power has led to a government which controls every Cuban newspaper, television channel and radio station and restricts internet access. Castro used his power to avenge the torture and murder of hundreds of Cubans by the Batista government. He set up public tribunals where the people responsible were tried and executed. Whilst this pleased many Cubans, world opinion was divided and somewhat shocked. Denied the right to vote against Castro and his party in free elections, anyone can be jailed for “social dangerousness” which does not need them to have committed any specific offence. Before coming to power Fidel Castro used his power to influence Cubans to have faith in him and support him and the revolution to overthrow the Batista government. Many Cubans kept their faith and belief in Castro right till the end of his political life, however this goodwill was not returned. Fidel Castro remained suspicious of not only other governments, but also of his own people for as long as he was in power. Castro’s health declined and in 2006 he transferred his political responsibilities to a younger brother. - by Maddi Pecar

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One of the hottest trends in health care organizations is that of using mobile devices to access electronic health records. Although accessing electronic health records (EHRs) through mobile devices provides an unprecedented level of convenience, it also exposes health care organizations to new security risks. Mobile device encryption helps mitigate security risks. Data must be encrypted while it is in transit, but it must also be encrypted when it is stored. In spite of the need for encryption, some health care organizations have been reluctant to require encryption for mobile access of EHRs for fear that the encryption process will cause a major performance impact. Currently there are a number of different vendors offering solutions for accessing EHRs on mobile devices such as smart phones or tablets. Most of the mobile EHR solutions do not store large patient health databases on the mobile devices. Factors such as limited device capacity, the need for databases to be centrally accessible and the potential for data exposure if the device is ever lost or stolen have lead most vendors to create mobile EHR solutions to act as a front-end application that interfaces with a back-end database. Although most mobile EHR applications do not attempt to locally store patient data, mobile device storage encryption is still important. Mobile applications often cache patient health data in an effort to improve the application's response time. Unless encrypted, this cached data potentially could be exposed if a mobile device were lost or stolen. Data encryption in health care Encryption in health IT in 2013 Health care encryption strategy More on mobile device encryption Encryption a part of HIPAA risk analysis When it comes to storage encryption, health care organizations should insist on hardware-level encryption. Although there are a number of software-based encryption solutions for mobile devices, software solutions consume system resources such as memory and CPU cycles, thereby leading to diminished performance. Conversely, hardware-level encryption usually has no noticeable impact on performance. Most of the major mobile device manufacturers offer hardware level encryption, but there are certain nuances on each platform that IT pros need to be aware of. For example, Android devices offer hardware-level encryption, but only on Honeycomb- and Ice-Cream-Sandwich-based devices. Likewise, iPhones and iPads running iOS 4.0 or later also support hardware-level encryption, but the encryption is not turned on by default. Windows Phone 8 devices support hardware-level encryption that is always turned on. However, because the encryption is based on the use of a trusted module platform chip, Microsoft Corp. chose not to perform hardware-level encryption of removable secure digital (SD) cards. Because SD cards are not encrypted, the Windows Phone 8 operating system will not allow sensitive data to be stored on them. SD cards can only store music, photos, videos and eBooks. Data transmission encryption Storage encryption for mobile devices is critically important in health care organizations, but encrypting data while it is in transit is even more important. Often times mobile EHR applications do not take measures to encrypt data as it flows across the network. The software assumes that the administrator has already secured the network. Some health care organizations reduce the chances of sensitive data being exposed by using firewalls to control the boundaries at which patient data may be accessed. For example, mobile devices might be allowed to access patient data over the facility's Wi-Fi network, but not over a cellular network or an external Wi-Fi network. Of course, the facility Wi-Fi network must be encrypted. The encryption process does tend to make the wireless network run more slowly than it otherwise would, but there are a number of different factors that determine the true performance impact. One of the big factors is the wireless access point itself. As a general rule, older or low-end wireless access points tend to be less efficient than the newer access points. Some access points offload the encryption process to a dedicated chip. As such, organizations with aging wireless access points might experience better performance by upgrading to a newer model. If employees access health care data from outside of the organization, they most likely do so either through a virtual private network or through a transmission core protocol tunnel. In either case the connection is encrypted, but there isn't a lot that can be done on the user's device to mitigate any performance impact the encryption process causes. However, you might be able to improve the performance of encrypted sessions by using a wide area network optimization solution to reduce the amount of traffic that flows between mobile devices and the corporate network. Unfortunately, there isn't one single magic fix for overcoming the overhead that encrypting data causes. The best approach is often to use performance monitoring techniques to look for network bottlenecks and then work to resolve those bottlenecks. Brien M. Posey, MCSE, is a Microsoft Most Valuable Professional for his work with Windows 2000 Server and IIS. He has served as chief information officer for a nationwide chain of hospitals and was once in charge of IT security for Fort Knox. Write to him at email@example.com or contact @SearchHealthIT on Twitter. This was first published in January 2013

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Natural Tick Control Tested By Jan Suszkiw January 12, 2011 Nootkatone, a component of essential oil in grapefruit peels and other sources, is used in many food, beverage and personal-care products because of its clean, citrusy taste and smell. Now, nootkatone may find another use: repelling blacklegged deer ticks that spread Lyme disease. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) entomologist Bob Behle is investigating the possibility with Kirby Stafford, an entomologist at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (CAES) in New Haven, Conn. Stafford began researching nootkatone's tick repellency in 2008 and sought Behle's formulation expertise when it became apparent the essential oil lacked sufficient residual activity to kill the tick's tiny nymph stage, which is more likely to transmit the Lyme disease bacterium than the larger, easier-to-spot adults. In studies at the Crop Bioprotection Research Unit, operated in Peoria, Ill., by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Behle and colleagues refined a spray-dry procedure that uses lignin to encapsulate the nootkatone. ARS is USDA's principal intramural scientific research agency. In nature, lignin acts like a molecular mortar that binds plant cell walls. In this instance, the lignin served as semipermeable packaging that extended nootkatone's residual activity and improved its effectiveness. In greenhouse tests, the lignin-encapsulated (LE) nootkatone lasted longer than a previously tried formulation, known as emulsified concentrate (EC), and caused less harm (phytotoxicity) to cabbage plants when applied at standard field rates. No signs of plant damage were observed when researchers applied the LE formulation in outdoor trials, conducted in 2009 on residential properties. Just as importantly, no live ticks were recovered from treated sites. Another round of tests was conducted this past June on nine residential properties—five of them using another nootkatone-encapsulating formulation devised by Behle. In 2009, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported 29,959 confirmed cases of Lyme disease, which can affect the joints, heart and nervous system of afflicted individuals if left untreated. Read more about the research in the January 2011 issue of Agricultural Research magazine.

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A protein that drives the generation of new muscle fibers from stem cells during development and after injury paradoxically also appears to be responsible for the gradual decline in our muscles’ ability to repair as we age. In vitro and in vivo studies by scientists at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), Kings College London, and Harvard Stem Cell Institute have found that the protein, fibroblast growth factor-2 (fgf2), is naturally overexpressed in aging muscles, and effectively sends muscle stem cells into overdrive, preventing them from replenishing their own populations and reducing their ability to keep muscles in tiptop condition. A rare population of muscle stem cells—also called satellite cells—is found in every skeletal muscle. The cells reside in a dormant, or quiescent state, but can be mobilized rapidly to differentiate into new muscle cells following injury, and also generate a replacement pool of stem cells that revert back to a healthy dormant state until next required. Initial studies in mice by scientists at MGH showed that the numbers of these dormant satellite cells in muscle decline with age, and the cells also lose markers of quiescence and self-renewal and gain markers of differentiation and apoptosis. In their hunt for factors expressed in the muscle fiber that might trigger this change in satellite cells, they found that fgf2—which is one of the natural triggers for stem cell mobilization and differentiation—are markedly elevated in the niche, or microenvironment, that surrounds stem cells in aging muscle. Critically, in vitro and in vivo mouse studies demonstrated that the high levels of fgf2 in aged muscle effectively kicks the stem cells out of their quiescent state and triggers them to proliferate and differentiate, preventing the replenishment of the pool of quiescent stem cells, and effectively leading to a depleted satellite cell population and thus reduced ability of muscle to regenerate. Andrew S. Brack, M.D., and colleagues also showed that either blocking fgf2 signaling or chemically inhibiting fgf2 using tamoxifen significantly increased the numbers of satellite cells in aged muscle, and boosted the ability of muscles in old mice to undergo self-repair and regenerate after injury. “To our knowledge, this is the first identification of a ligand that specifically increases within a mammalian aged niche that can promote breaks in quiescence leading to declines in stem cell function and number during homeostasis,” they write in their published paper in Nature, which is titled “The aged niche disrupts muscle stem cell quiescence.” Dr. Brack puts the results into the context of an athlete’s training schedule. “Analogous to the importance of recovery for athletes training for a sporting event, we now know that it is essential for adult stem cells to rest between bouts of expenditure. Preventing stem cell recuperation leads to their eventual demise...That makes sense to us as humans, in terms of the need to sleep and to eat a healthy diet, but that the need to rest also plays out at the level of stem cells is quite remarkable.” What isn’t yet known is why levels of fgf2 are naturally increased in aged muscle. The MGH and Kings’ College investigators suggest it may be a cell-autonomous response that is trying to keep aging muscle in good condition. Their findings in mice also need to be validated in humans to see if the same mechanism is responsible for stem cell depletion in human muscle fibers, and age-related loss of muscle mass and muscle wastage. Even so, states co-author Albert Basson, M.D., at Kings College, the findings open up the possibility that it may one day be possible to develop treatments to rejuvenate old, tired muscles. “If we could do this, we may be able to enable people to live more mobile, independent lives as they age...Preventing or reversing muscle wasting in old age in humans is still a way off, but this study has for the first time revealed a process that could be responsible for age-related muscle wasting.”

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Medicines to improve the quality of life of people with HIV/AIDS, to cure tuberculosis (TB) and to fight malaria are needed more than ever before. Increased financial commitment to supplying those medicines means that the resources for procuring these medicines are more readily available. But impacts will only be seen at country level if sufficient quantities of medicines of good quality can be procured and distributed. Systematic procurement can both speed up medicines distribution and help maximize treatment outcomes - as well as optimize use of resources. WHO launched a project in 2001 to create unified standards for performing inspections at suppliers, and assessing regulatory information about product quality, before pharmaceuticals are sourced. In short, it created a Model Quality Assurance System. The vastly enhanced rate of "pre-qualification" now possible with this system has speeded up adjudication and contract award, and hence access to medicines. It has also helped to eliminate or vastly reduce the risk of sourcing sub-standard, counterfeit and/or contaminated medicines. The initial focus of the project was on medicines for treating HIV/AIDS (but it has since been expanded to cover anti-TB medicines and antimalarials). By the end of 2002, 69 products, for treating HIV/AIDS, had been pre-qualified. Just as importantly: • developing country capacity to produce good-quality antiretro-virals (ARVs) had been increased • developing country regulatory capacity to assess ARVs had been strengthened • international cooperation on medicines quality had been enhanced.

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On This Day - 30 October 1918 Theatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired) Over 30,000 prisoners taken in Flanders during past month. Region above Valenciennes flooded by Germans. Mannheim bombed by British. Serbs reach Danube east of Semendria and occupy and Pozharevats. Italian advance continues between Upper Brenta and sea; 33,000 prisoners. Severe fighting at Grappa. Fiume surrendered to the Croats by the Hungarians. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres Turkish Army on Tigris surrenders to British. Serious influenza epidemic in London; 2,200 deaths last week. Hungarian Republic proclaimed: Count Hadik Prime Minister. German Note to U.S.A. received sating Armistice terms are being awaited. National Council of Fiume proclaims independence of city and desires union with Italy. Armistice between Turkey and Entente Powers signed at Mudros.

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AN INTRODUCTION BY THE BRADSHAW FOUNDATION This is an account written by the eminent French prehistorian Dr. Jean Clottes , presented as part of the Bradshaw Foundation India Rock Art Archive . Jean Clottes is the first to admit that 'Indian rock art is not as well-known abroad as it should be', despite the fact that the country contains a vast concentration of ancient rock paintings. His research in this Archive, along with that of Dr. Meenakshi Dubey Pathak , highlights both the sheer number of rock art sites as well as the quality and diversity of the prehistoric rock art found in the shelters. Because of this, its preservation - through awareness and appreciation - is clearly essential. INDIAN ROCK ART & ARCHAEOLOGYBY DR. JEAN CLOTTES Despite the excellent work carried out by my Indian colleagues in the past quarter of a century, Indian rock art is not as well-known abroad as it should be. And yet it is both extremely abundant and spectacular. It has often been said in the recent local literature that India shares the privilege - with South Africa - of possessing one of the three largest concentrations of rock art in the world. Be that as it may, it is certain that the sites with paintings and/or engravings are exceptionally numerous all over the country, particularly in its centre. This is why, when an International Rock Art Congress was organized in Agra (Uttar Pradesh), south of Delhi, in November/December 2004, and I was invited to participate in it, I immediately agreed and registered on two of the after-Congress field trips to see some of the surrounding rock art. The Congress was the Tenth Congress of the International Federation of Rock Art Organizations (IFRAO), the first of its kind to be held in India, and it was organized by Dr. Giriraj Kumar on behalf of the Rock Art Society of India (RASI). A herd of red stags with huge antlers I shot all the images shown here during the two field trips that, under the guidance of my Indian colleagues, took us first to the rock art sites of Karabad (page 2) , in the Raisen district and to those of the Shamla Hills (page 3) next to Bhopal, then to more than 20 of the numerous painted shelters of Bhimbetka (page 4 & 5) , and finally to Magazine Shelter (page 6) and Chaturbhujnath Nala (page 7 & 8) in the verdant Chambal valley and its tributaries. All these sites are in Madhya Pradesh, the state with most rock art in India. As to the general information provided hereafter most of it is taken from books and articles published in the past twenty years (see References ). My aim is to pass on some of the information I gleaned through the writings of my colleagues and their painstaking work and also - through the images- some of the wonder I felt when I approached a whole new world of rock art. Red and white humped bull Humped bull with huge horns

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|Uploaded:||June 24, 2010| |Updated:||June 24, 2010| Animals are some of the cutest and most mysterious creatures in the world. When it comes to drawing them, there is many ways to sketch animals out. You can draw animals to look realistic, simple, easy, cartoony, or just plain out normal. Today, I thought I would do another lesson that will teach you "how to draw a owl", step by step. I have an owl lesson already but it is really old. The whole point of doing a new owl tutorial, is to update the old, and upload a newer version that will be a lot easier to tackle. Believe me, I know how hard it can be to draw birds. That is why this bird is going to be pretty simple. The inspiration to draw an owl came from Winnie the Pooh. I was watching some of the old reruns on Youtube, and I have to tell you, even though I'm pretty old, watching Winnie the Pooh is still very entertaining. Owls are wondrous animals that are quite, swift, wise, and simple. They lead or live simple lives which is why not a lot of them are seen. You can say that I live in a country setting, and even though I do, I have never seen an owl yet. I hear them hooting every night around the same time, but no dice as to actually seeing one in the flesh. I love these creatures, and if I could, I would travel to a place that dedicates their animal exhibit to just birds and owls. I can't express how much I love birds and their anatomy. When I was a young girl, I used to want to be a bird and fly the skies as I looked below and watched people at play or live their day to day lifestyle. Well, I guess I should be shutting up now so you guys can get busy and start drawing this owl that I have drawn for you all. You should have fun with this sketch because this is the second owl I have on the site as of right now. I have plenty of birds, but out of all those birds, there is only two owls. Peace peeps, and make sure you have fun with the rest of your drawing day.

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View a collection of video clips and associated information related to projectile motion.PBS Teachers View a lesson plan on the topic of projectile motion. The lesson plan centers around the physics of juggling and is presented by PBS Teachers.Shockwave Studios The Projectile Simulator activity from the Shockwave Studios is an excellent accompaniment for this reading.Curriculum Corner This collection of sense-making activities from The Curriculum Corner will help your students understand projectile motion.Treasures from TPF Need ideas? Need help? Explore The Physics Front's treasure box of catalogued resources on projectile motion.PhET Simulation: Projectile Motion This projectiles lesson from The Physics Classroom Tutorial provides a thorough background of projectiles to complement the PHET simulation. What is a Projectile? In Unit 1 of the Physics Classroom Tutorial, we learned a variety of means to describe the 1-dimensional motion of objects. In Unit 2 of the Physics Classroom Tutorial, we learned how Newton's laws help to explain the motion (and specifically, the changes in the state of motion) of objects that are either at rest or moving in 1-dimension. Now in this unit we will apply both kinematic principles and Newton's laws of motion to understand and explain the motion of objects moving in two dimensions. The most common example of an object that is moving in two dimensions is a projectile. Thus, Lesson 2 of this unit is devoted to understanding the motion of projectiles. A projectile is an object upon which the only force acting is gravity. There are a variety of examples of projectiles. An object dropped from rest is a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). An object that is thrown vertically upward is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). And an object which is thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). A projectile is any object that once projected or dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and is influenced only by the downward force of gravity. By definition, a projectile has a single force that acts upon it - the force of gravity. If there were any other force acting upon an object, then that object would not be a projectile. Thus, the free-body diagram of a projectile would show a single force acting downwards and labeled force of gravity (or simply Fgrav). Regardless of whether a projectile is moving downwards, upwards, upwards and rightwards, or downwards and leftwards, the free-body diagram of the projectile is still as depicted in the diagram at the right. By definition, a projectile is any object upon which the only force is gravity. Projectile Motion and Inertia Many students have difficulty with the concept that the only force acting upon an upward moving projectile is gravity. Their conception of motion prompts them to think that if an object is moving upward, then there must be an upward force. And if an object is moving upward and rightward, there must be both an upward and rightward force. Their belief is that forces cause motion; and if there is an upward motion then there must be an upward force. They reason, "How in the world can an object be moving upward if the only force acting upon it is gravity?" Such students do not believe in Newtonian physics (or at least do not believe strongly in Newtonian physics). Newton's laws suggest that forces are only required to cause an acceleration (not a motion). Recall from the Unit 2 that Newton's laws stood in direct opposition to the common misconception that a force is required to keep an object in motion. This idea is simply not true! A force is not required to keep an object in motion. A force is only required to maintain an acceleration. And in the case of a projectile that is moving upward, there is a downward force and a downward acceleration. That is, the object is moving upward and slowing down. To further ponder this concept of the downward force and a downward acceleration for a projectile, consider a cannonball shot horizontally from a very high cliff at a high speed. And suppose for a moment that the gravity switch could be turned off such that the cannonball would travel in the absence of gravity? What would the motion of such a cannonball be like? How could its motion be described? According to Newton's first law of motion, such a cannonball would continue in motion in a straight line at constant speed. If not acted upon by an unbalanced force, "an object in motion will ...". This is Newton's law of inertia. Now suppose that the gravity switch is turned on and that the cannonball is projected horizontally from the top of the same cliff. What effect will gravity have upon the motion of the cannonball? Will gravity affect the cannonball's horizontal motion? Will the cannonball travel a greater (or shorter) horizontal distance due to the influence of gravity? The answer to both of these questions is "No!" Gravity will act downwards upon the cannonball to affect its vertical motion. Gravity causes a vertical acceleration. The ball will drop vertically below its otherwise straight-line, inertial path. Gravity is the downward force upon a projectile that influences its vertical motion and causes the parabolic trajectory that is characteristic of projectiles. A projectile is an object upon which the only force is gravity. Gravity acts to influence the vertical motion of the projectile, thus causing a vertical acceleration. The horizontal motion of the projectile is the result of the tendency of any object in motion to remain in motion at constant velocity. Due to the absence of horizontal forces, a projectile remains in motion with a constant horizontal velocity. Horizontal forces are not required to keep a projectile moving horizontally. The only force acting upon a projectile is gravity!

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I recently survived to a 75th birthday. When you reach three-quarters of a century, your thoughts naturally turn to recollections of major events and leaders over that time. Thirteen Presidents served: Franklin Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, Ford, Carter, Reagan, G.H.W. Bush, Clinton, G.W. Bush, and Obama. I was born in the Great Depression, but didn’t feel deprived, because Dad had a job, using a shovel provided by the Works Projects Administration, created by Democratic President Roosevelt, who put thousands to work rebuilding America’s infrastructure—roads, sewer systems— literally digging us out of the economic collapse. . Most people loved FDR—elected him four times—because he did so much for the country, leading us through World War II, and starting government programs that helped everyone, and explaining them in his “fireside chats.” Social Security, unemployment compensation, worker rights, and bringing electricity to much of Appalachia. It helped individuals, and the economy as a whole, giving everybody more purchasing power. FDR was succeeded by Harry Truman, who implemented Roosevelt’s idea of the United Nations, where countries could, “Jaw, jaw, instead of war, war.” The U.N. has helped us avoid a World War III. Truman, a Democrat, racially integrated the military, and stood for non-discrimination in employment. He was succeeded by General Dwight Eisenhower. Though a Republican, Ike raised the minimum wage, used troops to protect minority students in Arkansas, and increased Social Security. Ike was succeeded by Democrat John Kennedy. JFK was one of our most eloquent leaders, which he demonstrated in many live news conferences. He forcefully supported the racial integration of colleges, jawboned the steel companies to back down from inflationary price increases, and became the first President to recognize the right of government employees to unionize. Kennedy’s assassination produced Lyndon Johnson, a President whose considerable accomplishments were overshadowed by the Vietnam War. LBJ signed laws creating Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs that helped reduce poverty, and laws guaranteeing voting rights to minorities. The minimum wage, now only $7.25, peaked at the end of the Kennedy-Johnson years at $10.00, in today’s dollars. President Richard Nixon, a Republican, signed legislation creating the Environmental Protection Agency, as well as Title IX, providing more equality for women. Gerald Ford, Republican, restored stability to the nation after Nixon resigned in disgrace. Jimmy Carter, Democrat, helped bring a measure of peace to the Middle East, and was the first President to push for alternative fuels. Republican icon, Ronald Reagan, was the anti-Roosevelt, blaming government for most of our problems. His tax cuts helped the wealthy and the stock market, but not so much working people. He ended the Fairness Doctrine making possible the rise of the one-sided radio and TV we see today. He does deserve credit for signing a major nuclear weapons treaty with the then Soviet Union. George Herbert Walker Bush, a Republican, led the nation in an invasion of Iraq and raised taxes after promising, “Read my lips. No new taxes.” That cost him his job to Bill Clinton, the Democrat. Stable energy prices and the growth of technology helped the Clinton-Gore administration achieve increased prosperity for most Americans, with even lower income groups gaining ground, and a balanced budget achieved. George W. Bush, Republican, became President in 2000 with a minority of the votes, the election decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. His tax cuts and occupation of Iraq and Afghanistan helped crash the economy in 2008. Barack Obama became our President, as the nation embraced more diversity. He’s been vilified as a “socialist,” which he obviously isn’t, or as born in Africa, which he demonstrably wasn’t. He bailed out the auto industry, is winding down the wars he inherited, supports gender equality, and is working to develop industries of the future. Inheriting a nearly catastrophic banking system and economy, he’s reversed the downward trend. His “Obamacare” is already providing health care benefits to millions of Americans. The next President will be Obama again, continuing his policies of moderation, or Republican, Willard, Mitt, Romney, and back to Bush era policies. It’s a pretty clear choice, though many pundits and political operatives, as well as some billionaire bigwigs, will try, as they always do, to muddy the waters. Jack Burgess is a retired teacher of American & Global Studies and a Portsmouth native.

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by Dr. Jeff Zweerink and Dr. Hugh Ross Among the vast expanses of the cosmos, humanity resides on an amazing planet with remarkable conditions for observing the birth and expansion of the universe. It seems as though a purposeful Designer has allowed human civilization and technology to develop so that the Designer's work can be studied in exquisite detail. Thanks to new instruments that provide breakthroughs in understanding, scientists can test the validity of various origin-of-the-universe models. RTB's cosmic creation model, a big bang model, states that the universe began in a hot, uniform state. It then cooled down, eventually forming the stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies observed today. The latest images (left) from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) affirm this picture of an immature universe that "grows up" over time. Images of galaxy clusters as they appear a couple billion light years ago show signs of their great age-a high degree of symmetry, many old stars, few galaxy interactions, and lots of clustering. Images (right) from the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF), showing galaxies from 7-13 billion years ago, look remarkably different. Galaxies are noticeably more ragged, more dispersed, and more uniformly distributed; they are dominated by younger stars and show frequent interactions-all signs of immaturity and of a much smaller, more densely packed cosmos. Two more snapshots of the universe come from the cosmic microwave background (CMB, lower left)1 and a particular class of galaxies (red luminous galaxies or RLGs, lower right)2 These two images show how dramatically the universe changed between 380,000 thousands years and 10 billion years after the creation of the universe. Comparing the clumpiness of the universe at these two epochs provides compelling evidence that dark matter and dark energy-features predicted by RTB's model-dominate the dynamics of the universe. The spatial distribution of the RLGs also establishes that the fluctuations of the CMB grew through straightforward gravitational interactions to form the galaxies and clusters of galaxies observed today. All this evidence strengthens RTB's creation model and testifies of a supernatural Creator who has left unmistakable cosmic fingerprints for humans to discover. - C. L. Bennett et al., "First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results," Astrophysical Journal Supplement 148 (2003): 1-27. - Daniel J. Eisenstein et al., "Detection of the Baryon Acoustic Peak in the Large-Scale Correlation Function of SDSS Luminous Red Galaxies," Astrophysical Journal 633 (2005): 560-74. Portraits of Maturity. The Hubble Space Telescope captures signs of age in the Abell 1689 Galaxy Cluster, located about 2 billion light years away from Earth. The image records how the cluster looked 2 billion years ago-or, more than 11 billion years after the big bang. Six representative galaxies from Abell 1689 show maturity in several ways: a high degree of symmetry, preponderance of older, red stars, and few galaxy interactions. Youthful Impressions. This section of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) image contains over 2,500 galaxies (only one star is visible). Observers can now see galaxies (over 13 billion light years away) as they appeared less than 1 billion years after the big bang creation event. Irregular shapes and a wide range of star colors characterize the images from the HUDF. These galaxies contrast remarkably with those from Abell 1689, revealing an era when structure and order were just beginning to emerge in the universe. Baby Pictures. The cosmic microwave background (CMB) as measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) satellite presents a picture of the universe when it was only 380,000 years old-the oldest possible picture that can be obtained using electromagnetic radiation. Detailed analysis of the clumpiness (shown here as a multipole spectrum) seen in the CMB allows scientists to measure numerous cosmological parameters such as the curvature of space, the baryon density (density of protons and neutrons) and the exotic matter density. The large peak confirms that space is very nearly flat. The ratio of the second peak to the large peak measures the baryon density of the universe. The third peak shows the amount of exotic matter. All measured parameters confirm the hot big bang picture and, consequently, RTB's biblical creation model. Confirming Snapshots. A small section (1/5000th) of the first image taken by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) heralds more confirming evidence. When complete this survey will image more than one million galaxies and over 100,000 quasars in one quarter of the sky. Scientists have constructed a three-dimensional sky map using these images and the measured distances to these objects. Using a particular subset of red luminous galaxies (RLGs), the SDSS team measured the baryon peak, corresponding to the second peak from the WMAP data, as it appeared 10 billion years after the big bang. Quantifying the spatial correlations of the RLGs provides a spectrum (shown above) similar to that produced by the WMAP project. The peak in the spectrum gives "smoking gun" evidence that the clumpiness seen in the WMAP data grows into the galaxies and galaxy clusters imaged by SDSS by straightforward gravitational processes, as predicted by big bang models. Further, the height and sharpness of the peak provides independent confirmation of the amount of exotic matter in the universe as well as of the existence of space energy density (or dark energy).

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UN's 50th Anniversary In commemoration of the United Nation's 50th anniversary in 1995 (UN50), World Scouting wished to support the celebration by facilitating the dissemination of information regarding the UN's goals and objectives. World Scouting and the UN Secretariat signed this agreement in 1994 detailing the use of UN50 emblem. World Scouting was allowed to use the UN50 emblem with projects that advanced UN Charter goals or initiatives that informed the public of the role of the UN. In addition, specific conditions were outlined in which World Scouting could not use the UN50 emblem.

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How to Give a Shot — General Instructions This sheet will show you how to give a shot in the fatty tissue below the skin. This is called a subcutaneous (sub-kyu-TAY-nee-us) injection. Ask your doctor or nurse if this method is the correct one for the drug you are going to take. This sheet does not apply to insulin shots and blood thinner shots. There are different instruction sheets for them. What you will need Before you give the shot, you will need the following: - Drug (This comes in a small bottle or vial.) - Alcohol swab, or cotton ball moistened with alcohol - Syringe with needle (You will need a prescription to buy syringes from a pharmacy.) - Hard plastic or metal container with a screw-on or tightly-secured lid Parts of a syringe and needle You will use a syringe and needle to give the shot. The parts are labeled below. Drawing up the drug into the syringe - Wash the work area (where you will set the drug and syringe) well with soap and water. - Wash your hands. - Check the drug label to be sure it is what your doctor prescribed. Check the expiration date on the vial. Do not use a drug if: - It is past the expiration date - You see small pieces floating in it - It is discolored Call your pharmacist if this happens. - Remove the lid from the top of the drug vial. Wipe the rubber top with an alcohol swab or a cotton ball moistened with alcohol. - Check to make sure the needle is attached tightly to the syringe. Turn it clockwise (to the right) to tighten it. - Remove the plastic needle cap by pulling it straight off. Do not touch the needle. If the needle touches any surface, it will need to be replaced before you use it. - Pull back the plunger of the syringe to your prescribed dosage. This will draw air into the syringe. - Place the drug vial on a flat surface, and push the needle through the rubber top. Push down on the plunger to push air into the vial. - Turn the vial upside down, holding the syringe and needle in place. - Make sure the tip of the needle is in the drug solution. Then pull the plunger back by the flat knob. This will draw the drug into the syringe. Keep pulling on the knob until the drug reaches the prescribed dosage. - Check for air bubbles in the syringe. To remove air bubbles from the syringe: - Hold the syringe with the needle pointing straight up (still in the vial). - Gently tap the barrel of the syringe so air bubbles float to the top. - Still holding the syringe upright, slowly push the plunger until you push all the air out of the syringe, back into the bottle. - Check to make sure you have the correct dosage. - If you have too much or too little, adjust the plunger again until you have the right amount.• Remove the needle from the vial. - Replace the needle cap. Place the syringe on a clean, flat surface. Giving the shot Decide where on your body you will give the shot. The diagram below shows general areas on the body where the shot can be given. Be sure to give the shot in a different place each time. You can stay in the same general area, but try to stay at least 1 inch from the last shot, any scars, and your belly button. Keep a diary to remember where your last shot was given. - Wipe the area of skin with an alcohol swab or a cotton ball moistened in alcohol. - Remove the needle cap. Hold the syringe in one hand. - With the other hand, gently pinch up theskin around where you will give the shot (unless your doctor tells you otherwise) and hold firmly. - Insert the needle at a 45- to 90-degree angle. - Once the needle is in, let go of the skin. Be sure the needle is still left in the skin. - Pull back gently on the plunger of the syringe. If blood appears at the tip of the syringe: - Withdraw the needle, and apply gentle pressure to the site. - Change the needle, and begin again at another site. If no blood appears at the tip of the syringe: - Inject the drug slowly. - Push down on the plunger until all of the drug solution is gone from the syringe. - Take the needle out of your skin. - If you bleed when the needle comes out, place an alcohol swab or clean cotton ball over the skin right away. Press gently on the swab until bleeding has stopped. Do not rub the skin. - Do not re-cap the needle. - Throw away the syringe and needle in a hard plastic or metal container. Close the lid tightly. When the container is full, tape the lid down, and throw it away in the garbage. Note: Check your town’s guidelines on syringe disposal. If you have any questions about these instructions, call your doctor or nurse at:

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- Global Voices - http://globalvoicesonline.org - Stormy Waters? The Maritime Border Disputes between Bolivia, Chile and Peru Written by Pablo Andres Rivero On 4 February 2013 @ 20:50 pm | No Comments In Bolivia, Chile, English, International Relations, Latin America, Peru, Politics, Spanish, War & Conflict This post is part of our International Relations & Security coverage. International boundaries are often blurred by the processes of globalization, but in South America some maritime borders remain contested. For instance, Chile and Peru, neighbors that have enjoyed sustained economic development over the past few years, remain at odds over approximately 38,000 square kilometers of sea located along their maritime border. Bilateral negotiations between the two countries were first held in 1980 but no agreement was reached. In 2008, Peru took the case to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) which, in turn, considered the issue at a public hearing in December 2012. The ICJ is expected to make a ruling on the dispute in mid-2013. In the meantime, Peru continues to argue that the maritime border has not yet been defined by any agreement, with documents signed in the 1950s only relating to access to fishing grounds. Lima also claims that maritime limits should run diagonally south-west from the land border. Meanwhile, Chile argues that the maritime limits were agreed upon after the signing of treaties in 1952 and 1954. These infer that the maritime border should run parallel to the Equator line, an arrangement that Santiago claims Peru has respected for the past 60 years. Supporting the Chilean position, netizen Juan Vargas commented on Peru this Week : The 1952 and 1954 agreements clearly indicate and establish a Maritime Boundary [between Chile and Peru]. They can be found translated into English at: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/58820.pdf ” Oscar Maúrtua de Romaña, a former Peruvian Minister of Foreign Affairs describes the arguments of both sides in a blog post on El Mirador , and concludes: El Perú y Chile, pese a las diferencias históricas, comparten un destino común. Un fallo equitativo por parte del tribunal permitirá poner fin al “único asunto” fronterizo que genera una sombra en nuestras relaciones bilaterales. Resulta tranquilizador el hecho de que el presidente Humala y el presidente Piñera, 72 horas antes de iniciarse la fase oral hayan hecho una declaración conjunta, en la cual se comprometieron ambos a acatar y ejecutar la sentencia de la Corte Internacional de La Haya. Despite historical differences, Peru and Chile share a common destiny. A fair outcome by the court will end the “sole remaining border issue” which compromises our bilateral relations. It is reassuring that 72 hours before the start of the hearing (Peruvian) President Humala and (Chilean) President Piñera have made a joint statement in which both pledged to accept and follow the determination of the International Court of The Hague. Landlocked Bolivia Awaits Decision The dispute between Chile and Peru also has direct implications for others states around the region. In particular, Bolivia is closely watching legal proceedings, and has previously stated [en] that it plans to make a case at the ICJ for Chile to provide coastal access to the Pacific that was lost during the 1879-1881 between the two countries. The final outcome at the ICJ case may add further impetus to Bolivia’s attempts to seek a diplomatic solution to this longstanding issue. Regardless of the ICJ resolution, the democratic and diplomatic statements made by all parties have significantly reduced the risk of armed conflict between the parties. This has, in turn provided the foundations for the development of more creative solutions aimed at ending the crises. These include “A Maritime Zone of Bilateral Participation” proposed by Jilmar Moisés Córdova: “A Maritime Zone of Bilateral Participation”. This argues: La controversia marítima de Perú y Chile, puede llegar a una posible solución instaurándose [...] la Zona Marítima de Participación Bilateral la cual dividiría los mares de ambos Estados y que sería destinada a la pesca, [...] es decir, la explotación de los recursos vivos por embarcaciones de hasta cierto tonelaje de los pueblos del Perú y Chile. Por ejemplo Argentina y Uruguay mantienen un tratado parecido a esta forma que delimita sus mares soberanos. The maritime dispute between Peru and Chile, can reach a possible solution by a so-called Maritime Zone Bilateral Involvement or Participation, which divide the seas of the two states and would be intended for fishing, [...] the exploitation of resources by boats of a certain tonnage from both Peru and Chile. For instance, Argentina and Uruguay hold a treaty like this so that delimits their sovereign seas. Córdova also considers that such an alternative could give both countries the chance of exploring and benefiting from mineral, oil and other resources. He is also confident that the Maritime Zone Bilateral Involvement could provide alternative options for Bolivia’s coastal aspirations. This post and its translations to Spanish, Arabic and French were commissioned by the International Security Network (ISN) as part of a partnership to seek out citizen voices on international relations and security issues worldwide. This post was first published on the ISN blog , see similar stories here . Article printed from Global Voices: http://globalvoicesonline.org URL to article: http://globalvoicesonline.org/2013/02/04/stormy-waters-the-maritime-border-disputes-between-bolivia-chile-and-peru/ URLs in this post: International Relations & Security: http://globalvoicesonline.org/specialcoverage/international-relations-security/ Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maritime_Claims_of_Peru_and_Ecuador.svg case to the International Court of Justice: http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&code=pc&case=137&k=88 Peru this Week: http://www.peruthisweek.com/ http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/58820.pdf: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/58820.pdf blog post on El Mirador: http://elmirador.lamula.pe/2012/12/22/proceso-de-delimitacion-maritima-entre-el-peru-y-chile/encisopress has previously stated: http://en.rian.ru/world/20111216/170295791.html armed conflict: http://peruhistoriaygrandeza.blogspot.com/2012/12/confirmado-peru-se-arma-ante-posible.html proposed by: http://malcolmallison.lamula.pe/2012/12/04/zona-maritima-de-participacion-bilateral-solucion-a-la-controversia-peruchile/malcolmallison Image: http://isnblog.ethz.ch/ here: http://isnblog.ethz.ch/category/global-voices Licensed Creative Commons Attribution, 2008 Global Voices Online. See attribution policy for details: http://globalvoicesonline.org/about/global-voices-attribution-policy

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So is breast best? Breasts have a lot going for them but will they make your kids more intelligent? Periodically the media runs stories based on research suggesting that breast-feeding makes your children smarter. But in the past it hasn't been clear from the research exactly what causes the apparent difference. - Women who choose to breast feed may be more intelligent in the first place suggesting that it's their genes rather than the breast-milk that is behind their offsprings' intelligence. - Or since breast-feeding takes more time and effort than the bottle, breast-feeding mums may have more time in general for reading and talking to their kids. But the latest 'breast is best' research may be different. Conducted over six years in Belarus, it randomly-selected one group of women to breast-feed and one group to use formula milk. In theory, this should have removed all factors outside of breast-feeding itself from the research. The result was that by the age of six and half, the breast-fed babies were on average scoring 5.9 points higher in IQ tests with verbal ability up 7.5 points. But what does this finding show? It doesn't show that breast-milk makes you smarter. It may be that the bonding process between mother and baby that is needed to breast-feed makes baby brainier. Lead resercher Michael Kramer of McGill University puts it like this: 'Even though the treatment difference appears causal, it remains unclear whether the observed cognitive benefits of breastfeeding are due to some constituent of breast milk or are related to the physical and social interactions inherent in breastfeeding. 'Essential long-chain fatty acids and a compound known as insulinlike growth factor I, both found in breast-milk, could be responsible for the cognitive differences. On the other hand, the physical or emotional component of breastfeeding may lead to permanent changes affecting brain development. Breastfeeding also may increase verbal interaction between mother and child, which could improve children's cognitive development.' Clear as mud? In other words, we still don't know if its the milk or mum. Add in the factor that IQ tests are poor measures of intelligence anyway - depending on mood and attitude, an individual's IQ from one test to another can vary by as much as 20 points - and it's hard to conclude that we're much the wiser. So what's the solution? The answer is your common sense. Although some women through no fault of their own struggle to do it, the female body is designed for breast-feeding. It has evolved to do it and human milk has evolved too to best prepare baby for the environment into which he or she is being born. Formula milk has been developed in a factory as an easier-to-use imitation of it. Which one to choose? The answer if you have the time and your partner is able to do it is a bit of no-brainer. Page created on May 19th, 2008 Page updated on January 16th, 2010

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APPLICATION OF GENETIC TECHNIQUES IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT The use of molecular genetic techniques in conservation biology and wildlife management has become increasingly important during the last decade. This is mainly catalyzed by the development of the Polymerase chain Reaction (PCR) which requires only minute amounts of DNA for genetic analysis and the possible sources of DNA can be hair, scale ,feaces, feather, urine, buccal cells, egg shells and even foot prints. Thus it is no longer necessary to obtain blood or tissue samples to study population genetics in animals. Analyzing ad comparing , the genetic make up of plants and animals, not only improves assessments made using traditional methods, but also yields information otherwise inaccessible. Even though molecular techniques are too labour intensive and expensive for regular use, they have been made more widely available in recent years due to retirements in laboratory techniques, improvements in computer power and lower equipment cost. The major challenge for the developing nations to conduct genetic research is of economical one, while for under developed nations is the non availability of technology. Deoxy Ribo Nucleic acid(DNA) is the principal constitute of genes, and is found in the cells of living organisms including components of blood, skin , hair, nails etc. DNA molecules are made up of a linear sequences of compounds called nucleotides, and form a long, continuous strand inside a structure called chromosome. The unique sequence of the nucleotide in a chromosome determines the hereditary characteristics of an individual from its species, sex and to traits such as eye colour. Each gene occupies a particular location on the DNA strand making it possible to compare the same gene in a number of different samples. Many genetic techniques involve a process in which short segments of a DNA strand are replicated to produce a sufficient quantity of material for analysis. These segments can then be examined for differences in size between individuals or for differences in the actual nucleotide sequence of the segments. In contrast, other techniques cut DNA into segments using enzymes and certain of these segments are radio actively tagged to create a visual pattern on x-ray film. DNA finger printing is the most popularly known of these techniques. The finger print of one individual can be compared with other fingerprints to determine if two or more samples originated from the same individuals or to identify close relatives such as parent and sibling. Molecular genetics provides powerful tools for wildlife conservation and can similarly play an important role in wildlife management. First an understanding of genetic population structure of a particular species may aid in the identification of management units and the development of management strategies. The practical application would be the ability to determine the geographical sources of individuals during certain time periods or in certain locations. It is a powerful tool in all demographic surveys as well as experiments . Habitat fragmentation is a threat to survival of wildlife populations in human dominated landscapes. Connectivity among populations is distinct fragments may play an important role in population dynamics and resistance. New genetic techniques are used to assess the connectivity in spatially structured and population of threatened species Cloning and Biodiversity conservation: Nuclear transfer technology, popularly known as cloning , where new “ true to type” individuals are created in the laboratory from the nuclear DNA of other individuals. Reproductive cloning or the production of offspring by nuclear transfer is often regarded as having potential for conserving endangered species of wildlife. Factor that govern the desirability, feasibility and practicality of cloning vary among different class of vertebrates, depend upon the peculiarities of the biological systems, the type of species under threat and even the chances of obtaining suitable funding since the research is very expensive. Cloning is one of the several ways of increasing the number of individuals within a population. When populations of free living species are found to be in decline, conservation biology begins to seek methods of showing or reversing the threatening process, many such threats exists including habitat loss through human activity, hunting or over fishing, effects of pollution on fertility and fecundity, predation by introduced species or indeed poor diet through loss of prey species. In a few cases these threats can be allevated but this may require the development of nation and international policies that support the conservation goals. Reproductive technologies may then provide support the conservation goals. Reproductive technlogies may the provide support usually by assisting genetic management. An important common aim of conservation breeding programmes with or without the use of assisted reproduction, is the avoidance of inbreeding depression. Nuclear Transfer Technology can play a significant role in the conservation of species, which are on the edge of extinction. Now captive breeding techniques are adopted for saving such species . For example the population of Mauritius Kestrel declined to about nine individuals in the early 1970’s , four were reintroduced to the island of Mauritius later, and the population is now estimated as 700-800. In such cases we can seek the help of nuclear transfer technology. However the population of the species facing extinction is very less and they possess minimal genetic variation. it is therefore desirable to avoid further loss of diversity. A subsequent generation resulting from natural breeding or artificial insemination would contain some, but no all of genetic variability of its parents. Loss would occur if any of the individuals failed to breed, which is a strong possibility with small populations. If cloning is guaranteed to be 100% successful, a good strategy might be to clone every individual, then allow the off spring to mature and breed naturally. The probability of losing genetic diversity would then be reduced especially if each parent gives rise to more than two identical copies of itself. Thus an interesting and novel theoretical principle in animal conservation emerges; where individuals are effectively induced to reproduce asexually something similar to some plants there by improving the long term fitness of the species through the retention of genetic diversity. Concept of Environmental Genomics Environmental genomics bridges the gap between genetics, physiology and ecology. It involves utilization of abroad range of modern molecular techniques such as gene arrays and single nucleotide polymorphins (SNP) screen to monitor variation in gene structure and expression. It can pinpoint potentially novel interactions between environmental stresses and expression of specific human, animal and plant genes. Environmental genomics is the application of the knowledge gained on gene identification, structure and expression to environmental protection and management. It can demonstrate deleterious effects at molecular level before organisms level effects are shown. Importance of Environmental Genomics.: Genomics build upon and enhance traditional approaches to environmental toxicology determination. It is a key objective for environmental science for improved understanding, identification and prevention of environmental problems. It can provide the next generation tools to help protect and manage the environment. It would be very critical in examining biotechnology’s potential impact on the environment. Biotechnology and Tree improvement: Tree improvement and forest biotechnology offer related scientific means to increase forest productivity , achieve sustained timber yields and perhaps enhance forest biodiversity and conservation of multiple values. Tree improvement provides classical approaches to achieve better timber production. It has achieved sustainable gain through generation of tree selection and breeding . Tree important seeks to identify and improves several important tree attributes including growth rates, disease and pest resistance, adaptability to climatic changes, tree form and wood fiber quality, straightness and taper The practical application of bio techniques has many difficulties. Current success rates with nuclear transfer in mammals are very low. More over 20 to 1000 nuclear transfers would need to be performed to achieve one viable off spring. There are so many issues like legal, moral and technical in conducting genetic researches. Sophisticated labs doing genetic research are less in number and the coordination is also less. But the potential of genetic techniques in wildlife conservation and management shall not be ignored. They can help many species to keep their foot prints on this green earth. (Author was a Research scholar in Bio Inorganic Chemistry at Dept. of Chemistry, University of kerala and now working as Forest Range Officer, Kerala)

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Roman Artifacts Discovered in Brazil Both Spain and Portugal claim to have discovered Brazil in the 16th century. However, mounting evidence suggests that neither country can claim discovery of Brazil. Guanabar Bay is on the Brazilian coast, less than 10 miles from Rio de Janeiro. In 1976, a diver discovered two unbroken amphoras at the bottom of the bay. Amphoras were tall storage pots that were commonly made and used by the Romans. In 1982, an archaeologist discovered thousands of fragments from still more Roman amphoras in the same area. Among the fragments were 200 amphora necks. The styles of these amphoras indicate that they were made in second century A.D. Rome. Ancient Roman shipwrecks have also been found in the Azores islands off the west coast of Spain. The Azores would have been a good European starting point for crossing the Atlantic. The shortest route across the Atlantic from the Azores lands one on the coast of Brazil. Modern sailing ships make the crossing in only 18 days. So even before the amphoras were found, it would not have been unreasonable to suppose that the Romans, who were skilled sailors, had made the crossing. The discovery of the amphoras proves that at least one Roman ship made the trip. The belief that up to Columbus' time people assumed the world was flat is a myth. God created intelligent and curious human beings with the ability to explore and learn about God's creation.

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Lesser Snow Goose Latin: Anser caerulescens caerulescens Average length: M 29", F 28" Average weight: M 6.1 lbs., F 5.5 lbs. Description: Lesser snow geese have two color phases: a dark (blue) plumage and a white (snow) plumage. The two color phases are variations within the same race and do not indicate separate races. The sexes are similar in appearance in both phases, but the female is often smaller. Lesser snow geese can hybridize with Ross' geese, which are similar in appearance. They have pinkish bills with black grinning patches, and the feet and legs are reddish-pink. In the dark phase they have white heads and upper necks, with bluish-gray bodies. In the white phase they are completely white except for black wing tips. The head can be stained rusty brown from minerals in the soil where they feed. They are very vocal and can often be heard from more than a mile away. Breeding: Lesser snow geese breed along Queen Maud Gulf, Baffin Island, Banks Island and Victoria Island; in the Northwest Territories and on Hudson Bay. They nest on low, grassy tundra plains and broad, shallow rivers near the coast, and on islands within shallow inland lakes. Lesser snow geese nest in colonies and lay an average of 4-5 eggs. Migrating and Wintering: Lesser snow geese historically migrated from their northern breeding grounds down the Pacific and Mississippi flyways, to winter in the Central Valley of California and the Gulf Coast of Texas, Louisiana and Mexico. There, the abundant emergent vegetation of the brackish and salt marshes provided both food and cover. Recently, they have expanded their winter range to interior agricultural lands in states such as Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, where corn, rice and pasture grasses provide abundant food supplies.

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The opinions I more particularly allude to, are those of Berthollet on the Laws of chemical affinity; such as that chemical affinity is proportional to the mass, and that in all chemical unions, there exist insensible gradations in the proportions of the constituent principles. The inconsistence of these opinions, both with reason and observation, cannot, I think, fail to strike every one who takes a proper view of the phenomena. Whether the ultimate particles of a body, such as water, are all alike, that is, of the same figure, weight, &c. is a question of some importance. From what is known, we have no reason to apprehend a diversity in the particulars: if it does exist in water, it must equally exist in the elements constituting water, namely, hydrogen and oxygen. Now it is scarcely possible to conceive how the aggregates of dissimilar particles should be so uniformly the same. If some of the particles of water were heavier than others, if a parcel of the liquid on any occasion were constituted principally of these heavier particles, it must be supposed to affect the specific gravity of the mass, a circumstance not known. Similar observations may be made on other substances. Therefore we may conclude that the ultimate particles of all homogeneous bodies are perfectly alike in weight, figure, &c. In other words, every particle of water is like every other particle of water; every particle of hydrogen is like every other particle of hydrogen, &c. Besides the force of attraction, which, in one character or another, belongs universally to ponderable bodies, we find another force that is likewise universal, or acts upon all matter which comes under our cognisance, namely, a force of repulsion. This is now generally, and I think properly, ascribed to the agency of heat. An atmosphere of this subtile fluid constantly surrounds the atoms of all bodies, and prevents them from being drawn into actual contact. This appears to be satisfactorily proved by the observation, that the bulk of a body may be diminished by abstracting some of its heat: But from what has been stated in the last section, it should seem that enlargement and diminution of bulk depend perhaps more on the arrangement, than on the size of the ultimate particles. Be this as it may, we cannot avoid inferring from the preceding doctrine on heat, and particularly from the section on the natural zero of temperature, that solid bodies, such as ice, contain a large portion, perhaps 4/5 of the heat which the same are found to contain in an elastic state, as steam. We are now to consider how these two great antagonist powers of attraction and repulsion are adjusted, so as to allow of the three different states of elastic fluids, liquids, and solids. We shall divide the subject into four Sections; namely, first, on the constitution of pure elastic fluids; second, on the constitution of mixed elastic fluids; third, on the constitution of liquids, and fourth, on the constitution of solids. [I have omitted the sections of chapter II. --CJG] Chemical analysis and synthesis go no farther than to the separation of particles one from another, and to their reunion. No new creation or destruction of matter is within the reach of chemical agency. We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. All the changes we can produce, consist in separating particles that are in a state of cohesion or combination, and joining those that were previously at a distance. In all chemical investigations, it has justly been considered an important object to ascertain the relative weights of the simples which constitute a compound. But unfortunately the enquiry has terminated here; whereas from the relative weights in the mass, the relative weights of the ultimate particles or atoms of the bodies might have been inferred, from which their number and weight in various other compounds would appear, in order to assist and to guide future investigations, and to correct their results. Now it is one great object of this work, to shew the importance and advantage of ascertaining the relative weights of the ultimate particles, both of simple and compound bodies, the number of simple elementary particles which constitute one compound particle, and the number of less compound particles which enter into the formation of one more compound particle. If there are two bodies, A and B, which are disposed to combine, the following is the order in which the combinations may take place, beginning with the most simple: namely, The following general rules may be adopted as guides in all our investigations respecting chemical synthesis. From the application of these rules, to the chemical facts already well ascertained, we deduce the following conclusions; 1st. That water is a binary compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and the relative weights of the two elementary atoms are as 1:7, nearly; 2d. That ammonia is a binary compound of hydrogen and azote, and the relative weights of the two atoms are as 1:5, nearly; 3d. That nitrous gas is a binary compound of azote and oxygen, the atoms of which weigh 5 and 7 respectively; that nitric acid is a binary or ternary compound according as it is derived, and consists of one atom of azote and two of oxygen, together weighing 19; that nitrous oxide is a compound similar to nitric acid, and consists of one atom of oxygen and two of azote, weighing 17; that nitrous acid is a binary compound of nitric acid and nitrous gas, weighing 31; that oxynitric acid is a binary compound of nitric acid with oxygen, weighing 26; 4th. That carbonic oxide is a binary compound, consisting of one atom of charcoal, and one of oxygen, together weighing nearly 12; that carbonic acid is a ternary compound, (but sometimes binary) consisting of one atom of charcoal, and two of oxygen, weighing 19; &c. &c. In all these cases the weights are expressed in atoms of hydrogen, each of which is denoted by unity. In the sequel, the facts and experiments from which these conclusions are derived, will be detailed; as well as a great variety of others from which are inferred the constitution and weight of the ultimate particles of the principal acids, the alkalis, the earths, the metals, the metallic oxides and sulphurets, the long train of neutral salts, and in short, all the chemical compounds which have hitherto obtained a tolerably good analysis. Several of the conclusions will be supported by original experiments. From the novelty as well as importance of the ideas suggested in this chapter, it is deemed expedient to give plates, exhibiting the mode of combination in some of the more simple cases. A specimen of these accompanies this first part. The elements or atoms of such bodies as are conceived at present to be simple, are denoted by a small circle, with some distinctive mark; and the combinations consist in the juxta-position of two or more of these; when three or more particles of elastic fluids are combined together in one, it is supposed that the particles of the same kind repel each other, and therefore take their stations accordingly. |1.||Hydrogen, its relative weight||1| |3.||Carbone or charcoal||5| |22.||An atom of ammonia, composed of 1 of azote and 1 of hydrogen||6| |23.||An atom of nitrous gas, composed of 1 of azote and 1 of oxygen||12| |24.||An atom of olefiant gas, composed of 1 of carbone and 1 of hydrogen||6| |25.||An atom of carbonic oxide composed of 1 of carbone and 1 of oxygen||12| |26.||An atom of nitrous oxide, 2 azote + 1 oxygen||17| |27.||An atom of nitric acid, 1 azote + 2 oxygen||19| |28.||An atom of carbonic acid, 1 carbone + 2 oxygen||19| |29.||An atom of carburetted hydrogen, 1 carbone + 2 hydrogen||7| |30.||An atom of oxynitric acid, 1 azote + 3 oxygen||26| |31.||An atom of sulphuric acid, 1 sulphur + 3 oxygen||34| |32.||An atom of sulphuretted hydrogen, 1 sulphur + 3 hydrogen||16| |33.||An atom of alcohol, 3 carbone, + 1 hydrogen||16| |34.||An atom of nitrous acid, 1 nitric acid + 1 nitrous gas||31| |35.||An atom of acetous acid, 2 carbone + 2 water||26| |36.||An atom of nitrate of ammonia, 1 nitric acid + 1 ammonia + 1 water||33| |37.||An atom of sugar, 1 alcohol + 1 carbonic acid||35|

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[ Home ] Science & Tech The First USB PC The First USB PC This is the first USB computer, marvelous in its design. Flawless! If you like this page, give it +1 science & technology the first usb computer usb stick pc the first usb pc raspberry pi pc Home » Science » The First USB Computer A game developer from UK created a USB stick PC for only $25 Believe it or not, this genius guy managed to put together a USB stick PC with less than 30 bucks (or £15 if you like). David Braben has developed a tiny USB stick PC that has a HDMI port at one end and a USB port on the other. Simple! What are those for, you ask? Well, you plug a monitor into the HDMI socket and then connect a keyboard via the USB port and Voila! You got a fully functioning machine running on Linux. The cost of all this? A mere $25. This ladies and gentlemen is the first USB computer, marvelous in its design. Very impressive! Who the Heck is David Braben?David Braben is a well-known game developer, head of the UK development studio "Frontier Developments," however, he is better known for co-developing the good ol' space trading computer game Elite, released in 1984. Do you remember it? No? Then you're probably born after the 80s so don't worry about it. Braben's Frontier Developments is the company that brought us the "Rollercoaster Tycoon" series. Does that ring a bell now? Good... Besides developing games, David has been trying to solve another problem: getting programming and learning how a computer works back into schools. After the 2000s, Braben notice that computer classes would focus more on writing documents in Word and creating PowerPoint® presentations, than on basic programming and understanding how the hardware inside a computer works. David planned to change that for a long time... However, instead of creating his own computer course, he decided to manufacture a very low cost PC that can be given away to kids for free and to also create specific courses built up around this cheap computer. And when we say low cost, we really mean it! Turn lights out! Click anywhere in the page to switch back to normal. Full Screen view is recommended. David Braben wants to give a £15 PC on a stick to every child. First USB Computer: Hardware Specifications The first USB computer uses a 700MHz ARM11 processor (32-bit microprocessor), has 128MB of RAM (physical memory) and runs OpenGL ES (for Embedded Systems) 2.0 which allows for decent graphics performance with 1080p output (which is more resolution than the video above provides). What about the hard drive, you ask? Well, the storage is provided by a microSD card. You know, like one of those you have in your cell phone? We can expect the first USB computer to run a couple of free Linux versions, but it looks like Ubuntu® may be the perfect choice for this tiny device, providing Web browsing, office applications, and complete functionality for a PC as soon as the gadget it's plugged in. All that and it can be carried in your pocket! I suspect that the guys on the "Gadget Show" would run a feature on this USB stick PC pretty soon. The tiny USB PC is going to be distributed through a charitable foundation called the Raspberry Pi Foundation. No offence, but as it looks right now, Mr. Braben needs to hire a Web Designer, fast. He might be understanding how the PC hardware works and have honest intentions to promote computer science studies in schools, but that Web site, as it is, will in no way, attract potential customers... Getting back to our story, David hopes that the Raspberry Pi PC will become available for mass distribution in within the next 12 months. I would definitely buy one! If you liked this story, please take a moment to share it and to also follow me on Twitter. USB stick PC runs on Ubuntu This is the first USB computer You May Also Like... |©Copyright 2012 Top Internet Searches||All rights reserved. Privacy.||The First USB Computer|

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On the 26th April 1986 disaster struck in the USSR. The Chernobyl Nuclear Plant suffered a series of explosions that sent plumes of radioactive gas far into the atmosphere. 58 people died immediately, and nearly 400,000 people had to be moved. 800,000 people received dangerous levels of radiation and the cloud of toxic gas was to spread far and wide, even affecting the West Coast of Ireland. The effects on the planet were disastrous, and especially for the people of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Whole areas of Ukraine will never be safe for human life ever again. The catastrophe was crippling for the USSR economy and morale, leading to 'Glasnost' and contributing to the eventual fall of the Soviet Union. But the global consequences far outweighed the political fallout. Nuclear Power is not the green alternative that some would suggest. It is in fact one of the greatest threats to our existence. The anniversary on the Chernobyl disaster is our chance to remember and resist the nuclear lobbyists. The nuclear power companies want government investment in their industry, but they must not be allowed to 'greenwash' the dangers inherent in the nuclear industry. We have too much to lose. Chernobyl never again.

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An important concept in the biology of sleep is sleep apnea. Sleep apnea occurs at most withtin 20% on the general population. It is a sleep disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep. Sleeping with sleep apnea includes: snoring loudly, gasping for air, and sometimes a halt in breathing for more than 20 seconds. A lack of oxygen and a buildup of carbon dioxide leads to multiple problems including: night sweats, weight gain, hearing loss, irregular heartbeat, and most of all fatigue during the day. Lots of people are not aware of the fact that they have sleep apnea until they go see their doctor and describe some of the symptoms like being tired and gaining weight. Sleep apnea is important to understand and deal with because it raises the overall risk of death by 17%! Children with sleep apnea usually just get their tonsils removed, but for adults with sleep apnea removal of the tonsils usually doesn't work. Thus, many adults with sleep apnea wear a face mask when they sleep that blows air into their nasal passages, forcing the airway to stay open. My stepfather has sleep apnea and has to wear a face mask every night even when we go on vacations. Unfortunately, sleep apnea may not be something adults can get rid of easily, bu there are methods to help ease their sleep, lessen their risk of death, and decrease the feeling of fatigue. I do still wonder though why removing the tonsils of an adult does not usually work to eliminate sleep apnea.

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You have heard the news, and if you are a parent of a child with high functioning autism or Asperger’s Syndrome, you are worried! By May 2013, an autism diagnosis will likely be much harder to obtain than in the past. The American Psychiatric Association is making final revisions to its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, including drastic changes to the criteria by which individuals are diagnosed with autism. While these changes will have less impact on those diagnosed with “classic autism,” people who are currently diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome, a high-functioning form of autism, likely won’t be diagnosed under the new, stricter guidelines. In fact, the proposed new guidelines would eliminate the Asperger’s classification completely. What does this mean for those currently diagnosed with Asperger’s? According to a recent study by Yale University, less than half of patients currently diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome will receive an autism diagnosis under the proposed new guidelines. Without that diagnosis, they will no longer have access to the therapies or educational resources neccesary to help them learn to interact and grow into socially adjusted adults. I asked Mark Claypool, a fellow optimist who I turned to for reassurance, to talk about these changes might affect our kids. Mark president and CEO of Spectrum Center Schools and Programs, an organization that provides academic programs, life skills training, vocational and transition services, support services and collaborative classrooms to students with autism, emotional disturbance, physical challenges and developmental delays: Laura: My son has autism, but has never been considered “high-functioning”. Friends with children with Asperger’s Syndrome and HFA tell me how lucky I am–that it is easier fro me to get services for my son.What is your take on this issue? Mark Claypool: It’s a frustrating problem for parents. Kids are getting caught in-between and every day that goes by for a child not getting the services that they need is a lost day. Laura: I know parents of children with unspecified learning differences and behavior problems that have pushed for a diagnosis of autism just to get services. What has been your experience? Mark Claypool: No parent wants their child to be misdiagnosed with a disability, no matter how badly they want the services. Perhaps the revised Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders will help us refocus on the needs of a child as an individual and not a label. Laura: California and many other states now mandate insurance coverage for children on the autism spectrum for ABA. Doesn’t that lighten the load and responsibility of school districts? Mark Claypool: Ideally, but right now, the schools are pointing at the insurance companies and the insurance companies are pointing at the schools, saying, “Aren’t you going to do that?” Laura: The most rewarding aspect of your job? - Helping make public education a positive experience for students and their parents who have these issues - Working with school districts to help them design services for children that need them - Including children with disabilities and keeping them at their home schools, rather than sending them all to substantially separate schools. Spectrum Center Schools and Programs, is an organization that provides academic programs, life skills training, vocational and transition services, support services and collaborative classrooms to students with autism, emotional disturbance, physical challenges and developmental delays. Spectrum Center partners with nearly 100 public school districts to help them educate students who have autism, Asperger’s Syndrome and other conditions. Got questions? Need resources? Email me here firstname.lastname@example.org and I will do my very best to help.

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From tiny Tuvalu: the island being destroyed by climate change Reverend Tafue Lusama writes: In my home land of Tuvalu, a person without land is known as a fakaalofa — “a person deserving pity”. Not that many Tuvaluans want pity, despite the real possibility they will lose their island to the increased effects of climate change. It is getting very difficult to catch fish now, as the ocean temperatures have definitely changed. When I grew up, my grandfather and my father used to teach me about the shift from one season to the other, and how it affects the movement of the fish in the sea from place to place. These ways have all been upset because of the changing weather patterns. Coral bleaching (the result of ocean acidification and rising sea temperatures) is becoming very noticeable, and has contributed to a sharp decline in fish stocks. As a result, the cost of fish caught around our islands has become very expensive. It is cheaper for a person to walk into a shop and buy a tin of fish, one that is processed thousands of miles away, than it is to buy fresh fish from local fishermen. Climate change is also reducing access to locally grown foods such as bananas and paw paw. We’ve experienced an increase in the frequency of strong winds and cyclones visiting our shores — fruit are regularly torn from branches before they can even be harvested. During the high tides, salt water now spills onto our vegetable and fruit gardens, even bubbling up through the ground in some areas. Rising salinity has forced many people to give up growing traditional root crops such as taro and pulaka. The loss of these locally grown foods has contributed to an increased reliance on imported processed foods, in turn causing a rise in health conditions like diabetes and hypertension previously little known in Tuvalu. There is a very real concern that associated increased health costs could cripple many small Pacific island states without the resources to adapt. When we talk about the impacts of climate change, it’s important to remember that our people depend on land. If we have land, we have life. When our land is being gradually eroded by the sea, we are literally seeing our life being eaten away. We won’t be able to give life to our children and grandchildren — that is how severe it is. Things are shifting rapidly now, with increased impact on the land and people. Many Tuvaluans worry that an international agreement won’t be reached in time to save our island and way of life. We are dealing with the prospect of having to relocate, either further inland as the coast erodes, or to another country when there is finally no more land. Sea levels are rising by five to six millimetres annually, and Tuvalu sits just four metres above sea level. This is something I’m not sure a lot of people understand – the threat is real. Many of my people, including myself, regard climate change as an injustice. Tuvalu has not developed or grown rich by emitting greenhouse gases, but is amongst those countries hit hardest by climate change. We’ve been raising our concerns and voices with the international community and the industrialised countries, and still we are being ignored. This is a grave injustice. Australia and many other wealthy nations are yet to take strong action on climate change, fearing the cost to their economies. However, key reports including the Stern and Garnaut Reviews stress that the economic cost of weak or delayed action will be far greater than if we take strong action now. The 2009 Copenhagen UN climate change meeting and its lack-lustre outcome left many disappointed, particularly in countries like Tuvalu. But I am cautiously optimistic about what can be achieved at future climate meetings, including the South Africa COP17 in 2011. The people of Tuvalu believe in humanity and its ability to do the right thing at the right time. We believe strongly in family ties, with our neighbours of Australia and New Zealand looked upon as our big brothers. So in that line of thought, I would like to ask them to consider us and our livelihood, and give us an assurance of life continuity on our small islands. Reverend Tafue Lusama is General Secretary of the Ekalesia Kelisiano Tuvalu (Christian Church of Tuvalu) and Chairperson of the Tuvula Climate Action Network. These photos were taken by Rodney Dekker for Oxfam Australia during the recent king tide in Tuvalu.

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Vegetative system is simple, effective Richard Baumert doesn’t have thousands of pigs or calves on feed, but his feedlots drained the wrong way. Handling manure from his hog feeding platforms and cattle yards in a cost-effective way wouldn’t normally be considered an easy task. But thanks to a system developed by Christopher Henry, University of Nebraska Extension engineer, and engineer technician Jason Gross, Baumert’s situation was remedied without breaking the bank. “It solved the problem of water running through our feedyards,” says Baumert. Instead of building an extensive and expensive holding lagoon, Baumert, Henry and Gross developed a small sediment basin below the yards that collects rainwater, snowmelt and effluent from his pens. There is also a diversion that keeps clean water drained from the farmstead from mixing with pen runoff. Liquids from the basin are pumped a short distance to a hillside and dispersed over a 3-acre vegetative treatment area by K-Line irrigation tubing and 16 irrigation pods. “This was a way to divert the water and collect it before it reached a nearby creek,” says Baumert. At a glance • Baumert’s VTS sprinkler system is one of only five like it in the country. • He pumps fluids from his sediment basin to a vegetative treatment area. • He uses 16 K-Line irrigation pods to distribute the fluids. In Baumert’s system, funded in part through a grant from Nebraska Environmental Trust and the Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality Section 319 program, liquid effluent is never stored in the basin for long. It’s pumped using a 10-hp Kohler diesel engine within 36 hours over the mixed grass area. A floating filter and hose, much like the ones used by local fire departments to disperse standing water, draws water into the pump, which moves it to the K-Line irrigation setup on a hillside nearby. There are several ways to disperse of the effluent in such a vegetative treatment system, or VTS, according to Henry, but for Baumert’s operation, this seemed to be the best solution. “Richard did the project voluntarily, that is with the blessing of the Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality, but not as a requirement to continue feeding cattle,” Henry says. “Richard is a forward-thinking producer. He saw that the runoff from his lots was a problem and did something about it without waiting until a NDEQ inspector required him to put controls in place.” VTS consists of three distinctive components, including a sediment basin, vegetative treatment area composed of perennial vegetation used for treatment of runoff, and a water distribution system. Solids from the sediment basin are removed annually and spread on crop fields. “A VTS is a permanent installation dedicated to managing the runoff from the open lot system,” Henry says. “Traditionally, gravity transfer has been used to distribute runoff to VTAs, such as gated pipe or surface flow. “The advantage of the sprinkler concept is that we can locate VTAs on sites where we cannot locate a gravity or even a pump VTS because of soil type and topography,” he says. Baumert’s sprinkler system is one of only five like it in the country. “We are building three more this summer,” says Henry. Sprinkler VTS systems are relatively inexpensive compared to other options of handling manure runoff from open lots. Through the work of Henry and Gross, the cost has been reduced by 65% over the past seven years, to just under $70 per irrigation head. Since installation last fall, Baumert says he has pumped out his basin at least four times. “I was surprised at how simple it is,” he says.In Baumert’s case, simple systems like his VTS are the most effective. For more information about installation of a VTS as a demonstration project or as a cost-eligible practice under the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s EQIP, contact UNL Extension engineer Christopher Henry at 402-472-6529 or learn more at afo.unl.edu. AHEAD OF THE GAME: Richard Baumert voluntarily installed a vegetative treatment area at his hog and cattle yards to prevent runoff from reaching a nearby stream. POD IS PIVOTAL: Liquid effluent is dispersed from a sediment basin through 16 K-Line irrigation pods spread across a 3-acre vegetative treatment area. This article published in the July, 2010 edition of NEBRASKA FARMER. All rights reserved. Copyright Farm Progress Cos. 2010.

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Rett syndrome is a neurological disorder affecting primarily females. Children with Rett Syndrome often exhibit autistic-like behaviors, such as repetitive hand movements, prolonged toe walking, body rocking and sleep problems, but the pathology is very different than autism. In 1999, Dr. Huda Zoghbi and her colleaguesdetermined that Rett syndrome is caused by mutations on the X chromosome on a gene called MECP2. There are more than 200 different mutations found on the MECP2 gene. Most of these mutations are found in eight different “hot spots.” Typical Characteristics of Rett Syndrome Rett syndrome can present with a wide range of disability ranging from mild to severe. The course and severity of Rett syndrome is determined by the location, type and severity of her mutation and X-inactivation. Therefore, two girls of the same age with the same mutation can appear quite different. Rett syndrome presents many challenges, but with intervention, therapy and assistance, those with the syndrome can benefit from school and community activities well into middle age and beyond. They experience a full range of emotions and show their engaging personalities as they take part in social, educational, and recreational activities at home and in the community. Visit the International Rett Syndrome Foundation website at:

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Quantum Gravity and the Weak Interactions Non-thermal quantum black holes Motivated by the lack of evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model in the TeV region, we discussed an alternative path for grand unification. We show that simple grand unification models based on e.g. SU(5) can work successfully even without low scale supersymmetry. In particular quantum gravitational effects could easily modify the unification conditions for the gauge and Yukawa couplings. Searches for Nonperturbative Gravitational States at the LHC Searches for black holes and string balls have recently be performed by LHC experiments. Upper limits have been placed on the production crosssections time experimental acceptance. Hard-disk production of thesestates have been ruled out over most of the current LHC energy reach.However the LHC has said little about nonperturbative states producedin model with reduced cross sections. I will discuss some popularmodels that have not yet been ruled out by the LHC experiments. Models of new physics beyond the Standard Model of Particle Physics Models of new physics beyond the Standard Model of Particle Physics suggest that the quantum scale of gravity could be as low as the electro-weak or TeV energy scale. If so, they offer the exciting possibility that quantum gravity becomes accessible, experimentally, at particle colliders such as the LHC. From the theory side, low-scale gravity scenarios often require extra dimensions, or a large number of additional particle species. I propose to discuss the possibility for signatures of low-scale quantum gravity, the feasibility of concrete (quantitative) predictions based on eg. specific processes and quantum gravity set-ups, and options for experimental tests. Unification of gravity with the electroweak

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|South Korea Table of Contents Nordpolitik has been viewed as less attractive in Beijing than in Moscow. Beijing's needs for Seoul in the 1980s were hardly matched with those of Moscow, particularly in economic terms. Still, because of complementary economic needs and geographic proximity, South Korea and China began to trade actively. The absence of any official relations, however, made it difficult to expand trade between Seoul and Beijing, because South Korea could not legally protect its citizens and business interests in China. Beijing, in comparison with Moscow, has been politically closer to P'yongyang, which has slowed political improvements between Beijing and Seoul despite the increasing volume of trade between the two countries. Furthermore, China has attempted to mediate between North Korea and the United States and North Korea and Japan and also initiated and promoted tripartite talks--among P'yongyang, Seoul, and Washington. Active South Korean-Chinese people-to-people contacts have been encouraged. Academics, journalists, and particularly families divided between South Korea and China were able to exchange visits freely in the late 1980s. Nearly 2 million ethnic Koreans, especially in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China's Jilin Province, have interacted with South Koreans. It has been difficult to determine what effect the political turmoil in China would have on Sino-Korean relations. After the military crackdown on demonstrators in Beijing in June 1989, P'yongyang predictably came out in support of Beijing's repressive actions. Seoul, on the other hand, produced a more muted response, which did not condone the actions in Tiananmen Square, but did not condemn them either. Trade between the two countries continued to increase. More about the Government of South Korea. Source: U.S. Library of Congress

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Oxygen depletion in ponds Ponds with warm water and overcrowded fish may be at risk for oxygen depletion. Hot, cloudy days, weeds, and low water levels all contribute to the problem. Radio interview source: Billy Higginbotham, Wildlife & Fisheries Specialist, Texas Agrilife Extension Service It's not uncommon for a pond to lose oxygen during hot, dry months. This can result in a fish kill. Billy Higginbotham is a wildlife and fisheries specialist with Texas Agrilife Extension. He says warm water holds less oxygen than cold water, so that can trigger oxygen depletion. Combine this with hot, still cloudy days and the fish may be in trouble. "The sunlight's blocked from the pond's surface," he says. "There's no photosynthetic activity going on where the plant life in the water can produce oxygen. If you have several days of a heavy cloud cover in a row, the oxygen production's being limited. And again with the increased water temperatures, the stage is somewhat set for an oxygen depletion to occur." Higginbotham says weed control can also contribute to the problem. If the pond owner removes too many weeds, this reduces the oxygen levels. In cases where the water levels are low, fish become crowded and fight for oxygen. You'll know the fish are in trouble when they're at the surface, gulping for air. If you suspect conditions are right for oxygen depletion, Higginbotham recommends assessing your pond at daylight. "In a 24-hour period, oxygen will typically be at its dead-level lowest right at daylight," says Higginbotham. "Then as the sun comes up, the opportunity for photosynthesis to occur kicks in and oxygen levels can increase, so go down and check early in the morning. If you do see those fish up, you've got a short period of time to react. And typically, there's a couple of things a pond owner can do." One is to back a boat on a trailer down into the water. Crank the motor, put it in gear, and let it circulate the pond water. The other is if you have access to a pump, set the intake near the surface. The water will be aerated as it shoots back out. You might like... Betsy's Backyard | 5/21/13 | 2:18 PM Tiny tornadoes danced around central Iowa the past few days, dipping and twirling, but...read more Add Your Comment You must be logged in to leave a comment. Login

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Nanocrystals double up Jun 26, 2003 Magnetic nanocrystals and semiconductor quantum dots can self-assemble into ‘metamaterials’ that could be useful in a range of applications, experiments in the US have shown. Franz Redl at the IBM TJ Watson Research Center in New York and colleagues at IBM, Columbia University and the University of New Orleans made the new materials with lead-selenium semiconductor quantum dots and iron oxide magnetic nanocrystals (F X Redl et al. 2003 Nature 423 968). The properties of a metamaterial depend on the characteristics and interactions of the different nanocrystals used to make it. Metamaterials with improved magnetic, optical, electrical and mechanical properties could be used in applications as diverse as electric drives, motors and generators. Redl and co-workers varied the sizes of the two different types of nanocrystal, as well as the processing conditions, to optimize the properties of the final ‘superlattice’ structure. Images taken with a transmission electron microscope confirm that two main types of superlattice were created (see figures 1 and 2). The best structures formed when the diameter of the lead-selenium quantum dots was 55% that of the iron oxide nanocrystals. The average cubic unit cell in the superlattice was found to contain 8 iron oxide nanocrystals and 104 lead-selenium quantum dots, giving a total of about 4.5 million atoms per unit cell. Moreover, long-range order was seen in an area that extended up to 2 microns squared, whereas most metamaterials made in the lab so far have exhibited short-range order. “We now are investigating magneto-optic phenomena in these materials to make new optical modulators and switches that could serve as building blocks for future telecommunications,” Redl told PhysicsWeb. “The unique combination of magnetic and semiconductor properties may also have an impact in magneto-electronics where both the charge of electron and its magnetic spin are exploited to carry out electronic operations.” About the author Belle Dumé is Science Writer at PhysicsWeb

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1. God of the earth. 4. Give a nickname to. 7. A quantity of no importance. 11. A period marked by distinctive character or reckoned from a fixed point or event. 12. (Irish) Mother of the ancient Irish gods. 13. Someone who copies the words or behavior of another. 14. An authoritative direction or instruction to do something. 15. Aircraft landing in bad weather in which the pilot is talked down by ground control using precision approach radar. 16. The United Nations agency concerned with atomic energy. 17. A radioactive element of the actinide series. 20. A small cake leavened with yeast. 22. (Babylonian) God of storms and wind. 24. A public promotion of some product or service. 25. A young woman making her debut into society. 29. English theoretical physicist who applied relativity theory to quantum mechanics and predicted the existence of antimatter and the positron (1902-1984). 31. A soft white precious univalent metallic element having the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal. 32. Top part of an apron. 33. A rare silvery (usually trivalent) metallic element. 34. A logarithmic unit of sound intensity. 36. The blood group whose red cells carry both the A and B antigens. 40. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine. 42. Largest known toad species. 46. Type genus of the family Myacidae. 47. A Tibetan or Mongolian priest of Lamaism. 48. The 7th letter of the Greek alphabet. 49. An associate degree in applied science. 50. The sixth month of the civil year. 51. A compartment in front of a motor vehicle where driver sits. 1. Cubes of meat marinated and cooked on a skewer usually with vegetables. 2. Any plant of the genus Erica. 3. Having undesirable or negative qualities. 4. 10 grams. 5. Having removed clothing. 6. The cry made by sheep. 7. Submerged aquatic plant having narrow leaves and small flowers. 8. South American armadillo with three bands of bony plates. 9. A notable achievement. 10. A river that rises in northeastern Turkey (near the source of the Euphrates) and flows generally eastward through Armenia to the Caspian Sea. 18. A member of an agricultural people of southern India. 19. Open-heart surgery in which the rib cage is opened and a section of a blood vessel is grafted from the aorta to the coronary artery to bypass the blocked section of the coronary artery and improve the blood supply to the heart. 21. A room or establishment where alcoholic drinks are served over a counter. 23. Lacking or deprive of the sense of hearing wholly or in part. 26. The compass point that is one point east (clockwise) of due north. 27. The branch of computer science that deal with writing computer programs that can solve problems creatively. 28. A small pellet fired from an air rifle or BB gun. 30. An esoteric or occult matter that is traditionally secret. 35. Common Indian weaverbird. 36. A public promotion of some product or service. 37. A flat-bottomed volcanic crater that was formed by an explosion. 38. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad. 39. According to the Old Testament he was a pagan king of Israel and husband of Jezebel (9th century BC). 41. The network in the reticular formation that serves an alerting or arousal function. 43. An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic free-floating anxiety and such symptoms as tension or sweating or trembling of light-headedness or irritability etc that has lasted for more than six months. 44. A benevolent aspect of Devi. 45. The last (12th) month of the year.

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Neurotic Personality Disorder is a psychological disorder that is exhibited through an unhealthy response to one’s environment. People who suffer from neurotic disorder have problems interacting appropriately in social situations. These individuals also tend to have a higher risk of depression or anxiety that interferes with their daily lives. Sigmund Freud first diagnosed patients who exhibited symptoms of Neurotic Personality Disorder in the late 1800s. Freud’s opinion was that every individual has the capacity to behave in a neurotic manner in some way. Neuroticism Increases Risk of Other Disorders Research has shown that people who suffer from diagnosed cases of Neurotic Personality Disorder are far more likely to develop other internal and external disorders as well. Neuroticism seems to have a direct link to cases of severe panic disorders, phobias, major depression and high anxiety. The attempts of sufferers to control their neuroticism on their own without medical assistance often leads to drug or alcohol dependence. Many Neurotic Personality Disorder patients also exhibit the symptoms of Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder. The combined effects of these pathological illnesses can cause patients to be unable to lead normal, productive lives. How Childhood Factors In Carl Jung was a prominent psychologist who studied Freud’s findings regarding Neurotic Personality Disorder and proposed a different theory than had been accepted by Freud. Freud was convinced that neuroticism was caused by frustrations that a patient underwent during important sexual phases of their early lives. Jung, on the other hand, believed that neuroticism was caused by a person’s inability to explore and assert their individualism. In short, Freud focused on a patient’s childhood in order to uncover the roots of the neurotic behavior, while Jung believed that an intense focus on the things that went wrong in a patient’s past would actually intensify the neurotic behavior. Current Underlying Causes Both Carl Jung and Freud recognized that a person’s immediate environment could have a deep impact on the severity of their neurosis. Unhealthy relationships and overly stressful situations cause a neurotic individual to escape further into their neurotic behavior as a coping mechanism. Freud and Jung both looked for causes that were more deeply embedded in a person’s psyche that created the impetus for the person to behave in an unhealthy manner. Jung explored the patient’s path toward becoming an individual and looked for paths to personal freedom that had been blocked, while Freud investigated a person’s childhood history for events that might have caused a shift in the person’s perception of the world. Suggested Remedies for Neurotic Personality Disorder When it comes to a cure for Neurotic Personality Disorder, Jung’s theory provides more positive answers than Freud’s. Freud believed that the disorder was rooted in childhood events that can not be changed once an individual has grown to adulthood. Jung, however, believes that the paths toward individual growth that were blocked can be opened at any point in a person’s life. The best remedy for a neurotic disorder is a thorough examination of a person’s responses to daily life situations. Neuroticism can be overcome by gaining a new understanding of self and working toward individual life fulfillment. This can be accomplished with the help of a medical professional in more severe cases.

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Lake Science (Home) lesson plans at Westminster's GSL Project site. Paul Hooker: As a chemist, I am interested in the chemical composition of the lake and how it changes. At present my research is focused on the element selenium (Se). Though selenium is a nutritionally essential element, it has also proven to be toxic to animals and hazardous to humans... professor Paul Hooker says students are learning about the focus and dedication required to become good analytical chemists. Get the free Quicktime player. ...and is known to bioaccumulate in living tissues which can have many long-lasting effects for both short-term and long-term exposure. Utah had the largest release of selenium into the environment from 1987 to 1993, with a total of 696,515 pounds of selenium released to land and 1,578 pounds released to water. Se also occurs naturally in the seleniferous soils of Utah. Environmentally, Se is a very dangerous and toxic substance. Even at very low concentrations in the parts-per-billion range, the effects of Se contamination can be devastating. The best-documented episode occurred in the mid-1980's at the Kesterson Wildlife reserve in the San Joaquin Valley, California. This wetland reserve received the majority of its water from agricultural drainage. The water contained Se dissolved at about 50 ppb, but the effects of bioaccumulation resulted in fish with elevated levels of Se up to several hundred parts per million (compared to 1-10 ppm for "normal" fish). The result of this was a decimation of the bird life at the reserve with chicks being born with Students in my research group collect samples of brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana) and water from the GSL to analyze for Se content. Brine shrimp are an important food source for the birds that use the GSL. We are presently conducting experiments in which GSL water samples containing brine shrimp have been spiked with increasing quantities of selenium, the brine shrimp being analyzed for selenium bioaccumulation. A secondary project just underway in conjunction with the National Audobon Society involves the clean-up of 117 acres of GSL shoreline close to the Lee Creek. The vision for this area is to transform a severely degraded part of the GSL into a place of quiet and peace dedicated to wildlife and community education. Researchers have measured GSL salinity as great as 27%, making it about 6 times as salty as sea water.

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Imagine how far you could kick a soccer ball if gravity didn't pull it toward the ground. On Earth we take gravity for granted -- especially when it comes to playing sports. When we shoot a basketball, we expect it to go down toward the ground after it goes through the hoop. If we turn a cartwheel, we know that we will land shortly in a place near our starting point. Most sports involve keeping our feet on the ground most of the time. The constant force of gravity on Earth gives us different results than we would get if we played sports in space. Gravity is present on the International Space Station, but astronauts orbiting Earth experience "microgravity." The prefix "micro" comes directly from the Greek "micros," which means "small." The pull of gravity seems very small compared to what astronauts feel on Earth. The reason is because everything on the orbiting station is in a state of free fall. The station and everything inside it are constantly falling toward Earth. So, if an astronaut drops something, it does not fall to the floor because the floor is falling, too. Everything seems to float. Microgravity isn't the only factor that changes the game in space. Consider Newton's Laws of Motion, which describe relationships between motion, matter and force. Also known as ... First law of motion Law of inertia An object that is not moving will not move until a force makes it move. An object that is moving will continue to move at a constant speed and direction until a force causes it to change. Second law of motion The force of an object equals its mass times its acceleration. Third law of motion Law of action and reaction For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. We're used to the way Newton's laws work on Earth under the force of gravity. Newton's laws also apply in microgravity, and sometimes it's easier to see how they work when you watch demonstrations on the space station. You can actually see an object at rest suspended in the air until a force causes it to move. In the DIY Podcast Sports Demo video, one of the ways astronaut Clayton Anderson demonstrates Newton's laws is by swinging a bat to hit a baseball floating in midair. The laws of aerodynamics are another set of physical laws that apply to sports. Aerodynamics is the study of the way objects move through air. You can see the effects of these laws as you watch the trajectory of a ball. The laws of aerodynamics come into play when we set guidelines and rules for a sport -- such as the three-point line in basketball or the yard line for a football kickoff. Another scientific principle that may be easier to understand once you see Anderson demonstrate it in space is the conservation of angular momentum. This law says an object will spin more slowly as resistance increases. An object will spin faster as resistance decreases. An example of angular momentum is a spinning ice skater. When skaters tuck their arms in tightly (decreasing the moment of inertia), rotational speed increases. But, when skaters extend their arms (increasing the moment of inertia), the speed at which the skaters spin slows. On the space station, it is easy to show the conservation of angular momentum while tumbling through the air. Don't try that on Earth! Even though the same scientific laws and principles apply on Earth and the space station, it's fun to see them demonstrated in microgravity -- especially with the same sports we play on Earth.

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July 2, 2001 ANNALS OF PUBLIC HEALTH Millions of people owe their lives to Fred Soper. Why isn't he a hero? In the late nineteen-thirties, a chemist who worked for the J.R. Geigy company, in Switzerland, began experimenting with an odorless white crystalline powder called dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. The chemist, Paul Müller, wanted to find a way to protect woollens against moths, and his research technique was to coat the inside of a glass box with whatever chemical he was testing, and then fill it with houseflies. To his dismay, the flies seemed unaffected by the new powder. But, in one of those chance decisions on which scientific discovery so often turns, he continued his experiment overnight--and in the morning all the flies were dead. He emptied the box, and put in a fresh batch of flies. By the next morning, they, too, were dead. He added more flies, and then a handful of other insects. They all died. He scrubbed the box with an acetone solvent, and repeated the experiment with a number of closely related compounds that he had been working with. The flies kept dying. Now he was excited: had he come up with a whole line of potent new insecticides? As it turned out, he hadn't. The new candidate chemicals were actually useless. To his amazement, what was killing the flies in the box were scant traces of the first compound, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane--or, as it would come to be known, DDT. In 1942, Geigy sent a hundred kilograms of the miracle powder to its New York office. The package lay around, undisturbed, until another chemist, Victor Froelicher, happened to translate the extraordinary claims for DDT into English, and then passed on a sample to the Department of Agriculture, which in turn passed it on to its entomology research station, in Orlando, Florida. The Orlando laboratory had been charged by the Army to develop new pesticides, because the military, by this point in the war, was desperate for a better way to protect its troops against insect-borne disease. Typhus--the lethal fever spread by lice--had killed millions of people during and after the First World War and was lurking throughout the war zones. Worse, in almost every theatre of operations, malaria-carrying mosquitoes were causing havoc. As Robert Rice recounted in this magazine almost fifty years ago, the First Marine Division had to be pulled from combat in 1942 and sent to Melbourne to recuperate because, out of seventeen thousand men, ten thousand were incapacitated with malarial headaches, fevers, and chills. Malaria hit eighty-five per cent of the men holding onto Bataan. In fact, at any one time in the early stages of the war, according to General Douglas MacArthur, two-thirds of his troops in the South Pacific were sick with malaria. Unless something was done, MacArthur complained to the malariologist Paul Russell, it was going to be "a long war." Thousands of candidate insecticides were tested at Orlando, and DDT was by far the best. To gauge a chemical's potential against insects, the Orlando researchers filled a sleeve with lice and a candidate insecticide, slipped the sleeve over a subject's arm, and taped it down at both ends. After twenty-four hours, the dead lice were removed and fresh lice were added. A single application of DDT turned out to kill lice for a month, almost four times longer than the next-best insecticide. As Rice described it, researchers filled twelve beakers with mosquito larvae, and placed descending amounts of DDT in each receptacle--with the last beaker DDT free. The idea was to see how much chemical was needed to kill the mosquitoes. The mosquito larvae in every beaker died. Why? Because just the few specks of chemical that floated through the air and happened to land in the last beaker while the experiment was being set up were enough to kill the mosquitoes. Quickly, a field test was scheduled. Two duck ponds were chosen, several miles apart. One was treated with DDT. One was not. Spraying was done on a day when the wind could not carry the DDT from the treated to the untreated pond. The mosquito larvae in the first pond soon died. But a week later mosquito larvae in the untreated pond also died: when ducks from the first pond visited the second pond, there was enough DDT residue on their feathers to kill mosquitoes there as well. The new compound was administered to rabbits and cats. Rice tells how human volunteers slathered themselves with it, and sat in vaults for hours, inhaling the fumes. Tests were done to see how best to apply it. "It was put in solution or suspension, depending on what we were trying to do," Geoffrey Jeffery, who worked on DDT at the Tennessee Valley Authority, recalls. "Sometimes we'd use some sort of petroleum-based carrier, even diesel oil, or add water to a paste or concentration and apply it on the wall with a Hudson sprayer." Under conditions of great secrecy, factories were set up, to manufacture the new chemical by the ton. It was rushed to every Allied theatre. In Naples, in 1944, the Army averted a catastrophic typhus epidemic by "dusting" more than a million people with DDT powder. The Army Air Force built DDT "bombs," attaching six-hundred-and-twenty-five-gallon tanks to the underside of the wings of B-25s and C-47s, and began spraying Pacific beachheads in advance of troop arrivals. In Saipan, invading marines were overtaken by dengue, a debilitating fever borne by the Aedes variety of mosquito. Five hundred men were falling sick every day, each incapacitated for four to five weeks. The medical officer called in a DDT air strike that saturated the surrounding twenty-five square miles with nearly nine thousand gallons of five-per-cent DDT solution. The dengue passed. The marines took Saipan. It is hard to overestimate the impact that DDT's early success had on the world of public health. In the nineteen-forties, there was still malaria in the American South. There was malaria throughout Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. In India alone, malaria killed eight hundred thousand people a year. When, in 1920, William Gorgas, the man who cleansed the Panama Canal Zone of malaria, fell mortally ill during a trip through England, he was knighted on his deathbed by King George V and given an official state funeral at St. Paul's Cathedral--and this for an American who just happened to be in town when he died. That is what it meant to be a malaria fighter in the first half of the last century. And now there was a chemical--the first successful synthetic pesticide--that seemed to have an almost magical ability to kill mosquitoes. In 1948, Müller won the Nobel Prize for his work with DDT, and over the next twenty years his discovery became the centerpiece of the most ambitious public-health campaign in history. Today, of course, DDT is a symbol of all that is dangerous about man's attempts to interfere with nature. Rachel Carson, in her landmark 1962 book, "Silent Spring," wrote memorably of the chemical's environmental consequences, how its unusual persistence and toxicity had laid waste to wildlife and aquatic ecosystems. Only two countries--India and China--continue to manufacture the substance, and only a few dozen more still use it. In May, at the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, more than ninety countries signed a treaty, placing DDT on a restricted-use list, and asking all those still using the chemical to develop plans for phasing it out entirely. On the eve of its burial, however--and at a time when the threat of insect-borne disease around the world seems to be resurgent--it is worth remembering that people once felt very differently about DDT, and that between the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the nineteen-sixties it was considered not a dangerous pollutant but a lifesaver. The chief proponent of that view was a largely forgotten man named Fred Soper, who ranks as one of the unsung heroes of the twentieth century. With DDT as his weapon, Soper almost saved the world from one of its most lethal afflictions. Had he succeeded, we would not today be writing DDT's obituary. We would view it in the same heroic light as penicillin and the polio vaccine. Fred Soper was a physically imposing man. He wore a suit, it was said, like a uniform. His hair was swept straight back from his forehead. His eyes were narrow. He had large wire-rimmed glasses, and a fastidiously maintained David Niven mustache. Soper was born in Kansas in 1893, received a doctorate from the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, and spent the better part of his career working for the Rockefeller Foundation, which in the years before the Second World War--before the establishment of the United Nations and the World Health Organization--functioned as the world's unofficial public-health directorate, using its enormous resources to fight everything from yellow fever in Colombia to hookworm in Thailand. In those years, malaria warriors fell into one of two camps. The first held that the real enemy was the malaria parasite--the protozoan that mosquitoes pick up from the blood of an infected person and transmit to others. The best way to break the chain of infection, this group argued, was to treat the sick with antimalarial drugs, to kill the protozoan so there was nothing for mosquitoes to transmit. The second camp held, to the contrary, that the mosquito was the real enemy, since people would not get malaria in the first place if there were no mosquitoes around to bite them. Soper belonged to the latter group, and his special contribution was to raise the killing of mosquitoes to an art. Gorgas, Soper's legendary predecessor, said that in order to fight malaria you had to learn to think like a mosquito. Soper disagreed. Fighting malaria, he said, had very little to do with the intricacies of science and biology. The key was learning to think like the men he hired to go door-to-door and stream-to-stream, killing mosquitoes. His method was to apply motivation, discipline, organization, and zeal, in understanding human nature. Fred Soper was the General Patton of entomology. While working in South America in 1930, Soper had enforced a rigorous protocol for inspecting houses for mosquito infestation, which involved checking cisterns and climbing along roof gutters. (He pushed himself so hard perfecting the system in the field that he lost twenty-seven pounds in three months.) He would map an area to be cleansed of mosquitoes, give each house a number, and then assign each number to a sector. A sector, in turn, would be assigned to an inspector, armed with the crude pesticides then available; the inspector's schedule for each day was planned to the minute, in advance, and his work double-checked by a supervisor. If a supervisor found a mosquito that the inspector had missed, he received a bonus. And if the supervisor found that the inspector had deviated by more than ten minutes from his preassigned schedule the inspector was docked a day's pay. Once, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, a large ammunition dump--the Niterói Arsenal--blew up. Soper, it was said, heard the explosion in his office, checked the location of the arsenal on one of his maps, verified by the master schedule that an inspector was at the dump at the time of the accident, and immediately sent condolences and a check to the widow. The next day, the inspector showed up for work, and Soper fired him on the spot--for being alive. Soper, in one memorable description, "seemed equally capable of browbeating man or mosquito." He did not engage in small talk. In 1973, at Soper's eightieth-birthday party, a former colleague recounted how much weight he had lost working for Soper; another told a story of how Soper looked at him uncomprehendingly when he asked to go home to visit his ailing wife; a third spoke of Soper's betting prowess. "He was very cold and very formal," remembers Andrew Spielman, a senior investigator in tropical disease at the Harvard School of Public Health and the author, with Michael D'Antonio, of the marvellous new book "Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe." "He always wore a suit and tie. With that thin little mustache and big long upper lip, he scared the hell out of me." One of Soper's greatest early victories came in Brazil, in the late nineteen-thirties, when he took on a particularly vicious strain of mosquito known as Anopheles gambiae. There are about twenty-five hundred species of mosquito in the world, each with its own habits and idiosyncrasies--some like running water, some like standing water, some bite around the ankles, some bite on the arms, some bite indoors, some bite outdoors--but only mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles are capable of carrying the human malaria parasite. And, of the sixty species of Anopheles that can transmit malaria, gambiae is the variety best adapted to spreading the disease. In California, there is a strain of Anopheles known as freeborni, which is capable of delivering a larger dose of malaria parasite than gambiae ever could. But freeborni is not a good malaria vector, because it prefers animals to people. Gambiae, by contrast, bites humans ninety-five per cent of the time. It has long legs and yellow-and-black spotted wings. It likes to breed in muddy pools of water, even in a water-filled footprint. And, unlike many mosquitoes, it is long-lived, meaning that once it has picked up the malaria parasite it can spread the protozoan to many others. Gambiae gathers in neighborhoods in the evenings, slips into houses at dusk, bites quietly and efficiently during the night, digests its "blood meal" while resting on the walls of the house, and then slips away in the morning. In epidemiology, there is a concept known as the "basic reproduction number," or BRN, which refers to the number of people one person can infect with a contagious disease. The number for H.I.V., which is relatively difficult to transmit, is just above one. For measles, the BRN is between twelve and fourteen. But with a vector like gambiae in the picture the BRN for malaria can be more than a hundred, meaning that just one malarious person can be solely responsible for making a hundred additional people sick. The short answer to the question of why malaria is such an overwhelming problem in Africa is that gambiae is an African mosquito. In March, 1930, a Rockefeller Foundation entomologist named Raymond Shannon was walking across tidal flats to the Potengi River, in Natal, Brazil, when he noticed, to his astonishment, two thousand gambiae larvae in a pool of water, thousands of miles from their homeland. Less than a kilometre away was a port where French destroyers brought mail across the Atlantic from Africa, and Shannon guessed that the mosquito larvae had come over, fairly recently, aboard one of the mail ships. He notified Soper, who was his boss, and Soper told Brazilian officials to open the dykes damming the tidal flats, because salt water from the ocean would destroy the gambiae breeding spots. The government refused. Over the next few years, there were a number of small yet worrisome outbreaks of malaria, followed by a few years of drought, which kept the problem in check. Then, in 1938, the worst malaria epidemic in the history of the Americas broke out. Gambiae had spread a hundred and fifty miles along the coast and inland, infecting a hundred thousand people and killing as many as twenty thousand. Soper was called in. This was several years before the arrival of DDT, so he brought with him the only tools malariologists had in those years: diesel oil and an arsenic-based mixture called Paris green, both of which were spread on the pools of water where gambiae larvae bred; and pyrethrum, a natural pesticide made from a variety of chrysanthemum, which was used to fumigate buildings. Four thousand men were put at his disposal. He drew maps and divided up his troops. The men wore uniforms, and carried flags to mark where they were working, and they left detailed written records of their actions, to be reviewed later by supervisors. When Soper discovered twelve gambiae in a car leaving an infected area, he set up thirty de-insectization posts along the roads, spraying the interiors of cars and trucks; seven more posts on the rail lines; and defumigation posts at the ports and airports. In Soper's personal notes, now housed at the National Library of Medicine, in Bethesda, there is a cue card, on which is typed a quotation from a veteran of the Rockefeller Foundation's efforts, in the early twentieth century, to eradicate hookworm. "Experience proved that the best way to popularize a movement so foreign to the customs of the people . . . was to prosecute it as though it were the only thing in the universe left undone." It is not hard to imagine the card tacked above Soper's desk in Rio for inspiration: his goal was not merely to cripple the population of gambiae, since that would simply mean that they would return, to kill again. His goal was to eliminate gambiae from every inch of the region of Brazil that they had colonized--an area covering some eighteen thousand square miles. It was an impossible task. Soper did it in twenty-two months. While DDT was being tested in Orlando, Soper was in North Africa with the United States Typhus Commission, charged with preventing the kind of louse-spread typhus epidemics that were so devastating during the First World War. His tool of choice was a delousing powder called MYL. Lice live in the folds of clothing, and a previous technique had been to treat the clothing after people had disrobed. But that was clearly not feasible in Muslim cities like Cairo and Algiers, nor was it practical for large-scale use. So Soper devised a new technique. He had people tie their garments at the ankles and wrists, and then he put the powder inside a dust gun, of the sort used in gardening, and blew it down the collar, creating a balloon effect. "We were in Algiers, waiting for Patton to get through Sicily," Thomas Aitken, an entomologist who worked with Soper in those years, remembers. "We were dusting people out in the countryside. This particular day, a little old Arab man, only about so high, came along with his donkey and stopped to talk to us. We told him what we were doing, and we dusted him. The next day, he comes by again and says that that had been the first time in his life that he had ever been able to sleep through the night." In December of 1943, the typhus team was dispatched to Naples, where in the wake of the departing German Army the beginnings of a typhus epidemic had been detected. The rituals of Cairo were repeated, only this time the typhus fighters, instead of relying on MYL (which easily lost its potency), were using DDT. Men with dusters careered through the narrow cobblestoned streets of the town, amid the wreckage of the war, delousing the apartment buildings of typhus victims. Neapolitans were dusted as they came out of the railway stations in the morning, and dusted in the streets, and dusted in the crowded grottoes that served as bomb shelters beneath the city streets. In the first month, more than 1.3 million people were dusted, saving countless lives. Soper's diary records a growing fascination with this new weapon. July 25, 1943: "Lunch with L.L. Williams and Justin Andrews. L.L. reports that he has ordered 10,000 lbs of Neocid [DDT]and that Barber reports it to be far superior to [Paris Green]for mosquitoes." February 25, 1944: "Knipling visits laboratory. Malaria results [for DDT]ARE FANTASTIC." When Rome fell, in mid-1944, Soper declared that he wanted to test DDT in Sardinia, the most malarious part of Italy. In 1947, he got his wish. He pulled out his old organization charts from Brazil. The island--a rocky, mountainous region the size of New Hampshire, with few roads--was mapped and divided up hierarchically, the smallest unit being the area that could be covered by a sprayer in a week. Thirty-three thousand people were hired. More than two hundred and eighty-six tons of DDT were acquired. Three hundred and thirty-seven thousand buildings were sprayed. The target Anopheles was labranchiae, which flourishes not just in open water but also in the thick weeds that surround the streams and ponds and marshes of Sardinia. Vegetation was cut back, and a hundred thousand acres of swampland were drained. Labranchiae larvae were painstakingly collected and counted and shipped to a central laboratory, where precise records were kept of the status of the target vector. In 1946, before the campaign started, there were seventy-five thousand malaria cases on the island. In 1951, after the campaign finished, there were nine. "The locals regarded this as the best thing that had ever happened to them," Thomas Aitken says. He had signed on with the Rockefeller Foundation after the war, and was one of the leaders of the Sardinian effort. "The fact that malaria was gone was welcome," he went on. "But also the DDT got rid of the houseflies. Sardinian houses were made of stone. The wires for the lights ran along the walls near the ceiling. And if you looked up at the wires they were black with housefly droppings from over the years. And suddenly the flies disappeared." Five years ago, Aitken says, he was invited back to Sardinia for a celebration to mark the forty-fifth anniversary of malaria's eradication from the island. "There was a big meeting at our hotel. The public was invited, as well as a whole bunch of island and city officials, the mayor of Cagliari, and representatives of the Italian government. We all sat on a dais, at the side of the room, and I gave a speech there, in Italian, and when I finished everybody got up and clapped their hands and was shouting. It was very embarrassing. I started crying. I couldn't help it. Just reminiscing now . . ." Aitken is a handsome, courtly man of eighty-eight, lean and patrician in appearance. He lives outside New Haven, in an apartment filled with art and furniture from his time in Sardinia. As he thought back to those years, there were tears in his eyes, and at that moment it was possible to appreciate the excitement that gripped malariologists in the wake of the Second World War. The old-school mosquito men called themselves mud-hen malariologists, because they did their job in swamps and ditches and stagnant pools of water. Paris green and pyrethrum were crude insecticides that had to be applied repeatedly; pyrethrum killed only those mosquitoes that happened to be in the room when you were spraying. But here, seemingly, was a clean, pure, perfectly modern weapon. You could spray a tiny amount on a wall, and that single application would kill virtually every mosquito landing on that surface for the next six months. Who needed a standing army of inspectors anymore? Who needed to slog through swamps? This was an age of heroics in medicine. Sabin and Salk were working on polio vaccines with an eye to driving that disease to extinction. Penicillin was brand new, and so effective that epidemiologists were dreaming of an America without venereal disease. The extinction of smallpox, that oldest of scourges, seemed possible. All the things that we find sinister about DDT today--the fact that it killed everything it touched, and kept on killing everything it touched--were precisely what made it so inspiring at the time. "The public-health service didn't pay us a lot," says McWilson Warren, who spent the early part of his career fighting malaria in the Malaysian jungle. "So why were we there? Because there was something so wonderful about being involved with people who thought they were doing something more important than themselves." In the middle of the war, Soper had gone to Egypt, and warned the government that it had an incipient invasion of gambiae. The government ignored him, and the next year the country was hit with an epidemic that left more than a hundred thousand dead. In his diary, Soper wrote of his subsequent trip to Egypt, "In the afternoon to the Palace where Mr. Jacobs presents me to His Majesty King Faruk. The King says that he is sorry to know that measures I suggested last year were not taken at that time." Soper had triumphed over gambiae in Brazil, driven lice from Cairo and Naples, and had a weapon, DDT, that seemed like a gift from God--and now kings were apologizing to him. Soper started to dream big: Why not try to drive malaria from the entire world? Fred Soper's big idea came to be known as the Global Malaria Eradication Programme. In the early nineteen-fifties, Soper had been instrumental in getting the Brazilian malariologist Marcolino Candau--whom he had hired during the anti-gambiae campaign of the nineteen-thirties--elected as director-general of the World Health Organization, and, in 1955, with Candau's help, Soper pushed through a program calling on all member nations to begin a rigorous assault on any malaria within their borders. Congress was lobbied, and John Kennedy, then a senator, became an enthusiastic backer. Beginning in 1958, the United States government pledged the equivalent of billions in today's dollars for malaria eradication--one of the biggest commitments that a single country has ever made to international health. The appeal of the eradication strategy was its precision. The idea was not to kill every Anopheles mosquito in a given area, as Soper had done with gambiae in Brazil. That was unnecessary. The idea was to use DDT to kill only those mosquitoes which were directly connected to the spread of malaria--only those which had just picked up the malaria parasite from an infected person and were about to fly off and infect someone else. When DDTis used for this purpose, Spielman writes in "Mosquito," "it is applied close to where people sleep, on the inside walls of houses. After biting, the mosquitoes generally fly to the nearest vertical surface and remain standing there for about an hour, anus down, while they drain the water from their gut contents and excrete it in a copious, pink-tinged stream. If the surfaces the mosquitoes repair to are coated by a poison that is soluble in the wax that covers all insects' bodies, the mosquitoes will acquire a lethal dose." Soper pointed out that people who get malaria, and survive, generally clear their bodies of the parasite after three years. If you could use spraying to create a hiatus during which minimal transmission occurred--and during which anyone carrying the parasite had a chance to defeat it--you could potentially eradicate malaria. You could stop spraying and welcome the mosquitoes back, because there would be no more malaria around for them to transmit. Soper was under no illusions about how difficult this task would be. But, according to his calculations, it was technically possible, if he and his team achieved eighty-per-cent coverage--if they sprayed eight out of every ten houses in infected areas. Beginning in the late fifties, DDT was shipped out by the ton. Training institutes were opened. In India alone, a hundred and fifty thousand people were hired. By 1960, sixty-six nations had signed up. "What we all had was a handheld pressure sprayer of three-gallon capacity," Jesse Hobbs, who helped run the eradication effort in Jamaica in the early sixties, recalls. "Generally, we used a formulation that was water wettable, meaning you had powder you mixed with water. Then you pressurized the tank. The squad chief would usually have notified the household some days before. The instructions were to take the pictures off the wall, pull everything away from the wall. Take the food and eating utensils out of the house. The spray man would spray with an up-and-down movement--at a certain speed, according to a pattern. You started at a certain point and sprayed the walls and ceiling, then went outside to spray the eaves of the roof. A spray man could cover ten to twelve houses a day. You were using about two hundred milligrams per square foot of DDT, which isn't very much, and it was formulated in a way that you could see where you sprayed. When it dried, it left a deposit, like chalk. It had a bit of a chlorine smell. It's not perfume. It's kind of like swimming-pool water. People were told to wait half an hour for the spray to dry, then they could go back." The results were dramatic. In Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific, malaria was eliminated. Sri Lanka saw its cases drop to about a dozen every year. In India, where malaria infected an estimated seventy-five million and killed eight hundred thousand every year, fatalities had dropped to zero by the early sixties. Between 1945 and 1965, DDT saved millions--even tens of millions--of lives around the world, perhaps more than any other man-made drug or chemical before or since. What DDT could not do, however, was eradicate malaria entirely. How could you effectively spray eighty per cent of homes in the Amazonian jungle, where communities are spread over hundreds of thousands of highly treacherous acres? Sub-Saharan Africa, the most malarious place on earth, presented such a daunting logistical challenge that the eradication campaign never really got under way there. And, even in countries that seemed highly amenable to spraying, problems arose. "The rich had houses that they didn't want to be sprayed, and they were giving bribes," says Socrates Litsios, who was a scientist with the W.H.O. for many years and is now a historian of the period. "The inspectors would try to double their spraying in the morning so they wouldn't have to carry around the heavy tanks all day, and as a result houses in the afternoon would get less coverage. And there were many instances of corruption with insecticides, because they were worth so much on the black market. People would apply diluted sprays even when they knew they were worthless." Typical of the logistical difficulties is what happened to the campaign in Malaysia. In Malaysian villages, the roofs of the houses were a thatch of palm fronds called atap. They were expensive to construct, and usually lasted five years. But within two years of DDT spraying the roofs started to fall down. As it happened, the atap is eaten by caterpillar larvae, which in turn are normally kept in check by parasitic wasps. But the DDT repelled the wasps, leaving the larvae free to devour the atap. "Then the Malaysians started to complain about bedbugs, and it turns out what normally happens is that ants like to eat bedbug larvae," McWilson Warren said. "But the ants were being killed by the DDT and the bedbugs weren't--they were pretty resistant to it. So now you had a bedbug problem." He went on, "The DDT spray teams would go into villages, and no one would be at home and the doors would be locked and you couldn't spray the house. And, understand, for that campaign to work almost every house had to be sprayed. You had to have eighty-per-cent coverage. I remember there was a malaria meeting in '62 in Saigon, and the Malaysians were saying that they could not eradicate malaria. It was not possible. And everyone was arguing with them, and they were saying, 'Look, it's not going to work.' And if Malaysia couldn't do it--and Malaysia was one of the most sophisticated places in the region--who could?" At the same time, in certain areas DDT began to lose its potency. DDT kills by attacking a mosquito's nervous system, affecting the nerve cells so that they keep firing and the insect goes into a spasm, lurching, shuddering, and twitching before it dies. But in every population of mosquitoes there are a handful with a random genetic mutation that renders DDT nontoxic--that prevents it from binding to nerve endings. When mass spraying starts, those genetic outliers are too rare to matter. But, as time goes on, they are the only mosquitoes still breeding, and entire new generations of insects become resistant. In Greece, in the late nineteen-forties, for example, a malariologist noticed Anopheles sacharovi mosquitoes flying around a room that had been sprayed with DDT. In time, resistance began to emerge in areas where spraying was heaviest. To the malaria warriors, it was a shock. "Why should they have known?" Janet Hemingway, an expert in DDT resistance at the University of Wales in Cardiff, says. "It was the first synthetic insecticide. They just assumed that it would keep on working, and that the insects couldn't do much about it." Soper and the malariologist Paul Russell, who was his great ally, responded by pushing for an all-out war on malaria. We had to use DDT, they argued, or lose it. "If countries, due to lack of funds, have to proceed slowly, resistance is almost certain to appear and eradication will become economically impossible," Russell wrote in a 1956 report. "TIME IS OF THE ESSENCE because DDT resistance has appeared in six or seven years." But, with the administrative and logistical problems posed by the goal of eighty-per-cent coverage, that deadline proved impossible to meet. In 1963, the money from Congress ran out. Countries that had been told they could wipe out malaria in four years--and had diverted much of their health budgets to that effort--grew disillusioned as the years dragged on and eradication never materialized. Soon, they put their money back into areas that seemed equally pressing, like maternal and child health. Spraying programs were scaled back. In those countries where the disease had not been completely eliminated, malaria rates began to inch upward. In 1969, the World Health Organization formally abandoned global eradication, and in the ensuing years it proved impossible to muster any great enthusiasm from donors to fund antimalaria efforts. The W.H.O. now recommends that countries treat the disease largely through the health-care system--through elimination of the parasite--but many anti-malarial drugs are no longer effective. In the past thirty years, there have been outbreaks in India, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and South Korea, among other places. "Our troubles with mosquitoes are getting worse," Spielman concludes in "Mosquito," "making more people sick and claiming more lives, millions of lives, every year." For Soper, the unravelling of his dream was pure torture. In 1959, he toured Asia to check on the eradication campaigns of Thailand, the Philippines, Ceylon, and India, and came back appalled at what he had seen. Again and again, he found, countries were executing his strategy improperly. They weren't spraying for long enough. They didn't realize that unless malaria was ground into submission it would come roaring back. But what could he do? He had prevailed against gambiae in Brazil in the nineteen-thirties because he had been in charge; he had worked with the country's dictator to make it illegal to prevent an inspector from entering a house, and illegal to prevent the inspector from treating any open container of water. Jesse Hobbs tells of running into Soper one day in Trinidad, after driving all day in an open jeep through the tropical heat. Soper drove up in a car and asked Hobbs to get in; Hobbs demurred, gesturing at his sweaty shirt. "Son," Soper responded, "we used to go out in a day like this in Brazil and if we found a sector chief whose shirt was not wet we'd fire him." Killing mosquitoes, Soper always said, was not a matter of knowledge and academic understanding; it was a matter of administration and discipline. "He used to say that if you have a democracy you can't have eradication," Litsios says. "When Soper was looking for a job at Johns Hopkins--this would have been '46--he told a friend that 'they turned me down because they said I was a fascist.'" Johns Hopkins was right, of course: he was a fascist--a disease fascist--because he believed a malaria warrior had to be. But now roofs were falling down in Malaysia, and inspectors were taking bribes, and local health officials did not understand the basic principles of eradication--and his critics had the audacity to blame his ideas, rather than their own weakness. It was in this same period that Rachel Carson published "Silent Spring," taking aim at the environmental consequences of DDT. "The world has heard much of the triumphant war against disease through the control of insect vectors of infection," she wrote, alluding to the efforts of men like Soper, "but it has heard little of the other side of the story--the defeats, the short-lived triumphs that now strongly support the alarming view that the insect enemy has been made actually stronger by our efforts." There had already been "warnings," she wrote, of the problems created by pesticides: On Nissan Island in the South Pacific, for example, spraying had been carried on intensively during the Second World War, but was stopped when hostilities came to an end. Soon swarms of a malaria-carrying mosquito reinvaded the island. All of its predators had been killed off and there had not been time for new populations to become established. The way was therefore clear for a tremendous population explosion. Marshall Laird, who had described this incident, compares chemical control to a treadmill; once we have set foot on it we are unable to stop for fear of the consequences. It is hard to read that passage and not feel the heat of Soper's indignation. He was familiar with "Silent Spring"--everyone in the malaria world was--and what was Carson saying?Of course the mosquitoes came back when DDT spraying stopped. The question was whether the mosquitoes were gone long enough to disrupt the cycle of malaria transmission. The whole point of eradication, to his mind, was that it got you off the treadmill: DDT was so effective that if you used it properly you could stop spraying and not fear the consequences. Hadn't that happened in places like Taiwan and Jamaica and Sardinia? "Silent Spring" was concerned principally with the indiscriminate use of DDT for agricultural purposes; in the nineteen-fifties, it was being sprayed like water in the Western countryside, in an attempt to control pests like the gypsy moth and the spruce budworm. Not all of Carson's concerns about the health effects of DDT have stood the test of time--it has yet to be conclusively linked to human illness--but her larger point was justified: DDT was being used without concern for its environmental consequences. It must have galled Soper, however, to see how Carson effectively lumped the malaria warriors with those who used DDT for economic gain. Nowhere in "Silent Spring" did Carson acknowledge that the chemical she was excoriating as a menace had, in the two previous decades, been used by malariologists to save somewhere in the vicinity of ten million lives. Nor did she make it clear how judiciously the public-health community was using the chemical. By the late fifties, health experts weren't drenching fields and streams and poisoning groundwater and killing fish. They were leaving a microscopic film on the inside walls of houses; spraying every house in a country the size of Guyana, for example, requires no more DDT in a year than a large cotton farm does. Carson quoted a housewife from Hinsdale, Illinois, who wrote about the damage left by several years of DDT spraying against bark beetles: "The town is almost devoid of robins and starlings; chickadees have not been on my shelf for two years, and this year the cardinals are gone too; the nesting population in the neighborhood seems to consist of one dove pair and perhaps one catbird family. . . . 'Will they ever come back?' [the children]ask, and I do not have the answer." Carson then quoted a bird-lover from Alabama:"There was not a sound of the song of a bird. It was eerie, terrifying. What was man doing to our perfect and beautiful world?" But to Soper the world was neither perfect nor beautiful, and the question of what man could do to nature was less critical than what nature, unimpeded, could do to man. Here, from a well-thumbed page inserted in Soper's diaries, is a description of a town in Egypt during that country's gambiae invasion of 1943--a village in the grip of its own, very different, unnatural silence: Most houses are without roofs. They are just a square of dirty earth. In those courtyards and behind the doors of these hovels were found whole families lying on the floor; some were just too weakened by illness to get up and others were lying doubled up shaking from head to foot with their teeth chattering and their violently trembling hands trying in vain to draw some dirty rags around them for warmth. They were in the middle of the malaria crisis. There was illness in every house. There was hardly a house which had not had its dead and those who were left were living skeletons, their old clothing in rags, their limbs swollen from undernourishment and too weak to go into the fields to work or even to get food. It must have seemed to Soper that the ground had shifted beneath his feet--that the absolutes that governed his life, that countenanced even the most extreme of measures in the fight against disease, had suddenly and bewilderingly been set aside. "I was on several groups who evaluated malaria-eradication programs in some of the Central American countries and elsewhere," Geoffrey Jeffery recalls. "Several times we came back with the answer that with the present technology and effort it wasn't going to work. Well, that didn't suit Soper very much. He harangued us. We shouldn't be saying things like that!" Wilbur Downs, a physician who worked for the Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico in the fifties, used to tell of a meeting with Soper and officials of the Mexican government about the eradication of malaria in that country. Soper had come down from Washington, and amid excited talk of ending malaria forever Downs pointed out that there were serious obstacles to eradication--among them the hastened decomposition and absorption of DDT by the clays forming adobe walls. It was all too much for Soper. This was the kind of talk that was impeding eradication--the doubting, the equivocation, the incompetence, the elevation of songbirds over human life. In the middle of the meeting, Soper--ramrod straight, eyes afire--strode over to Downs, put both his hands around his neck, and began to shake. Fred Soper ran up against the great moral of the late twentieth century--that even the best-intentioned efforts have perverse consequences, that benefits are inevitably offset by risks. This was the lesson of "Silent Spring," and it was the lesson, too, that malariologists would take from the experience with global eradication. DDT, Spielman argues, ought to be used as selectively as possible, to quell major outbreaks. "They should have had a strong rule against spraying the same villages again and again," he says. "But that went against their doctrine. They wanted eighty-per-cent coverage. They wanted eight out of ten houses year after year after year, and that's a sure formula for resistance." Soper and Russell once argued about whether, in addition to house spraying, malaria fighters should continue to drain swamps. Russell said yes; Soper said no, that it would be an unnecessary distraction. Russell was right: it made no sense to use only one weapon against malaria. Spielman points out that malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa is powerfully affected by the fact that so many people live in mud huts. The walls of that kind of house need to be constantly replastered, and to do that villagers dig mud holes around their huts. But a mud hole is a prime breeding spot for gambiae. If economic aid were directed at helping villagers build houses out of brick, Spielman argues, malaria could be dealt a blow. Similarly, the Princeton University malariologist Burton Singer says that since the forties it has been well known that mosquito larvae that hatch in rice fields--a major breeding site in southeast Asia--can be killed if the water level in the fields is intermittently drained, a practice that has the additional effect of raising rice yields. Are these perfect measures? No. But, under the right circumstances, they are sustainable. In a speech Soper presented on eradication, he quoted Louis Pasteur: "It is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease." The key phrase, for Soper, was "within the power." Soper believed that the responsibility of the public-health professional was to make an obligation out of what was possible. He never understood that concessions had to be made to what was practical. "This is the fundamental difference between those of us in public health who have an epidemiological perspective, and people, like Soper, with more of a medical approach," Spielman says. "We deal with populations over time, populations of individuals. They deal with individuals at a moment in time. Their best outcome is total elimination of the condition in the shortest possible period. Our first goal is to cause no outbreaks, no epidemics, to manage, to contain the infection." Bringing the absolutist attitudes of medicine to a malarious village, Spielman says, "is a good way to do a bad thing." The Fred Soper that we needed, in retrospect, was a man of more modest ambitions. But, of course, Fred Soper with modest ambitions would not be Fred Soper; his epic achievements arose from his fanaticism, his absolutism, his commitment to saving as many lives as possible in the shortest period of time. For all the talk of his misplaced ambition, there are few people in history to whom so many owe their lives. The Global Malaria Eradication Programme helped eliminate the disease from the developed world, and from many parts of the developing world. In a number of cases where the disease returned, it came back at a lower level than it had been in the prewar years, and even in those places where eradication made little headway the campaign sometimes left in place a public infrastructure that had not existed before. The problem was that Soper had raised expectations too high. He had said that the only acceptable outcome for Global Eradication was global eradication, and when that did not happen he was judged--and, most important, he judged himself--a failure. But isn't the urgency Soper felt just what is lacking in the reasonableness of our contemporary attitude--in our caution and thoughtfulness and restraint? In the wake of the failure of eradication, it was popular to say that truly effective malaria control would have to await the development of a public-health infrastructure in poorer countries. Soper's response was, invariably: What about now? In a letter to a friend, he snapped, "The delay in handling malaria until it can be done by local health units is needlessly sacrificing the generation now living." There is something to admire in that attitude; it is hard to look at the devastation wrought by H.I.V. and malaria and countless other diseases in the Third World and not conclude that what we need, more than anything, is someone who will marshal the troops, send them house to house, monitor their every movement, direct their every success, and, should a day of indifference leave their shirts unsullied, send them packing. Toward the end of his life, Soper, who died in 1975, met with an old colleague, M. A. Farid, with whom he had fought gambiae in Egypt years before. "How do things go?" Soper began. "Bad!" Farid replied, for this was in the years when everyone had turned against Soper's vision. "Who will be our ally?" Soper asked. And Farid said simply, "Malaria," and Soper, he remembered, almost hugged him, because it was clear what Farid meant: Someday, when DDT is dead and buried, and the West wakes up to a world engulfed by malaria, we will think back on Fred Soper and wish we had another to take his place.

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A complex maths algorithm is helping keep childhood vaccinations in the United States up-to-date. Dr Faramroze Engineer developed the tool with colleagues, including those from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, while at the Georgia Institute of Technology in the US. Now a lecturer in mathematics at the University of Newcastle, Dr Engineer said the support tool helped vaccination providers to create 'catch-up' schedules for childhood immunisation. "These schedules ensure that a child continues to receive timely coverage against vaccine preventable diseases, such as measles, mumps, rubella, diphtheria, meningococcal and tuberculosis, in case a dose is missed," Dr Engineer said. "The tool is being advocated by both the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Academy of Pediatrics as a way for parents and health providers to take a more proactive role in ensuring timely vaccinations for children." The work recently received international recognition from the worldwide Institute for Operations Research and the Management Science (INFORMS) with an honourable mention as a finalist for the 2009 'Doing Good with Good OR' award. Dr Engineer arrived in Australia in July 2009 to join the University of Newcastle's newly launched Priority Research Centre for Computer Assisted Research Mathematics and its Applications. The Centre is using advanced mathematical computation to solve real-world problems.

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Ever wondered where our towns and villages get their names from? Were they a deliberate creation by our ancestors or did they evolve naturally over time? Which town took its name from one of the last surviving wolves in England? Where is there a name referring to an 18th century vegetarian delicacy? Who killed a king and had a pub named after him? And where was there a ford for games or sport? Hampshire Place Names examines the origins of the names with which we are otherwise so familiar. Towns, villages, districts, hills, streams, woods, farms, fields, streets and even pubs are examined and explained. Some of the definitions give a glimpse of life in the earlier days of the settlement, and for the author there is nothing more satisfying than finding a name which gives such a snapshot. The definitions are supported by anecdotal evidence, bringing to life the individuals and events which have influenced the places and the way these names have developed. This is not just a dictionary but a history and will prove invaluable not only for those who live and work in the county but also visitors and tourists, historians and former inhabitants, indeed anyone with an interest in Hampshire.

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The jury is still out about whether electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones and wireless home phones pose health risks. For those concerned about the potential dangers of using mobile devices, here are safety tips provided by the Environmental Health Trust, a nonprofit that researches hazards of using mobile phones, and Pong, a company that makes smartphone cases that redirect radiation away from the heads of users. 1. When on a call, use a wired headset or speakerphone mode. Use a Bluetooth headset, which emits a smaller amount of radiation, only when talking. When not using the headset, keep it off your body. 2. Place the mobile phone away from your body when on a call. 3. Do not carry mobile phones in pockets of pants or in shirts or bras. Use a belt holster designed to shield the body from radiation. 4. Avoid using a mobile phone in a moving car, train, bus, or in rural areas at some distance from a cell tower. Distance from a cell tower will increase the cellphone's radiation output. 5. Turn the mobile phone off when you don't need to use it. 6. Use a corded landline phone instead of a wireless phone, which also emits radiation. 7. Avoid using mobile phone inside of buildings, particularly those with steel structures, which increases the device's radiation output because signals are not as strong. 8. Do not allow children, whose bodies are more vulnerable to absorbing radiation, to sleep with a 9. Do not allow children under 18 to use a mobile phone except in emergencies. 10. When making a call, do not hold the phone to your ear until after the person on the other line answers. The device emits more radiation before a call goes through.

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Life in Block 8 The following was prepared by the students participating in the excavations at the Johnson’s Island Civil War Prison site this summer as part of the Heidelberg University Archaeological Field School. Since they are excavating within the former location of Block 8, they have decided to present some historical information on life in the block during its time as a prison. However, the pictures reflect the student’s experience recovering the archaeological evidence. The basic day in Block 8 on Johnson’s Island went as follows. Prisoners woke up around six for breakfast consisting of coffee, bread, and beef (fried or boiled). There was no leaving the quarters until the garrison raised the flag (which was a little after sunrise). This was followed by roll call and count was taken. No Confederate ranks were recognized in roll call. After breakfast, the ice man and milk man came into the prison and the sutler would sell (at fixed prices) vegetables, clothes, and newspapers like the Sandusky Register, days-old copies of the New York Herald, and the Cincinnati Enquirer (which was later banned because of secessionist attitudes). Other items sold were fruits, butter, writing paper, tobacco, smoking pipes, shaving equipment, and other personal items. Clothes, however, were very limited; the official limits on clothing were one suit of clothes, no boots and only shoes of poor quality, and in winter coats were available. The sutler operations were halted several times in retaliation for how federal troops were treated in Southern prison camps. Mail would arrive at ten A.M., with morning rations distributed at the same time. In April of 1864, rations included: - 3/4lb Pork for each man twice a week - 1 1/4lb Fresh beef 5 times a week - 18oz Bread daily - 15lbs Bean to every 100 men - 10lbs Hominy or rice to every 100 men - 4lbs Roasted coffee to every 100 men - 1gal Vinegar to every 100 men - 1lb Candles to every 100 men - 2lbs Soap to every 100 men - 2lbs Salt to every 100 men - 30lbs Potatoes to every 100 men 2 times a week Water could be gathered from either of the two pumps located in the camp. Otherwise, when the pumps were either broken or frozen in winter, it was gathered from the lake. Early in the war, other services located in the camp were a bakery, lemonade, pastry shop, and even a brewery. Also available were tailors, cobblers (shoemakers), laundry services (5cents a garment), artists, a circulating library begun in 1864, barbers, a minstrel show, and jewelers. Firewood for cooking and heating was brought by wagon. Dinner was served at noon, after which the men had the afternoon to themselves. Afternoon activities consisted of walking the grounds, talking (the “grape vine” was the rumor mill), playing ball or cards, reading, and manufacturing furniture or trinkets. Supper was then served right before sundown. At sunset the flag was lowered, the drums beat evening retreat and all prisoners were required to remain in their quarters. At 9-9:30pm it was “lights out.” Lt. William Peel was one of the Confederate officers imprisoned at Johnson’s Island. He kept a diary during his stay, and it was later published. In his entries he wrote about his time in Block 8, where he stayed and slept. Block 8 held many religious services and payer services for prisoners. He also mentioned supplementing his meals with rats to help ease his suffering from hunger. Along with meals and religion, Peel also described the addition of stoves and other changes among the various blocks. Block 8 was also “home” to the infamous Lt. Charles Pierce of the 7th Louisiana, who made many escape attempts in his time on Johnson’s Island. An attempt was made to tunnel from Block 8 to the wall, but escape endeavors were shifted to the more ideal location of Block 1. This summer, our excavations are focused on Block 8 and a latrine used by prisoners there in 1862-1863. Stay tuned for more updates!

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KHAO SOK NATIONAL PARK HISTORY THE FOUNDING OF THE PARK , the reason Khao Sok National Park is one of the best preserved natural habitats in Thailand is the Communists. During the 1960s and 70s, this area of thick jungle, craggy mountains and caves was the perfect hide-out for the small number of Communist insurgents tickling the government at that time. To this day, one can see a few basic benches and tables that remain from a school in one of the caves. Because of the danger, loggers and other developers left the place alone and the forest was preserved. (More below) Khao Sok National Park was established in 1980, partly thanks to the dedication of a far-sighted Forestry official named Thani Pamornniyom. FAO had proposed a system of aerial logging but Thani loved the forest and saw greater, long-term benefit in leaving it alone. THE DEVELOPMENT OF KHAO SOK In 1976 along came a female US Peace Corps volunteer from Iowa named Dwaila Armstrong. Dwaila grew up on a farm in Iowa and found herself right at home in the southern Thai jungle. Her life there had an auspicious beginning when she discovered a white elephant, treasured as a sign of good fortune in Thailand, and presented it to the revered King Bhumipol. She lived in a basic bamboo hut at the edge of one of the massive cliffs and tried various enterprises. Gibbons and macaque monkeys would swing through her hut, terrifying some of her city friends who came visiting. Dwaila tried raising deer in the caves at the base of the cliff, but they got mushy feet and pneumonia from the wet conditions. The pig project ended when the bottom fell out of the pig market. Finally she settled on fruit trees commonly grown in the area and these were more successful. Even more successful was “Tree Tops and Jungle Safari”, the first bungalow resort established at the now famous park. Next to come along was Dick Sandler, a green tourism guy from way back (pictured right with Art). Dick had an eco-resort on the River Kwai before the word existed. He helped Dwaila set up Tree Tops and later set up the second lodge right on the river and facing the cliff. This was 1984, and Dick recalls having to cut his way through the scrub and jungle just to get his place on the river. At that time, a few skilled groups of villagers still hunted and corralled the wild elephants, and the meat of bears, tigers, and mouse deer was hanging in the market stalls. The first manager was Art, who now has his own guest house called Art’s Riverview. Dick named his place Our Jungle House and has always worked to be the quality place at Khao Sok. As the fame of Khao Sok spread so did the number of guest houses. There are now over 30 small bungalow operations just outside the park, with prices ranging from 200 baht per night to 2,000 baht. Most are operated by locals who have learned over the years what their clientele wants. The design varies considerably, often at the whim of the owner, but for the most part they do not clash with the lovely rural surroundings. LEARN MORE ABOUT KHAO SOK PARK KHAO SOK VINTAGE PHOTOS

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Types of Memory Memory has two major divisions: Procedural memory concerns our memories of how to do things. Procedual memory guides the processes we perform and normally resides below the level of conscious awareness. When needed, procedural memories are automatically retrieved and used for both cognitive and motor skills (e.g. tying laces, driving a car, writing). Procedural memory is created through "procedural learning" (repeating a complex activity over and over again) and making all of the relevant neural systems work together automatically. Implicit (no concious awareness) procedural learning is essential to the development of any motor skill or cognitive activity. Declarative Memory refers to memory which can be consicuously recalled such as facts and knowledge. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic memory and episodic memory. However, the two types of memory may interact. It may be the case that these are different types of information stored in the same system as opposed to being seperate systems themselves. Semantic memory refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to personal experiences. Basically, semantic memory is the knowledge of facts, such as knowing what 'x' is. Semantic memory is best described as "what we already understand" while episodic memory is best described as "what has happened to us". Semantic memory consists of networks of associations between concepts. Links between these concepts (nodes) are labelled in a semantic fashion, with there being at least two types of links in the Semantic Network, these being class membership and attributes. As opposed to episodic memory, semantic memory is not affected by Amnesia which is a condition when one's memory is lost. However, semantic memory is affected by Agnosia (loss of knowledge- it can be the loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells). Furthermore, it is unrelated to context and personal relevance. Hierarchical Network Model (HNM) The Hierarchical network model (HNM) by Collins & Quillian (1969), was the first systematic model of semantic memory. The model suggests that semantic memory is organised into a series of hierarchical networks, consisting of nodes and properties. A node is a major concept, such as 'animal, bird, canary'. A property, attribute or feature is, as expected, a property of that concept. For example 'has wings, is yellow'. The model is arranged as a hierarchy, with the more widely encompassing nodes stored on the higher levels. The underlying principle of the model is that of cognitive economy. Property information is stored as high up as possible to minimise the amount of information stored in semantic memory. This means that 'fish' is on a higher level than 'fresh water fish', which in turn is on a higher level than 'salmon'. We make inferential choices in semantic memory. For example the information that Picasso had knees is not stored in semantic memory. The knowledge that he was a human is and we know that humans have knees so we can infer that Picasso must have had knees. When a concept is 'activated' in semantic memory, linked nodes are also 'activated' and relevant data is inferred. An example of this is people were faster to react to "a canary is yellow" than "a canary has wings". This illustrates that the closer together in the hierachy, the faster someone can identify concepts and their properties. The concept (canary) and the property (yellow) are stored at the same level, and are thus activated quickly, but canary and "can fly" are separated by one level, and so reaction time takes longer. Collins implemented the hierarchical model of semantic memory in a computer programme that could understand basic text - the Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC). Evidence in favour Collins and Quillian (1969, 1972) found that when asking questions such as 'a canary is an animal' and 'a canary is a canary', the results were as predicted by the model in that the greater the semantic distance the slower reaction time. Whilst the HNM had the right idea regarding semantic memory using a process of inferral, there are several issues with the model in general. If falsification is taken as the means of measurement in reaction times, it becomes apparent that the greater the semantic distance between the concepts (nodes) the faster the reaction times. Collins and Quillian themselves found that 'a canary is a tulip' was faster to be rejected than 'a canary is a robin'. The model would suggest that for the tulip question the participant would have to search through the whole network before rejecting it and thus would be slower. Conrad (1972) investigated whether hierarchical distance, or familiarity, was more influential in determining whether sentences were true or false. This was based on the notion that a slower reaction time for verification questions such as "a canary has skin", compared to "a canary sings", could be more down to the familiarity of the sentences. Conrad controlled the familiarity, and found that hierarchical distance between the subject and the property had little effect on verification time. Another issue is that the model fails to explain typicality effects. The finding that people are faster to verify category inclusion for typical category members. For example, "a canary is a bird" is faster to verify than "a penguin is a bird", as a penguin is less typical/representative of the category of bird. This is supported by Rosch and Mervis (1975) who investigated the typicality ratings of fruits and found that oranges, apples, bananas and pears were rated as much more typical fruits than olives, tomatoes, coconuts and dates. Rips, Shoben and Smith (1973), found that verification times were faster for more typical or representative members, than for more atypical members of their category. This is called the typicality gradient. Rosch (1973) showed that more typical members shared more characteristics associated with a category than atypical members such as 'a robin is a bird' registerd faster than 'a chicken is a bird'. This suggests that the concepts we use are much more loosely fitted to categories than the HNM proposes. Strong support for this came from McCloskey and Glucksberg (1978). They asked participants 30 'tricky' questions, such as "is a stroke a disease?". Answers were not unanimous among participants, and 11 months later many people had changed their answers to some of the questions. This shows how fuzzy memory can be. A further issue is that the model only accounts for remembering sentences of a specific form (e.g a bird has wings) Whilst the HNM is clearly flawed, it is worth remembering that it was the first systematic model of semantic memory, and it's influence over later models should not be dismissed. Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC) Collins and Quillian (1969) To comprehend text input by relating it to a pre-existing large semantic network (SN) representing rules already known about the world. Comprehension is identical with successful relation to input and learning is accomplished by incorporating any successfully comprehended rules into the SN. Similar concepts are stored closer together than unrelated concepts - Concepts are stores as local representations – each concept is stored as a single node and the nodes of related concepts are linked together in a hierarchal fashion. - Links represent relationships between nodes – ‘is a’ or ‘has’. - Cognitive economy – minimises the number of representations of a piece of information - All or none -Principle of cognitive economy is used in storage of properties for a concept. A property is stored at the highest possible node in the hierarchy so information can be deduced via inheritence for lower nodes e.g. 'has wings'. Process of semantic analysis - Intersection search: as soon as a word is parsed (broken down and analysed) it spreads like a 'plague', recording its original form and previous 'victim' so it is possible to retract. When it reaches a node it has already 'touched' this links the two nodes semantically (length of path= semantic distance). - Semantic Interpretation of input corresponds to the set of linked words. E.g. for the phrase ‘the canary the shark bit had wings’, the semantic network is used to infer that the canary is the owner of the wings, and the shark is the one that bit, because ‘canary’ has ‘wings’ as a semantically linked property, and ‘shark’ has ‘biting’ as a semantically linked property. - Syntax is only used to check the validity of interpretation. Any input that is not syntactically correct is rejected. Classes of failure - Because of its generalisation hierarchy structure, there was nowhere to put any abstract information that didn’t fit into the hierarchy. - Often made false connections between subjects if they were too general and the syntax was too vague. E.g. ‘he hated the landlord so much that he moved into the house on Brunswick Street’ – TLC would incorrectly associate the landlord and the house. - Although it is possible to comprehend episodic input using the semantic network, it doesn’t incorporate these episodes into the network itself, i.e. it can only learn semantic relationships Studies on sentence varification times (Collins and Quillian 1969/72) show good support for the notion that reaction time increases as the semantic distance increases. Problems for the TLC: - Own data is inconsistent with model as RTs are faster the greater the semantic distance. - Typicality effects; no associative strength attached to links shown by Rosch (1973). 'A robin is a bird' verified faster than 'a chicken is a bird' due to the fact that there is a difference in typicality between the two. Ratings of typicality were robin-bird (1.1) and chicken-bird (3.8) on a 1-7 rating scale. - Alternative explanation for sentence verification= issue of typicality/representation. No evidence for cognitive economy (Conrad 1972). It is unlikely that the precise representation chosen bears much resemblance to human semantic memory. However, TLC was hugely influential, first in demonstrating that it's possible to model SM and second, in influencing the development of consequent better models. The Spreading Activation Model Collins and Loftus (1975) developed the spreading activation model of semantic memory as a more complex answer to the HNM's criticisms. It suggests that concepts and nodes are linked together with different levels of conductivity. The more often the two concepts are linked, the greater conductivity. Thus the conductivity may be thought of as the criteria of the relation. Collins and Loftus assumed that semantic memory is organised on the basis of semantic relatedness or semantic distance. In this model elements are linked in a conductive manner - the more two elements are activated together the greater their conductivity. This is modeled through shorter links between nodes. The shorter the link, the closer the semantic relation, and so the faster the brain will be at making the connection between the nodes. Furthermore, the longer a concept is accessed, the larger the spread of activation. When a concept is accessed activation spreads out from that node in all directions. The higher the conductivity the faster it spreads down that link. Whenever a person thinks hears or see a concept the appropriate node is activated. Like neurons, each intersection has a threshold and activation summates linearly from different inputs to the node. The principle of weak cognitive economy is basically a revised version of Collins and Quillian's cognitive economy principle that allows information to be stored at a lower node in the hierarchy if the link has been explicit, even if already stored at a higher level. If relations are not stored explicitly it is still possible to infer them using hierarchical information. Collins and Loftus claim that there are different types of links including: -Class membership (a cat is a mammal), -Subordinate (a cat has fur), -Prediction (game-play-people) -Exclusion (a whale is not a fish). Collins and Loftus suggest that connections made are not necessarily logical, rather based on personal experience. The model can explain the familiarity effect, the typicality effect, and direct concept-property associations. S.A.M is supported by studies of priming in which there is an improvement in speed or accuracy to respond to a stimulus when it is seen to proceed a semantically related concept. Mackay (1973)demonstrated for example how prior context can remove any disambiguation from a phrase (e.g. he walked towards the bank) because of these interconnected units of information. Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971) found that when words are related, reaction times are quicker. They asked participants if both words in a pair were words or non words. Participants answered "yes" much quicker when the words were related (e.g. bread and butter) compared to when they were not related (e.g. bread and coat). If the words are related activation from the first word is spread to the second word making the association much faster than if they are not related. However the disadvantage is that the theory is unable to predict much as it is based on the individual. It handles everything and makes very few predictions which are open to empirical testing making it very difficult to falsify.. The model also fails to consider how episodic knowledge or non-propositional knowledge could be stored. There are so many possible parameters to the system that it is possible to fit almost any empirical data anyway. Despite its neurological plausibility it is not sufficiently constrained enough to allow it to be implemented reliably. SAM however, offers many strengths as a model, as it has clear face validity. It seems a plausible model and gives a good foundation of how the semantic network is built up initially. For information to be used in a task like recognition, it must first be activated and then inspected. When information is in the LTM, but not currently in the WM, activation must spread to it. The Fan Effect The Fan effect causes interference in semantic memory. The more facts that are associated with a 'node', the slower the activation spreads from it, as a node has a fixed capacity for emitting activation. Therefore if there are more links to that node then more time must be taken in order to activate all the links, although this can be sped up if the links are often used and so there is more immediate association. Anderson (1974) asked participants to learn sentences comprising of a subject and location with a relation between them. For example: 1. The Doctor is in the bank 2. The fireman is in the park 3. The lawyer is in the Church 4. The lawyer is in the park Participants were then given a speed recognition task. They were asked to indicate when they recognised a learnt sentence (the target) amongst other sentences of similar nature (the distractors) An example of a distractor may be "the Doctor is in the park". Anderson found participants reaction time was faster when there were less shared facts. Reaction time for unique sentences -e.g. "the Doctor is in the bank" - was 1.11 seconds compared to when the location and person appeared in two sentences -e.g. "the lawyer is in the park" - which was at 1.22 seconds. Thus the more facts are associated with a node the slower the activation spreads from it - this is the fan effect. This has implications- the more you know the slower you get?! This may be the case but we can speed this up consciously using procedural memory. Semantic nodes are very subjective as people's schemas differ significantly. For example, the word 'apple' might eliit the colour 'green' to one person, yet 'red' to another. This could slow down the Fan effect due to the collaboration of knowledge that others may chose differently; hence slower the activiation. Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT*)Declarative Memory ACT* was built upon the TLC and SAM models of semantic memory. It maintained the idea of “semantic networks” but suggested it was “activation” that was key to semantic knowledge and memory. The ACT* model was the first complete model of human cognition, (a challenging task). It therefore has a highly complex architecture which allows it to learn. This type of knowledge is called declarative; the knowledge of facts and information. ACT* also suggests that human knowledge can be procedural; knowledge we hold in order to perform automatic actions such as driving. The ACT* therefore suggests that memories must be activated from source nodes in the Working Memory. Studies have highlighted that activation takes place automatically, that is, it requires no conscious awareness. The ACT* Throy of fact recognition proposed that items in the LTM remain permanently but cannot be accessed directly unless they are 'activated'. This model viewed Working Memory differently to how it had previously been viewed (Baddeley and Hitch) whereby 'source nodes' could be located anywhere throughout the brain and all those that are activated at any one time make up Working Memory. Being a complex system the ACT* is most easily represented by the “lightbulb analogy”. If you think of a floor of interconnected lightbulbs, most of which are off, some are dim (partially activated) and some will be lit brightly (fully activated). At different times, different sections of light bulbs will be turned off and on. This is supposed to represent the idea that activation is a continuous function rather than an all-or-none action. Conclusions on Semantic Memory There is no doubt that we have some sort of SN in our brains developing through experience. Semantic memory plays a crucial role in almost any cognitive activity and it is very likely that some sort of speading activation is involved in accessing this system. However, the system is not constrained enough to allow us to decide which complex model is closest to the truth. We don't have a good understandingof the way other parts of the system work. Semantic memories are learned through experiences so are idiosyncratic, that is, particular to the individual. Finally, Cognitive neuroscience may provide further insight into regional brain activity during SM tasks. Schemas are a set of rules on how to behave which can be applied to a situation. We use schemas every day, for instance when we go to a lecture. Our lecture schema tells us that we have to find out where our lecture is, how to get there, get there, enter the lecture theatre, find a seat and so on. Bartlett introduced the concept. Schemas are automatic and unconscious processes that occur on a daily basis. Our schemata tend to be long lasting and are not easily changed. If we are introduced to information that contradicts our schemata we tend to assume that the new information is unique or different rather than believing our schemata are faulty. This links to Piaget's concepts of accomodation and assimilation- accomodation is the process of adapting existing schemata to fit with new information, whereas assimilation involves modifying new information to fit with our preexisting schemas. Language, Scripts and Frames The given-new contract(Clark 1977) describes how, in a conversation, a speaker should provide "not too much or too little" in terms of establishing the context. 1. The information given by the speaker should provide the appropriate context from which new information can be given. To illustrate this, in the example "Jamie went to the shops" - it is "given" that we are talking about "Jamie", as this has been established at the forefront of the utterance. This establishment of context provides a platform for "new" information concerning the fact of where Jamie went - "to the shops". 2.In establishing this context, the speaker should not give more information than needed- only the amount necessary to establish the context of conversation. This forms the basis of cost-effective communication. An example of this is being asked directions by someone foreign, you accomodate thier lack of knowledge and give simple directions in detail. In contrast, when giving directions to someone local you may assume they know certain landmarks/places so will give appropriate level of information. 3.Enough appropriate information must be given in order for the listener to be able to make "bridging inferences", this is where the listener is able to refer back to previous elements of the conversation in order to infer what is being discussed at later parts of the conversation. To illustrate this, if we extend the previous example to: "Jamie went to the shops with Luke, he bought a loaf a bread", the listener can infer that "he" refers to Jamie - by recognizing that Jamie is the main subject/actor in the utterance. 4.Lastly, a speaker may include more or less specific information depending upon the knowledge base of the listener. For example, if I bring up the subject of the components of working memory to someone who takes Art, I will most likely provide a generic description of the matter in hand - as I am aware that my listener will only be able to make bridging inferences based on their general knowledge. The necessity of the given-new contract was highlighted in a study by Bransford and Johnson(1972). They asked participants to read this paragraph: 'The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do a few things at once rather than too many. In the short run this may not seem too important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well.' When participants were told beforehand that the paragraph was about laundry, they were able to understand it and recall what was said. If participants were not told anything about the passage, they found it difficult to understand. This suggests that having the memory schemata activated led to comprehension and retention of the information. Frames (Minsky 1976) Frames consist of schema for organising information about a single concept. It has 'slots' that can be filled with 'variables' which can be compulsory or optional. If no information is given explicitly, optional variables may be filled with 'default' values. If all of these slots are filled, the frame is instantiated. Problems: 'bare' frames don't allow the use of context so needs a more global structure that is able to account for meaningful 'chunks' of life in which frames can be placed. This corresponds to Barlett's idea of schemas but they are recently described as 'scripts'. Frames don't need to store extra information. Bower, Black and Turner (1979) asked subject to list actions normally taken in certain situations such as going to the doctors. They found lots of commonality between scripts and they also found that the more scripts a participant read, the larger the intrusion of unstated generic script material in recall. Shank and Abelson (1970-82) Natural Language Understanding SAM - Script Applier Mechanism A computer program developed to create a script of default knowledge which is normally taken for granted in a conversation. The computer creates these scripts so that it can 'understand' the conversation as it requires the scripts human beings would make normally. When given a statement, SAM paraphrases it and can then answer questions on the original statement. The script provides the default information that allows the the computer to make necessary inferences to understand the statement. It is not possible to create a script for every eventuality, so sometimes we make inferences by understanding what is a likely outcome/reaction. PAM - Plan Applier Mechanism PAM was created by Schank and Abelson (1970-82). Whenever an inference needs to be made, PAM tried to find a link using a repertoire of possible plans. It is not perfect, as it generates ENDLESS possibilities, but it is clear we use our knowledge of what WE might do, to infer what OTHERS might do. It has been argued that SAM is a much stonger concept as it is clear that we constantly face situations where not only our own knowledge is relevant but also the knowledge of others; the ability to put ourselves in 'someone elses shoes'. Does knowledge help? De Groot (1965) showed subjects a possition on chessboard before sweeping it off and asking for it to be replicated. 10 year old experts did better that 20 year old beginners and there was no difference when the possitions were scrambled suggesting knowledge was instrumental in reconstruction. Similarly, Voss et al 1978 found participants with high baseball knowledge did significantly better in recall test after reading a baseball passage than compared to low knowledge group. Summary on expertise and links to language and memory Experts use knowledge to develop abstract, highly specialised mechanisms for systematically encoding and retrieving meaningful patterns from LTM. It allows experts to anticipate information needed for familiar tasks and stores new information in a format that facilitates retrieval. We are expert in our own social world- we have developed mechanisms for systematically encoding meaningful language information. Spreading Activation uses existing declarative memory structures to automatically disambiguate utterances, providing a mechanism in which schemas/scripts may be instantiated in the human brain.

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Science thrives on the conviction that man does not have final knowledge about anything, and that any doctrine, no matter what its credentials, should be subject to inquiry and correction. L. W. Beck; Philosophic Inquiry; 1952; p352 It can even be shown that all theories, including the best, have the same probability, namely zero. Karl Popper; (1902-1994);Conjectures & Refutations; 1965; p192 There seems to be in all this a thoroughgoing epistemological relativism that makes the obtaining of truth impossible; and if scientific procedure cannot obtain truth, it can offer no absolute arguments against theism nor can it say truthfully that “the scientific method is the sole gateway to the whole region of knowledge.” There is no science to which final appeal can be made; there are only scientists and their various theories. … No scientific or observational proof can be given for the uniformity of nature, and much less can experience demonstrate that “the scientific method is the sole gateway to the whole region of knowledge.” On the contrary, a plausible analysis showed that science was incapable of arriving at any truth whatever. Gordon Clark; (1902-1985); A Christian View of Men and Things; 1952; p216, 227 The hope of finding objective, infallible laws and standards has faded. The age of Reason is gone. Morris Kline; (1908-1992); Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty; 1980; p7 Nature’s laws are man’s creation, we, not God, are the lawgivers of the universe. A law of nature is man’s description and not God’s prescription. Morris Kline; (1908-1992); Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty; 1980; p98 Laws of science are not laws at all … Laws of science state tendencies we have recently observed in our corner of the universe. Bart Kosko; (1960-); Fuzzy Thinking; 1993; p8 … there is not a single law of nature which we know to be valid; the laws of nature are hypotheses which we assert tentatively. Hans Hahn; (1879-1934); Logic, Mathematics and Knowledge of Nature; 1933 Scientific theories are perpetually changing. Karl Popper; (1902-1994); The Logic of Scientific Discovery; 1959/1968; p71 A theory is accepted … because it can explain all facts already observed … an infinite number of theories can meet this requirement. J. H. Randall; (1899-1980); Philosophy: An Introduction; 1942/1957; p137 The principles of dynamics appeared to us first as experimental truths, but we have been compelled to use them as definitions. It is by definition that force is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration; this is a principle which is henceforth beyond the reach of any future experiment. Thus it is by definition that action and reaction are equal and opposite. Henri Poincaré; (1854-1912); Science and Hypothesis; 1905/1952; p104 If we examine the history of science … we find that in each period a given theory is entertained by science as true. Shortly afterward, the theory is found inadequate, and is replaced by a new theory … These theories … cannot all be true. … A true theory would not be replaceable, for what is true remains true– unless of course what we are explaining no longer remains the same. Thus the theories of science are guesses, which are changed after the scientific fashions of the day, but none are faithful accounts of reality. J. H. Randall; (1899-1980); Philosophy: An Introduction; p98 Science is not a system of certain, or well-established statements; nor is it a system which steadily advances towards a state of finality. Our science is not knowledge (episteme); it can never claim to have attained truth, or even a substitute for it, such as probability; we do not know, we can only guess. The old scientific ideal of episteme– of absolutely certain, demonstrable knowledge– has proven to be an idol. The demand for scientific objectivity makes it inevitable that every scientific statement must remain tentative for ever. Karl Popper; (1902-1994); Logic of Scientific Discovery; p278, 280 When we call theories ‘true’ we do not mean that they are exempt from improvement. We mean that they are accepted on the best available evidence. It is possible to eliminate the word ‘true’ in speaking of scientific theories, and speak only of the ‘best-evidenced’ theories. … The quest for certification can never be satisfactorily completed, because it is a quest for an infallible guarantee. J. H. Randall; (1899-1980); Philosophy: An Introduction; p100 Our experience with the Newtonian theory, probably the most successful scientific theory ever constructed, may suggest that we look twice at the foundations before building the Kingdom of Heaven on the ever receding shores of the expanding universe, as some have attempted to do. The extrapolators seem to believe that although scientific theories cannot save themselves, they can save others. Eric Temple Bell; (1883-1960); The Search for Truth; 1935/1946; p195 … scientific philosophy … does not claim to possess an absolute truth, the existence of which it denies for empirical knowledge. Hans Reichenbach; (1891-1953); The Rise of Scientific Philosophy; 1951; p325 … we can never have perfectly clean-cut knowledge of anything. It is a general consequence of the approximate character of all measurement that no empirical science can ever make exact statements. P. W. Bridgman; (1882-1961); The Logic of Modern Physics; 1927/1951; p33, 34 … nowhere has anyone ever seen a body continue moving in a straight line with uniform velocity. Nor has anyone ever seen a body at rest remain at rest. Indeed, we do not even know what the words ‘at rest’ mean. Billy E. Goetz; (1904-1986); President of MIT 1958; Usefulness of the Impossible; 1956; p190 To the superficial observer scientific truth is unassailable, the logic of science is infallible … Mathematical truths are derived from a few self-evident propositions, by a chain of flawless reasonings; they are imposed not only on us, but on Nature itself. By them the creator is fettered, as it were, and His choice is limited to a relatively small number of solutions. A few experiments, therefore, will be sufficient to enable us to determine what choice He has made. … This, to the minds of most people, and to students who are getting their first ideas of physics, is the origin of certainty in science. Henri Poincaré; (1854-1912); Science and Hypothesis; 1905/1952; pxxi The particular law that the scientist announces to the world is not a discovery forced on him by so-called facts; it is rather a choice from among an infinity of laws all of which enjoy the same experimental basis. … The scientist wants mathematical accuracy; and when he cannot discover it, he makes it. … however useful scientific laws are, they cannot be true. Gordon Clark; (1902-1985); A Christian View of Men & Things; 1952/1981; p209 It is quite safe to say that no significant experiment can be completed without measuring a line. … the length of a line … is most difficult to ascertain. Gordon Clark; (1902-1985); A Christian View of Men & Things; 1952/1981; p205,206 There is an impossibility of making measurements which is due to the limitation of our technical means … In addition, there is a logical impossibility of measuring … It is logically impossible to determine whether the standard meter in Paris is really a meter … the meter cannot be defined in absolute terms. … all our measurements will still contain some degree of inexactness which a progressive technique will gradually reduce but never overcome. Hans Reichenbach; (1891-1953); Philosophy of Space & Time; 1927/1958; p28, 29 The method of the physical sciences is based upon the induction which leads us to expect the recurrence of a phenomena when the circumstances which give rise to it are repeated. If all the circumstances could be simultaneously reproduced, this principle could be fearlessly applied; but this never happens; some of the circumstances will always be missing. Henri Poincaré; (1854-1912); Science and Hypothesis; 1905/1952; pxxvi … it is doubtful whether sensations can be trusted to tell us the truth about anything more than the obvious and barren fact that they are experienced. E. S. Brightman; (1884-1953); An Introduction to Philosophy; 1925/1951; p55 … science is extremely useful, though by its own requirements it must be false. Gordon Clark; (1902-1985); A Christian View of Men & Things; 1952/1981; p210 It is often said the experiments should be made without preconceived ideas. That is impossible. Not only would it make every experiment fruitless, but even if we wished to do so, it could not be done. Henri Poincaré; (1854-1912); Science and Hypothesis; 1905/1952; p143 Everything which the bodily sense touches and which is called sensible is constantly changing. … what does not remain stable cannot be perceived, for that is perceived which is grasped by knowledge, but that cannot be grasped which changes without ceasing. Therefore truth in any genuine sense is not something to be expected from the bodily senses. … in our present state none of our bodily senses has any contact with the incorruptible and immutable, unless, of course, something such be divinely revealed to it. If, therefore, there are false images [mistaken judgments] of sensible objects, and if they cannot be distinguished by the senses themselves, and if nothing can be perceived except what is distinguished from the false, then there is no criterion for truth resident in the senses. St. Augustine; (354-430); 83 Different Questions; p40, 41 … Christians who put their trust in science as the key to understanding the material universe should be embarrassed by the fact that science never discovers truth. One of the insuperable problems of science is the fallacy of induction; indeed, induction is an insuperable problem for all forms of empiricism. The problem is simply this: Induction, arguing from the particular to the general, is always a fallacy. No matter how many white swans one observes, one never has sufficient reason to say that all swans are white. John Robbins; (1948-2008); An Introduction to Gordon Clark; Trinity Review; Jul-Aug 1993; p7 All inductive arguments in the last resort reduce themselves to the following form: “If this is true, that is true: now that is true, therefore this is true.” This argument is, of course, formally fallacious. … If I were to advance such an argument, I should certainly be thought foolish, yet it would not be fundamentally different from the arguments upon which all scientific laws are based. Bertrand Russell; (1872-1970); The Scientific Outlook; 1931/1962; p74 We do not have an infallible ability to distinguish between correct & incorrect perceptions. Aenesidemus, leader of the third skeptical school, drew up “ten tropes”, a general statement of reasons why perception must not be trusted, as follows: Things present a diverse appearance: 1- to different species of animals 2- to different men 3- to the different senses of one and the same man 4- to the same sense according to the man’s circumstances and physical condition 5- to the same sense according to the distance & perspective. 6- on account of mixture with one another in various degrees 7- on account of their extent 8- perception depends upon the relation of the perceiver to his object, or of things or notions to one another. 9- their strength varies with habituation 10- the beliefs, laws & customs of men are indefinitely variable. Aenesidemus; Encyc. Brit.; 1964; v1; p197 It is a commonplace that all our knowledge is in some degree liable to error, and that we are fallible even in our most dogmatic moments. Bertrand Russell; (1872-1970); Theory of Knowledge; 1913/1992; p167 Empiricists usually believed that the empirical basis consisted of absolutely ‘given’ perceptions or observations, of ‘data’, and that science could build on these ‘data’ as if on rock. In opposition, I pointed out that the apparent ‘data’ of experience were always interpretations in the light of theories, and therefore affected by the hypothetical or conjectural character of all theories. … there are never any un-interpreted data experienced by us … Karl Popper; (1902-1994);Conjectures & Refutations; 1965; p387 Is the sensation which I call blue really the same as that which my neighbor calls blue? Is it possible that a blue object may arouse in him the same sensation that a red object does in me and vice versa? P. W. Bridgman; (1882-1961); The Logic of Modern Physics; 1927/1951; p30 … empiricism as a theory of knowledge has proved inadequate … all human knowledge is uncertain, inexact & partial. To this doctrine we have not found any limitation whatever. Bertrand Russell; (1872-1970); Human Knowledge; 1948/1992; p527 Scientific theories are not only equally unprovable, and equally improbable, they are also equally undisprovable. The recognition that not only the theoretical but all the propositions in science are fallible, means the total collapse of all forms of dogmatic justificationism as theories of scientific rationality. Imre Lakatos; (1922-1974); Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge; Imre Lakatos; ed.; 1970; p103 Our senses were given to us for the preservation of our bodies and not for the acquisition of truth. From The Search After Truth, Nicolas Malebranche, 1674 Neither our senses nor our minds are capable of differentiating between truth and error. We cannot make universal statements because we cannot have universal experiences. It is impossible to make immutable statements about objects that are in a constant state of change. The possibility of hitting upon the right theory is zero, because we can find an infinite number of explanations (laws) for every set of experiences. Empiricism, the measurement of objects and events with man-made tools and using our fallible senses is never without error. Induction, the basis of all science, is always a fallacy. Arriving at conclusions by observing a very limited number of experiences can Never lead to truth. Laws are our attempts to describe how we believe nature behaves. They are always erroneous. Next>> 5- Truth & Christ ^^^ RETURN TO TOP ^^^

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Last modified: 2011-07-08 by rob raeside Keywords: united kingdom | union jack | kings colours | great union | Links: FOTW homepage | search | disclaimer and copyright | write us | mirrors image by Clay Moss, 16 December 2006 Flag adopted 1 January 1801. by Edward Mooney When King James VI of Scotland ascended to the English throne, thereby becoming James I of England, the national flags of England and Scotland on land continued to be, respectively, the red St George's cross and the white St Andrew's cross. Confusion arose, however, as to what flag would be appropriate at sea. On 12 April 1606 a proclamation was issued: "All our subjects in this our isle and kingdom of Great Britain and the members thereof, shall bear in their main top the red cross commonly called St George's Cross and the white cross commonly called St. Andrew's Cross joined together according to a form made by our heralds and sent to our Admiral to be published to our said subjects."This is the first known reference to the Union Flag. Although the original design referred to has been lost, it is presumed that it was the flag which, with the addition of the St Patrick's cross, forms the basic design of the British Union Flag today. It is also interesting to note that the new flag was not universally popular nor accepted. The English were not overly pleased at the obscuring of the white field of the St George's flag. The Scots, with more justification, were upset at the fact that the red cross was laid over the white. The Scots proposed a number of alternative designs. These included: None of these are very convincing designs and none were ever used. The Scots did, however, use an ingenious design in which the white cross of the St Andrew's flag was brought forward to overlay the red cross. This flag even seems to have achieved some limited official sanction. When the king visited Dumfries in 1618 he was hailed as the king under whose banner "the whyte and reid croces are so proportionablie interlaced." The word interlaced is held to be significant as it implies the use of the 'Scottish' version of the Union Flag: by Stuart A. Notholt As late as 1693, Slezer, Captain of Artillery and Surveyor-General of Stores and Magazines in Scotland, produced an engraving on Edinburgh Castle in which the 'Scottish' version is shown: again, an implication of actual use. Source: Paul Harris (ed.), Story of Scotland's Flag, Lang Syne Publishers Ltd, 1992. Available from the Flag Research Center. Stuart A. Notholt, 4 May 1996 The design of the Union Flag that preceded the current version was established by a royal proclamation of 12 April 1606. However it was for use only at sea in civil and military ships of both Scotland and England. In 1634 its use was restricted to the king's ships. The flag went out of use in 1649 when England became a commonwealth but was restored for use in the king's ships after the restoration in 1660. The flag became 'the ensign armorial of the United Kingdom of Great Britain' as one of the provisions of the Act of Union in 1707, when the kingdoms of England and Scotland were united. David Prothero, 2 July 1998 |by Ivan Sache| The June edition of "BBC History" magazine has a short piece marking the four hundredth anniversary of the Union of the Crowns in 1603 when James VI of Scotland became James I of England. This included a photograph of a series of designs for a Union Flag, here redrawn by Ivan Sache. The caption to the article said: "Cross countries: designs for a Union flag, kept in the National Library of Scotland, c 1604 by an unknown artist; the Note of Preference is signed by the Earl of Nottingham" [this note was attached to the fifth design, per pale Cross of St. George, Cross of St. Andrew.] André Coutanche, 25 May 2003 As a matter of interest, the 'impaled' design was actually used (from c1643) as a jack by Royalist ships in the English Civil War. Another design not shown had a quarterly arrangement - Cross of St George first and fourth, Cross of St Andrew second and third - and this is known to have been used as a jack on at least one occasion (1623). Christopher Southworth, 25 May 2003 by David Prothero A drawing of the Union Flag that was sent to the Office of Stores for the Navy Board, on 15 November 1800 was marked, 'Union Flag from 1st January 1801 (c)', but the fimbriation had been made by reducing the width of the red diagonal. The drawing, as reproduced in the Mariner's Mirror (Journal of the Society for Nautical Research), is shown here. It was found among a collection of drawings and letters from the office that organised flags for the Navy. The collection of correspondence was closed in 1837 and apparently retained in the Secretary of the Admiralty's Office until 1949, when it was handed to the Admiralty Library. It is unlikely that it was ever seen by William G. Perrin. Commander Hilary P. Mead R.N. described it in two articles in the Mariner's Mirror, April 1951 and February 1952. He commented that the drawing, "differed somewhat from that in Perrin's plate IV." I wonder if the change was made by accident or design? "Admiralty Office, 15 November 1800. A Report from the Lords of the Committee of the whole Council, dated 4th instant etc., etc. [details of decision to issue a Royal Proclamation] That the Committee were further of opinion that the Union Flag should be altered according to the Draught thereof marked (C) in which the Cross of St George is conjoined with the Crosses of St Andrew and St Patrick: And that the Standard be the Arms of the United Kingdom according to the Draught And that on and after the First Day of January next ensuing the said Flags and Banners should be hoisted and displayed on all His Majesty's Forts and Castles within the United Kingdom, and the Islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, and Man, and also on board all His Majesty's Ships of War, then lying in any of the Ports or Harbours of the said United Kingdom, or of the Islands aforesaid, and on board His Majesty's Ships employed on Foreign Service, as soon after the said First Day of January next as His Majesty's Proclamation or Order in Council shall be received by the Commanders of His Majesty's Ships employed on Foreign Service; We herewith transmit to you a Printed Copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 5th instant approving the Report of the Lords of the Committee afore-mentioned, and do hereby desire and direct you to cause such Flags and Standards as may be necessary to be prepared conformably to the said Draughts for the use of His Majesty's Ships of War at Home and on Foreign Stations, and to be supplied with them accordingly, with all the dispatch that may be. You are also to cause the Colours described in the said Order in Council to be hoisted in all the Dock Yards of the Kingdom upon the 1st Day of January next, and to supply the necessary Colours for the use of the Naval Hospitals at Home, and the Naval Yards and Hospitals abroad, in the manner directed by the said Order in Council; We are Your affectionate Friends, Arden, J.Gambier, W.Young. Navy Board." Note by John David Rolt, chief clerk in the Office for Stores, the Navy Board. Memorandum ( to C ). "The Ensign is Red, White and Blue according to the Colours of the Admiral's Flag, who bears it, with this Union Jack in a Canton in the Upper or Chief Dexter corner, and next the staff." Mead notes; "The Union Flag is from 24 to 18 breadths and is allowed to Flag Ships only. The Jack is the same in all respects except in sizes, which are from 10 breadths downwards. David Prothero, 2 February 2003 The Admiralty version of the Union Flag, shown above, is, in fact, a corruption of the herald's original intention. In the Admiralty version (still of course in use today) fimbriation to the saltire of St Patrick is created by taking it from the saltire itself instead of from the field, whereas, according to the original design the saltires of St Andrew and St Patrick should be of equal width with a fimbriation added. The colour illustration (preserved in the Privy Council papers) and blazon supplied by Sir Isaac Heard (Garter King-at-Arms) was - in accordance with Article One of the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland - approved by the King in an Order in Council of 5 November 1800. The Act of Union was then proclaimed in London Gazette No. 15324 dated 1 January 1801, with the blazon (accompanied by a monochrome drawing) reading as follows: "...that the Union Flag shall be azure, the Crosses Saltires of St Andrew and St Patrick Quarterly per Saltire, counterchanged Argent and Gules; the latter fimbriated of the Second surmounted by the Cross of St George of the Third, fimbriated as the Saltire". Which brings me to the Great Union of 1900. In preparing a design for the War Office the College of Heralds returned to the original blazon and correctly made the saltires of even width with a fimbriation added, however, whilst it is obvious from the 18th Century illustration that the phrase "fimbriated as the saltire" was intended to mean 'fimbriated in the same colour as the saltire', the late-Victorian heralds wrongly interpreted this as meaning of 'the same *width and* colour'. Christopher Southworth, 28 May 2006 I checked some documents that might have had information about the introduction of the new Union Jack in 1801. The Captains Logs from ten RN ships in commission on 1 January 1801, selected at random, produced three references to the occasion. Blanche in Portsmouth "hoisted the (something, possibly 'union') colour", Phoebe in Cork "fired salute of 21 guns to celebrate union between Great Britain and Ireland" and Agincourt at Spithead did the same, though a day later on 2nd of January. The notice that announced the Red Ensign was headed; "Caution to Masters of Merchant Vessels Against Wearing Unlawful Colours. By the King a Proclamation, First Day of January 1801." It included a small drawing of the Red Ensign in black and white with the colours indicated by words. The width of the diagonal stripes was in proportions 1-2-3, arranged with the wider white stripe uppermost not only in the first and third quarters, but also in the second and fourth quarters. David Prothero, 6 February 2003 The introduction of the present Union Jack appears to have been more complicated than the usual accounts suggest. It obviously depended upon the Union actually taking place, and this required the assent of both British and Irish parliaments, but in December 1799 the Bill was rejected by the Irish parliament. It was re-introduced in the New Year and finally passed its Third Reading on 7 June 1800. I do not know if the corresponding Bill had already been passed by the British parliament, or whether it was done shortly afterwards. It received the Royal Assent on 2 July 1800, (40 Geo. III c. 67). The article in the Act relating to the flag stated; "That it be the first Article of the Union of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, .... that the ensigns, armorial flags and banners thereof shall be such as His Majesty, by his royal Proclamation under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom, shall be pleased to appoint." However it appears that the flag had already been designed, and some examples made. On the following day, 3 July, the Duke of Portland, Home Secretary, wrote to Viscount Castlereagh, Chief Irish Secretary ending, "... and, as to the new Union Flag, that, though ready, was not hoisted, because we found out that we have no right to use it until the first of next year, when the Union takes place." http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/castlereaghindex.php?volume=3 Documents 352/353. Perhaps it had been intended that the Union should take place on the first day of the new century ? The Order in Council of 5th November 1800 seems to have been a formality. Whether the Union Jack is an "official national flag" depends upon ones interpretation of the phrase. It is the official royal flag of a monarchy, and thus the kingdom's national flag, but its use by private individuals or bodies has been sanctioned by parliamentary statements, not by legislation. 22 October 1902. Mr Balfour, First Lord of the Treasury. The questions which have been raised as to the proper use of flags have received careful consideration by the Government, but they are unable to adopt the course of action suggested. Nor does it appear desirable to undertake the legislation that would be necessary in order to regulate the general use by civilians, or any class of civilians, of any particular flag on land. It is a matter which is best left, as hitherto, to the guidance of custom and good taste. [By way of further explanation, the First Lord of the Treasury is one of the other offices of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom - and in fact is written on his letterbox at his office at 10 Downing Street, London. This would indicate the high level at which this matter was being deliberated at that time. Source: Web site of the British Prime Minister, http://www.10downingstreet.gov.uk, consulted 12 June 2006. Colin Dobson, 12 June 2006] 9 May 1912. Colonel M'Calmont. To ask Prime Minister whether the Union Jack is the emblem of the nation rather than the sovereign, and if this is so, in the event of the Government of Ireland Bill becoming law, will it be competent for the Irish Parliament to eliminate the cross of St Patrick from the national flag. Mr. Asquith. The Union Jack was established by Royal Proclamation under the Act of Union and is as much a matter of prerogative as the Royal Standard. David Prothero, 13 June 2005 What is the correct Flag to be flown on land by Civilians? This answer was based upon a Minute by Garter, King of Arms: "There is no Flag in existence answering to this general description. Civilians generally are not authorised to fly or display any Flag. Peers and gentlemen entitled to bear Arms have a right to fly from their Castles or residences a banner of their Arms. The Royal Standard appertains to the Sovereign alone. The Union Flag of the United Kingdom is used by authority throughout the Army and Navy, and the State Departments, usually with some modification or addition by way of distinction. The Union Flag, being the National Flag, appertains to the Nation as a whole, and cannot be considered as specially distinctive of individuals, or groups of individuals. The common practice on occasions of national rejoicing of displaying the Royal Standard and the Union Flag indiscriminately with other Flags must be regarded as an attempt to express loyalty by means of decoration. As to Public Buildings, Schools, etc - State Buildings should fly the Union Flag. Schools etc., should fly the Flag displaying their proper Arms. Municipal Buildings should fly a banner of the Arms of the particular Corporate body. The issue of a Royal Warrant touching this matter would, in my opinion, be inexpedient. Sir Arthur W. Woods." David Prothero, 12 June 2006 A 1902 Home Office Minute on the question: There appears to be no such thing as a "correct" flag for use by civilians on land. It seems that any one who has a coat of arms may display them on a flag, and the Union Flag has been used without restraint. A warrant under the Act of Union can be and has been issued fixing the ensigns, ceremonial flags and banners of the United Kingdom, but this warrant does not relate to such flags as private people may fly. The Union flag has been used indiscriminately for a very long period. There is no power by law to interfere with the use on land of any flag even the King's Standard. Any such warrant as proposed would therefore be accompanied by no means of enforcing it. There seems no reason why the state should intervene as to flying flags on land, (except as regards the King's Standard). To attempt to enforce any rule would bring the state into conflict with Trades Unions, the Royal Order of Ancient Buffaloes, the Foresters, and for all we know the processions of the Roman Catholics and Ritualists (etc). In fact it is impossible to say where it would end. To lay it down that all schools should use, say the Union Jack, would at once provoke a number of schools in Ireland to display a green flag with a harp, or a sunburst, the Socialists to display red banners. Is the state then to interfere and compel them all to use the Union Jack only ? Such an attempt would I think raise a veritable hornet's nest. The true answer is I think, that "there is no 'correct flag' for use on land except the Royal Standard by the King, and possibly coats of arms by those who possess them. There is no power at law to enforce the use of any flag. The use of flags on land has been regulated only by custom and good taste." David Prothero, 12 June 2006 History of the flag continued

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Volunteer for NIAID-funded clinical studies related to anthrax on ClinicalTrials.gov. NIAID conducts and funds research to improve our ability to prevent, diagnose, and treat anthrax. Anthrax research was under way prior to the 2001 bioterror attack, but it has expanded significantly since then. New research findings are improving our understanding of how Bacillus anthracis causes disease and how to better prevent and treat it. Several biologic factors contribute to B. anthracis’ ability to cause disease. NIAID researchers and grantees are uncovering the molecular pathways that enable the bacterium to form spores, survive in people, and cause illness. Scientists envision this basic research to be the pathway to new vaccines, drugs, and diagnostic tools. One goal of NIAID physician-researchers is to look at the infectious disease process over time, from initial infection through the clinical course and beyond recovery. A small number of anthrax survivors from the 2001 attacks are enrolled in a long-term clinical study for this purpose. Many years of clinical observation are needed for this type of study to yield definitive results. Because the medical literature on anthrax does not include any findings regarding long-term complications in survivors, information gained in this study will be valuable to patients and healthcare workers. Scientists are studying anthrax toxins to learn how to block their production and action. Recently, NIAID-supported scientists have shown that protective antigen can bind edema factor and lethal factor at the same time, forming a greater variety of toxin complexes than were previously known. This finding could help researchers develop antitoxin therapies. Previously, scientists discovered the three-dimensional molecular structure of the anthrax protective antigen protein bound to one of the receptors (CMG2) it uses to enter cells. Using a specific fragment of the CMG2 receptor protein, researchers have been able to block the attachment of protective antigen in test-tube experiments, thereby inhibiting all anthrax toxin activity. NIAID-funded scientists also had synthesized a small cyclic molecule that blocks anthrax toxin in cell culture and in rodents. The molecule blocks the pore formed by anthrax protective antigen. Blocking the pore effectively prevents lethal factor and edema factor toxins from entering cells. Scientists anticipate that these findings will lead to new and effective treatments. Genes are the instructions for making proteins, which in turn build components of the cell or carry out its biochemical processes. The instructions that dictate how a microbe works are encoded within its genes. Bacteria keep most of their genes in a chromosome, a very long stretch of DNA. Smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids also carry genes that bacteria may exchange with each other. Because plasmids often contain genes for toxins and antibiotic resistance, knowing the DNA sequence of such plasmids is important. Scientists have sequenced plasmids carrying the toxin genes of B. anthracis. In addition, researchers have sequenced the complete chromosomal DNA sequence of several B. anthracis strains, including one that killed a Florida man in the 2001 anthrax bioterror attack. By comparing the DNA blueprints of different B. anthracis strains, researchers are learning why some strains are more virulent than others. Small variations among the DNA sequences of different strains may also help investigators pinpoint the origin of an anthrax outbreak. Knowing the genetic fingerprint of B. anthracis might lead to gene-based detection mechanisms that can alert scientists to the bacteria in the environment or allow rapid diagnosis of anthrax in infected people. Variations between strains might also point to differences in antibiotic susceptibility, permitting doctors to immediately determine the appropriate treatment. Scientists are now analyzing the B. anthracis genome sequence to determine the function of each of its genes and to learn how those genes interact with each other or with host-cell components to cause disease. Knowing the sequence of B. anthracis genes will help scientists discover key bacterial proteins that can then be targeted by new drugs or vaccines. B. anthracis spores are essentially dormant and must “wake up,” or germinate, to become reproductive, disease-causing bacteria. Researchers are studying the germination process to learn more about the signals that cause spores to become active once inside an animal or person. Efforts are under way to develop models of spore germination in laboratory animals. Scientists hope those models will enable discoveries leading to drugs that block the germination process in B. anthracis spores. People who contract anthrax produce antibodies to protective antigen protein. Similar antibodies appear to block infection in animals. Recent studies also suggest that some animals can produce antibodies to components of B. anthracis spores. Those antibodies, when studied in a test tube, prevent spores from germinating and increase their uptake by the immune system’s microbe-eating cells. These discoveries suggest that scientists might be able to develop a vaccine to fight both B. anthracis cells and spores. Researchers also are studying how the immune system responds to B. anthracis infection. Part of the immune system response, known as adaptive immunity, consists of B and T cells that specifically recognize components of the anthrax bacterium. The other type of immune response—innate immunity—aims more generally to combat a wide range of microbial invaders and likely plays a key role in the body’s front-line defenses. Scientists are conducting studies of how those two arms of the immune system act to counter infection, including how B. anthracis spore germination affects individual immune responses. In another study, NIAID-supported scientists have discovered a potential target for developing new measures to prevent and treat anthrax toxicity. Their study shows that a human gene called LRP6 plays a role in the delivery of anthrax toxins into cells. Antibodies directed against LRP6 protected cell cultures from anthrax lethal toxin. These results suggest that targeting LRP6 may prove useful in developing ways to protect against the effects of accumulated toxin. NIAID is supporting research on next-generation anthrax vaccines designed to prevent infection using fewer doses than the currently licensed vaccine. Other vaccine technologies that might provide protective immunity more quickly and that could be stored and delivered more easily are also being pursued. One of the most promising concepts for a new anthrax vaccine is based on recombinant protective antigen (rPA). These vaccines provide excellent protection for rabbits and monkeys and have been used in two phases of human clinical trials. The rPA vaccines appear to produce an effective immune response in people with intact immune systems. In general, the goal is to make rPA vaccines that are safer, more reliable, can be produced in large quantities, and may also be given to people with compromised immune systems. In 2012, scientists at NIAID and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) learned that a blood-based assay for measuring antibodies induced by the anthrax vaccine could detect a protective response across several species. Their findings suggest that the assay could potentially be used to predict how anthrax vaccines might work in humans. Read more about this study. Research is under way to develop improved techniques for spotting B. anthracis in the environment and diagnosing it in infected individuals. As mentioned previously, a key part of that research is the functional genomic analysis of the bacterium, which should lead to new genetic markers for sensitive and rapid identification. Genomic analysis will also reveal differences in individual B. anthracis strains that may affect how those bacteria cause disease or respond to treatment. Following the discoveries of how the protective antigen and lethal factor proteins interact with cells, researchers are screening thousands of small molecules in hopes of finding an anti-anthrax drug. In addition, NIAID is working with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Department of Defense to accelerate testing of collections of compounds for their effectiveness against inhalational anthrax. Many of those compounds already have been approved by FDA for other conditions and therefore could quickly be approved for use in treating anthrax, should they prove effective. NIAID is also seeking new drugs that attack B. anthracis at different levels. These include agents that prevent the bacterium from attaching to cells, compounds that inhibit spore germination, and inhibitors that block the activity of key enzymes such as anthrax lethal factor. NIAID also will develop the capacity to synthesize promising anti-anthrax compounds in sufficient purity and quantity for preclinical testing. NIAID-supported scientists have solved the structure of enzymes called sortases, which are known to anchor bacterial surface proteins to the cell walls. These enzymes may be essential to bacterial survival, and therefore could be an attractive potential target for therapies. Scientists have designed a compound that blocks anthrax toxins from attaching to receptors on the surface of host cells in animal models. If the toxin cannot attach to and enter the cell, it is effectively neutralized. The new inhibitor is much more potent than current therapies and shows promise against some antibiotic-resistant strains as well. The general concept could also be applied to designing inhibitors for other pathogens. Researchers have also found that human monoclonal antibodies protect against inhalation anthrax in three animal models. New anthrax therapies, such as monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies that can neutralize anthrax toxins, are being further developed. back to top Last Updated August 04, 2010 Last Reviewed August 04, 2010

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Birding Tours Rajasthan Places Covered : Delhi - Chambal - Bharatpur - Ranthambore - Pushkar - Roopangarh Duration : 08 Nights / 09 Days Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary The Chambal is a perennial river bordered by many steep ravines and the vegetation is typically scrub along the river bank. Specially gazetted under the Crocodile Conservation Project, this area is home to the endemic Gharial and marsh crocodiles (muggers). A birdwatchers' paradise, Chambal is one of the best places to watch the Indian Skimmer. Some other birds you see here are Thicknee, Comb Duck, Ruddy Shelduck, Bar-headed Geese, Spoonbill and Greater Flamingo. Chambal is also an excellent place to view the highly ndangered Gangetic River Dolphin. If UNESCO has acknowledged Bharatpur or Keoladeo as a World Heritage Site, it is for a good reason. Some 425 species of birds have been recorded in and around the 29 sq km park, making it an amazingly dense and diverse bird habitat. The diversity of birds is partly explained by the mixture of shallow marshy lakes, patches of mature woodland scrub and dry open grassland. It is one of those few places in the world where it is possible to see 150 species in a single morning of birding. Bharatpur is best known as the wintering ground of the western population of the Siberian Crane, which gets here after a 6400 km marathon flight from the Arctic. The Grey-lag Geese come from Siberia while the Bar-headed Geese, from China. Bharatpur is also considered the finest Heronry in the world as well as an unrivalled breeding site for the Painted Stork, Purple Heron, White Ibis and the Eurasian Spoonbill. The Indian Cormorants, Intermediate Egrets, flocks of Great White Pelicans and Night Herons form the bulk of the resident population. More than 20 species of ducks have been seen at Bharatpur, including Northern Pintail, Gargany, Northern Shovler and rarities such as the Falcated or Marbled Duck. This superb wetland also attracts many birds of prey like the Eurasian Marsh Harrier, Greater Spotted Eagle and the Steppe Eagle, which is perhaps the most common. Warbler fans will find Lesser Smoky and Booted & Brook's Leaf Warbler. Adjoining fields, scrub vegetation and irrigation tanks will reveal Oriental Skylark and Variable Wheatear. Subcontinent endemics like the Yellow-wattled Lapwing and the Black-capped Kingfisher are found mostly outside the park. The reservoir of Bund Baretha Sanctuary, an hour's drive away, is good for Indian Skimmers and other species like Eurasian Spoonbill, River Tern and Rufous-tailed Lark. The habitat is mainly tropical dry deciduous with several lakes that attract water birds and species such as Black Storks, Brown Crake and Great Thicknee, usually not found in Bharatpur. Grasses should be probed for Yellow-leg Buttoned Quail and Jungle Bush Quail. The grand Ranthambhore Fort is a good place to watch out for raptors. The adjoining wetlands are visited by large flocks of Demoiselle Cranes, Spot-billed Pelicans, Greater Flamingos and various water birds. Sambhar Salt Lake The lake, along with the brackish water marshes around it, hosts an abundance of water birds. Some like the Lesser and Greater Flamingos, are migrants for whom Sambhar is one of the most important wintering areas. This is one of the best places in India to see the endangered Indian Bustard. Other notable species include Lesser Floricans, Indian Coursers, Stoliczka's Bush Chat and Rufous-fronted Prinia. The crop fields contain Common and Sarus Cranes. |More wildlife Tours India| |Elephant Safaris India » Wildlife South India Tour » Tiger Safari India » Birding Rajasthan Tour » East India Wildlife Tour|

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Quin'yotae Brantley smiles as she takes a bite out of her apple. The 12-year-old, a sixth-grader at Warren City Schools Willard K-8 building, said she doesn't mind the changes the school district has made to its breakfast and lunch menus. "I like fruit, I like salad," she remarked. "I like knowing I'm eating something that's good for me. I don't mind it at all." This year, like other local school districts, Warren is complying with new federal meal program guidelines that require them to offer students lower-calorie, lower-fat, healthier food choices. President Barack Obama signed the standards into law as part of the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010. The measure was championed by first lady Michelle Obama as part of her Let's Move! campaign. Schools that participate in the National School Lunch Program are required to offer fruits and vegetables each day, increase the amount of whole-grain foods that are served and reduce or eliminate sodium and fat. Also, milk products can only be fat-free or low fat. According to federal officials, the changes mark the first the Department of Agriculture has made in school meals in 15 years. From left, Quin’yotae Brantley, 12, Angel Washington, 12, and Sabrina Ball, 11, all sixth-graders at Warren City Schools Willard K-8, each lunch Friday. New federal meal guidelines call for school districts to offer students lower-calorie, lower-fat, healthier food choices. Photo by Virginia Shank Schools have until Oct. 1 to comply, but most report that they are already meeting the requirements. Recently, Kevin Concannon, the USDA Food and Nutrition Service undersecretary joined students at Woodrow Wilson Middle School in Youngstown for lunch as part of an ongoing effort to make the public aware of the new standards. Concannon advises school officials to introduce the changes gradually, provide choices and find innovative ways to offer the foods. He said helping students become healthier is a key step in establishing a healthier America. Lauren Postlethwait, Warren's food service supervisor, said that the school district has already been complying with the new USDA requirements, so the transition has not been that difficult. For example, salads have become part of the daily lunches at Warren G. Harding High School. The district now offers light and fat-free dressing. Also, the district now only offers fat-free flavored milk. Some school districts, such as Austintown, have been working to incorporate produce grown by local farmers into their menus. "We're trying to avoid preservatives and give students more healthier choices," explained Tascin Brooks, food service director at Austintown."Even little changes here and there can add up and make a big difference." Brooks said that the food service staff has been working to better balance the K-8 menus, even attending a class recently to help with the effort. Students are being introduced to new foods gradually and have been participating in taste tests. For example, last year students taste tested hummus, which is now something being offered at school. Recently, they tested yellow watermelon and purple peppers. "If they like it, we try to offer it," she said. Area school food service officials said cookies and other fatty desserts are being replaced by healthier alternatives including fresh apples, pumpkin sauce and frozen yogurt. Donna Smaldino, Youngstown's food service director, said students are required to take a minimum of 1/2 cup fruit or 1/2 cup serving of vegetable. She said beans are a focus now as the district tries to find recipes the students will eat. A local bakery developed a ranch hummus Smaldino serves as a dip with for vegetables. "We're experimenting, trying new things," she said. "Hopefully they'll (students) will try it and eat it." Some school officials said they are concerned about the impact the standards likely will have on their budgets, but by working with local farmers and food co-ops they are hoping to save money. Additionally, Ohio is among the 18 states and one territory to be awarded USDA grants to help with the transition. "It's been a challenging change because the requirements are so strict," Brooks said. "But it's important to have healthy kids. That's what really counts." Youngstown also qualified for the USDA'S Fresh Fruit & Vegetable Program, receiving a grant of almost $250,000. As part of that program every elementary student in the district gets a fresh fruit or vegetable as an afternoon snack two days a week free of charge. Many school officials said they have received positive feedback from parents and students. "We look at their trays and see what they're eating and what they're not," said Postlethwait. "We don't want them throwing food away so it's nice to see they are actually eating the salad and the fruits. We're glad the kids are at least trying things and not walking away. It doesn't do anyone any good if they're not eating what's being given to them."

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Scientists have discovered a genetic cause of extreme thinness for the first time, in a study published today in the journal Nature. The research shows that people with extra copies of certain genes are much more likely to be very skinny. In one in 2000 people, part of chromosome 16 is duplicated, making men 23 times and women five times more likely to be underweight. Each person normally has a copy of each chromosome from each parent, so we have two copies of each gene. But sometimes sections of a chromosome can be duplicated or deleted, resulting in an abnormal 'dosage' of genes. In a study examining the DNA of over 95,000 people, researchers at Imperial College London and the University of Lausanne have identified that duplication of a part of chromosome 16 is associated with being underweight, defined as a a body mass index below 18.5. Half of all children with the duplication in the study have been diagnosed with a 'failure to thrive', meaning that their rate of weight gain is significantly lower than normal. A quarter of people with the duplication have microcephaly, a condition in which the head and brain are abnormally small, which is associated with neurological defects and shorter life expectancy. Last year, the same researchers discovered that people with a missing copy of these genes are 43 times more likely to be morbidly obese. Professor Philippe Froguel, from the School of Public Health at Imperial College London, who led the study, said: "The dogma is that we have two copies of each gene, but this isn't really true. The genome is full of holes where genes are lost, and in other places we have extra copies of genes. In many cases, duplications and deletions have no effect, but occasionally they can lead to disease. "So far, we have discovered a large number of genetic changes that lead to obesity. It seems that we have plenty of systems that increase appetite since eating is so important you can suppress one and nothing happens. This is the first genetic cause of extreme thinness that has been identified. "One reason this is important is that it shows that failure to thrive in childhood can be genetically driven. If a child is not eating, it's not necessarily the parents' fault. "It's also the first example of a deletion and a duplication of one part of the genome having opposite effects. At the moment we don't know anything about the genes in this region. If we can work out why gene duplication in this region causes thinness, it might throw up new potential treatments for obesity and appetite disorders. We now plan to sequence these genes and find out what they do, so we can get an idea of which ones are involved in regulating appetite." The part of chromosome 16 identified in the study contains 28 genes. Duplications in this region have previously been linked with schizophrenia, and deletions with autism. More information: S. Jacquemont et al. 'Mirror extreme BMI phenotypes associated with gene dosage at the chromosome 16p11.2 locus.' Nature, 31 August 2011.

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In Discourse on Method (DOM), Descartes wrote a history of his own philosophical pilgrimage and a program for his philosophical and scientific system. The DOM serves as a programmatic summary of what Descartes considered a revolutionary new method of knowledge; it is a kind of philosophical confession of faith which serves as an apology. It is important to remember that DOM was the preface to three works of science--the Geometry, the Dioptrics, and the Meteorics--which followed it in the original text published in 1637. These served as proof of the success of the method. Descartes presents himself as an earnest and humble seeker of truth. He delights in all manner of learning, but is unsatisfied with its uncertain status. Though well-schooled and well-traveled as a young man, his heart finds no rest in authority and tradition. He finds clarity and certainty in mathematics but sees little of philosophical value built upon its foundations. So he is discontent. It is important for Descartes to convince the reader that he failed to find certainty in the conventional places. This helps to convince the reader that a new and revolution method is needed. Descartes now resolves to make himself alone the object of study. In Germany, Descartes repairs to a secluded room heated by a stove to occupy his attention with his own thoughts. Here he begins to discover his method. When Descartes begins to philosophize he discovers four "precepts of logic" which he resolves never to violate: (1) to believe nothing except what is clear and distinct, (2) to divide up problems into appropriate parts, (3) to proceed from the simple to the complex, and (4) to make sure nothing is left out. This method can, Descartes thinks, deliver a kind of mathematical certitude. Yet he deems himself too young and inexperienced to commence the project. He waits until he is more mature. Descartes then sets out to doubt all that can be doubted (while keeping religion provisionally intact), not in order to be a skeptic but to find indubitable certainty. He then gives a brief treatment of issues more thoroughly addressed in (also autobiographical) The Meditations (published later). Everything can be doubted except himself as a doubter: "I think, therefore I am" becomes the indubitable and foundational principle of certitude upon which the structure of knowledge and science can be safely built. He goes on to report his conclusions concerning the existence of God, the distinction of mind and body and the immortality of the soul. These conclusions are reached by rebuilding philosophy from himself as an autonomous knower. Thus, according to Hirom Caton, is "the origin of [modern] subjectivity" and the animus of his autobiographical stance. (I owe several of the following observations to Caton's book, The Origins of Subjectivity.) To this point, Descartes uses philosophical autobiography quite skillfully. The telling of a story draws in readers who might not be normally attracted to philosophy. He conveys a sense of intellectual adventure and he personalizes the positions as his positions, grounded on his perspective, not merely as abstract speculations of no one in particular. The autobiographical form is not incidental to the philosophy proposed. Descartes' autobiographical form is intrinsically connected to his philosophical program. Because of his distrust of tradition, he must, as it were, begin philosophy all over again from himself as an autonomous being. The starting point for Descartes' positive philosophy is not an abstract proposition but an existential statement, "I think, therefore, I am." By making himself the central object of study, he demonstrates that philosophy and autobiography are intimately and necessarily related. A statement of his philosophy requires a history of the study of himself. Descartes used autobiography to avoid an overtly didactic or dogmatic manner by saying that the book is merely a record of how he himself conducts his reason. Using the autobiographic form, Descartes can avoid the authoritarianism of the schools while still making broad sweeping claims as to the veracity and utility of his method. He believes his method is sound, but he asks his readers to test what he says against their own reason. He thus decided to write the work in the "vulgar" French instead of the traditional--and scholastic--Latin. The rest of DOM consists of portions of an unpublished work on physical science and Descartes' comments on why he has not published it. In these later sections Descartes launches into a kind of campaign speech for his own greatness and the indispensability of his scientific method. He laments that he could not publish his work--The World--because of the prevailing authority's disagreements with his conclusions. Descartes fears that publication would threaten the equanimity he needs to be a successful seeker of truth; but his dedication to human betterment demands that he arrange for its posthumous publication. Descartes is particularly shrewd at this point. He seems to be enlisting public support for the publication of a work he is afraid to publish. He tantalizes the reader by saying that his findings have tremendous practical value for the alleviation of human suffering and betterment of human health. Descartes ends the DOM with a restatement of his mission as a seeker of truth and benefactor of humanity. All in all, Descartes uses philosophical autobiography quite successfully. The form fits the philosophy throughout most of the DOM in that Descartes is challenging the inherited wisdom of the schools by urging a personal discovery of truth through a radical method of rethinking philosophy with self-awareness at the center. His self-awareness is the foundation of his method. Descartes presents himself as a kind of philosophical hero of almost mythical dimensions who is on a quest for the holy Grail of certainty. He claims to have captured the Grail which blesses him with the ability to envision an entirely new philosophy and science of nature. He gives the Geometry, the Dioptrics, and the Meteorics (which follow the DOM) as positive evidence of the fruitfulness of his method. They are, he claims, harbingers of even greater discoveries. Nevertheless, Descartes sustained self-promotion at the end of the work seems intrusive at times and does little actual philosophical work. He is fighting for the chance to be heard by showing us his good intentions and intellectual genius. But the philosophical hero succumbs to hubris and the semblance of humility is betrayed by a kind of egotism which spills over the bounds of propriety and actually gets in the way of concrete philosophizing.

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Fitness Q & A What is a "stitch in the side"?Many fitness enthusiasts have probably felt a "stitch in their side." Technically referred to as "exercise-related transient abdominal pain," its cause is subject to some debate. In the opinion of most authorities, it's due to a restricted supply of blood to the diaphragm (the main muscle that's used in breathing). The pain is localized in the abdominal area. When severe, the pain is sharp; when less severe, the pain is more like a cramp, an ache or a pull. It's related to physical activity, especially those that involve repetitive movements of the torso such as running and swimming. The condition is fairly common: One study reported that nearly 20 percent of runners experienced a "stitch in the side" during the previous year. The good news is that the pain often subsides quickly. A few words of advice, though: Having a pain in the side of the abdomen doesn't automatically mean that it's a "stitch in the side." The pain could be related to an abdominal strain, for example. Or it could be even something that's far worse. To be on the safe side, it's important for sufferers to consult with a physician. Do free weights produce better results than machines?Studies have shown that there are no significant differences in the development of muscular size and strength when comparing groups that used free weights and groups that used machines. The use of any equipment in which a load is progressively applied on the muscles will stimulate improvements. In one study, 22 college students were randomly assigned to two groups: One group performed the bench press and shoulder press with free weights, and the other group performed similar exercises with machines. Both groups used the same training protocol (three sets of six repetitions performed three times per week). After five weeks, the subjects in the free weight group increased the strength of their elbow extensors by about 22 percent, and shoulder flexors by about 12 percent; the subjects in the machine group increased the strength of their elbow extensors by about 24 percent, and shoulder flexors by about 13 percent. There were no significant differences between the two groups. Since a muscle doesn't have the ability to think or see, it cannot possibly "know" whether the source of resistance is a barbell, a machine or a cinder block. The sole factors that determine the response from strength training are genetics and effort, not the equipment that's used. Does alcohol reduce the risk of stroke?There appears to be a fairly strong association between a moderate consumption of alcohol and heart attacks; however, the link has been less consistent with stroke. Most studies that examined alcohol consumption and stroke didn't consider the role of dietary and other lifestyle differences among various types of drinkers (such as wine drinkers, beer drinkers and so on). In one study, researchers followed 38,156 men (ages 40 to 75) for 14 years. They found a correlation between an increased risk of stroke and consuming three drinks or more per day, but not two drinks or less per day. The lowest risk for stroke was in those who consumed a moderate amount of alcohol (one to two drinks) three or four days per week. The type of alcohol is also a factor. This particular study suggested that red wine was more protective against stroke than white wine, beer and liquor. Facility of the Week

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1790 First American Chart of the Gulf of Mexico Click to enlarge: A New General Chart of the West Indies… [Boston, 1790]. Copper engraved chart. Sheet size: 29 x 40 ˝”. Published for inclusion in Norman’s The American Pilot. The American Revolution brought an end to Britain’s leading role in the mapping of America. The task now fell to the American publishing industry, still in its infancy, but with first-hand access to the new surveys that were documenting the rapid growth of the nation. In particular, there was a need for nautical charts for use by the expanding New England commercial fleets. This chart advances the range of American printed coastal charts that had stopped, in Matthew Clark’s 1790 A Complete Set of Charts of the Coast of America, at Florida. Norman, who was one of Clark’s partners in the first work, continues here to include the entire Gulf of Mexico and the northern coast of South America. This is the first sea chart of the Gulf published in America. It was originally advertised for sale as a separate chart on Jan. 1, 1790, and was subsequently included in Norman’s marine atlas The American Pilot, Boston, 1791. In terms of geography, this chart precedes the famous Spanish Carta Esferica of 1799, which revolutionized the depiction of much of the Gulf Coast. Norman shows a simpler configuration for the Texas coast, for example, based on British sources. The English origin of the information in this chart is confirmed in engraved endorsement beneath the title: “I the Subscriber do Certify that I have carefully examined this Chart Copied / from a London Publication agreeable to Act of Parliament and / find it a true and Accurate Copy of the Original / Osgood Carleton / Teacher of Navigation and other Branches / of the Mathematics Boston Decr. 28, 1789.” Editions of Norman’s Pilot appeared in 1791, 1792 and 1794, and after his death, his son, William, brought out editions in 1794, 1798, 1801, and 1803. Despite the seemingly large number of editions, The American Pilot is one of the rarest of all American atlases. Wheat and Brun (p. 198-199) locate just ten complete copies for the first five editions. Phillips Maps p.1059 (state 1) Wheat & Brun 683 (state 1); 688 (state 2 - 1794).

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Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C.It is well established that chronic hepatitis Chronic hepatitis Long lasting inflammation of the liver due to viruses or other causes. Mentioned in: Tube Compression of the Esophagus and Stomach chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV HCV hepatitis C virus HCV 1 Hepatitis C virus, see there 2. Human coronavirus. See Coronavirus. ) infection may lead to the development of progressive liver disease Liver Disease Definition Liver disease is a general term for any damage that reduces the functioning of the liver. The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right-hand side of the abdomen. and cirrhosis of liver. For example, chronic HCV leads to cirrhosis in 20% of patients over 20 to 30 years. (1) This has lead to considerable focus on the hepatic manifestations of the HCV. However, there are research studies indicating that HCV is associated with various extrahepatic ex·tra·he·pat·ic Originating or occurring outside the liver. manifestations including mixed cryoglobulinemia mixed cryoglobulinemia Mixed polyclonal-polyclonal cryoglobulinemia Nephrology A form of cryoglobulinemia characterized by a IgG & IgM, ± IgA cryoglobulins, evoked by to rheumatoid arthritis, SLE, Sjögren syndrome, EBV, CMV, subacute bacterial (MC), membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis mem·bra·no·pro·lif·er·a·tive glomerulonephritis Chronic glomerulonephritis characterized by mesangial cell proliferation, increased lobular separation of glomeruli, thickening of glomerular capillary walls, and low serum levels of complement. (MPGN MPGN Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, see there ), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Sjogren syndrome Sjögren syndrome Rheumatology An autoimmune disorder more common in older ♀, associated with rheumatoid arthritis, SLE, scleroderma, polymyositis, and other connective tissue diseases Clinical Dry eyes, dry mouth Lab SS-A, SS-B antibodies Management , porphyria Porphyria comes in a winter storm to show her devotion, and her lover strangles her with her own tresses. [Br. Poetry: Browning Porphyria’s Lover in Magill IV, 247] See : Love, Unrequited cutaneous cutaneous /cu·ta·ne·ous/ (ku-ta´ne-us) pertaining to the skin. Of, relating to, or affecting the skin. Pertaining to the skin. tarda, lichen planus Lichen Planus Definition Lichen planus is a skin condition of unknown origin that produces small, shiny, flat-topped, itchy pink or purple raised spots on the wrists, forearms or lower legs, especially in middle-aged patients. , leukocytoclastic vasculitis, and various endocrine and neurologic manifestations. (1-5) Approximately 40% of patients with HCV have cryoglobulinemia with or without specific extrahepatic manifestation. (4-6) It has been suggested that focus on comorbid extrahepatic disorders may lead to better detection of HCV, improvement in these disorders due to antiviral treatment of HCV, and early diagnosis and treatment of these disorders. (7) More importantly, these manifestations can complicate the course and treatment of HCV-related liver diseases. For example, MC associated with HCV has been linked to increased fibrosis and cirrhosis of liver. Furthermore, it is possible that drug treatment of extrahepatic disorders may cause hepatotoxicity hepatotoxicity (hepˑ··tō·t including liver failure. Hence, recognition of type and magnitude of extrahepatic disorders, including their pathophysiology pathophysiology /patho·phys·i·ol·o·gy/ (-fiz?e-ol´ah-je) the physiology of disordered function. 1. , are very important to aid in awareness, early diagnosis, and specifically targeted therapy for HCV-related extrahepatic diseases. MC is an autoimmune disease associated with chronic HCV. MC has frequently been implicated im·pli·cate tr.v. im·pli·cat·ed, im·pli·cat·ing, im·pli·cates 1. To involve or connect intimately or incriminatingly: evidence that implicates others in the plot. 2. in increased fibrosis or cirrhosis in chronic HCV-infected patients. (6,8-11) The pathophysiologic mechanism of MC can also explain other extrahepatic syndromes such as MPGN, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and leukocytoclastic vasculitis. (12-14) It has been postulated that HCV infects circulating B lymphocytes and can stimulate them to produce monoclonal immunoglobulin M (IgM) rheumatoid factor (Type II) and polyclonal polyclonal /poly·clo·nal/ (-klon´'l) 1. derived from different cells. 2. pertaining to several clones. derived from different cells; pertaining to several clones. IgM rheumatoid factor (Type III) leading to mixed cryoglobulinemia. (15-16) These IgM rheumatoid factors bind with anti-HCV immunoglobulin G (IgG) or to the IgG-HCV immune complex leading to a deposition of circulating immune complexes in small- or medium-sized blood vessels ultimately resulting in essential MC, MPGN, MPGN and leukocytoclastic vasculitis. (17-18) The exact nature of the relationship between MC and progressive liver disease remains unclear. It has been hypothesized that the association between cirrhosis and MC may be due to the association of cryoglobulin cryoglobulin /cryo·glob·u·lin/ (-glob´u-lin) an abnormal globulin that precipitates at low temperatures and redissolves at 37° C. n. with longstanding HCV infection and older age. (10) However, fibrosis progression rate is clearly shown to be related to duration of infection rather than MC. (19) Furthermore, Siagris et al reported no significant correlation of duration of infection or older age with prevalence of MC in HCV-infected patients. (10) Hence, it is still not clear from the findings that the development of MC is cause or effect of progressive liver fibrosis or cirrhosis in chronic HCV infection. Further prospective longitudinal studies with histologic evaluation of liver biopsies comparing chronic HCV patients with or without cryoglobulinemia are warranted to clarify molecular and clinical relationship between MC and liver fibrosis. Various neurologic manifestations have been reported in patients with chronic hepatitis C. (20-21) The most common peripheral neurologic deficit is mononeuropathy multiplex, which is clearly related to cryoglobulinemia, vasculitis Vasculitis Definition Vasculitis refers to a varied group of disorders which all share a common underlying problem of inflammation of a blood vessel or blood vessels. The inflammation may affect any size blood vessel, anywhere in the body. , and thrombosis. (20-21) Other neurologic disorders associated with HCV include acute inflammatory syndromes, such as encephalitis encephalitis (ĕnsĕf'əlī`təs), general term used to describe a diffuse inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, usually of viral origin, often transmitted by mosquitoes, in contrast to a bacterial infection of the meninges , and encephalomyelitis encephalomyelitis /en·ceph·a·lo·my·eli·tis/ (en-sef?ah-lo-mi?e-li´tis) inflammation of the brain and spinal cord. acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . It has been postulated that, since HCV belongs to a family of Flaviviridae, which is characterized by neurotropism neurotropism /neu·rot·ro·pism/ (ndbobr-rot´ro-pizm) 1. the quality of having a special affinity for nervous tissue. 2. , it has the ability to invade the nervous system. HCV RNA RNA: see nucleic acid. in full ribonucleic acid One of the two main types of nucleic acid (the other being DNA), which functions in cellular protein synthesis in all living cells and replaces DNA as the carrier of genetic is seen in affected brain tissue or cerebrospinal fluid (22-24) of patients with certain acute inflammatory central nervous system syndromes. Negative-strand HCV was identified in brain tissue of two patients with post-transplantation recurrent HCV and three of six autopsied patients with chronic HCV infection. (25-26) These findings support the idea that HCV may cause neurologic deficits or symptoms directly by invading and replicating in the nervous system. However, due to lack of suitable methodologies for in situ detection, it is unclear whether HCV has the same abilities of infection of the nervous system as its class. As of yet, the pathogenesis of nervous system involvement remains unclear because it can be attributed to in situ HCV replication, toxicity of HCV-encoded proteins, or immune-mediated antiviral response. Further basic virologic and clinical studies will be necessary to fully understand the viral interaction with the nervous system and the resulting neurologic symptoms. Type II diabetes Type II diabetes Type II diabetes is the most common form of diabetes and usually appears in middle aged adults. It is often associated with obesity and may be delayed or controlled with diet and exercise. Mentioned in: Diabetic Ketoacidosis mellitus (DM) has been implicated as an important endocrine manifestation of chronic HCV. (27-30) Even though there is no formal proof for the infectious disease model for type II DM, it has been hypothesized that HCV mediates type II DM in genetically susceptible individuals. Thuluvath et al provided support for both racial and environmental factors for infectious disease model for the development of DM in chronic HCV. (31) They reported an increased prevalence of type II DM in black patients with HCV compared with controls matched for race, severity of liver disease, and body mass index. This finding is significant since both HCV infection and black race have been reported as independent risk factors for type II DM. (32-33) It has been noted that HCV-positive diabetics have beta-islet cell dysfunction with decreased C-peptide levels and limited acute insulin responses. (11,32) In addition, an improvement of glucose metabolism have been observed after antiviral therapy in patients with chronic HCV even though there is no animal or in vitro models to test the hypothesis that HCV directly damage beta islet cells or disturbs their synthetic function. (11) Therefore, further genetic, animal model, tissue culture media, and mechanistic studies are needed to determine the role of HCV on glucose metabolism and pancreatic disease that leads to type II DM. In addition, prospective longitudinal studies are needed in chronic HCV patients on antiviral therapy to determine whether DM is a reversible process in patients who clear HCV infection. In conclusion, HCV may lead to various extrahepatic manifestations. The majority of extrahepatic manifestations can be explained in terms of an immune-mediated syndrome related to MC even though the exact mechanism by which HCV may result in MC is still not clear. Furthermore, MC is associated with increased fibrosis and cirrhosis. Hence, early treatment of HCV infection in patients with MC may decrease the rate of fibrosis and may prevent cirrhosis including its complications. Mechanisms of other extrahepatic manifestations such as neurologic manifestations and DM related to chronic HCV are unclear and necessitate further research to clarify pathophysiology and clinical course of extrahepatic manifestations of chronic HCV. 1. Liang TJ, Rehermann B, Seeff LB, et al. Pathogenesis, natural history, treatment and prevention of hepatitis C. AnnIntern Med 2000;132:296-305. 2. Sharara AI, Hunt CM, Hamilton JD. Hepatitis C Ann Intern Med 1996;125:658-668. 3. Gumber SC, Chopra SC, Hepatitis C. A multifaceted disease, review of extrahepatic manifestations. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:615-620. 4. Pawlotsky JM, Ben Yahia M, Andre C, et al. Immunological disorders in C virus chronic active hepatitis chronic active hepatitis 1. Obsolete term. See Chronic hepatitis2. Chronic viral hepatitis : a prospective case-control study. Hepatology 1994;19:841-848. 5. Clifford BD, Donahue D, Smith L, et al. High prevalence of serological serological pertaining to or emanating from serology. one involving examination of blood serum usually for antibody. markers of autoimmunity in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 1995;21:613-619. 6. Lunel F, Musset L, Cacoub P, et al. Cryoglobulinemia in chronic liver disease Chronic liver disease is a liver disease of slow process and persisting over a long period of time, resulting in a progressive destruction of the liver. It includes amongst others: 7. El-Serag HB, Hampel H, Yeh C, et al. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C among United State male veterans. Hepatology 2002;36:1439-1445. 8. Schmidt WN, Stapleton JT, La Brecque DR, et al. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and cryoglobulinemia: analysis of whole blood and plasma HCV-RNA concentrations and correlation with liver histology. Hepatology 2000;31:737-743. 9. Kayali Z, Buckwold VE, Zimmerman B, et al. Hepatitis C, Cryoglobulinemia, and cirrhosis: A meta-analysis. Hepatology 2002;36:978-985. 10. Siagris D, Christofidou M, Tsamandas A, et al. Cryoglobulinemia and progression of fibrosis in chronic HCV infection: cause or effect? Journal of Infect 2004;49:236-241. 11. Akriviadis EA, Xanthakis I, Navrozidou CH, et al. Prevalence of cryoglobulinemia in chronic hepatitis C virus infection and response to treatment with interferon-a. J Clin Gastroenterol 1997;25:612-620. 12. Pascual M, Perrin L, Giostra E, et al. Hepatitis C virus in patients with cryoglobulinemia type II. J Infect Dis 1990;162:569-570. 13. Dammacco F, Sansonno D. Antibodies to hepatitis C virus in essential mixed cryoglobulinemia. Clin Exp Rheum rheum (rldbomacm) any watery or catarrhal discharge. A watery or thin mucous discharge from the eyes or nose. any watery or catarrhal discharge. 1991;9:621-624. 14. Agnello V, Chung RT, Kaplan LM. A role for hepatitis C virus infection in type II cryoglobulinemia. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1490-1495. 15. Muller HM, Pfaff E, Goeser T, et al Peripheral blood leukocytes serve as a possible extrahepatic site for hepatitis C virus replication. J Gen Virol 1993;74:669-676. 16. Mieschar PA, Huang YP, Izui S. Type II cryoglobulinemia. Semin Hematol 1995;32:80-85. 17. Willson RA. Extrahepatic manifestations of chronic viral hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterology 1997;92:4-17. 18. Agnello V. The etiology and pathophysiology of mixed cryoglobulinemia secondary to hepatitis C virus infection. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1997;19:111-129. 19. Poynard T, Ratziu V, Benmanov Y, et al. Fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C: detection and significance. Semin Liver Dis 2000;20:47-55. 20. Heckmann J, Kayser C, Heuss D, et al. Neurological manifestations of chronic hepatitis C. J Neurol 1999;246:486-491. 21. Tembl J, Ferrer J, Sevilla M, et al. Neurologic complications associated with Hepatitis C virus infection. Neurology 1999;53:861-864. 22. Bolay H, Soylemezoglu F, Nurlu G, et al. PCR PCR polymerase chain reaction. polymerase chain reaction Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detected hepatitis C virus genome in the brain of a case with progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1996;98:305-308. 23. Fujita H, Chuganji Y, Yaginuma M, et al. Acute encephalitis and hepatitis C virus infection: case report: acute encephalitis immediately prior to acute onset of hepatitis C virus infection. J. Gastroenterology Hepatol 1999;14:1129-1131. 24. Sacconi S, Salviati L, Merelli E. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis acute disseminated encephalomyelitis A diffuse inflammation of the brain and spinal cord usually caused by a perivascular hypersensitivity response. associated with hepatitis C virus infection. Arch Neurol 2001;58:1679-1681. 25. Vargus H, Laskus T, Radkowski M, et al. Detection of hepatitis C virus sequences in brain tissue obtained in recurrent hepatitis C after liver transplantation. Liver Transplantation 2002;8:1014-1019. 26. Radkowski M, Wilkinson J, Nowicki M, et al. Search for hepatitis C virus negative-strand RNA sequences and analysis of viral sequences in the central nervous system: Evidence of replication. J. Virol 2002;76:600-608. 27. Fraser GM, Harman I, Meller N, et al. Diabetes Mellitus is associated with chronic hepatitis C but not chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Isr J Med Sci 1996;32:526-530. 28. Knobler H, Schihmanter R, Zifroni A, et al. Diabetes Mellitus is associated with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Mayo Clin Proc 2000;75:355-359. 29. Zein zein the principal protein in maize. Has low nutritive value, being deficient in lysine and tryptophan. NN, Abdulkarim AS, Wiesner RH, et al. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in patients with end-stage liver cirrhosis due to hepatitis C, alcohol or cholestatic disease. J Hepatol 2000;32:209-17. 30. Mehta SH, Brancati FL, Sulkowski MS, et al. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus Type 2 diabetes mellitus One of the two major types of diabetes mellitus, characterized by late age of onset (30 years or older), insulin resistance, high levels of blood sugar, and little or no need for supple-mental insulin. among persons with hepatitis C virus infection in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:592-599. 31. Thuluvath PJ, John PR. Association between hepatitis C, diabetes mellitus, and race: A case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:438-441. 32. Caronia S, Taylor K, Pagliaro L, et al. Further evidence for an association between non-insulin-dpendent diabetes mellitus and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 1999;30:1059-1063. 33. Mason A, Lau J, Hoang N, et al. Association of diabetes mellitus and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 1998;28:328-333. The employees of the Southern Medical Journal wish to extend our heartfelt sympathies to the victims of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita. We would also like to thank the members of the medical profession who assisted in the relief efforts throughout the Gulf Coast. Your professionalism, courage and tenacity have been an inspiration. Your compassion has reminded us of the true meaning of the avocation to which we have devoted our lives. The purpose of human life is to show compassion and the will to help others. --Albert Schweitzer Smruti R. Mohanty, MD From the Center for Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology, the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL. Reprint Requests to Smruti R. Mohanty, MD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Center for Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology, the University of Chicago, 5841 South Maryland Avenue, MC 7120, Chicago, IL 60637. Email: email@example.com Accepted April 19, 2005

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Interactive Dynamic Environment An Interactive Dynamic Environment is any environment, virtual or physical, in which the environment itself is highly volatile, and constantly changing, whilst the users can add to that change at any time, causing ripples that can spread out throughout the whole environment. Below, we offer a selection of links from our resource databases which may match this term. Related Dictionary Entries for Interactive Dynamic Environment: Resources in our database matching the Term Interactive Dynamic Environment: A coder?s article about creating realistic, dynamic soft shadow in real-time interactive, and complex scenes. Stanford's Junior AI, on handbrake skid parking, without a human influence on the system, in dynamic environments, with only a two foot variance in position at 25mph. Or, the first baby steps towards dynamic switching between open and closed loop systems. H.D.R., or high dynamic range photography is a relatively new technique used by photographers to take high-quality full lighting range photos that are near-indistinguishable from paintings, for their ability to correctly replicate the lighting of a given scene, exactly how the human eye would see it. In early January 2008, a Rice University study published in the Journal of Neuroscience found that socioemotional meanings, including sexual ones, are conveyed in human sweat. This raises the question for immersive spaces, if such dynamic scents need to be synthetically reproduced to provide a firmer social environment in tele-mediation. A second, deeper look at creating interactive stories, branching dialogue, and trying to create a feel of player participation whilst guiding them to specific destinations. This book is designed for 3-D artists and Web designers who are able to produce interactive 3-D content on their desktop without any prior knowledge of programming. The book uses LifeForms, Virtools and Deep Paint 3-D. It comes with a CD, with most of these tools on it, to aid the reader. British Sky Broadcasting (Sky) is the operator of the UK's largest digital pay television platform. On weeknights they operate Sky Vegas. In September 2007 this service changed to become interactive, computer generated horseracing. The LIREC project (Living with Robots and Interactive Companions) is an attempt to help create interactive, emotionally intelligent, synthetic companions which are capable of long-term relationships with human users, and able to move between robot-based interaction and virtual avatar form. A new virtual environment, unveiled by researchers at the Southern Methodist University, is an interactive-real-time simulation of the human cell's 'sump pump', intended to allow researchers to interact with it in real-time, and determine how to bypass it for cancer cells. Non-interactive, yet dramatic virtual flyovers of NASA's two Mars rover landing sites have been created, using the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's camera, and the principle behind stereoscopic 3D. Might the technology behind them, actually finally be hinting at planetary exploration in VR? Industry News containing the Term Interactive Dynamic Environment: Results by page (Press Release) EON Reality, Inc., maker of interactive visual content management software today announced that EON Raptor(TM) 5.5 is now a free software for serious games. EON Raptor(TM) is a free 3ds Max plug-in that enabl... Converge 05 provides an interactive environment to allow for creativity and innovation in business. It brings together different elements of art and science to create fresh ideas and ways of thinking. It is the introduction o... A new technique for creating structures and scenery objects by dynamic algorithm could radically speed up the task of creating landscapes within a world.... September 14th - 16th, 2009 Intelligent virtual agents (IVAs) are interactive characters that exhibit human-like qualities and communicate with humans or with each other using natural human moda... April 15-18, 2007 University of Perugia, Umbria, Italy Twelfth in the series, the Web3D 2007 International Symposium will address a wide range of topics about 3D and Multimedia on the Web Topics include languages, too...

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The success rates of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) are improved when the embryo culture occurs under conditions that provide low oxygen concentrations, show the findings of a new systematic review and meta-analysis.1 Optimizing the success of IVF and ICSI procedures currently is one of the main focuses of research in reproductive medicine, according to the authors. Improving the in vitro environment to which human embryos are exposed before implantation into the uterus is one such area of focus, they explain. Traditionally, human preimplantation embryos are cultured in laboratories using an atmospheric oxygen concentration, which is about 20%. However, the oxygen concentrations in the oviduct and the uterus range from 2% to 8%.2 To more closely mimic natural conditions, some laboratories have started to culture embryos at a lower oxygen concentration (about 5%), although doing so is associated with higher costs (incubators sensing both carbon dioxide and oxygen, plus the gases themselves, as well as nitrogen to purge oxygen from the incubator). In a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing embryo culture at low (about 5%) and atmospheric (about 20%) oxygen concentrations, researchers sought to determine which oxygen concentration most improves treatment outcomes. A total of 7 studies involving 2422 participants met inclusion criteria, but only 4 of those studies, which included a total of 1382 participants, provided sufficient data for a meta-analysis. The authors determined that the overall methodological quality of the included studies was low. The meta-analysis showed that live birth rates were improved when the embryos were cultured in a low oxygen concentration setting (odds ratio, 1.39; P=0.05). The authors explain that in clinical practice, this translates to improving a 30% live birth rate achieved by using atmospheric oxygen concentration to a live birth rate of 32% to 43% using low oxygen concentration. The ongoing and clinical pregnancy rates were similar between study groups. Researchers also found that using low oxygen concentration during embryo culture was not associated with increased rates of multiple pregnancies, miscarriages, or congenital abnormalities. The findings of this meta-analysis are more promising than the findings of another recent meta-analysis, which concluded that there is insufficient evidence to determine whether low oxygen concentration has any effect.2 - Current evidence indicates that culturing human preimplantation embryos in low oxygen concentration improves not only ongoing and clinical pregnancy rates but also live birth rates.

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Unlicensed wireless communications and uses for RF/microwave signals that do not require licensing have long appealed to developers of cost-sensitive applications. Around the world, government organizations set aside bands of frequencies for “free,” unlicensed use, with some rules to help minimize interference between different applications in the same frequency range. Throughout the world, these open frequencies are known as the industrial-scientific-medical (ISM) bands, since they were initially set aside for such applications as microwave heating and medical diathermy. Indeed, the first encounter for many with an electronic product operating within an ISM frequency band is their microwave oven, which uses energy at 2.45 GHz for heating food. Any products that are developed and added to the ISM bands must be tolerant of the emissions from legacy applications. For RF/microwave hardware suppliers, the ISM bands around the world provide excellent opportunities for all of the components needed to assembly communications systems, from antennas and amplifiers to YIG oscillators. Various organizations around the world help regulate the use of frequencies in the various ISM bands. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is the regulating agency, with Part 18 of the FCC rules governing the uses of designated ISM bands in the US and Part 15 impacting unlicensed communications devices in those ISM bands. In other parts of the world, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) sets guidelines for designated ISM bands according to ITU Radio Regulations 5.138, 5.150, and 5.280 and any appropriate national regulations in the affected area. The ITU’s ISM bands reach well into the millimeter-wave frequency range, with ITU ISM bands that include 902 to 928 MHz, 2.4 to 2.5 GHz, 5.725 to 5.875 GHz, 24.00 to 24.25 GHz, 61.0 to 61.5 GHz, 122 to 123 GHz, and 244 to 246 GHz. In the US, three of the more popular ISM bands governed by the FCC Part 15 rules are 902 to 928 MHz, 2.400 to 2.4835 GHz, and 5.725 to 5.875 GHz. The Part 15 rules establish such operating parameters as maximum transmit power. The maximum transmit power that can be fed to the antenna within these frequency bands is +3 dBm (1 W). The maximum effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is +36 dBm (4 W). The EIRP value can be determined by adding the transmit output power (in dBm) to the antenna gain (in dBi). Any loss from the cable feeding the antenna must be subtracted. ISM bands are often associated with lower-frequency applications, such as 900-MHz cordless telephones, near-field communications (NFC) devices, or 2.4-GHz Bluetooth devices. The aforementioned microwave oven, for example, coexists with numerous communications devices at or near that frequency band, including wireless local area networks (WLANs), wireless sensor networks, and cordless telephones. The number of manufacturers supporting these applications with a variety of components, including antennas, amplifiers, and radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFICs), is already quite large, making the market for lower-frequency ISM-and components extremely competitive. By way of example: Several years ago, RF Micro Devices introduced its model RF3858 front-end module for ISM applications in the 900-MHz band. Priced at less than $2.50 USD in 10,000 piece quantities, the RF3858 contains a power amplifier, transmit/receive transfer switch, low-noise amplifier (LNA), and matching components. Designed to reduce the number of parts in an ISM product, the module includes a power amplifier that can deliver +31.5-dBm output power at 915 MHz, while the low-noise amplifier provides 27-dB gain with 1.3-dB noise figure. Not long ago, either of these amplifiers would be difficult to find for that price as a separate component. In general, markets for ISM applications at frequencies below 6 GHz are highly competitive and cost-sensitive, and require high levels of integration to minimize final-product costs. Adoption of higher-frequency ISM bands may open some opportunities for companies with millimeter-wave engineering capabilities. The ITU’s designation of several millimeter-wave frequency bands for ISM use, for example, presents an opportunity for development of short-range communications links and high-speed data links for computer networks by taking advantage of the wide available bandwidths at those millimeter-wave ISM frequencies. One company strongly associated with a diversity of ICs for lower-frequency ISM-band applications, Hittite Microwave Corp., has already seized the opportunity for a millimeter-wave ISM-band transceiver solution with their HMC6000LP711E transmitter and HMC6001LP711E receiver silicon-germanium (SiGe) chipset for 60-GHz short-range ISM applications. These antenna-in-package (AiP) ICs combine SiGe chips built around frequency synthesizers with 60-GHz antennas in 7 x 11 mm QFN plastic packages for low-cost, surface-mount printed-circuit-board (PCB) assembly. Perhaps as important, the devices require no special PCB fabrication measures and knowledge of handling millimeter-wave components, to ease the transition for ISM product suppliers to higher frequencies at 60 GHz. To further ease the way, Hittite offers a complete AiP transceiver evaluation kit, model EKIT01-HMC6450, with both ICs, configuration software, and everything needed to build a bidirectional millimeter-wave link at 60 GHz with a range of 4 m. A universal analog in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) interface translates baseband analog I and Q signals with single-sideband (SSB) bandwidth to 880 MHz to and from the 60-GHz ISM band. For international equipment suppliers considering higher-frequency ISM applications, Frankfurt, Germany-based IHP Microelectronics offers circuit-prototyping services for communications and other applications at 60 GHz and other ISM millimeter-wave frequencies. The firm has already fabricated and successfully tested radio transmitter and receiver front ends for ISM applications at frequencies as high as 245 GHz, as well as a complete radio front-end device capable of data rates to 4 Gb/s at 60 GHz. The 60-GHz demonstration circuit (see figure) was developed nominally for video streaming applications. The firm is also developing a silicon-based system-on-chip (SoC) radio device for use in the 122-to-123-GHz ISM band. The SoC employs a direct-downconversion transceiver architecture and is suitable for short-range distance and speed sensing, as might be used in industrial applications and in automotive electronic systems. The firm, which is funded by the European Union (EU) under grant reference number FP7-ICT-248120, is working on the project with an impressive cast of partners. These include Silicon Radar, Evatronix, Robert Bosch GmbH, STMicroelectronics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Selmic, HighTec, and the University of Toronto. As ISM applications extend from lower frequencies through millimeter-wave bands, demand grows for some of the pieces needed to build these final ISM products [iincluding printed-circuit-board (PCB) materials and antennas]. At higher frequencies, circuit materials should provide good dielectric stability with temperature, and typically require a different physical makeup than at lower ISM frequencies. For applications extending to 60 GHz and beyond, PCB materials should be thinner than at lower frequencies, with a typical rule of thumb calling for dielectric PCB materials that are about one-eighth the measure of the wavelength of the frequency of interest. Similarly, the copper conductor on these PCB materials should be thinner at these higher frequencies, with minimal copper roughness to trim circuit losses at millimeter-wave frequencies. As examples, Taconic Advanced Dielectric Division (ADD) has developed its TacLamPLUS PCB material for millimeter-wave applications. The non-reinforced substrate material is a cost-effective building material for higher-frequency ISM-band circuits, with typical thickness of 100 μm. It features a dielectric constant of 2.10 in the z-direction at 50 GHz and dissipation factor of 0.0008 at 50 GHz. Similarly, the RT/duroid® 5870 and 5880 PCB materials from Rogers Corp. offer the mechanical and electrical characteristics that suit ISM applications at higher millimeter-wave frequencies. These polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) composites are reinforced with glass microfibers to provide good dielectric stability, and the materials exhibit low values of dielectric constant: 2.33 for RT/duroid 5870 in the z-direction (thickness) at 10 GHz and 2.20 for RT/duroid 5880 in the z-direction at 10 GHz. The materials have dissipation factors of 0.0012 or less at 10 GHz. Millimeter-wave signals tend to provide shorter-distance communications links than their lower-frequency counterparts, due to atmospheric losses, but they also offer wide available bandwidths for high-speed data and video services. Certainly, as the demand for these higher-frequency ISM bands grow, the supply of components and such needed building blocks as PCB boards will grow—and their prices will drop accordingly.

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Halloween has origins in the ancient Celticfestival known as Samhain [pronounced: sow- wen] (Irish pronunciation: from the Old Irish samhain, possibly derived from Gaulish samonios ). The festival of Samhain is a celebration of the end of the harvest season in Gaelic culture, and is sometimes regarded as the "Celtic New Year".Traditionally, the festival was a time used by the ancient Celtic Pagans to take stock of supplies and slaughter livestock for winter stores. The ancient Celts believed that on October 31st, now known as Halloween, the boundary between the living and the deceased dissolved, and the dead become dangerous for the living by causing problems such as sickness or damaged crops. The festivals would frequently involve bonfires, into which the bones of slaughtered livestock were thrown. Costumes and masks being worn at Halloween goes back to the Celtic traditions of attempting to copy the evil spirits or placate them, in Scotland for instance where the dead were impersonated by young men with masked, veiled or blackened faces, dressed in white. Origin of name The term Halloween, originally spelled Hallowe’en, is shortened from All Hallows’ Even ("All Hallows' Eve") [eve is an abbreviation of even, an older word for evening. Halloween gets -een as a contraction of even to e'en], from the Old English term eallra hālgena ǣfen meaning "All Hallow' Evening", as it is the eve of "All Hallows’ Day", which...

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Information Technology: Safe Computer Practices - Always use a STRONG eight charcter password with capital letters, letters and numbers. Make it hard to guess! - Protect your identity and do not share your password with anyone or display it on or near your computer. - Use a password protected screen saver and protect electronic personal health information and other confidential data by not allowing your computer screen to be seen by others. - Properly dispose of electronic media containing confidential data: the media must be physically destroyed. - Logoff when you leave your computer and turn it off when not in use. - Protect data retained as notes in Palm Pilots or laptos and use a power-on password. - Backup data regularly and keep backup media at a different secure location. - Encrypt confidential data on laptops and in databases. Run Anti-Virus and Anti-Spyware - Run UT Antivirus with current anti-virus files at all times ( the software is free for UTHSC faculty and staff computers) . - Perform regular on-demand scans with your anti-virus and anti-spyware. - Run a personal firewall on your computer. Be Careful with e-Mail - Do not send confidential data outside "uthsc.edu" unless it is encrypted. - Delete spam, chain, and other junk mail without opening or forwarding it. - Use Automatic updates for updating your anti-virus and operating system. - Download antivirus updates from the UTHSC web antivirus page at : http://antivirus.uthsc.edu/ - Download Microsoft security patches and updates. IT Security Group 877 Madison Ave Memphis, Tennessee 38163 Confidential Compliance Hotline:

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HOUSTON: Virginia Tech's scientists led by a 30 year old Indian American assistant professor of computer science, Dr Srinidhi Varadarajan have amazed the computing industry by putting together the world's third fastest supercomputer in a record time of three months, and at record low cost of $5.2 million, using off-the-shelf components. Most other machines of its class cost upward of $40 million and take years to assemble. Japan's Earth Simulator, the number one supercomputer, is said to have cost at least $350 million. The Terascale Cluster project is bringing Virginia Tech to the forefront in the supercomputing arena. A supercomputer made from 1,100 dual-processor Power Mac G5s, nicknamed by some as "Big Mac" ranks third among the world's 500 fastest supercomputers, many of which handle with ease one trillion calculations per second. The Top 500 is twice-a-year listing started in 1993 to provide a "Who's Who" of hot computers, spotting and tracking trends in high-performance computing. The ranking by the Top 500 project will be officially announced later this month at the Supercomputing Conference in Phoenix. "This is arguably the cheapest supercomputer and is definitely the most powerful home-built supercomputer," according to Dr Varadarajan. Theoretically, Big Mac could handle a potential 17 teraflops, or 17 trillion operations per second. That still falls short of the No. 1 machine, Japan's Earth Simulator, whose 5,000-plus processors keep it on top with 35.8 teraflops, with the potential of another five teraflops.

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Date: July 1, 1951 Creator: Moore, D G Description: The achievement of more compact and efficient power plants for aircraft is dependent, among other factors, on the perfection of heat-resisting materials that are superior to those in current use. Molybdenum is one of the high-melting metals (melting point, 4750 F). It is fairly abundant and also can be worked into many of the shapes required in modern power plants. To permit its widespread use at elevated temperatures, however, some means must first be found to prevent its rapid oxidation. The application of a protective coating is one method that might be used to achieve this goal. In the present work, a number of chromium-frit-type coatings were studied. These were bonded to molybdenum specimens by firing in controlled atmospheres to temperatures in the range of 2400 to 2700 F. Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department

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Unwin, Nicholas (2012) The Language of Colour:Neurology and the Ineffable. Biolinguistics, 6 (3-4). pp. 475-490. |PDF - Published Version | Available under License Creative Commons Attribution. Download (5Mb) | Preview It is often claimed, following Joseph Levine, that there is an ‘explanatory gap’ between ordinary physical facts and the way we perceive things, so that it is impossible to explain, among other things, why colours actually look the way they do. C.L. Hardin, by contrast, argues that there are sufficient asymmetries between colours to traverse this gap. This paper argues that the terms we use to characterize colours, such as ‘warm’ and ‘cool’, are not well understood, and that we need to understand the neurological basis for such associations if we are even to understand what is fully meant by saying, for example, that red is a warm colour. This paper also speculates on how Hardin’s strategy can be generalized. A PowerPoint presentation that depicts inverted colour qualia is attached as an appendix. |Journal or Publication Title:||Biolinguistics| |Uncontrolled Keywords:||C.L. Hardin ; colour ; colour vocabulary ; explanatory gap ; per-ception ; qualia| |Subjects:||B Philosophy. Psychology. Religion > B Philosophy (General)| |Departments:||Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences > Politics & International Relations (Merged into PPR 2010-08-01)| |Deposited On:||30 Aug 2012 10:05| |Last Modified:||06 Feb 2013 17:29| Actions (login required)

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As well as Bumblebees and Honeybees (that live socially) there are some 200 species of wild bees in the UK that are called 'solitary bees' because they make individual nest cells for their larvae. Some species nest in small tunnels or holes in the ground or in sandy banks, piles of sand, or crumbling mortar. Others use the hollow stems of dead plants such as brambles, or tunnels previously bored into dead wood by beetles. Mason Bees and Leafcutter Bees are well-known examples of solitary bees that are common in gardens. Some species of solitary bee species will group their nest cells together in aggregations, and a few have evolved social behaviour rather like bumblebees. Many solitary bees are very small and you may not have realised they are bees. All collect nectar and pollen from flowers, except the so-called 'cuckoo' species that lay their eggs in the nest cells of other species. Solitary bees are harmless and not aggressive. They rarely if ever sting unless trodden on or squashed between your fingers and they do not have painful stings like those of honeybees. They do not live in hives or build honeycombs, and they do not swarm. If you find them (for example in old house walls) please leave them alone. Colonies are very faithful to their nest sites and may have been living there for many decades. They are part of the 'fine grain' of your local biodiversity - something to be cherished. A number of species are commonly seen in gardens, and they are very useful as they pollinate fruit crops. It is easy for gardeners to encourage them. By drilling holes in dry logs or blocks of wood it is possible to create artificial nesting sites for a number of common species, particularly Mason Bees. These bee houses are also called 'trap nests', or in America, 'bee condos'. It has become fashionable to call them 'bee hotels' but I feel that this is misleading, as they are not short-term accommodation like a hotel room, they are the bee's permanent home for nine months or more of its short life as it develops from an egg through a larval stage, into adulthood. All you need is a wooden box, open on one side, which is then fixed to a sunny fence or wall. You then fill it with blocks of wood or small logs in which you have drilled small holes. A variety of solitary bees will use these tunnels as nest sites. The box does not need to be deeper than 8ins, but must have an overhang at the top to keep rain off. You may already have a wooden box or a drawer from an old wooden chest of drawers that you can adapt for this purpose. If not, you can make one. The one in the picture is 8ins deep, 12 ins high at the front and 12ins wide, made out of untreated European spruce. I have given it a sloping, slightly overhanging roof to deflect rain. I have not put a back on the example in photograph, because if you intend to fix the box against a wall or fence, you don't need to put a back on it, or you can make a back of chicken wire, simply to help keep the wooden blocks in place. If the bee house is to be free standing, fixed to a pole, you will need to give it a wooden back, to give protection from rain and wind. It is really important to protect your bee nest tubes from heavy persistent rain. The dimensions do not have to be exact and you can make a larger bee house if you want. It is also possible to make a very large, free standing one, and pile up drilled logs and timber in it. (See photograph at foot of this page). For the structure of the house you can use any timber that you have to hand, so long as it has not been recently treated with a preservative. If you don't have any timber around that you can re-cycle, builders merchants often have off cuts of wood available cheaply. Composite materials such as hardboard, chipboard or particleboard tend to disintegrate in the rain and are not suitable. Inside the shell of the bee house you stack dry logs or sections of untreated timber, up to about 7ins in length, into which you have drilled a selection of holes of varying diameters between 2mm and 10mm, but no bigger. [Note that the diameter of the holes in some commercially sold wooden solitary bee houses is too large, and the bees cannot use them!] The open ends of these holes should face outwards, and must be smooth, and free of splinters. This is very important. If necessary use a countersinking drill bit, or sandpaper, to clean and smooth the entrance to each hole, as the bees will not enter holes with rough splintered wood around them. Carefully clean away any sawdust, as this will also put them off. If you are able to obtain extra- long drill bits and can drill deep holes into the wood you can make your bee house deeper, and stack longer sections of drilled logs and timber in it. The bee house must be positioned in full sun, facing south east or south, at least a metre off the ground, and there must be no vegetation in front of it obscuring the entrances to the tunnels. Again this is very important. Solitary bees are cold-blooded and rely on the sun's heat to warm them up in the morning, hence the need for a sunny site. They do not have furry coats to keep themselves warm like bumblebees do. Different species of Mason Bees (Osmia) will occupy different diameters of tunnels. They will construct a series of 'cells' in each tunnel. In each cell they leave a block of pollen that they have collected from nearby flowers, lay an egg, and wall it up with mud they have collected from the ground nearby (see image of walled-up tubes below right). In dry weather make a small mud patch for them. Their habit of using mud as a plaster to wall up their cells led them many years ago to be named Mason Bees, 'mason' being an old word for a builder of plasterer. Their name has nothing to do with 'masonry', in fact they do not live in brick walls as a rule. If you have solitary bees living in old mortar in a wall they are more likely to be Anthophora plumipes or Anthidium manicatum,. Download the wild bee fact sheet from my fact sheets page for more about these two species. Later in the summer, Leafcutter Bees (Megachile) may also use the tunnels, lining their cells with circles of leaf that they cut from wild rose bushes. In the picture above a Leafcutter Bee has walled up the cell at the top and a Mason Bee has walled up the cell below with mud. When you drill holes in logs or posts, make sure you include plenty of holes of smaller diameters (down to 2mm). If you like you can drill these in separate pieces of wood or have a completely separate bee house for them. You will get various other species small solitary bees using them. The smallest holes will attract the Harebell Bee (Chelostema campanularum) during June and July. In the wild this species uses holes in dead wood vacated by the Furniture Beetle ('woodworm'). Using the smallest drill bit I could get I drilled the hole shown in the image on the right. It is being examined by a Harebell Bee (much enlarged). You can also place commercial bee tubes in your bee house, as illustrated on the right. These cardboard tubes are very popular with Red Mason Bees, but do not suit the smaller species. They are now marketed by a few on-line suppliers, such as CJ Wild Birds Ltd. (www.birdfood.co.uk). Bee activity will cease by mid-September at the latest; Mason Bees earlier. Inside the tubes and tunnels, each cell will have been provisioned with a mixture of pollen and nectar by the mother bee and a tiny egg has been laid. The egg soon hatches and the larva develops rapidly by eating the the nutritious mixture of pollen and nectar. The larvae then pupate. Osmias will spend the next 9 months or so in a dormant state as pupae, until they are ready to emerge as adult bees the following spring or summer. Some other species such as Anthophora spend most of this period as fully-formed but dormant adults. You can remove the occupied logs and tubes and keep them in a cold dry place during the winter, to protect them from winter wet, replacing them in the bee house in March. An unheated shed, porch, or carport will do. This is very important – winter wet, not cold, is their enemy. Do not store in a warm place – they need to be cold and dry during the winter. Persistent wind-blown rain can dissolve the mud walls of the cells, and cause both wooden blocks and cardboard bee tubes to rot, and the young bees will succumb to fungus diseases. As autumns and winters can be very rainy, you must ensure your bee tubes are protected from excessive wet. If your bee house has a good overhanging roof and is rainproof you can leave the tubes there. Otherwise they must be moved somewhere cold and dry during the autumn and winter. From April onwards, young bees that have over-wintered in a dormant state inside the tunnels will emerge, and start the cycle over again. Many of the elaborate 'insect habitat hotels' now shown in gardening programmes on TV, in magazines and at gardening shows such as Chelsea are ornamental rather than functional I'm afraid. Unless they incorporate serious shelter from winter wet including a robust roof, the wood will become saturated and the structure will not be suitable for over wintering insects such as solitary bees. If you notice Woodpeckers or other birds attacking the tunnels looking for bee larvae, fix a piece of chicken wire across the front of the bee house. This does not seem to deter the bees. An even simpler alternative is to make a bee post – drill a variety of holes up to 12mm in diameter into the side of a thick piece of untreated timber, and fix to a sunny wall or fence. (See photograph). Again this should be kept in a dry, cool place in winter and brought out in March. If left outside to endure winter rains these small posts can soon get too damp. Smooth down the entrances to the holes thoroughly so there are no sharp splinters, as these will put the bees off. New fence posts from garden centres are unsuitable because they have been treated with chemicals, but lengths of very old fence posts or old roof joists, such as you often find on skips, are ideal. In my experience the bee post is not as popular with the solitary bees as the bee houses described above, but other people have good success with it. Bundles of bamboo canes, sawn into lengths about 8ins long just below a joint may also be occupied by solitary bees, as will bundles of rigid dried stems of various herbaceous garden plants, especially raspberries, brambles, teasels, and elder. Some species of bees prefer these stems and will not use drilled holes. Rolls of dried reeds (sold as portable screens in garden centres) can also be cut up and placed in your bee house will be used by very small species of solitary bees. The bundles of stems must be kept completely dry at all times, under some sort of shelter - they will soon rot if exposed to rain. If you make a larger bee house you will have scope to include all of these nesting opportunities. A number of commercially made wooden bee houses are available. Some of them are quite expensive, and one particular design does not work as the holes are too large! So beware wasting your money. The beauty of home-made bee houses is that you can use re-cycled or waste wood and logs and make them for virtually nothing. And of course the cardboard tubes that I mention above, and that you can see in the illustrations above, are very popular with Mason Bees. Only solitary bees will use the kind of bee house I describe here. The needs of bumblebees are very different - their nests consist of communal wax combs, which they construct mostly in holes underground or in long tussocky grass. Bumblebee boxes are available from many wildlife gardening outlets, and some are hugely expensive - yet bumblebees rarely take to them. Beware wasting your money! Better to encourage the kind of flowery habitat, not over-manicured, that bumblebees like, and let them find their own nest sites. The website of the Bumblebee Conservation Trust has good advice about bumblebee nests, and how you can make inexpensive nest sites yourself. There is more information about Bumblebees on my BUMBLEBEES page. Various other sorts of parasitic solitary wasps and parasitic bees will find your bee house once it is occupied, preying on, or taking over, the nest cells of mason bees. Don't worry about them, they are all part of the fascinating community of insects. It is easy to make a larger house for solitary bees. I first saw one like this in Switzerland in the early 1980s. Since then I have seen them on several occasions in Germany and Switzerland, but curiously they are rare in the UK. It is time to put that deficiency right! The one on the left is about 5ft (1.5m) high. I made it out of recycled wood with part of a disused fence panel at the back. It has an overhanging tile roof to deflect rain. On the continent wildlife gardeners also build special bee walls of soft mortar for species that tunnel in mortar or cliffs and don't like logs. Again, time to introduce such walls to the UK. For more info about some common solitary bees and what flowers will attract them, download the 'World of Wild Bees' fact sheet from my fact sheets page. For links to sites with images of wild bee houses around the world and lots of other cool stuff to do with wild bees, take a look at this site: Resonating Bodies. Even more information and fact sheets about bee homes and the conservation of various species wild bees in the UK are available from Hymettus Ltd, a conservation charity for wild bees and related insects. If you are reading this page in the USA or Canada, you have different species of solitary bees to those here in the UK, but lots of them will benefit from providing nest sites exactly like the ones I describe here. On my North America page there are some more links to sites that will tell you about solitary bees and other pollinators in your countries. © Marc Carlton 2011. You may print this page for personal use or for non-commercial, not-for-profit educational purposes. Other reproduction is prohibited without permission.Contact

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Health insurance didn’t even exist for almost another 100 years after the Constitution was ratified, so it stands to reason that the ‘founding fathers’ had no concept of it at the time. I originally wrote this in response to a Facebook comment on Henry Koren’s thread asking about the meaning of “general welfare” in the Constitution and how it affected the Healthcare Reform debate. He reprinted my comment, with my permission, on his blog, and I’m reprinting it here too. The Constitution was written over two centuries ago and is an actively re-interpreted and occasionally amended document. The Supreme Court exists specifically to interpret the Constitution within the context of modern situations that are not always clearly covered or even conceived of under the original language of the document as written. Health insurance didn’t even exist for almost another 100 years after the Constitution was ratified, so it stands to reason that the ‘founding fathers’ had no concept of it at the time. Furthermore, there were 2 schools of thought even among the writers of the Constitution: the Madisonian, or “doctrine of strict construction” and the Hamiltonian, or “doctrine of implied powers.” The Madisonians believed the government should be strictly limited to the responsibilities directly enumerated in the Constitution. The Hamiltonians believed that the Federal govt could levy new taxes and spend money outside of the strict limits of the Constitution if it improved the general welfare of the people in a broad sense. In 1936, the Supreme Court sided with the Hamiltonian interpretation, stating “the power of Congress to authorize expenditure of public moneys for public purposes is not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.” In 1937, upholding the constitutionality of a federal unemployment compensation program along with the Social Security Act, the Court further stated that “the conception of the spending power advocated by Hamilton… has prevailed over that of Madison.” and that a situation had developed (with respect to unemployment) wherein “the states were unable to give the requisite relief. The problem had become national in area and dimensions. There was need of help from the nation.” On that same day the Supreme Court upheld the joint federal/state cooperation necessary to make the Social Security and unemployment programs possible. As a constitutionally-formed body that exists to interpret the Constitution as it applies to new situations and context, the Supreme Court’s body of decisions carry the full weight and power of the Constitution itself and can only be overturned by subsequent decisions of the Supreme Court or by constitutional amendment. As such, it makes little sense to return to the “original document” when we have more recent and constitutionally valid body of precedent to serve us, and when even the writers of said document were not in agreement over the scope of the government’s powers. It seems clear to me that the 1936-7 decisions gave the Federal government broad power to spend for the general welfare and then indeed DID define “general welfare” to include the relief of its citizens, especially when situations arise such that individual states are unable or unwilling to provide relief, and the problem is national in “area and dimension”. Further social welfare programs by the Federal government have survived constitutional challenges, no doubt in no small part thanks to these SC decisions, and this only further cements that the US govt has the right and responsibility to act for the general welfare in a broader sense than originally outlined by the Constitution or supported by the Madisonian school. The issue, then, becomes whether one believes health care has become a problem that is national in scope and intensity, and whether the federal government should act to address the problem directly, but I think the Supreme Court’s decisions and the continued existence of other federally-supported social welfare programs confirm that such action is indeed supported by the law of the land and that the federal government is well within its jurisdiction to implement remedies.

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Scientists have long believed that thawing permafrost in Arctic soils could release huge amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Now they are watching with increasing concern as methane begins to bubble up from the bottom of the fast-melting Arctic 30 Oct 2008: Report For the past 15 years, scientists from Russia and other nations have ventured into the ice-bound and little-studied Arctic Ocean above Siberia to monitor the temperature and chemistry of the sea, including levels of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Their scientific cruises on the shallow continental shelf occurred as sea ice in the Arctic Ocean was rapidly melting and as northern Siberia was earning the distinction — along with the North American Arctic and the western Antarctic Peninsula —of warming faster than any place on Earth. Until 2003, concentrations of methane had remained relatively stable in the Arctic Ocean and the atmosphere north of Siberia. But then they began to rise. This summer, scientists taking part in the six-week International Siberian Shelf Study discovered numerous areas, spread over thousands of square miles, where large quantities of methane — a gas with 20-times the heat-trapping power of carbon dioxide — rose from the once-frozen seabed floor. These “methane chimneys” sometimes contained concentrations of the gas 100 times higher than background levels and were so large that clouds of gas bubbles were detected "rising up through the water column," Orjan Gustafsson of the Department of Applied Environmental Science at Stockholm University and the co-leader of the expedition, said in an interview. There was no doubt, he said, that the methane was coming from sub-sea permafrost, indicating that the sea bottom might be melting and freeing up this potent greenhouse gas. Gustafsson said he makes no claims that the methane release “is necessarily driven by global warming.” The route of the Jacob Smirnitskyi, a Russian research vessel that traveled along the Russian Arctic coast this summer as part of the International Siberian Shelf Study. Scientists detected extremely high levels of methane in the sea during the six-week voyage. The purple grid shows areas where researchers But a growing body of data showing that more methane is emanating from the rapidly thawing Arctic Ocean has caught the attention of many climate scientists. Could this be the beginning, they wonder, of the release of vast quantities of sub-sea Arctic methane long trapped by a permafrost layer that is starting to thaw? In recent years, climate scientists have been concerned about a so-called “methane time bomb” on land, which would be detonated when warming Arctic temperatures melt permafrost and cause frozen vegetation in peat bogs and other areas to decay, releasing methane and carbon dioxide. Now come fears of a methane time bomb, part two, this one bursting from the sea floor of the shallow Arctic continental shelf. The Arctic sea floor contains a rich, decayed layer of vegetation from earlier eras when the continental shelf was not underwater. So little data is available from the Arctic Ocean that no scientists dare say with certainty whether the world is watching the fuse being lit on a marine methane time bomb. But researchers such as Natalia Shakhova —a visiting scientist at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks and a participant in some of the Siberian Shelf scientific cruises — are concerned that the undersea permafrost layer has become unstable and is leaking methane long locked in ice crystals, known as "Now come fears of a methane time bomb, part two, this one bursting from the sea floor of the shallow Arctic continental shelf." One thing is certain: the shallow Siberian Shelf alone covers more than 1.5 million square kilometers (580,000 square miles), an area larger than France, Germany, and Spain combined. Should its permafrost layer thaw, an amount of methane equal to 12 times the current level in the atmosphere could be released, according to Shakhova. Such a release would cause “catastrophic global warming,” she recently wrote in Geophysical Research Abstracts. Among the many unanswered questions is how quickly — over years? centuries? — methane releases might occur. Said Gustafsson, “The conventional view is that the permafrost is holding these large methane reservoirs in place. That is a view that we need to rethink and revise.” What concerns some scientists is evidence from past geological eras that sudden releases of methane have triggered runaway cycles of climate upheaval. Martin Kennedy, a geologist at the University of California at Riverside and lead author of a paper published in Nature in June, speaks in near-doomsday terms, warning that rising methane emissions — from land and sea — threaten to radically destabilize the climate. Ice core studies in Greenland and Antarctica have shown that Earth’s climate can change abruptly, more like flipping a switch than slowly turning a dial. “I’m very concerned that we’re near the threshold and we’re going to see the tipping point in 20 years,” Kennedy warns. Temperature increases in the Arctic of a just few degrees could unleash the huge storehouse of methane, which some have estimated would be comparable to burning all recoverable stocks of coal, oil, and natural gas. concerns some scientists is evidence from past geological eras that sudden releases of methane have triggered runaway cycles of climate Kennedy’s Nature article bases his warnings on a long-ago event. Sediment samples gathered in south Australia led Kennedy’s team to theorize that a catastrophic era of global warming was triggered some 635 million years ago by a gradual — and then abrupt — release of methane from frozen soils, bringing an end to “Snowball Earth,” when the entire planet was encrusted in ice. He sees similarities in the mounting threats of thawing terrestrial and marine permafrost today. The question, he asks, is what will set the process in motion and when. “Do we have a substantial risk of crossing one of these thresholds?” he asked in an interview. “I would say yes. I have absolutely no doubt that at the current rate of [greenhouse gas emissions] we can cross a tipping point, and when that occurs it’s too late to do anything about it.” As with much climate research, the science is complex and opinions can vary dramatically. David Lawrence of the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, is concerned, but not alarmed. Lawrence was lead author of a paper in Geophysical Research Letters, also published in June, that documented the consequences of the record loss of Arctic sea ice in 2007. Based on climate models, Lawrence and his team theorized that during periods of rapid sea-ice loss, temperatures could increase as far as 900 miles inland, accelerating the rate of terrestrial permafrost thaw. From August to October of 2007, they reported, temperatures over land in the western Arctic rose more than 4° F above the 1978-2006 average. “If you give it [the land] a pulse of warming like that it could lead to increased degradation of permafrost,” Lawrence said in an interview. “It’s not quite a runaway situation, but it does accelerate once it starts to thaw and accumulates heat.” Arctic soils hold nearly one-third of the world’s supply of carbon, remnants of an era when even the northern latitudes were covered with lush foliage and mammoths ranged over grassy steppes. Scientists estimate that the Siberian tundra contains as much buried organic matter as the world’s tropical rain forests. Disappearing Arctic sea ice — summer ice extent was at its lowest level in recorded history in 2007 and almost hit that level in 2008 — also will warm the Arctic Ocean, since a dark, ice-free sea absorbs more solar radiation than a white, ice-covered one. In addition, warmer waters are pouring in from rivers in rapidly warming land regions of Alaska, Canada, and Russia, also increasing sea "Scientists are stepping up their monitoring of the land and the sea in the Arctic." Rising ocean and air temperatures mean not only the continuing disappearance of Arctic sea ice — many scientists now think the Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer within two decades — but also mean that permafrost on the sea floor could thaw more quickly. Scientists are unsure how rapidly the subsurface permafrost is thawing, or the exact causes. One possible cause could be geothermal heat seeping through fault zones. In any case, scientists agree that Arctic sub-sea permafrost — with a temperature of 29° F to 30° F— is closer to thawing than terrestrial permafrost, whose temperature can drop as low as 9.5° F. At this point, scientists are stepping up their monitoring of the land and the sea in the Arctic, watching to see if either time bomb — terrestrial or marine — is showing signs of going off. So far, data are scarce and monitoring networks don’t exist. “That makes it very difficult to understand and evaluate the future,” Lawrence said. Although scientists know that methane has been released in the region’s water for eons, they are unsure if the new findings represent a short-term spike or long-term trend. Pending more research, Orjan Gustafsson shares Lawrence’s caution. When he was asked how close Earth may be to a tipping point of irreversible climate change, he replied: “Everyone would like to know the answer to that. I don’t think anyone can say.” the article is reprinted from Yale Environment 360 e360.yale.edu

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In this conversation recorded in June, Dr. Caldicott talks with California anti-nuclear activist, Marion Pack. Pack is one of many members of the Orange County community who highlight serious safety issues with the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, located a few miles south of San Clemente, California. If San Onofre were to melt down, it would contaminate Los Angeles, San Diego, Orange County, and make large regions of southern California uninhabitable forever. As background, read Shut down San Onofre: The continuing nuclear threat to southern California and Bad Vibrations: San Onofre steam generators cannot safely be repaired – new Fairewinds video and report. Topics addressed in the interview include nuclear waste, the 1980s Nuclear Freeze movement, the present public apathy toward nuclear war, and the many recent safety risks and radiation leaks at the San Onofre nuclear plant between San Diego and Los Angeles, where whistleblowers have been threatened. They examine a terrifying close call which brought the plant close to a major accident, and how San Onofre’s position on three major earthquake fault lines, right on the coast, makes it a sitting duck for a major meltdown like Fukushima. Later in the program, Dr. Caldicott stresses the urgent need for civil disobedience around nuclear issues and global warming, in the face of political inertia. She refers to Kumi Naidoo, head of Greenpeace. Read Civil Disobedience Needed to Win Action on Climate Change, New Greenpeace Chief Says. She also refers to Peter Finch’s famous scene in the film Network in discussing the level of outrage the public should exhibit toward threats to the planet. For a recent update on San Onofre, read the November 30 Friends of the Earth press release: San Onofre: Laguna Hills meeting no substitute for formal court hearings about the local utility’s plans to restart one of the crippled reactors. For more information, see sanonofresafety.org.

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Advocates of same-sex “marriage” present the idea as a step forward for tolerance and respect. But recent developments place that interpretation very much in doubt. Legalizing same-sex “marriage” is not a stand-alone policy, independent of all the other activities of the state. Once governments assert that same-sex unions are the equivalent of marriage, those governments must defend and enforce a whole host of other social changes. Unfortunately, these government-enforced changes conflict with a wide array of ordinary liberties, including religious freedom and ordinary private property rights. It began with the persecution of Catholic Charities in Boston. The archdiocese eventually closed down its adoption program, because the state of Massachusetts insisted that every adoption agency in the state must allow same-sex couples to adopt. Recently, a Methodist organization in New Jersey lost part of its tax-exempt status because it refused to allow two lesbian couples to use their facility for a civil union ceremony. In Quebec, a Mennonite school was informed that it must conform to the official provincial curriculum, which includes teaching homosexuality as an acceptable alternative lifestyle. At last report, the Mennonites were considering leaving the province rather than permit the imposition of the state-sponsored curriculum on their children. And recently, a wedding photographer in New Mexico faces a hearing with the state’s Human Rights Commission because she declined the business of a lesbian couple. She didn’t want to take photos of their commitment ceremony. The underlying pattern is unmistakable. Legalizing same-sex “marriage” has brought in its wake state regulation of other parts of society. The problem is sometimes presented as an issue of religious freedom, and so, in part, it is. But the issue runs deeper than religious freedom. McGill University professor Douglas Farrow argues in his book A Nation of !@#$% that redefining marriage allows the government to colonize all of civil society. If same-sex couples can marry each other, they should be allowed to adopt. Anyone who says otherwise is acting against the policy of the state. If same-sex couples can have civil unions, then denying them the use of any facility they want for their ceremony amounts to unlawful discrimination. When the state says that same sex couples are equivalent to opposite-sex couples, school curriculum will inevitably have to support this claim. Marriage between men and women is a pre-political, naturally emerging social institution. Men and women come together to create children, independently of any government. The duty of caring for those children exists even without a government or any political order. Marriage protects children as well as the interests of each parent in their common project of raising those children. Because marriage is an organic part of civil society, it is robust enough to sustain itself, with minimal assistance from the state. By contrast, same-sex “marriage” is completely a creation of the state. Same-sex couples cannot have children. Someone must give them a child or at least half the genetic material to create a child. The state must detach the parental rights of the opposite-sex parent and then attach those rights to the second parent of the same-sex couple. The state must create parentage for the same-sex couple. For the opposite-sex couple, the state merely recognizes parentage. In her essay in The Meaning of Marriage, Seana Sugrue argues that the state must coddle and protect same-sex “marriage” in ways that opposite-sex marriage does not require. Precisely because same-sex unions are not the same as opposite-sex marriage, the state must intervene to make people believe (or at least make them act as if they believe) that the two types of unions are equivalent. Public schools in California are soon going to be required to be “gay friendly.” A doctor has been sued because she didn’t want to perform an artificial insemination on a lesbian couple. A private school is in trouble for disciplining two female students for kissing. All in the name of supporting the rights of same-sex couples to “equality” with straight couples. The fact that opposite- and same-sex couples are different in significant ways means that there will always be scope for the state to expand its reach into more and more private areas of more and more people’s lives. Perhaps some people think it is okay to shut down Catholic adoption agencies, because the Catholics have it coming to them: The Church’s enemies are many. Perhaps some people don’t care for Methodists, and don’t care whether they lose their tax-exempt status. But the Mennonites? These are the most inoffensive people on the planet. They have been pacifists for centuries. Their continued existence here in North America is a testimony to the strength of our ideals of religious tolerance and pluralism, in all the best senses of those terms. But now, in the name of equality of same-sex couples, the Mennonites are being driven out of Quebec. Perhaps you think people have a natural civil right to marry the person of their choosing. But can you really force yourself to believe that wedding photography is a civil right? Maybe you believe that same-sex couples are entitled to have children, somehow. But is any doctor they might encounter required to inseminate them? Advocates of same-sex “marriage” insist that theirs is a modest reform: a mere expansion of marriage to include people currently excluded. But the price of same-sex “marriage” is a reduction in tolerance for everyone else, and an expansion of the power of the state. Jennifer Roback Morse is the senior fellow in economics at the Acton Institute and the author of Love and Economics: It Takes a Family to Raise a Village, newly reissued in paperback.

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Chemists Study Mutated Plants, Possibly Better for Biofuels Genetic mutations to cellulose in plants could improve the conversion of cellulosic biomass into biofuels, according to a research team that included two Iowa State University chemists. The team recently published its findings in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Mei Hong, an Iowa State professor of chemistry and an associate of the U.S. Department of Energy's Ames Laboratory, and Tuo Wang, an Iowa State graduate student in chemistry, contributed their expertise in solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to the study. The study was led by Seth DeBolt, an associate professor of horticulture at the University of Kentucky in Lexington. Chris Somerville, the Philomathia Professor of Alternative Energy and director of the Energy Biosciences Institute at the University of California, Berkeley, is also a contributing author. The research project was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy. Researchers studied Arabidopsis thaliana, a common model plant in research studies, and its cellulose synthase membrane complex that produces the microfibrils of cellulose that surround all plant cells and form the basic structure of plant cell walls. These ribbons of cellulose are made of crystallized sugars. The crystal structure makes it difficult for enzymes to break down the cellulose to the sugars that can be fermented into alcohol for biofuels. And so DeBolt assembled a research team to see if genetic mutations in the plant membrane complex could produce what the researchers have called "wounded" cellulose that's not as crystalline and therefore easier to break down into sugar. Hong, who had done previous studies of plant cell walls, used her lab's solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance technology to study the cell walls created by the mutated system. The goals were to collect as much information as possible about the molecular structure of the cell walls to see if mutations to the plants resulted in changes to the cellulose. "We found that the crystalline cellulose content had decreased in the mutant cell walls," Hong said. "We can quantify the degree of change, and be very specific about the type of change." The cellulose microfibrils in the mutant cell walls, for example, were thinner than those found in normal plants, Hong said. The studies also found an additional type of cellulose with an intermediate degree of crystal structure. Hong said those findings suggest the genetic mutations did create differences in cellulose production and formation. The study also reports the cellulose produced by the mutated plant could be more efficiently processed into the sugars necessary for biofuel production. "What this work suggests, in very broad terms, is that it is possible to modify cellulose structure by genetic methods, so that potentially one can more easily extract cellulose from plants as energy sources," Hong said. The research team's paper said developing techniques to modify the structure of plant cellulose in crops for better and easier conversion to fermentable sugars "could be transformative in a bio-based economy."

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OK - so first it sounds odd that you are encoding a "user_id" (which sounds to me like a username) which I would think of as a relatively public peice of information - and not a password or something similarly secret - but the question is really about encryption, so I digress... "Strong enough" for any encryption algorithm is rated by how long will it take to decrypt the text without having the key (presuming that you've hidden away your secret key in a good way). No algorithm is "perfect" except the classic One Time Password - which is a fine academic example, but not so useable in 99% of cases, as it requires the same size key space as the data encrypted, and so you will be constantly generating and storing new key - which raises its own security concerns. So.. any realistic algorithm is considered "strong enough" if it will take longer to decrypt the material w/out the key than the information is worth. So - if the information is my lunch plans for tomorrow, it's likely that my encryption algorithm may only need to delay an attacker 24 hours by which time, the event will be over, and it wouldn't matter cause you can't find me there anymore... but it may matter for years, if my lunch was some historic event or something. So the factors of encryption cracking calculation include: - what are the weaknesses of the algorithm - some algorithms can have weak key sets that are eaiser to decrypt, others can get proved to add little value (some forms of DES) what is the size of the key space - if all keys are equally secure, then the obvious way to crack the algorithm is to try every possible key of the given size - how many keys is a factor of storage size and the nature of how keys are chosen (for example, prime numbers are used in assymetric encryption) how hard is testing a decryption - how long will it take to try a test with a given key choice? So... in a simple algorithm, time to crack can be: # of keys in key space X time to test a key That is usually factored over how many resources can you reasonably expect a hacker to have? A small organization may have 10-50 machines. A nation state may have millions. What is the nature of the threat - how much computational power can they resonably have? You don't necessarily assume its limited by thier purchasing power at Best Buy - if they are technically sophistcated, they have a massively parellel botnet of malicious software on innocent user machines doing their computation.

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July 1, 2009 - This past February, President Obama signed the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act which included $1.1 billion to support research on the comparative effectiveness of drugs, medical devices, surgical procedures and treatments. The purpose of this comparative-effectiveness research (CER) is to fulfill three important objectives, according to a recent New England Journal of Medicine set of editorials. The three objectives are: - Acceleration of research into everyday care. - Enhance the opportunities for doctors and patients to define value (balancing benefits with costs). - Allow care givers and patients to communicate with researchers and policy makers about clinically important issues. Along with the above objectives, evidenced based medicine (EBM) has been placed in the forefront of medical care. EBM is the use of proven diagnostic techniques and therapies based on rigorous scientific studies. Most practices in medicine today are supported by some research and are based on what appears to be effective, rather than on double-blind controlled studies. These double-blind controlled studies typically take two groups with comparable characteristics (age, sex, severity of illness, etc.) and give one group the therapy believed to be the best available and the other group the new therapy. Sometimes the new therapy is tested against a placebo to see which is more effective or which has more side effects. This is done because receiving the placebo helps some people but causes side effects in others probably due to psychological reasons. Years ago, in a study to measure the efficacy of aspirin versus placebo in the prevention of heart attacks; strangely, the placebo group had more side effects. One might also be surprised by the length of time needed to implement healthcare changes that have been proven to save lives; and, conversely, the number of therapies which are commonly used although they have been proven to be ineffective. A Harvard Business Review study showed that it takes 17 years on average to implement changes suggested by evidence based medicine (EBM). Here are some examples of therapies which still are not universally implemented but have been proven to save lives. The acute treatment of a heart attack has been shown to be best when the heart attack can be stopped within ninety minutes by opening the blood vessel to the heart muscle using direct physical intervention in a Cath Lab (a place where cardiac angiography is performed). This technique which has been in place at NCH since 2000 is still not used in the majority of hospitals in the United States. Other hospitals use a clot buster type of medicine which does not work as well as physically placing a stent in the blocked blood vessel. An example of a therapy which was never rigorously tested but was used for years has recently been shown not to be effective. One of the recommended therapies for osteoarthritis (the wear and tear type of arthritis) of the knee was washing out debris (lavage) or debridement of the knee joint using arthroscopy. In a 2002 article in the New England Journal of Medicine entitled, “The placebo effect: reduction of pain after knee surgery” by Dr. J. B. Moseley and colleagues, claimed that this technique was subsequently shown to be no better than sham surgery or no treatment at all. Please note: this study was not directed to the effectiveness of total knee surgery or the use of arthroscopy for mechanical derangements in the knee in which replacement or repair with arthroscopy, respectively, does work. Another example where the jury is still out is low back pain—second only to the common cold as a cause for seeking medical care. Conservative therapy for low back pain, including rest, physical therapy, and medications, was just as effective after one year as surgery in most patients. This observation is according to a 2006 Journal of the American Medical Association article which reported the following conclusion: “Patients with persistent sciatica from lumbar disk herniation improved in both operated and usual care groups. Those who chose operative intervention reported greater improvements than patients who elected non-operative care. However, non-randomized comparisons of self-reported outcomes are subject to potential confounding—and must be interpreted cautiously.” The same result was reported in the Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons in February where the following quote appears: “In most patients with low back pain, symptoms resolve without surgical intervention; physical therapy and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the cornerstones of nonsurgical treatment.” So we can all appreciate the current thrust to implement comparative-effective research which will both improve quality and decrease cost. As our President has stated, “Rising healthcare costs are the single most-pressing fiscal challenge we face by far” and “If we don't tackle healthcare, then we're going to break the bank.”

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Day 6 - Bastille Day Hey, everyone! Happy Bastille Day! The French definitely have something on the Americans with this holiday. This is a passionate event celebrated passionately. The event, the storming of the Bastille, a fortress-prison, was the flashpoint of the French Revolution and the uprising of the modern nation of France and the beginnings of the overthrow of a monarchy. Almost a hundred people died in this event that threw all of Paris into a chaos of barricades and armed demonstrators and ended with the beheading of the governor of the Bastille and led to an epidemic of beheadings over the next few years. Contrast that with America's celebration of Independence. We celebrate on July 4th. This date commemorates, effectively, a bunch of rich old white dudes putting quill to parchment. Now, don't get me wrong. The document itself is a passionate document that has world-wide significance and repercussions that are still feeling felt today. But the event of sitting down to sign a piece of paper kind of pales in comparison to mobbing a garrison while cannon fire is blowing through the crowd around you. And the actual date of the signing of the Declaration of Independence is not exactly clear - it could have been as early as July 2nd and as late as August 2nd. In fact, most of America's holidays could learn a bit from Bastille Day. We celebrate passionate ideas and passionate people, but we don't really celebrate passionate events. Memorial Day originated with our Civil War, but the date was specifically chosen to avoid an anniversary of any battle. President Grover Cleveland picked a day for Labor Day to specifically avoid the more internationally accepted date for Labor Day of May 1st. May 1st? A good day to riot. 1st Monday in September? A good day to barbeque or get a last trip to the beach in before school starts. Even Veterans Day celebrates the signing of paperwork rather than a key battle. It would be really hard to change the dates of American holidays at this point, but I suppose we could all learn something from the French and perhaps we could celebrate those dates a little more passionately. Thank you, France.

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Prague History, Czech Republic Human habitation in Prague dates back around 6000 BC. Stable farming was established by the Germanic and Celtic tribes about 4000 BC. The Slavs came by the change of the new millennium and settled both sides of the lovely stretch of Vltava River by 600 BC. They effectively safeguarded the land known as Bohemia for quite some time. The temporary domain established Christianity to the locals. It was Good King Wenceslas who declared it as Bohemia’s state religion in 930s. The king continued to be the patron saint of Czech Republic. Under Charles IV’s rule, Prague became one of the leading and highly affluent cities, getting the Gothic face and landmark edifices such as Charles University, St Vitus Cathedral and Charles Bridge. A rebellion channeled the Thirty Years War that destroyed big parts of Europe - part of Bohemia perished. This deviated to the independence of Czech for nearly three centuries. Yet the Czech spirit was not destroyed. Czech Republic’s journey to independence drawn below: · By 19th century, Prague became the hub of the Czech National Revival. Literature, journalism and architecture were renowned. The nationalist outlook was increasing as pro-democracy rallies brushed the continent. · The 1848 revolution was instantly squelched. · Yet in 1861, the Czechs crushed the German aspirants for the council of Prague. · Prague’s 20th century unified the country’s nationalist movement. The Czechs took no interest in battling for its Austrian leaders in WWI. Next-door Slovakia was also hesitant. The heads of both movements come to US President Wilson to ask for help in attaining the dream. · Through Allied support, Czech became independent in 1918 and Prague was the capital. The country windswept the horrible Great Depression but was conquered by Nazi Germany. Prague's 120,000 Jews were all wiped out. Some were starved while others were killed at the concentration camps. In 1945, Prague’s population fought the German forces. Majority of Prague was freed prior to the arrival of Soviets. During the 1946 national elections, the communists turn out to be the republic's leading party. After years of plodding liberalization, full democracy and socialism became the objectives of the famous movement. The strict communist headship upheld control until 1989. Diplomatic demonstrations became challenging, although the fundamentally peaceful nature of the revolution got the name Velvet Revolutions. There were free elections held during 1990. The Slovakian and Czech separatists encouraged the even split into the Slovak Republics and the Czech in 1993, referred to as the Velvet Divorce. Thus, Prague became a top tourist destination of the world in the 1990s. The sound of cash records mixed with a firm business base left the populace in good, if not better economy rather than those who are in the other parts of Czech. Much has been invested for the city, thus providing destinations that are more pleasurable. Now, the Czech Republic is a member of EU with Prague gracefully finding a better place in this modern world. Prague experienced horrible floods for nearly two centuries. More than ten people perished and thousands were forced to leave their homes and trades. The city hub was closed and the centuries-old Charles Bridge was carried by the flood. The ultimate damage was estimates in billions of US dollar. Prague’s Jewish Quarter also suffered extensive harm - Troja and Karlin districts, various cultural and sightseer attractions and the metro structure. But despite all that, Prague was able to surface, showing the city’s soaring spirit. Things about Prague you may be interested in Browse Prague Travel Deals Read our members' reviews about Prague - Prague for every taste review by Wazling posted more then 30 days ago The city itself isn't very nice, besides the city center, what is pretty beautiful. There you have the place of Wenzel, where a lot of historic buildings are located. There you can also go shopping or just enjoy one of the restaurants or bars. In the night it's very interesting walking around in... - Trip to Prague review by Wazling posted more then 30 days ago That trip was really long ago, but interesting. We have rent a whole loft for just nothing. So we could enjoy the trip by spending money only for going out at night. The city offered us great views and she still doing that. The Wenzels place and the bars and retaurants around it was the place we... Read our members' travel tips about Prague - Strahov Monastery and Library travel tip by welt-raiser posted more then 30 days ago In 1143 Vladislav II founded Strahov Monastery, the second oldest of its kind in Prague. It is the home of Premonstratensian monks and a wonderful library with an exceptional collection of theological and philosophical works.The quarters... - Franz Kafka Museum travel tip by stef posted more then 30 days ago As Prague is the birthplace of Kafka, this genius of literature, Franz Kafka Museum is a must see if you're in the city. The museum was moved here from Barcelona in 1999, and let's admit, Prague is a much better place for it as... - Prague Castle travel tip by luci posted more then 30 days ago There is so much to see and do in Prague Castle that you will have to give it at least one afternoon. But then, it's perfectly worth every second. The Castle is actually a whole town of wonderful sights: the Royal Palace, galleries,... Prague City Ratings Members Who Have Been to Prague Community Galleries About Prague Recent Prague flights found by Travelgrove users - $744 Aeroflot faregeek.com check price From To Departure Time Los Angeles, CA (LAX) Prague, CZ (PRG) 11/06/2013 03:45 pm Prague, CZ (PRG) Los Angeles, CA (LAX) 11/27/2013 11:30 pm - $929 Thy Turkish Airlines cheapoair.com check price From To Departure Time Chicago, IL (ORD) Prague, CZ (PRG) 11/12/2013 10:00 pm Prague, CZ (PRG) Chicago, IL (ORD) 11/26/2013 06:45 pm - $1065 Multiple Airlines flighthub.com check price From To Departure Time Toronto, ON (YYZ) Prague, CZ (PRG) 06/22/2013 06:20 pm Prague, CZ (PRG) Toronto, ON (YYZ) 07/22/2013 06:10 pm

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Henry Gray (18211865). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918. 4c. The Fore-brain or Prosencephalon The fore-brain or prosencephalon consists of: (1) the diencephalon, corresponding in a large measure to the third ventricle and the structures which bound it; and (2) the telencephalon, comprising the largest part of the brain, viz., the cerebral hemispheres; these hemispheres are intimately connected with each other across the middle line, and each contains a large cavity, named the lateral ventricle. The lateral ventricles communicate through the interventricular foramen with the third ventricle, but are separated from each other by a medial septum, the septum pellucidum; this contains a slit-like cavity, which does not communicate with the ventricles. FIG. 715 Mesal aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane. (See enlarged image) The Diencephalon.The diencephalon is connected above and in front with the cerebral hemispheres; behind with the mid-brain. Its upper surface is concealed by the corpus callosum, and is covered by a fold of pia mater, named the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle; inferiorly it reaches to the base of the brain. The diencephalon comprises: (1) the thalamencephalon; (2) the pars mamillaris hypothalami; and (3) the posterior part of the third ventricle. For descriptive purposes, however, it is more convenient to consider the whole of the third ventricle and its boundaries together; this necessitates the inclusion, under this heading, of the pars optica hypothalami and the corresponding part of the third ventriclestructures which properly belong to the telencephalon. The Thalamencephalon.The thalamencephalon comprises: (1) the thalamus; (2) the metathalamus or corpora geniculata; and (3) the epithalamus, consisting of the trigonum habenulæ, the pineal body, and the posterior commissure. The Thalami (optic thalamus) (Figs. 716,717) are two large ovoid masses, situated one on either side of the third ventricle and reaching for some distance behind that cavity. Each measures about 4 cm. in length, and presents two extremities, an anterior and a posterior, and four surfaces, superior, inferior, medial, and lateral. The posterior extremity is expanded, directed backward and lateralward, and overlaps the superior colliculus. Medially it presents an angular prominence, the pulvinar, which is continued laterally into an oval swelling, the lateral geniculate body, while beneath the pulvinar, but separated from it by the superior brachium, is a second oval swelling, the medial geniculate body. The superior surface is free, slightly convex, and covered by a layer of white substance, termed the stratum zonale. It is separated laterally from the caudate nucleus by a white band, the stria terminalis, and by the terminal vein. It is divided into a medial and a lateral portion by an oblique shallow furrow which runs from behind forward and medialward and corresponds with the lateral margin of the fornix; the lateral part forms a portion of the floor of the lateral ventricle, and is covered by the epithelial lining of this cavity; the medial part is covered by the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, and is destitute of an epithelial covering. In front, the superior is separated from the medial surface by a salient margin, the tænia thalami, along which the epithelial lining of the third ventricle is reflected on to the under surface of the tela chorioidea. Behind, it is limited medially by a groove, the sulcus habenulæ, which intervenes between it and a small triangular area, termed the trigonum habenulæ. The medial surface constitutes the upper part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle, and is connected to the corresponding surface of the opposite thalamus by a flattened gray band, the massa intermedia (middle or gray commissure). This mass averages about 1 cm. in its antero-posterior diameter: it sometimes consists of two parts and occasionally is absent. It contains nerve cells and nerve fibers; a few of the latter may cross the middle line, but most of them pass toward the middle line and then curve lateralward on the same side. The lateral surface is in contact with a thick band of white substance which forms the occipital part of the internal capsule and separates the thalamus from the lentiform nucleus of the corpus striatum. Structure.The thalamus consists chiefly of gray substance, but its upper surface is covered by a layer of white substance, named the stratum zonale, and its lateral surface by a similar layer termed the lateral medullary lamina. Its gray substance is incompletely subdivided into three partsanterior, medial, and lateralby a white layer, the medial medullary lamina. The anterior part comprises the anterior tubercle, the medial part lies next the lateral wall of the third ventricle while the lateral and largest part is interposed between the medullary laminæ and includes the pulvinar. The lateral part is traversed by numerous fibers which radiate from the thalamus into the internal capsule, and pass through the latter to the cerebral cortex. These three parts are built up of numerous nuclei, the connections of many of which are imperfectly known. FIG. 718 Coronal section of brain through intermediate mass of third ventricle. (See enlarged image) Connections.The thalamus may be regarded as a large ganglionic mass in which the ascending tracts of the tegmentum and a considerable proportion of the fibers of the optic tract end, and from the cells of which numerous fibers (thalamocortical) take origin, and radiate to almost every part of the cerebral cortex. The lemniscus, together with the other longitudinal strands of the tegmentum, enters its ventral part: the thalamomammillary fasciculus (bundle of Vicq dAzyr), from the corpus mammillare, enters in its anterior tubercle, while many of the fibers of the optic tract terminate in its posterior end. The thalamus also receives numerous fibers (corticothalamic) from the cells of the cerebral cortex. The fibers that arise from the cells of the thalamus form four principal groups or stalks: (a) those of the anterior stalk pass through the frontal part of the internal capsule to the frontal lobe; (b) the fibers of the posterior stalk (optic radiations) arise in the pulvinar and are conveyed through the occipital part of the internal capsule to the occipital lobe; (c) the fibers of the inferior stalk leave the under and medial surfaces of the thalamus, and pass beneath the lentiform nucleus to the temporal lobe and insula; (d) those of the parietal stalk pass from the lateral nucleus of the thalamus to the parietal lobe. Fibers also extend from the thalamus into the corpus striatumthose destined for the caudate nucleus leave the lateral surface, and those for the lentiform nucleus, the inferior surface of the thalamus. The medial geniculate body (corpus geniculatum mediale; internal geniculate body; postgeniculatum) lies under cover of the pulvinar of the thalamus and on the lateral aspect of the corpora quadrigemina. Oval in shape, with its long axis directed forward and lateralward, it is lighter in color and smaller in size than the lateral. The inferior brachium from the inferior colliculus disappears under cover of it while from its lateral extremity a strand of fibers passes to join the optic tract. Entering it are many acoustic fibers from the lateral lemniscus. The medial geniculate bodies are connected with one another by the commissure of Gudden, which passes through the posterior part of the optic chiasma. The lateral geniculate body (corpus geniculatum laterale; external geniculate body; pregeniculatum) is an oval elevation on the lateral part of the posterior end of the thalamus, and is connected with the superior colliculus by the superior brachium. It is of a dark color, and presents a laminated arrangement consisting of alternate layers of gray and white substance. It receives numerous fibers from the optic tract, while other fibers of this tract pass over or through it into the pulvinar. Its cells are large and pigmented; their axons pass to the visual area in the occipital part of the cerebral cortex. The superior colliculus, the pulvinar, and the lateral geniculate body receive many fibers from the optic tracts, and are therefore intimately connected with sight, constituting what are termed the lower visual centers. Extirpation of the eyes in a newly born animal entails an arrest of the development of these centers, but has no effect on the medial geniculate bodies or on the inferior colliculi. Moreover, the latter are well-developed in the mole, an animal in which the superior colliculi are rudimentary. The trigonum habenulæ is a small depressed triangular area situated in front of the superior colliculus and on the lateral aspect of the posterior part of the tænia thalami. It contains a group of nerve cells termed the ganglion habenulæ. Fibers enter it from the stalk of the pineal body, and others, forming what is termed the habenular commissure, pass across the middle line to the corresponding ganglion of the opposite side. Most of its fibers are, however, directed downward and form a bundle, the fasciculus retroflexus of Meynert, which passes medial to the red nucleus, and, after decussating with the corresponding fasciculus of the opposite side, ends in the interpeduncular ganglion. The pineal body (corpus pineale; epiphysis) is a small, conical, reddish-gray body which lies in the depression between the superior colliculi. It is placed beneath the splenium of the corpus callosum, but is separated from this by the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, the lower layer of which envelops it. It measures about 8 mm. in length, and its base, directed forward, is attached by a stalk or peduncle of white substance. The stalk of the pineal body divides anteriorly into two laminæ, a dorsal and a ventral, separated from one another by the pineal recess of the third ventricle. The ventral lamina is continuous with the posterior commissure; the dorsal lamina is continuous with the habenular commissure and divides into two strands the medullary striæ, which run forward, one on either side, along the junction of the medial and upper surfaces of the thalamus to blend in front with the columns of the fornix. The posterior commissure is a rounded band of white fibers crossing the middle line on the dorsal aspect of the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct. Its fibers acquire their medullary sheaths early, but their connections have not been definitely determined. Most of them have their origin in a nucleus, the nucleus of the posterior commissure (nucleus of Darkschewitsch), which lies in the central gray substance of the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct, in front of the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve. Some are probably derived from the posterior part of the thalamus and from the superior colliculus, while others are believed to be continued downward into the medial longitudinal fasciculus. The Hypothalamus(Fig. 720) includes the subthalamic tegmental region and the structures forming the greater part of the floor of the third ventricle, viz., the corpora mammillaria, tuber cinereum, infundibulum, hypophysis, and optic chiasma. The subthalamic tegmental region consists of the upward continuation of the tegmentum; it lies on the ventro-lateral aspect of the thalamus and separates it from the fibers of the internal capsule. The red nucleus and the substantia nigra are prolonged into its lower part; in front it is continuous with the substantia innominata of Meynert, medially with the gray substance of the floor of the third ventricle. It consists from above downward of three strata: (1) stratum dorsale, directly applied to the under surface of the thalamus and consisting of fine longitudinal fibers; (2) zona incerta, a continuation forward of the formatio reticularis of the tegmentum; and (3) the corpus subthalamicum (nucleus of Luys), a brownish mass presenting a lenticular shape on transverse section, and situated on the dorsal aspect of the fibers of the base of the cerebral peduncle; it is encapsuled by a lamina of nerve fibers and contains numerous medium-sized nerve cells, the connections of which are as yet not fully determined. The corpora mammillaria (corpus albicantia) are two round white masses, each about the size of a small pea, placed side by side below the gray substance of the floor of the third ventricle in front of the posterior perforated substance. They consist of white substance externally and of gray substance internally, the cells of the latter forming two nuclei, a medial of smaller and a lateral of larger cells. The white substance is mainly formed by the fibers of the columns of the fornix, which descend to the base of the brain and end partly in the corpora mammillaria. From the cells of the gray substance of each mammillary body two fasciculi arise: one, the thalamomammillary fasciculus (bundle of Vicq dAzyr), passes upward into the anterior nucleus of the thalamus; the other is directed downward into the tegmentum. Afferent fibers are believed to reach the corpus mammillare from the medial lemniscus and from the tegmentum. FIG. 720 Median sagittal section of brain. The relations of the pia mater are indicated by the red color. (See enlarged image) The tuber cinereum is a hollow eminence of gray substance situated between the corpora mammillaria behind, and the optic chiasma in front. Laterally it is continuous with the anterior perforated substances and anteriorly with a thin lamina, the lamina terminalis. From the under surface of the tuber cinereum a hollow conical process, the infundibulum, projects downward and forward and is attached to the posterior lobe of the hypophysis. In the lateral part of the tuber cinereum is a nucleus of nerve cells, the basal optic nucleus of Meynert, while close to the cavity of the third ventricle are three additional nuclei. Between the tuber cinereum and the corpora mammillaria a small elevation, with a corresponding depression in the third ventricle, is sometimes seen. Retzius has named it the eminentia saccularis, and regards it as a representative of the saccus vasculosus found in this situation in some of the lower vertebrates. The hypophysis (pituitary body) (Fig. 721) is a reddish-gray, somewhat oval mass, measuring about 12.5 mm. in its transverse, and about 8 mm. in its antero-posterior diameter. It is attached to the end of the infundibulum, and is situated in the fossa hypophyseos of the sphenoidal bone, where it is retained by a circular fold of dura mater, the diaphragma sella; this fold almost completely roofs in the fossa, leaving only a small central aperture through which the infundibulum passes. FIG. 721 The hypophysis cerebri, in position. Shown in sagittal section. (See enlarged image) Optic Chiasma (chiasma opticum; optic commissure).The optic chiasma is a flattened, somewhat quadrilateral band of fibers, situated at the junction of the floor and anterior wall of the third ventricle. Most of its fibers have their origins in the retina, and reach the chiasma through the optic nerves, which are continuous with its antero-lateral angles. In the chiasma, they undergo a partial decussation (Fig. 722); the fibers from the nasal half of the retina decussate and enter the optic tract of the opposite side, while the fibers from the temporal half of the retina do not undergo decussation, but pass back into the optic tract of the same side. Occupying the posterior part of the commissure, however, is a strand of fibers, the commissure of Gudden, which is not derived from the optic nerves; it forms a connecting link between the medial geniculate bodies. Optic Tracts.The optic tracts are continued backward and lateralward from the postero-lateral angles of the optic chiasma. Each passes between the anterior perforated substance and the tuber cinereum, and, winding around the ventrolateral aspect of the cerebral peduncle, divides into a medial and a lateral root. The former comprises the fibers of Guddens commissure. The lateral root consists mainly of afferent fibers which arise in the retina and undergo partial decussation in the optic chiasma, as described; but it also contains a few fine efferent fibers which have their origins in the brain and their terminations in the retina. When traced backward, the afferent fibers of the lateral root are found to end in the lateral geniculate body and pulvinar of the thalamus, and in the superior colliculus; and these three structures constitute the lower visual centers. Fibers arise from the nerve cells in these centers and pass through the occipital part of the internal capsule, under the name of the optic radiations, to the cortex of the occipital lobe of the cerebrum, where the higher or cortical visual center is situated. Some of the fibers of the optic radiations take an opposite course, arising from the cells of the occipital cortex and passing to the lower visual centers. Some fibers are detached from the optic tract, and pass through the cerebral peduncle to the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve. These may be regarded as the afferent branches for the Sphincter pupillæ and Ciliaris muscles. Other fibers have been described as reaching the cerebellum through the superior peduncle; while others, again, are lost in the pons. The Third Ventricle (ventriculus tertius) (Figs. 716,720).The third ventricle is a median cleft between the two thalami. Behind, it communicates with the fourth ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct, and in front with the lateral ventricles through the interventricular foramen. Somewhat triangular in shape, with the apex directed backward, it has a roof, a floor, an anterior and a posterior boundary and a pair of lateral walls. FIG. 722 Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts. (See enlarged image) The roof(Fig. 723) is formed by a layer of epithelium, which stretches between the upper edges of the lateral walls of the cavity and is continuous with the epithelial lining of the ventricle. It is covered by and adherent to a fold of pia mater, named the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, from the under surface of which a pair of vascular fringed processes, the choroid plexuses of the third ventricle, project downward, one on either side of the middle line, and invaginate the epithelial roof into the ventricular cavity. The floor slopes downward and forward and is formed mainly by the structures which constitute the hypothalamus: from before backward these are: the optic chiasma, the tuber cinereum and infundibulum, and the corpora mammillaria. Behind the last, the floor is formed by the interpeduncular fossa and the tegmenta of the cerebral peduncles. The ventricle is prolonged downward as a funnel-shaped recess, the recessus infundibuli, into the infundibulum, and to the apex of the latter the hypophysis is attached. The anterior boundary is constituted below by the lamina terminalis, a thin layer of gray substance stretching from the upper surface of the optic chiasma to the rostrum of the corpus callosum; above by the columns of the fornix and the anterior commissure. At the junction of the floor and anterior wall, immediately above the optic chiasma, the ventricle presents a small angular recess or diverticulum, the optic recess. Between the columns of the fornix, and above the anterior commissure, is a second recess termed the vulva. At the junction of the roof and anterior wall of the ventricle, and situated between the thalami behind and the columns of the fornix in front, is the interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro) through which the third communicates with the lateral ventricles. FIG. 723 Coronal section of lateral and third ventricles. (Diagrammatic.) (See enlarged image) The posterior boundary is constituted by the pineal body, the posterior commissure and the cerebral aqueduct. A small recess, the recessus pinealis, projects into the stalk of the pineal body, while in front of and above the pineal body is a second recess, the recessus suprapinealis, consisting of a diverticulum of the epithelium which forms the ventricular roof. Each lateral wall consists of an upper portion formed by the medial surface of the anterior two-thirds of the thalamus, and a lower consisting of an upward continuation of the gray substance of the ventricular floor. These two parts correspond to the alar and basal laminæ respectively of the lateral wall of the fore-brain vesicle and are separated from each other by a furrow, the sulcus of Monro, which extends from the interventricular foramen to the cerebral aqueduct (pages 741 and 742). The lateral wall is limited above by the tænia thalami. The columns of the fornix curve downward in front of the interventricular foramen, and then run in the lateral walls of the ventricle, where, at first, they form distinct prominences, but subsequently are lost to sight. The lateral walls are joined to each other across the cavity of the ventricle by a band of gray matter, the massa intermedia (page 809). Interpeduncular Fossa (Fig. 724).This is a somewhat lozenge-shaped area of the base of the brain, limited in front by the optic chiasma, behind by the antero-superior surface of the pons, antero-laterally by the converging optic tracts, and postero-laterally by the diverging cerebral peduncles. The structures contained in it have already been described; from behind forward, they are the posterior perforated substance, corpora mamillaria, tuber cinereum, infundibulum, and hypophysis. The Telencephalon.The telencephalon includes: (1) the cerebral hemispheres with their cavities, the lateral ventricles; and (2) the pars optica hypothalami and the anterior portion of the third ventricle (already described under the diencephalon). As previously stated (see page 744), each cerebral hemisphere may be divided into three fundamental parts, viz., the rhinencephalon, the corpus striatum, and the neopallium. The rhinencephalon, associated with the sense of smell, is the oldest part of the telencephalon, and forms almost the whole of the hemisphere in some of the lower animals, e. g., fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. In man it is rudimentary, whereas the neopallium undergoes great development and forms the chief part of the hemisphere. The Cerebral Hemispheres.The cerebral hemispheres constitute the largest part of the brain, and, when viewed together from above, assume the form of an ovoid mass broader behind than in front, the greatest transverse diameter corresponding with a line connecting the two parietal eminences. The hemispheres are separated medially by a deep cleft, named the longitudinal cerebral fissure, and each possesses a central cavity, the lateral ventricle. The Longitudinal Cerebral Fissure (fissura cerebri longitudinalis; great longitudinal fissure) contains a sickle-shaped process of dura mater, the falx cerebri. It front and behind, the fissure extends from the upper to the under surfaces of the hemispheres and completely separates them, but its middle portion separates them for only about one-half of their vertical extent; for at this part they are connected across the middle line by a great central white commissure, the corpus callosum. In a median sagittal section (Fig. 720) the cut corpus callosum presents the appearance of a broad, arched band. Its thick posterior end, termed the splenium, overlaps the mid-brain, but is separated from it by the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle and the pineal body. Its anterior curved end, termed the genu, gradually tapers into a thinner portion, the rostrum, which is continued downward and backward in front of the anterior commissure to join the lamina terminalis. Arching backward from immediately behind the anterior commissure to the under surface of the splenium is a second white band named the fornix: between this and the corpus callosum are the laminæ and cavity of the septum pellucidum. The lateral surface is convex in adaptation to the concavity of the corresponding half of the vault of the cranium. The medial surface is flat and vertical, and is separated from that of the opposite hemisphere by the great longitudinal fissure and the falx cerebri. The inferior surface is of an irregular form, and may be divided into three areas: anterior, middle, and posterior. The anterior area, formed by the orbital surface of the frontal lobe, is concave, and rests on the roof of the orbit and nose; the middle area is convex, and consists of the under surface of the temporal lobe: it is adapted to the corresponding half of the middle cranial fossa. The posterior area is concave, directed medialward as well as downward, and is named the tentorial surface, since it rests upon the tentorium cerebelli, which intervenes between it and the upper surface of the cerebellum. FIG. 725 Lateral surface of left cerebral hemisphere, viewed from above. (See enlarged image) These three surfaces are separated from each other by the following borders: (a) supero-medial, between the lateral and medial surfaces; (b) infero-lateral, between the lateral and inferior surfaces; the anterior part of this border separating the lateral from the orbital surface, is known as the superciliary border; (c) medial occipital, separating the medial and tentorial surfaces; and (d) medial orbital, separating the orbital from the medial surface. The anterior end of the hemisphere is named the frontal pole; the posterior, the occipital pole; and the anterior end of the temporal lobe, the temporal pole. About 5 cm. in front of the occipital pole on the infero-lateral border is an indentation or notch, named the preoccipital notch. The surfaces of the hemispheres are moulded into a number of irregular eminences, named gyri or convolutions, and separated by furrows termed fissures and sulci. The furrows are of two kinds, complete and incomplete. The former appear early in fetal life, are few in number, and are produced by infoldings of the entire thickness of the brain wall, and give rise to corresponding elevations in the interior of the ventricle. They comprise the hippocampal fissure, and parts of the calcarine and collateral fissures. The incomplete furrows are very numerous, and only indent the subjacent white substance, without producing any corresponding elevations in the ventricular cavity. The gyri and their intervening fissures and the sulci are fairly constant in their arrangement; at the same time they vary within certain limits, not only in different individuals, but on the two hemispheres of the same brain. The convoluted condition of the surface permits of a great increase of the gray matter without the sacrifice of much additional space. The number and extent of the gyri, as well as the depth of the intervening furrows, appear to bear a direct relation to the intellectual powers of the individual. Certain of the fissures and sulci are utilized for the purpose of dividing the hemisphere into lobes, and are therefore termed interlobular; included under this category are the lateral cerebral, parietoöccipital, calcarine, and collateral fissures, the central and cingulate sulci, and the sulcus circularis. FIG. 726 Lateral surface of left cerebral hemisphere, viewed from the side. (See enlarged image) The Lateral Cerebral Fissure (fissura cerebri lateralis [Sylvii]; fissure of Sylvius) (Fig. 726) is a well-marked cleft on the inferior and lateral surfaces of the hemisphere, and consists of a short stem which divides into three rami. The stem is situated on the base of the brain, and commences in a depression at the lateral angle of the anterior perforated substance. From this point it extends between the anterior part of the temporal lobe and the orbital surface of the frontal lobe, and reaches the lateral surface of the hemisphere. Here it divides into three rami: an anterior horizontal, an anterior ascending, and a posterior. The anterior horizontal ramus passes foward for about 2.5 cm. into the inferior frontal gyrus, while the anterior ascending ramus extends upward into the same convolution for about an equal distance. The posterior ramus is the longest; it runs backward and slightly upward for about 7 cm., and ends by an upward inflexion in the parietal lobe. The Central Sulcus (sulcus centralis [Rolandi]; fissure of Rolando; central fissure) (Figs. 725,726) is situated about the middle of the lateral surface of the hemisphere, and begins in or near the longitudinal cerebral fissure, a little behind its mid-point. It runs sinuously downward and forward, and ends a little above the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure, and about 2.5 cm. behind the anterior ascending ramus of the same fissure. It described two chief curves: a superior genu with its concavity directed forward, and an inferior genu with its concavity directed backward. The central sulcus forms an angle opening forward of about 70° with the median plane. The medial part of the parietoöccipital fissure (Fig. 727) runs downward and forward as a deep cleft on the medial surface of the hemisphere, and joins the calcarine fissure below and behind the posterior end of the corpus callosum. In most cases it contains a submerged gyrus. The Calcarine Fissure (fissura calcarina) (Fig. 727) is on the medial surface of the hemisphere. It begins near the occipital pole in two converging rami, and runs forward to a point a little below the splenium of the corpus callosum, where it is joined at an acute angle by the medial part of the parietoöccipital fissure. The anterior part of this fissure gives rise to the prominence of the calcar avis in the posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle. The Cingulate Sulcus (sulcus cinguli; callosomarginal fissure) (Fig. 727) is on the medial surface of the hemisphere; it begins below the anterior end of the corpus callosum and runs upward and forward nearly parallel to the rostrum of this body and, curving in front of the genu, is continued backward above the corpus callosum, and finally ascends to the supero-medial border of the hemisphere a short distance behind the upper end of the central sulcus. It separates the superior frontal from the cingulate gyrus. The Collateral Fissure (fissura collateralis) (Fig. 727) is on the tentorial surface of the hemisphere and extends from near the occipital pole to within a short distance of the temporal pole. Behind, it lies below and lateral to the calcarine fissure, from which it is separated by the lingual gyrus; in front, it is situated between the hippocampal gyrus and the anterior part of the fusiform gyrus. The Sulcus Circularis (circuminsular fissure) (Fig. 731) is on the lower and lateral surfaces of the hemisphere: it surrounds the insula and separates it from the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. Lobes of the Hemispheres.By means of these fissures and sulci, assisted by certain arbitrary lines, each hemisphere is divided into the following lobes: the frontal, the parietal, the temporal, the occipital, the limbic, and the insula. Frontal Lobe (lobus frontalis).On the lateral surface of the hemisphere this lobe extends from the frontal pole to the central sulcus, the latter separating it from the parietal lobe. Below, it is limited by the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure, which intervenes between it and the central lobe. On the medial surface, it is separated from the cingulate gyrus by the cingulate sulcus; and on the inferior surface, it is bounded behind by the stem of the lateral fissure. FIG. 728 Principal fissures and lobes of the cerebrum viewed laterally. (See enlarged image) The lateral surface of the frontal lobe (Fig. 726) is tranversed by three sulci which divide it into four gyri: the sulci are named the precentral, and the superior and inferior frontal; the gyri are the anterior central, and the superior, middle, and inferior frontal. The precentral sulcus runs parallel to the central sulcus, and is usually divided into an upper and a lower part; between it and the central sulcus is the anterior central gyrus. From the precentral sulcus, the superior and inferior frontal sulci run forward and downward, and divide the remainder of the lateral surface of the lobe into three parallel gyri, named, respectively the superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri. The anterior central gyrus (gyrus centralis anterior; ascending frontal convolution; precentral gyre) is bounded in front by the precentral sulcus, behind by the central sulcus; it extends from the supero-medial border of the hemisphere to the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure. The superior frontal gyrus (gyrus frontalis superior; superfrontal gyre) is situated above the superior frontal sulcus and is continued on to the medial surface of the hemisphere. The portion on the lateral surface of the hemisphere is usually more or less completely subdivided into an upper and a lower part by an antero-posterior sulcus, the paramedial sulcus, which, however, is frequently interrupted by bridging gyri. The middle frontal gyrus (gyrus frontalis medius; medifrontal gyre), between the superior and inferior frontal sulci, is continuous with the anterior orbital gyrus on the inferior surface of the hemisphere; it is frequently subdivided into two by a horizontal sulcus, the medial frontal sulcus of Eberstaller, which ends anteriorly in a wide bifurcation. The inferior frontal gyrus (gyrus frontalis inferior; subfrontal gyre) lies below the inferior frontal sulcus, and extends forward from the lower part of the precentral sulcus; it is continuous with the lateral and posterior orbital gyri on the under surface of the lobe. It is subdivided by the anterior horizontal and ascending rami of the lateral fissure into three parts, viz., (1) the orbital part, below the anterior horizontal ramus of the fissure; (2) the triangular part (cap of Broca), between the ascending and horizontal rami; and (3) the basilar part, behind the anterior ascending ramus. The left inferior frontal gyrus is, as a rule, more highly developed than the right, and is named the gyrus of Broca, from the fact that Broca described it as the center for articulate speech. The inferior or orbital surface of the frontal lobe is concave, and rests on the orbital plate of the frontal bone (Fig. 729). It is divided into four orbital gyri by a well-marked H-shaped orbital sulcus. These are named, from their position, the medial, anterior, lateral, and posterior orbital gyri. The medial orbital gyrus presents a well-marked antero-posterior sulcus, the olfactory sulcus, for the olfactory tract; the portion medial to this is named the straight gyrus, and is continuous with the superior frontal gyrus on the medial surface. The medial surface of the frontal lobe is occupied by the medial part of the superior frontal gyrus (marginal gyrus) (Fig. 727). It lies between the cingulate sulcus and the supero-medial margin of the hemisphere. The posterior part of this gyrus is sometimes marked off by a vertical sulcus, and is distinguished as the paracentral lobule, because it is continuous with the anterior and posterior central gyri. Parietal Lobe (lobus parietalis).The parietal lobe is separated from the frontal lobe by the central sulcus, but its boundaries below and behind are not so definite. Posteriorly, it is limited by the parietoöccipital fissure, and by a line carried across the hemisphere from the end of this fissure toward the preoccipital notch. Below, it is separated from the temporal lobe by the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure, and by a line carried backward from it to meet the line passing downward to the preoccipital notch. The lateral surface of the parietal lobe (Fig. 726) is cleft by a well-marked furrow, the intraparietal sulcus of Turner, which consists of an oblique and a horizontal portion. The oblique part is named the postcentral sulcus, and commences below, about midway between the lower end of the central sulcus and the upturned end of the lateral fissure. It runs upward and backward, parallel to the central sulcus, and is sometimes divided into an upper and a lower ramus. It forms the hinder limit of the posterior central gyrus. From about the middle of the postcentral sulcus, or from the upper end of its inferior ramus, the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus is carried backward and slightly upward on the parietal lobe, and is prolonged, under the name of the occipital ramus, on to the occipital lobe, where it divides into two parts, which form nearly a right angle with the main stem and constitute the transverse occipital sulcus. The part of the parietal lobe above the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus is named the superior parietal lobule; the part below, the inferior parietal lobule. The posterior central gyrus (gyrus centralis posterior; ascending parietal convolution; postcentral gyre) extends from the longitudinal fissure above to the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure below. It lies parallel with the anterior central gyrus, with which it is connected below, and also, sometimes, above, the central sulcus. The superior parietal lobule (lobulus parietalis superior) is bounded in front by the upper part of the postcentral sulcus, but is usually connected with the posterior central gyrus above the end of the sulcus; behind it is the lateral part of the parietoöccipital fissure, around the end of which it is joined to the occipital lobe by a curved gyrus, the arcus parietoöccipitalis; below, it is separated from the inferior parietal lobule by the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus. The inferior parietal lobule (lobulus parietalis inferior; subparietal district or lobule) lies below the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus, and behind the lower part of the postcentral sulcus. It is divided from before backward into two gyri. One, the supramarginal, arches over the upturned end of the lateral fissure; it is continuous in front with the postcentral gyrus, and behind with the superior temporal gyrus. The second, the angular, arches over the posterior end of the superior temporal sulcus, behind which it is continuous with the middle temporal gyrus. The medial surface of the parietal lobe (Fig. 727) is bounded behind by the medial part of the parietoöccipital fissure; in front, by the posterior end of the cingulate sulcus; and below, it is separated from the cingulate gyrus by the subparietal sulcus. It is of small size, and consists of a square-shaped convolution, which is termed the precuneus or quadrate lobe. The lateral surface is limited in front by the lateral part of the parietoöccipital fissure, and by a line carried from the end of this fissure to the preoccipital notch; it is traversed by the transverse occipital and the lateral occipital sulci. The transverse occipital sulcus is continuous with the posterior end of the occipital ramus of the intraparietal sulcus, and runs across the upper part of the lobe, a short distance behind the parietoöccipital fissure. The lateral occipital sulcus extends from behind forward, and divides the lateral surface of the occipital lobe into a superior and an inferior gyrus, which are continuous in front with the parietal and temporal lobes.125 The medial surface of the occipital lobe is bounded in front by the medial part of the parietoöccipital fissure, and is traversed by the calcarine fissure, which subdivides it into the cuneus and the lingual gyrus. The cuneus is a wedge-shaped area between the calcarine fissure and the medial part of the parietoöccipital fissure. The lingual gyrus lies between the calcarine fissure and the posterior part of the collateral fissure; behind, it reaches the occipital pole; in front, it is continued on to the tentorial surface of the temporal lobe, and joins the hippocampal gyrus. The tentorial surface of the occipital lobe is limited in front by an imaginary transverse line through the preoccipital notch, and consists of the posterior part of the fusiform gyrus (occipitotemporal convolution) and the lower part of the lingual gyrus, which are separated from each other by the posterior segment of the collateral fissure. The superior surface forms the lower limit of the lateral fissure and overlaps the insula. On opening out the lateral fissure, three or four gyri will be seen springing from the depth of the hinder end of the fissure, and running obliquely forward and outward on the posterior part of the upper surface of the superior temporal gyrus; these are named the transverse temporal gyri (Heschl) (Fig. 730). The lateral surface(Fig. 726) is bounded above by the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure, and by the imaginary line continued backward from it; below, it is limited by the infero-lateral border of the hemisphere. It is divided into superior, middle, and inferior gyri by the superior and middle temporal sulci. The superior temporal sulcus runs from before backward across the temporal lobe, some little distance below, but parallel with, the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure; and hence it is often termed the parallel sulcus. The middle temporal sulcus takes the same direction as the superior, but is situated at a lower level, and is usually subdivided into two or more parts. The superior temporal gyrus lies between the posterior ramus of the lateral fissure and the superior temporal sulcus, and is continuous behind with the supramarginal and angular gyri. The middle temporal gyrus is placed between the superior and middle temporal sulci, and is joined posteriorly with the angular gyrus. The inferior temporal gyrus is placed below the middle temporal sulcus, and is connected behind with the inferior occipital gyrus; it also extends around the infero-lateral border on to the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where it is limited by the inferior sulcus. The inferior surface is concave, and is continuous posteriorly with the tentorial surface of the occipital lobe. It is traversed by the inferior temporal sulcus, which extends from near the occipital pole behind, to within a short distance of the temporal pole in front, but is frequently subdivided by bridging gyri. Lateral to this fissure is the narrow tentorial part of the inferior temporal gyrus, and medial to it the fusiform gyrus, which extends from the occipital to the temporal pole; this gyrus is limited medially by the collateral fissure, which separates it from the lingual gyrus behind and from the hippocampal gyrus in front. The Insula (island of Reil; central lobe) (Fig. 731) lies deeply in the lateral or Sylvian fissure, and can only be seen when the lips of that fissure are widely separated, since it is overlapped and hidden by the gyri which bound the fissure. These gyri are termed the opercula of the insula; they are separated from each other by the three rami of the lateral fissure, and are named the orbital, frontal, frontoparietal, and temporal opercula. The orbital operculum lies below the anterior horizontal ramus of the fissure, the frontal between this and the anterior ascending ramus, the parietal between the anterior ascending ramus and the upturned end of the posterior ramus, and the temporal below the posterior ramus. The frontal operculum is of small size in those cases where the anterior horizontal and ascending rami of the lateral fissure arise from a common stem. The insula is surrounded by a deep circular sulcus which separates it from the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. When the opercula have been removed, the insula is seen as a triangular eminence, the apex of which is directed toward the anterior perforated substance. It is divided into a larger anterior and a smaller posterior part by a deep sulcus, which runs backward and upward from the apex of the insula. The anterior part is subdivided by shallow sulci into three or four short gyri, while the posterior part is formed by one long gyrus, which is often bifurcated at its upper end. The cortical gray substance of the insula is continuous with that of the different opercula, while its deep surface corresponds with the lentiform nucleus of the corpus striatum. FIG. 731 The insula of the left side, exposed by removing the opercula. (See enlarged image) Limbic Lobe (Fig. 727).The term limbic lobe was introduced by Broca, and under it he included the cingulate and hippocampal gyri, which together arch around the corpus callosum and the hippocampal fissure. These he separated on the morphological ground that they are well-developed in animals possessing a keen sense of smell (osmatic animals), such as the dog and fox. They were thus regarded as a part of the rhinencephalon, but it is now recognized that they belong to the neopallium; the cingulate gyrus is therefore sometimes described as a part of the frontal lobe, and the hippocampal as a part of the temporal lobe. The cingulate gyrus (gyrus cinguli; callosal convolution) is an arch-shaped convolution, lying in close relation to the superficial surface of the corpus callosum, from which it is separated by a slit-like fissure, the callosal fissure. It commences below the rostrum of the corpus callosum, curves around in front of the genu, extends along the upper surface of the body, and finally turns downward behind the splenium, where it is connected by a narrow isthmus with the hippocampal gyrus. It is separated from the medial part of the superior frontal gyrus by the cingulate sulcus, and from the precuneus by the subparietal sulcus. The hippocampal gyrus (gyrus hippocampi) is bounded above by the hippocampal fissure, and below by the anterior part of the collateral fissure. Behind, it is continuous superiorly, through the isthmus, with the cingulate gyrus and inferiorly with the lingual gyrus. Running in the substance of the cingulate and hippocampal gyri, and connecting them together, is a tract of arched fibers, named the cingulum (page 843). The anterior extremity of the hippocampal gyrus is recurved in the form of a hook (uncus), which is separated from the apex of the temporal lobe by a slight fissure, the incisura temporalis. Although superficially continuous with the hippocampal gyrus, the uncus forms morphologically a part of the rhinencephalon. The Hippocampal Fissure (fissura hippocampi; dentate fissure) begins immediately behind the splenium of the corpus callosum, and runs forward between the hippocampal and dentate gyri to end in the uncus. It is a complete fissure (page 819), and gives rise to the prominence of the hippocampus in the inferior cornu of the lateral ventricle. Rhinencephalon (Fig. 732).The rhinencephalon comprises the olfactory lobe, the uncus, the subcallosal and supracallosal gyri, the fascia dentata hippocampi, the septum pellucidum, the fornix, and the hippocampus. 1. The Olfactory Lobe (lobus olfactorius) is situated under the inferior or orbital surface of the frontal lobe. In many vertebrates it constitutes a well-marked portion of the hemisphere and contains an extension of the lateral ventricle; but in man and some other mammals it is rudimentary. It consists of the olfactory bulb and tract, the olfactory trigone, the parolfactory area of Broca, and the anterior perforated substance. (a) The olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius) is an oval, reddish-gray mass which rests on the cribriform plate of the ethmoid and forms the anterior expanded extremity of the olfactory tract. Its under surface receives the olfactory nerves, which pass upward through the cribriform plate from the olfactory region of the nasal cavity. Its minute structure is described on page 848. (b) The olfactory tract (tractus olfactorius) is a narrow white band, triangular on coronal section, the apex being directed upward. It lies in the olfactory sulcus on the inferior surface of the frontal lobe, and divides posteriorly into two striæ, a medial and a lateral. The lateral stria is directed across the lateral part of the anterior perforated substance and then bends abruptly medialward toward the uncus of the hippocampal gyrus. The medial stria turns medialward behind the parolfactory area and ends in the subcallosal gyrus; in some cases a small intermediate stria is seen running backward to the anterior perforated substance. (c) The olfactory trigone (trigonum olfactorium) is a small triangular area in front of the anterior perforated substance. Its apex, directed forward, occupies the posterior part of the olfactory sulcus, and is brought into view by throwing back the olfactory tract. (d) The parolfactory area of Broca (area parolfactoria) is a small triangular field on the medial surface of the hemisphere in front of the subcallosal gyrus, from which it is separated by the posterior parolfactory sulcus; it is continuous below with the olfactory trigone, and above and in front with the cingulate gyrus; it is limited anteriorly by the anterior parolfactory sulcus. (e) The anterior perforated substance (substantia perforata anterior) is an irregularly quadrilateral area in front of the optic tract and behind the olfactory trigone, from which it is separated by the fissure prima; medially and in front it is continuous with the subcallosal gyrus; laterally it is bounded by the lateral stria of the olfactory tract and is continued into the uncus. Its gray substance is confluent above with that of the corpus striatum, and is perforated anteriorly by numerous small bloodvessels. 3. The Subcallosal, Supracallosal, and Dentate Gyri form a rudimentary arch-shaped lamina of gray substance extending over the corpus callosum and above the hippocampal gyrus from the anterior perforated substance to the uncus. (a) The subcallosal gyrus (gyrus subcallosus; peduncle of the corpus callosum) is a narrow lamina on the medial surface of the hemisphere in front of the lamina terminalis, behind the parolfactory area, and below the rostrum of the corpus callosum. It is continuous around the genu of the corpus callosum with the supracallosal gyrus. (b) The supracallosal gyrus (indusium griseum; gyrus epicallosus) consists of a thin layer of gray substance in contact with the upper surface of the corpus callosum and continuous laterally with the gray substance of the cingulate gyrus. It contains two longitudinally directed strands of fibers termed respectively the medial and lateral longitudinal striæ. The supracallosal gyrus is prolonged around the splenium of the corpus callosum as a delicate lamina, the fasciola cinerea, which is continuous below with the fascia dentata hippocampi. (c) The fascia dentata hippocampi (gyrus dentatus) is a narrow band extending downward and forward above the hippocampal gyrus but separated from it by the hippocampal fissure; its free margin is notched and overlapped by the fimbriathe fimbriodentate fissure intervening. Anteriorly it is continued into the notch of the uncus, where it forms a sharp bend and is then prolonged as a delicate band, the band of Giacomini, over the uncus, on the lateral surface of which it is lost. Interior of the Cerebral Hemispheres.If the upper part of either hemisphere be removed, at a level about 1.25 cm. above the corpus callosum, the central white substance will be exposed as an oval-shaped area, the centrum ovale minus, surrounded by a narrow convoluted margin of gray substance, and studded with numerous minute red dots (puncta vasculosa), produced by the escape of blood from divided bloodvessels. If the remaining portions of the hemispheres be slightly drawn apart a broad band of white substance, the corpus callosum, will be observed, connecting them at the bottom of the longitudinal fissure; the margins of the hemispheres which overlap the corpus callosum are called the labia cerebri. Each labrium is part of the cingulate gyrus already described; and the slit-like interval between it and the upper surface of the corpus callosum is termed the callosal fissure(Fig. 727). If the hemispheres be sliced off to a level with the upper surface of the corpus callosum, the white substance of that structure will be seen connecting the two hemispheres. The large expanse of medullary matter now exposed, surrounded by the convoluted margin of gray substance, is called the centrum ovale majus. The Corpus Callosum(Fig. 733) is the great transverse commissure which unites the cerebral hemispheres and roofs in the lateral ventricles. A good conception of its position and size is obtained by examining a median sagittal section of the brain (Fig. 720), when it is seen to form an arched structure about 10 cm. long. Its anterior end is about 4 cm. from the frontal pole, and its posterior end about 6 cm. from the occipital pole of the hemisphere. The anterior end is named the genu, and is bent downward and backward in front of the septum pellucidum; diminishing rapidly in thickness, it is prolonged backward under the name of the rostrum, which is connected below with the lamina terminalis. The anterior cerebral arteries are in contact with the under surface of the rostrum; they then arch over the front of the genu, and are carried backward above the body of the corpus callosum. The posterior end is termed the splenium and constitutes the thickest part of the corpus callosum. It overlaps the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle and the mid-brain, and ends in a thick, convex, free border. A sagittal section of the splenium shows that the posterior end of the corpus callosum is acutely bent forward, the upper and lower parts being applied to each other. The superior surface is convex from before backward, and is about 2.5 cm. wide. Its medial part forms the bottom of the longitudinal fissure, and is in contact posteriorly with the lower border of the falx cerebri. Laterally it is overlapped by the cingulate gyrus, but is separated from it by the slit-like callosal fissure. It is traversed by numerous transverse ridges and furrows, and is covered by a thin layer of gray matter, the supracallosal gyrus, which exhibits on either side of the middle line the medial and lateral longitudinal striæ, already described (page 827). The inferior surface is concave, and forms on either side of the middle line the roof of the lateral ventricle. Medially, this surface is attached in front to the septum pellucidum; behind this it is fused with the upper surface of the body of the fornix, while the splenium is in contact with the tela chorioidea. On either side, the fibers of the corpus callosum radiate in the white substance and pass to the various parts of the cerebral cortex; those curving forward from the genu into the frontal lobe constitute the forceps anterior, and those curving backward into the occipital lobe, the forceps posterior. Between these two parts is the main body of the fibers which constitute the tapetum and extend laterally on either side into the temporal lobe, and cover in the central part of the lateral ventricle. FIG. 734 Scheme showing relations of the ventricles to the surface of the brain. (See enlarged image) The Lateral Ventricles (ventriculus lateralis) (Fig. 734).The two lateral ventricles are irregular cavities situated in the lower and medial parts of the cerebral hemispheres, one on either side of the middle line. They are separated from each other by a median vertical partition, the septum pellucidum, but communicate with the third ventricle and indirectly with each other through the interventricular foramen. They are lined by a thin, diaphanous membrane, the ependyma, covered by ciliated epithelium, and contain cerebrospinal fluid, which, even in health, may be secreted in considerable amount. Each lateral ventricle consists of a central part or body, and three prolongations from it, termed cornua (Figs. 735,736). The central part (pars centralis ventriculi lateralis; cella) (Fig. 737) of the lateral ventricle extends from the interventricular foramen to the splenium of the corpus callosum. It is an irregularly curved cavity, triangular on transverse section, with a roof, a floor, and a medial wall. The roof is formed by the under surface of the corpus callosum; the floor by the following parts, enumerated in their order of position, from before backward: the caudate nucleus of the corpus striatum, the stria terminalis and the terminal vein, the lateral portion of the upper surface of the thalamus, the choroid plexus, and the lateral part of the fornix; the medial wall is the posterior part of the septum pellucidum, which separates it from the opposite ventricle. FIG. 735 Drawing of a cast of the ventricular cavities, viewed from above. (Retzius.) (See enlarged image) FIG. 736 Drawing of a cast of the ventricular cavities, viewed from the side. (Retzius.) (See enlarged image) The anterior cornu (cornu anterius; anterior horn; precornu) (Fig. 736) passes forward and lateralward, with a slight inclination downward, from the interventricular foramen into the frontal lobe, curving around the anterior end of the caudate nucleus. Its floor is formed by the upper surface of the reflected portion of the corpus callosum, the rostrum. It is bounded medially by the anterior portion of the septum pellucidum, and laterally by the head of the caudate nucleus. Its apex reaches the posterior surface of the genu of the corpus callosum. The posterior cornu (cornu posterius; postcornu) (Figs. 737,788) passes into the occipital lobe, its direction being backward and lateralward, and then medialward. Its roof is formed by the fibers of the corpus callosum passing to the temporal and occipital lobes. On its medial wall is a longitudinal eminence, the calcar avis (hippocampus minor), which is an involution of the ventricular wall produced by the calcarine fissure. Above this the forceps posterior of the corpus callosum, sweeping around to enter the occipital lobe, causes another projection, termed the bulb of the posterior cornu. The calcar avis and bulb of the posterior cornu are extremely variable in their degree of development; in some cases they are ill-defined, in others prominent. FIG. 737 Central part and anterior and posterior cornua of lateral ventricles exposed from above. (See enlarged image) The inferior cornu (cornu inferior; descending horn; middle horn; medicornu) (Fig. 739), the largest of the three, traverses the temporal lobe of the brain, forming in its course a curve around the posterior end of the thalamus. It passes at first backward, lateralward, and downward, and then curves forward to within 2.5 cm. of the apex of the temporal lobe, its direction being fairly well indicated on the surface of the brain by that of the superior temporal sulcus. Its roof is formed chiefly by the inferior surface of the tapetum of the corpus callosum, but the tail of the caudate nucleus and the stria terminalis also extend forward in the roof of the inferior cornu to its extremity; the tail of the caudate nucleus joins the putamen. Its floor presents the following parts: the hippocampus, the fimbria hippocampi, the collateral eminence, and the choroid plexus. When the choroid plexus is removed, a cleft-like opening is left along the medial wall of the inferior cornu; this cleft constitutes the lower part of the choroidal fissure. FIG. 738 Coronal section through posterior cornua of lateral ventricle. (See enlarged image) FIG. 739 Posterior and inferior cornua of left lateral ventricle exposed from the side. (See enlarged image) The hippocampus (hippocampus major) (Figs. 739,740) is a curved eminence, about 5 cm. long, which extends throughout the entire length of the floor of the inferior cornu. Its lower end is enlarged, and presents two or three rounded elevations or digitations which give it a paw-like appearance, and hence it is named the pes hippocampi. If a transverse section be made through the hippocampus, it will be seen that this eminence is produced by the folding of the wall of the hemisphere to form the hippocampal fissure. The main mass of the hippocampus consists of gray substance, but on its ventricular surface is a thin white layer, the alveus, which is continuous with the fimbria hippocampi. The collateral eminence (eminentia collateralis) (Fig. 740) is an elongated swelling lying lateral to and parallel with the hippocampus. It corresponds with the middle part of the collateral fissure, and its size depends on the depth and direction of this fissure. It is continuous behind with a flattened triangular area, the trigonum collaterale, situated between the posterior and inferior cornua. FIG. 741 Two views of a model of the striatum: A, lateral aspect; B, mesal aspect. (See enlarged image) The corpus striatum has received its name from the striped appearance which a section of its anterior part presents, in consequence of diverging white fibers being mixed with the gray substance which forms its chief mass. A part of the corpus striatum is imbedded in the white substance of the hemisphere, and is therefore external to the ventricle; it is termed the extraventricular portion, or the lentiform nucleus; the remainder, however, projects into the ventricle, and is named the intraventricular portion, or the caudate nucleus(Fig. 737). The caudate nucleus (nucleus caudatus; caudatum) (Figs. 741,742) is a pear-shaped, highly arched gray mass; its broad extremity, or head, is directed forward into the anterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, and is continuous with the anterior perforated substance and with the anterior end of the lentiform nucleus; its narrow end, or tail, is directed backward on the lateral side of the thalamus, from which it is separated by the stria terminalis and the terminal vein. It is then continued downward into the roof of the inferior cornu, and ends in the putamen near the apex of the temporal lobe. It is covered by the lining of the ventricle, and crossed by some veins of considerable size. It is separated from the lentiform nucleus, in the greater part of its extent, by a thick lamina of white substance, called the internal capsule, but the two portions of the corpus striatum are united in front (Figs. 743,744). The lentiform nucleus (nucleus lentiformis; lenticular nucleus; lenticula) (Fig. 741) is lateral to the caudate nucleus and thalamus, and is seen only in sections of the hemisphere. When divided horizontally, it exhibits, to some extent, the appearance of a biconvex lens (Fig. 742), while a coronal section of its central part presents a somewhat triangular outline. It is shorter than the caudate nucleus and does not extend as far forward. It is bounded laterally by a lamina of white substance called the external capsule, and lateral to this is a thin layer of gray substance termed the claustrum. Its anterior end is continuous with the lower part of the head of the caudate nucleus and with the anterior perforated substance. In a coronal section through the middle of the lentiform nucleus, two medullary laminæ are seen dividing it into three parts. The lateral and largest part is of a reddish color, and is known as the putamen, while the medial and intermediate are of a yellowish tint, and together constitute the globus pallidus; all three are marked by fine radiating white fibers, which are most distinct in the putamen (Fig. 744). The gray substance of the corpus striatum is traversed by nerve fibers, some of which originate in it. The cells are multipolar, both large and small; those of the lentiform nucleus contain yellow pigment. The caudate and lentiform nuclei are not only directly continuous with each other anteriorly, but are connected to each other by numerous fibers. The corpus striatum is also connected: (1) to the cerebral cortex, by what are termed the corticostriate fibers; (2) to the thalamus, by fibers which pass through the internal capsule, and by a strand named the ansa lentiformis; (3) to the cerebral peduncle, by fibers which leave the lower aspect of the caudate and lentiform nuclei. FIG. 743 Coronal section through anterior cornua of lateral ventricles. (See enlarged image) The claustrum (Figs. 742,744) is a thin layer of gray substance, situated on the lateral surface of the external capsule. Its transverse section is triangular, with the apex directed upward. Its medial surface, contiguous to the external capsule, is smooth, but its lateral surface presents ridges and furrows corresponding with the gyri and sulci of the insula, with which it is in close relationship. The claustrum is regarded as a detached portion of the gray substance of the insula, from which it is separated by a layer of white fibers, the capsula extrema (band of Baillarger). Its cells are small and spindle-shaped, and contain yellow pigment; they are similar to those of the deepest layer of the cortex. The nucleus amygdalæ (amygdala) (Fig. 741), is an ovoid gray mass, situated at the lower end of the roof of the inferior cornu. It is merely a localized thickening of the gray cortex, continuous with that of the uncus; in front it is continuous with the putamen, behind with the stria terminalis and the tail of the caudate nucleus. The internal capsule (capsula interna) (Figs. 745,746) is a flattened band of white fibers, between the lentiform nucleus on the lateral side and the caudate nucleus and thalamus on the medial side. In horizontal section (Figs. 742) it is seen to be somewhat abruptly curved, with its convexity inward; the prominence of the curve is called the genu, and projects between the caudate nucleus and the thalamus. The portion in front of the genu is termed the frontal part, and separates the lentiform from the caudate nucleus; the portion behind the genu is the occipital part, and separates the lentiform nucleus from the thalamus. The frontal part of the internal capsule contains: (1) fibers running from the thalamus to the frontal lobe; (2) fibers connecting the lentiform and caudate nuclei; (3) fibers connecting the cortex with the corpus striatum; and (4) fibers passing from the frontal lobe through the medial fifth of the base of the cerebral peduncle to the nuclei pontis. The fibers in the region of the genu are named the geniculate fibers; they originate in the motor part of the cerebral cortex, and, after passing downward through the base of the cerebral peduncle with the cerebrospinal fibers, undergo decussation and end in the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves of the opposite side. The anterior two-thirds of the occipital part of the internal capsule contains the cerebrospinal fibers, which arise in the motor area of the cerebral cortex and, passing downward through the middle three-fifths of the base of the cerebral peduncle, are continued into the pyramids of the medulla oblongata. The posterior third of the occipital part contains: (1) sensory fibers, largely derived from the thalamus, though some may be continued upward from the medial lemniscus; (2) the fibers of optic radiation, from the lower visual centers to the cortex of the occipital lobe; (3) acoustic fibers, from the lateral lemniscus to the temporal lobe; and (4) fibers which pass from the occipital and temporal lobes to the nuclei pontis. The fibers of the internal capsule radiate widely as they pass to and from the various parts of the cerebral cortex, forming the corona radiata(Fig. 745) and intermingling with the fibers of the corpus callosum. The external capsule (capsula externa) (Fig. 742) is a lamina of white substance, situated lateral to the lentiform nucleus, between it and the claustrum, and continuous with the internal capsule below and behind the lentiform nucleus. It probably contains fibers derived from the thalamus, the anterior commissure, and the subthalamic region. FIG. 745 Dissection showing the course of the cerebrospinal fibers. (E. B. Jamieson.) (See enlarged image) The substantia innominata of Meynert is a stratum consisting partly of gray and partly of white substance, which lies below the anterior part of the thalamus and lentiform nucleus. It consists of three layers, superior, middle, and inferior. The superior layer is named the ansa lentiformis, and its fibers, derived from the medullary lamina of the lentiform nucleus, pass medially to end in the thalamus and subthalamic region, while others are said to end in the tegmentum and red nucleus. The middle layer consists of nerve cells and nerve fibers; fibers enter it from the parietal lobe through the external capsule, while others are said to connect it with the medial longitudinal fasciculus. The inferior layer forms the main part of the inferior stalk of the thalamus, and connects this body with the temporal lobe and the insula. The stria terminalis (tænia semicircularis) is a narrow band of white substance situated in the depression between the caudate nucleus and the thalamus. Anteriorly, its fibers are partly continued into the column of the fornix; some, however, pass over the anterior commissure to the gray substance between the caudate nucleus and septum pellucidum, while others are said to enter the caudate nucleus. Posteriorly, it is continued into the roof of the inferior cornu of the lateral ventricle, at the extremity of which it enters the nucleus amygdalæ. Superficial to it is a large vein, the terminal vein (vein of the corpus striatum), which receives numerous tributaries from the corpus striatum and thalamus; it runs forward to the interventricular foramen and there joins with the vein of the choroid plexus to form the corresponding internal cerebral vein. On the surface of the terminal vein is a narrow white band, named the lamina affixa. The Fornix (Figs. 720,747,748) is a longitudinal, arch-shaped lamella of white substance, situated below the corpus callosum, and continuous with it behind, but separated from it in front by the septum pellucidum. It may be described as consisting of two symmetrical bands, one for either hemisphere. The two portions are not united to each other in front and behind, but their central parts are joined together in the middle line. The anterior parts are called the columns of the fornix; the intermediate united portions, the body; and the posterior parts, the crura. FIG. 746 Diagram of the tracts in the internal capsule. Motor tract red. The sensory tract (blue) is not direct, but formed of neurons receiving impulses from below in the thalamus and transmitting them to the cortex. The optic radiation (occipitothalamic) is shown in violet. (See enlarged image) The body (corpus fornicis) of the fornix is triangular, narrow in front, and broad behind. The medial part of its upper surface is connected to the septum pellucidum in front and to the corpus callosum behind. The lateral portion of this surface forms part of the floor of the lateral ventricle, and is covered by the ventricular epithelium. Its lateral edge overlaps the choroid plexus, and is continuous with the epithelial covering of this structure. The under surface rests upon the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, which separates it from the epithelial roof of that cavity, and from the medial portions of the upper surfaces of the thalami. Below, the lateral portions of the body of the fornix are joined by a thin triangular lamina, named the psalterium (lyra). This lamina contains some transverse fibers which connect the two hippocampi across the middle line and constitute the hippocampal commissure. Between the psalterium and the corpus callosum a horizontal cleft, the so-called ventricle of the fornix (ventricle of Verga), is sometimes found. The columns (columna fornicis; anterior pillars; fornicolumns) of the fornix arch downward in front of the interventricular foramen and behind the anterior commissure, and each descends through the gray substance in the lateral wall of the third ventricle to the base of the brain, where it ends in the corpus mammillare. From the cells of the corpus mammillare the thalamomammillary fasciculus (bundle of Vicq dAzyr) takes origin and is prolonged into the anterior nucleus of the thalamus. The column of the fornix and the thalamomammillary fasciculus together form a loop resembling the figure 8, but the continuity of the loop is broken in the corpus mammillare. The column of the fornix is joined by the stria medullaris of the pineal body and by the superficial fibers of the stria terminalis, and is said to receive also fibers from the septum pellucidum. Zuckerkandl describes an olfactory fasciculus which becomes detached from the main portion of the column of the fornix, and passes downward in front of the anterior commissure to the base of the brain, where it divides into two bundles, one joining the medial stria of the olfactory tract; the other joins the subcallosal gyrus, and through it reaches the hippocampal gyrus. FIG. 748 The fornix and corpus callosum from below. (From a specimen in the Department of Human Anatomy of the University of Oxford.) (See enlarged image) The crura (crus fornicis; posterior pillars) of the fornix are prolonged backward from the body. They are flattened bands, and at their commencement are intimately connected with the under surface of the corpus callosum. Diverging from one another, each curves around the posterior end of the thalamus, and passes downward and forward into the inferior cornu of the lateral ventricle (Fig. 750). Here it lies along the concavity of the hippocampus, on the surface of which some of its fibers are spread out to form the alveus, while the remainder are continued as a narrow white band, the fimbria hippocampi, which is prolonged into the uncus of the hippocampal gyrus. The inner edge of the fimbria overlaps the fascia dentata hippocampi (dentate gyrus) (page 827), from which it is separated by the fimbriodentate fissure; from its lateral margin, which is thin and ragged, the ventricular epithelium is reflected over the choroid plexus as the latter projects into the chorioidal fissure. Interventricular Foramen (foramen of Monro).Between the columns of the fornix and the anterior ends of the thalami, an oval aperture is present on either side: this is the interventricular foramen, and through it the lateral ventricles communicate with the third ventricle. Behind the epithelial lining of the foramen the choroid plexuses of the lateral ventricles are joined across the middle line. The Anterior Commissure (precommissure) is a bundle of white fibers, connecting the two cerebral hemispheres across the middle line, and placed in front of the columns of the fornix. On sagittal section it is oval in shape, its long diameter being vertical and measuring about 5 mm. Its fibers can be traced lateralward and backward on either side beneath the corpus striatum into the substance of the temporal lobe. It serves in this way to connect the two temporal lobes, but it also contains decussating fibers from the olfactory tracts. The Septum Pellucidum (septum lucidum) (Fig. 720) is a thin, vertically placed partition consisting of two laminæ, separated in the greater part of their extent by a narrow chink or interval, the cavity of the septum pellucidum. It is attached, above, to the under surface of the corpus callosum; below, to the anterior part of the fornix behind, and the reflected portion of the corpus callosum in front. It is triangular in form, broad in front and narrow behind; its inferior angle corresponds with the upper part of the anterior commissure. The lateral surface of each lamina is directed toward the body and anterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, and is covered by the ependyma of that cavity. The cavity of the septum pellucidum (cavum septi pellucidi; pseudocele; fifth ventricle) is generally regarded as part of the longitudinal cerebral fissure, which has become shut off by the union of the hemispheres in the formation of the corpus callosum above and the fornix below. Each half of the septum therefore forms part of the medial wall of the hemisphere, and consists of a medial layer of gray substance, derived from that of the cortex, and a lateral layer of white substance continuous with that of the cerebral hemispheres. This cavity is not developed from the cavity of the cerebral vesicles, and never communicates with the ventricles of the brain. The Choroid Plexus of the Lateral Ventricle (plexus chorioideus ventriculus lateralis; paraplexus) (Fig. 750) is a highly vascular, fringe-like process of pia mater, which projects into the ventricular cavity. The plexus, however, is everywhere covered by a layer of epithelium continuous with the epithelial lining of the ventricle. It extends from the interventricular foramen, where it is joined with the plexus of the opposite ventricle, to the end of the inferior cornu. The part in relation to the body of the ventricle forms the vascular fringed margin of a triangular process of pia mater, named the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, and projects from under cover of the lateral edge of the fornix. It lies upon the upper surface of the thalamus, from which the epithelium is reflected over the plexus on to the edge of the fornix (Fig. 723). The portion in relation to the inferior cornu lies in the concavity of the hippocampus and overlaps the fimbria hippocampi: from the lateral edge of the fimbria the epithelium is reflected over the plexus on to the roof of the cornu (Fig. 749). It consists of minute and highly vascular villous processes, each with an afferent and an efferent vessel. The arteries of the plexus are: (a) the anterior choroidal, a branch of the internal carotid, which enters the plexus at the end of the inferior cornu; and (b) the posterior choroidal, one or two small branches of the posterior cerebral, which pass forward under the splenium. The veins of the choroid plexus unite to form a tortuous vein, which courses from behind forward to the interventricular foramen and there joins with the terminal vein to form the corresponding internal cerebral vein. FIG. 749 Coronal section of inferior horn of lateral ventricle. (Diagrammatic.) (See enlarged image) When the choroid plexus is pulled away, the continuity between its epithelial covering and the epithelial lining of the ventricle is severed, and a cleft-like space is produced. This is named the choroidal fissure; like the plexus, it extends from the interventricular foramen to the end of the inferior cornu. The upper part of the fissure, i.e., the part nearest the interventricular foramen is situated between the lateral edge of the fornix and the upper surface of the thalamus; farther back at the beginning of the inferior cornu it is between the commencement of the fimbria hippocampi and the posterior end of the thalamus, while in the inferior cornu it lies between the fimbria in the floor and the stria terminalis in the roof of the cornu. The tela chorioidea of the third ventricle (tela chorioidea ventriculi tertii; velum interpositum) (Fig. 750) is a double fold of pia mater, triangular in shape, which lies beneath the fornix. The lateral portions of its lower surface rest upon the thalami, while its medial portion is in contact with the epithelial roof of the third ventricle. Its apex is situated at the interventricular foramen; its base corresponds with the splenium of the corpus callosum, and occupies the interval between that structure above and the corpora quadrigemina and pineal body below. This interval, together with the lower portions of the choroidal fissures, is sometimes spoken of as the transverse fissure of the brain. At its base the two layers of the velum separate from each other, and are continuous with the pia mater investing the brain in this region. Its lateral margins are modified to form the highly vascular choroid plexuses of the lateral ventricles. It is supplied by the anterior and posterior choroidal arteries already described, The veins of the tela chorioidea are named the internal cerebral veins (venæ Galeni); they are two in number, and run backward between its layers, each being formed at the interventricular foramen by the union of the terminal vein with the choroidal vein. The internal cerebral veins unite posteriorly in a single trunk, the great cerebral vein (vena magna Galeni), which passes backward beneath the splenium and ends in the straight sinus. FIG. 750 Tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, and the choroid plexus of the left lateral ventricle, exposed from above. (See enlarged image) Structure of the Cerebral Hemispheres.The cerebral hemispheres are composed of gray and white substance: the former covers their surface, and is termed the cortex; the latter occupies the interior of the hemispheres. The white substance consists of medullated fibers, varying in size, and arranged in bundles separated by neuroglia. They may be divided, according to their course and connections, into three distinct systems. (1) Projection fibers connect the hemisphere with the lower parts of the brain and with the medulla spinalis. (2) Transverse or commissural fibers unite the two hemispheres. (3) Association fibers connect different structures in the same hemisphere; these are, in many instances, collateral branches of the projection fibers, but others are the axons of independent cells. 1. The projection fibers consist of efferent and afferent fibers uniting the cortex with the lower parts of the brain and with the medulla spinalis. The principal efferent strands are: (1) the motor tract, occupying the genu and anterior two-thirds of the occipital part of the internal capsule, and consisting of (a) the geniculate fibers, which decussate and end in the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves of the opposite side; and (b) the cerebrospinal fibers, which are prolonged through the pyramid of the medulla oblongata into the medulla spinalis: (2) the corticopontine fibers, ending in the nuclei pontis. The chief afferent fibers are: (1) those of the lemniscus which are not interrupted in the thalamus; (2) those of the superior cerebellar peduncle which are not interrupted in the red nucleus and thalamus; (3) numerous fibers arising within the thalamus, and passing through its stalks to the different parts of the cortex (page 810); (4) optic and acoustic fibers, the former passing to the occipital, the latter to the temporal lobe. 2. The transverse or commissural fibers connect the two hemispheres. They include: (a) the transverse fibers of the corpus callosum, (b) the anterior commissure, (c) the posterior commissure, and (d) the lyra or hippocampal commissure; they have already been described. FIG. 751 Diagram showing principal systems of association fibers in the cerebrum. (See enlarged image) 3. The association fibers(Fig. 751) unite different parts of the same hemisphere, and are of two kinds: (1) those connecting adjacent gyri, short association fibers; (2) those passing between more distant parts, long association fibers. The long association fibers include the following: (a) the uncinate fasciculus; (b) the cingulum; (c) the superior longitudinal fasciculus; (d) the inferior longitudinal fasciculus; (e) the perpendicular fasciculus; (f) the occipitofrontal fasciculus; and (g) the fornix. (b) The cingulum is a band of white matter contained within the cingulate gyrus. Beginning in front at the anterior perforated substance, it passes forward and upward parallel with the rostrum, winds around the genu, runs backward above the corpus callosum, turns around the splenium, and ends in the hippocampal gyrus. (c) The superior longitudinal fasciculus passes backward from the frontal lobe above the lentiform nucleus and insula; some of its fibers end in the occipital lobe, and others curve downward and forward into the temporal lobe. (f) The occipitofrontal fasciculus passes backward from the frontal lobe, along the lateral border of the caudate nucleus, and on the mesial aspect of the corona radiata; its fibers radiate in a fan-like manner and pass into the occipital and temporal lobes lateral to the posterior and inferior cornua. Déjerine regards the fibers of the tapetum as being derived from this fasciculus, and not from the corpus callosum. (g) The fornix connects the hippocampal gyrus with the corpus mammillare and, by means of the thalamomammillary fasciculus, with the thalamus (see page 839). Through the fibers of the hippocampal commissure it probably also unites the opposite hippocampal gyri. Structure of the Cerebral Cortex (Fig. 754).The cerebral cortex differs in thickness and structure in different parts of the hemisphere. It is thinner in the occipital region than in the anterior and posterior central gyri, and it is also much thinner at the bottom of the sulci than on the top of the gyri. Again, the minute structure of the anterior central differs from that of the posterior central gyrus, and areas possessing a specialized type of cortex can be mapped out in the occipital lobe. On examining a section of the cortex with a lens, it is seen to consist of alternating white and gray layers thus disposed from the surface inward: (1) a thin layer of white substance; (2) a layer of gray substance; (3) a second white layer (outer band of Baillarger or band of Gennari); (4) a second gray layer; (5) a third white layer (inner band of Baillarger); (6) a third gray layer, which rests on the medullary substance of the gyrus. Nerve Cells.According to Cajal, the nerve cells are arranged in four layers, named from the surface inward as follows: (1) the molecular layer, (2) the layer of small pyramidal cells, (3) the layer of large pyramidal cells, (4) the layer of polymorphous cells. The Molecular Layer.In this layer the cells are polygonal, triangular, or fusiform in shape. Each polygonal cell gives off some four or five dendrites, while its axon may arise directly from the cell or from one of its dendrites. Each triangular cell gives off two or three dendrites, from one of which the axon arises. The fusiform cells are placed with their long axes parallel to the surface and are mostly bipolar, each pole being prolonged into a dendrite, which runs horizontally for some distance and furnishes ascending branches. Their axons, two or three in number, arise from the dendrites, and, like them, take a horizontal course, giving off numerous ascending collaterals. The distribution of the axons and dendrites of all three sets of cells is limited to the molecular layer. The Layer of Small and the Layer of Large Pyramidal Cells.The cells in these two layers may be studied together, since, with the exception of the difference in size and the more superficial position of the smaller cells, they resemble each other. The average length of the small cells is from 10 to 15μ; that of the large cells from 20 to 30μ. The body of each cell is pyramidal in shape, its base being directed to the deeper parts and its apex toward the surface. It contains granular pigment, and stains deeply with ordinary reagents. The nucleus is of large size, and round or oval in shape. The base of the cell gives off the axis cylinder, and this runs into the central white substance, giving off collaterals in its course, and is distributed as a projection, commissural, or association fiber. The apical and basal parts of the cell give off dendrites; the apical dendrite is directed toward the surface, and ends in the molecular layer by dividing into numerous branches, all of which may be seen, when prepared by the silver or methylene-blue method, to be studded with projecting bristle-like processes. The largest pyramidal cells are found in the upper part of the anterior central gyrus and in the paracentral lobule; they are often arranged in groups or nests of from three to five, and are named the giant cells of Betz. In the former situation they may exceed 50μ in length and 40μ in breadth, while in the paracentral lobule they may attain a length of 65μ. Layer of Polymorphous Cells.The cells in this layer, as their name implies, are very irregular in contour; they may be fusiform, oval, triangular, or star-shaped. Their dendrites are directed outward, but do not reach so far as the molecular layer; their axons pass into the subjacent white matter. There are two other kinds of cells in the cerebral cortex. They are: (a) the cells of Golgi, the axons of which divide immediately after their origins into a large number of branches, which are directed toward the surface of the cortex; (b) the cells of Martinotti, which are chiefly found in the polymorphous layer; their dendrites are short, and may have an ascending or descending course, while their axons pass out into the molecular layer and form an extensive horizontal arborization. Nerve Fibers.These fill up a large part of the intervals between the cells, and may be medullated or non-medullatedthe latter comprising the axons of the smallest pyramidal cells and the cells of Golgi. In their direction the fibers may be either tangential or radial. The tangential fibers run parallel to the surface of the hemisphere, intersecting the radial fibers at a right angle. They constitute several strata, of which the following are the more important: (1) a stratum of white fibers covering the superficial aspect of the molecular layer (plexus of Exner); (2) the band of Bechterew, in the outer part of the layer of small pyramidal cells; (3) the band of Gennari or external band of Baillarger, running through the layer of large pyramidal cells; (4) the internal band of Baillarger, between the layer of large pyramidal cells and the polymorphous layer; (5) the deep tangential fibers, in the lower part of the polymorphous layer. The tangential fibers consist of (a) the collaterals of the pyramidal and polymorphous cells and of the cells of Martinotti; (b) the branching axons of Golgis cells; (c) the collaterals and terminal arborizations of the projection, commissural, or association fibers. The radial fibers.Some of these, viz., the axons of the pyramidal and polymorphous cells, descend into the central white matter, while others, the terminations of the projection, commissural, or association fibers, ascend to end in the cortex. The axons of the cells of Martinotti are also ascending fibers. FIG. 754 Cerebral cortex. (Poirier.) To the left, the groups of cells; to the right, the systems of fibers. Quite to the left of the figure a sensory nerve fiber is shown. (See enlarged image) Special Types of Cerebral Cortex.It has been already pointed out that the minute structure of the cortex differs in different regions of the hemisphere; and A. W. Campbell126 has endeavored to prove, as the result of an exhaustive examination of a series of human and anthropoid brains, that there exists a direct correlation between physiological function and histological structure. The principal regions where the typical structure is departed from will now be referred to. 1. In the calcarine fissure and the gyri bounding it, the internal band of Baillarger is absent, while the band of Gennari is of considerable thickness, and forms a characteristic feature of this region of the cortex. If a section be examined microscopically, an additional layer of cells is seen to be interpolated between the molecular layer and the layer of small pyramidal cells. This extra layer consists of two or three strata of fusiform cells, the long axes of which are at right angles to the surface; each cell gives off two dendrites, external and internal, from the latter of which the axon arises and passes into the white central substance. In the layer of small pyramidal cells, fusiform cells, identical with the above, are seen, as well as ovoid or star-like cells with ascending axons (cells of Martinotti). This is the visual area of the cortex, and it has been shown by J. S. Bolton127 that in old-standing cases of optic atrophy the thickness of Gennaris band is reduced by nearly 50 per cent. A. W. Campbell says: Histologically, two distinct types of cortex can be made out in the occipital lobe. The first of these coats the walls and bounding convolutions of the calcarine fissure, and is distinguished by the well-known line of Gennari or Vicq dAzyr; the second area forms an investing zone a centimetre or more broad around the first, and is characterized by a remarkable wealth of fibers, as well as by curious pyriform cells of large size richly stocked with chromophilic elementscells which seem to have escaped the observation of Ramón y Cajal, Bolton, and others who have worked at this region. As to the functions of these two regions there is abundant evidence, anatomical, embryological, and pathological, to show that the first or calcarine area is that to which visual sensations primarily pass, and we are gradually obtaining proof to the effect that the second investing area is constituted for the interpretation and further elaboration of these sensations. These areas therefore deserve the names visuo-sensory and visuo-psychic. 2. The anterior central gyrus is characterized by the presence of the giant cells of Betz and by a wealth of nerve fibers immeasurably superior to that of any other part (Campbell), and in these respects differs from the posterior central gyrus. These two gyri, together with the paracentral lobule, were long regarded as constituting the motor areas of the hemisphere; but Sherrington and Grunbaum have shown128 that in the chimpanzee the motor area never extends on to the free face of the posterior central gyrus, but occupies the entire length of the anterior central gyrus, and in most cases the greater part or the whole of its width. It extends into the depth of the central sulcus, occupying the anterior wall, and in some places the floor, and in some extending even into the deeper part of the posterior wall of the sulcus. 3. In the hippocampus the molecular layer is very thick and contains a large number of Golgi cells. It has been divided into three strata: (a) s. convolutum or s. granulosum, containing many tangential fibers; (b) s. lacunosum, presenting numerous vascular spaces; (c) s. radiatum, exhibiting a rich plexus of fibrils. The two layers of pyramidal cells are condensed into one, and the cells are mostly of large size. The axons of the cells in the polymorphous layer may run in an ascending, a descending, or a horizontal direction. Between the polymorphous layer and the ventricular ependyma is the white substance of the alveus. 5. The Olfactory Bulb.In many of the lower animals this contains a cavity which communicates through the olfactory tract with the lateral ventricle. In man the original cavity is filled up by neuroglia and its wall becomes thickened, but much more so on its ventral than on its dorsal aspect. Its dorsal part contains a small amount of gray and white substance, but it is scanty and ill-defined. A section through the ventral part (Fig. 755) shows it to consist of the following layers from without inward: FIG. 756 Areas of localization on lateral surface of hemisphere. Motor area in red. Area of general sensations in blue. Auditory area in green. Visula area in yellow. The psychic portions are in lighter tints. (See enlarged image) 1. A layer of olfactory nerve fibers, which are the non-medullated axons prolonged from the olfactory cells of the nasal cavity, and reach the bulb by passing through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. At first they cover the bulb, and then penetrate it to end by forming synapses with the dendrites of the mitral cells, presently to be described. 2. Glomerular Layer.This contains numerous spheroidal reticulated enlargements, termed glomeruli, produced by the branching and arborization of the processes of the olfactory nerve fibres with the descending dendrites of the mitral cells. 3. Molecular Layer.This is formed of a matrix of neuroglia, imbedded in which are the mitral cells. These cells are pyramidal in shape, and the basal part of each gives off a thick dendrite which descends into the glomerular layer, where it arborizes as indicated above, and others which interlace with similar dendrites of neighboring mitral cells. The axons pass through the next layer into the white matter of the bulb, and after becoming bent on themselves at a right angle, are continued into the olfactory tract. 4. Nerve Fiber Layer.This lies next the central core of neuroglia, and its fibers consist of the axons or afferent processes of the mitral cells passing to the brain; some efferent fibers are, however, also present, and end in the molecular layer, but nothing is known as to their exact origin. Weight of the Encephalon.The average weight of the brain, in the adult male, is about 1380 gms.; that of the female, about 1250 gms. In the male, the maximum weight out of 278 cases was 1840 gms. and the minimum weight 964 gms. The maximum weight of the adult female brain, out of 191 cases, was 1585 gms. and the minimum weight 879 gms. The brain increases rapidly during the first four years of life, and reaches its maximum weight by about the twentieth year. As age advances, the brain decreases slowly in weight; in old age the decrease takes place more rapidly, to the extent of about 28 gms. The human brain is heavier than that of any of the lower animals, except the elephant and whale. The brain of the former weighs from 3.5 to 5.4 kilogm., and that of a whale, in a specimen 19 metres long, weighed rather more than 6.7 kilogm. Cerebral Localization.Physiological and pathological research have now gone far to prove that a considerable part of the surface of the brain may be mapped out into a series of more or less definite areas, each of which is intimately connected with some well-defined function. Motor Areas.The motor area occupies the anterior central and frontal gyri and the paracentral lobule. The centers for the lower limb are located on the uppermost part of the anterior central gyrus and its continuation on to the paracentral lobule; those for the trunk are on the upper portion, and those for the upper limb on the middle portion of the anterior central gyrus. The facial centers are situated on the lower part of the anterior central gyrus, those for the tongue, larynx, muscles of mastication, and pharynx on the frontal operculum, while those for the head and neck occupy the posterior end of the middle frontal gyrus. FIG. 757 Areas of localization on medial surface of hemisphere. Motor area in red. Area of general sensations in blue. Visual area in yellow. Olfactory area in purple. The psychic portions are in lighter tints. (See enlarged image) Sensory Areas.Tactile and temperature senses are located on the posterior central gyrus, while the sense of form and solidity is on the superior parietal lobule and precuneus. With regard to the special senses, the area for the sense of taste is probably related to the uncus and hippocampal gyrus. The auditory area occupies the middle third of the superior temporal gyrus and the adjacent gyri in the lateral fissure; the visual area, the calcarine fissure and cuneus; the olfactory area, the rhinencephalon. As special centers of much importance may be noted: the emissive center for speech on the left inferior frontal and anterior central gyri (Broca); the auditory receptive center on the transverse and superior temporal gyri, and the visual receptive center on the lingual gyrus and cuneus.

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Choose between a shared-storage and a data-replication solution Keeping mission-critical applications available for employees, business partners, and customers is a key goal for any IT department. Many IT administrators turn to clustering—physically and programmatically linking two or more systems to ensure high availability and to balance workloads—to achieve this goal. Clustering lets application processing continue on another server if the primary system fails or you need to shut down the primary system for maintenance. Clustering can also improve performance by evenly distributing workloads among several servers. No matter how many systems make up the cluster, it appears as one server to end users. If your primary goal is to improve the availability of your back-end applications, you can use Microsoft Cluster service, which is included in Windows 2000 Advanced Server (Win2K AS) and Win2K Datacenter Server, or choose from a variety of competing products. (Cluster service is known as Microsoft Cluster Server—MSCS—in Windows NT Server, Enterprise Edition—NTS/E.) All these products move processing of back-end applications, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP), database management, and messaging applications, from the primary cluster server (called a node) to other cluster nodes when the primary node fails. This process is known as failover. After you repair the failed server, the clustering software shifts resources and processing back to the original node, a process known as failback. Making the best clustering-product choice depends on multiple factors, including the risks to your computing environment, your current disaster-recovery plan, the geographic separation of your servers, the location of clients that use the clustered applications, the number of applications and servers to be clustered, and of course, your budget. When deciding on a high-availability strategy, you must first understand that clustering doesn't deliver true fault tolerance. No matter whose clustering product you choose, failure of a cluster node or application results in 5 seconds to 30 seconds of application downtime, depending on the number of transactions written to the transaction log since it was last saved. In addition, depending on the design of the client application, users might have to reconnect to the clustered application when it resumes on the new node. For some environments, these inconveniences are inconsequential. Other environments might need a fault-tolerant solution that can deliver higher levels of availability than clustering products provide. For more information about two such solutions, see Ed Roth, Lab Feature, "Stratus ftServer 3210," July 2002, InstantDoc ID 25335, and John Green, Lab Feature, "Endurance 6200 3.0," July 2001, InstantDoc ID 21140. A common clustering implementation is to have all clustered nodes run the cluster-protected applications so that servers don't sit idle. This arrangement is referred to as an active/active configuration. Should one node fail or be shut down, the failover process copies the necessary resources to the active target node. Depending on the target node's configuration and utilization, the added workload might degrade performance of existing and failed-over applications. The alternative is to create an active/passive configuration, in which one or more servers sit idle or run nonclustered applications until the primary server fails. Win2K AS supports two nodes running Cluster service (as does NTS/E running MSCS); Win2K Datacenter supports as many as four nodes running Cluster service. Win2K AS's two-node limitation might be a problem if you want to cluster two Microsoft Exchange Server systems that would support several thousand employees. Microsoft recommends that you support no more than 1900 Exchange users per cluster node. If you followed this guideline, you'd need to create two active/passive clusters, with an idle node for each Exchange server. Alternatively, Win2K Datacenter's four-node limit would let you create a three-node cluster with one idle system serving as a failover node for both Exchange servers. (To anticipate the failure of both primary Exchange nodes, you'd need to add a fourth passive node to the cluster, of course.) But because Microsoft sells Win2K Datacenter only with server hardware, this would be an expensive clustering solution. Clustering multiple Exchange servers with Cluster service will be easier and less expensive when Windows .NET Enterprise Server (Win.NET Enterprise Server—the follow-on to Win2K AS) is available because it will support eight-node clusters and won't be packaged with server hardware. Obviously, the failover targets need to have sufficient processor, memory, and storage resources to support the additional workload of the failed servers. Cluster service is a good solution if you plan to run more than one clustered application per node. If Cluster service detects that one of the clustered applications has failed and can't be restarted, Cluster service can fail over just the affected application without disrupting the others if the applications are cluster-aware and are in different resource groups. Most Cluster service clusters share a common storage array that connects directly to each node or is part of a Storage Area Network (SAN). Shared-storage clusters are simpler to implement than clusters that replicate data between nodes, but the shared array becomes a single point of failure and limits the geographic separation of the cluster nodes. You can geographically separate Win2K AS or Win2K Datacenter's Cluster service nodes if each node connects to a SAN-connected storage array and each array's I/O controller synchronously replicates data and quorum disk information (i.e., cluster-configuration information stored on a special volume). Third-party products such as NSI Software's GeoCluster Advanced Server 4.1 can also perform data replication for Cluster service. Win.NET Enterprise Server and Win.NET Datacenter Server will let you separate nodes in two locations—the OSs will provide a quorum mechanism that synchronizes cluster configuration information among all nodes, but you'll still need a separate data-replication capability. All Cluster service nodes, storage arrays, and I/O controllers must be on the Win2K or Win.NET Cluster Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) if you want Microsoft to support them. Figure 1 shows Cluster service's management console. Cluster service is a full-featured solution that's well suited for many scenarios, but if you need to create three- or four-node clusters, Win2K Datacenter is an expensive route to get there. Win.NET Enterprise Server looks promising, but it won't solve your problem today. Cost might also be a problem if your servers aren't already running NTS/E or Win2K AS and cluster-aware versions of your applications, as Cluster service requires. In addition, if you want to locate a node in another geographic area as part of a disaster-recovery plan but you don't have an external storage array and SAN, Cluster service alone won't work for you. Companies such as VERITAS Software, SteelEye Technology, Legato Systems, Computer Associates (CA), and NSI Software offer clustering products that address these shortcomings. All the clustering products provide an administrative console to manage the cluster from a central location. If you intend to keep all your cluster nodes situated within your data center but you need support for more nodes than Cluster service supports, take a look at VERITAS Cluster Server 2.0 (pricing starts at $6000 per node). Figure 2, page 30, shows the product's administrative console. Like Cluster service, VERITAS Cluster Server uses a shared storage array, but VERITAS claims it has tested its product with as many as 32 nodes. VERITAS Cluster Server also offers an interesting load-balancing feature called Advanced Workload Management that lets you fail over a clustered application to a node with greater CPU or memory resources according to criteria that you set (e.g., when the number of customer transactions per minute reaches a level that you define). VERITAS says its clustering software works with any server and any version of Win2K or NT 4.0, but be sure that VERITAS has tested your storage array model. SteelEye Technology's LifeKeeper for Windows 2000 and LifeKeeper for Windows NT (pricing starts at $2500 per node for each product) also use a common storage array. Like VERITAS with VERITAS Cluster Server, SteelEye says it has tested LifeKeeper for Windows 2000 with as many as 32 nodes. The vendor has tested LifeKeeper for Windows NT with clusters as large as 16 nodes. Creating such large clusters would be a configuration nightmare, but it's good to know that you can create a four- or five-node cluster if you need to. Figure 3 shows the LifeKeeper interface. SteelEye's optional application recovery kits (ranging in price from $750 to $10,000 per node) monitor applications and attempt to restart a failed program before initiating a failover. Kits are available for Exchange, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft IIS, IBM DB2, Oracle9i and Oracle8i, and other enterprise applications. Instead of sharing storage, some clustering products store data on each node and employ replication to synchronize that data. This approach lets you place one or more nodes at other locations so that mission-critical processing can continue in the event of a local catastrophe. Although this model eliminates the single-point-of-failure problem inherent in shared-storage arrays, it introduces other challenges, particularly in a geographically dispersed cluster. High latency of the network connecting the nodes could degrade application performance for cluster solutions that use synchronous replication to synchronize data and cluster configuration information. Similarly, in asynchronous clustering solutions, insufficient network bandwidth might result in new transactions waiting to be transmitted over the network. If the node that the transactions are on goes down, the queued transactions won't reach the remote node. SteelEye's LifeKeeper nodes use a common disk array, but the vendor's optional Extended Mirroring product ($1400 per node) lets you create a remote cluster node. Extended Mirroring supports synchronous and asynchronous replication. Legato's Co-StandbyServer 2000 and Co-StandbyServer NT products (pricing starts at $6500 per node pair for the Win2K version and $5499 per node pair for the NT version) allow for a maximum of two clustered nodes and provide synchronous data mirroring between the nodes. The two products work with any version of their respective OSs. Figure 4 shows the Co-StandbyServer 2000 management console. Legato positions Co-StandbyServer primarily for local clustering. The company offers RepliStor 5.0 (pricing starts at $2499 per node) to cluster a maximum of two cluster nodes in geographically separate locations. RepliStor uses asynchronous replication to synchronize the nodes. Unlike Cluster service and Co-Standby Server, which monitor the status of the clustered applications as well as the server and communications link, RepliStor monitors only server and network status, so you'll need third-party systems management software to alert RepliStor to application faults. RepliStor works with any version of Win2K or NT 4.0 and any server on the Win2K or NT 4.0 HCL. At $1895 per node, CA BrightStor High-Availability Manager 7.0 is a relatively inexpensive clustering solution that uses asynchronous replication for data synchronization. According to CA, only network bandwidth and server resources limit the number of nodes. CA also says that you can use any Windows server as a node. In addition to providing a heartbeat, BrightStor High-Availability Manager lets cluster nodes ping other network servers or routers to verify network connectivity. BrightStor High-Availability Manager doesn't provide application monitoring, but you can use other systems management applications to alert BrightStor High-Availability Manager if an application fails. Figure 5 shows the BrightStor High-Availability Manager administrative interface. NSI Software offers two clustering products that use asynchronous data replication. The company's Double-Take for Windows, Server Edition 4.2 ($2495 per node) and Double-Take for Windows, Advanced Server Edition 4.2 ($4495 per node) are an alternative to Cluster service. (Double-Take for Windows, Advanced Server Edition is for NTS/E and Win2K AS.) Figure 6 shows the Double-Take Management Console. NST's GeoCluster Advanced Server 4.1 product ($4495 per node) runs on top of Cluster service to let you geographically separate Cluster service nodes. According to NSI Software, Double-Take works with any Windows server and only network bandwidth and server resources limit the number of nodes. GeoCluster supports two nodes and runs on any Cluster service server. Double-Take detects only server and network-connectivity failures, so you need third-party systems management software to alert Double-Take if an application fails. Pros and Cons Each of the third-party products I've mentioned addresses particular needs that Cluster service doesn't meet, and all of them run with Win2K Server and NT 4.0 Server and standard versions of clustered applications. But the products don't match Cluster service feature for feature. For example, with some third-party products, you must use other systems management tools to alert the clustering software to an application failure. If you decide on a clustering product that uses data replication rather than a common disk array, you'll need to do some homework to determine the bandwidth requirements for each clustered application and ensure that your network can meet those requirements. Even if you opt for a product that uses a common storage array, you might also employ a clustering product that supports distant nodes to keep your applications running after a local disaster. If you don't need the failover capability at a distant site, you can still use replication clustering products to create realtime backups at a remote site. |Contact the Vendors| | CLUSTER SERVICE | Microsoft * 425-882-8080 * http://www.microsoft.com VERITAS CLUSTER SERVER 2.0 VERITAS Software 650-527-8000 or 800-327-2232 LIFEKEEPER FOR WINDOWS 2000 4.0, LIFEKEEPER FOR WINDOWS NT 2.04, EXTENDED MIRRORING SteelEye Technology 650-318-0108 or 877-319-0108 CO-STANDBYSERVER 2000, CO-STANDBYSERVER NT, REPLISTOR 5.0 Legato Systems * 650-210-7000 * http://www.legato.com BRIGHTSTOR HIGH-AVAILABILITY MANAGER 7.0 Computer Associates * 631-342-6000 or 800-225-5224 http://www.ca.com DOUBLE-TAKE FOR WINDOWS, SERVER EDITION 4.2; DOUBLE-TAKE FOR WINDOWS, ADVANCED SERVER EDITION 4.2; GEOCLUSTER ADVANCED SERVER 4.1 NSI Software * 317-598-1174 or 888-674-9495

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Shouting out in class 'helps pupils to learn' Pupils who shout out in class achieve better results than their counterparts who appear to be better behaved and quiet, suggests research. A study of primary school pupils found children who "blurt out" responses perform better in maths and English. The Durham University study looked at 12,000 pupils in England. "Although it may seem disruptive, blurting out of answers clearly helps these pupils to learn," said report co-author Christine Merrell. The study, carried out by the Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring (CEM) at Durham University, compared English and maths test results with monitoring reports of pupils' behaviour.'Impulsive' shouters The study of children at 556 schools found those pupils who showed "impulsive" behaviour, such as being unable to resist shouting out to teachers in class, were more likely to achieve higher test results. The findings run against the model of quiet, assiduous pupils - and it raises questions about how the enthusiasm of such demanding and noisy behaviour could be managed and controlled in a school. End Quote Prof Peter Tymms Head of Durham University school of education Perhaps those children also benefit from receiving additional feedback and attention from their teacher” The study looked at a full range of pupils in state and independent schools - including those who were considered "inattentive" or who had symptoms of ADHD (attention deficit hyperactive disorder). The researchers found that among this group, those who called out performed better in tests than similar children who remained quiet in class. Children who were considered well-behaved and able to pay attention were more likely to be higher achievers than those who were inattentive. But within this attentive group there was also the same pattern, with those who were not self-conscious about shouting out responses in class being more likely to have higher attainment. The lead author of the research, Peter Tymms, head of Durham University's school of education, said that among children with ADHD symptoms, those who got excited and shouted out seemed to be more "cognitively engaged and as a result learn more". "Perhaps those children also benefit from receiving additional feedback and attention from their teacher," suggested Prof Tymms. Ms Merrell, CEM's director of research and development, said she wanted to carry out further studies to see how pupils could be encouraged to shout out as part of the lesson. She said they might look at behaviour in settings where it was expected that children would participate by shouting out, such as at a pantomime or a puppet show. They also needed to understand more about how these impulsive, quick-fire characteristics, which might sometimes be seen as disruptive, could be harnessed to improve results. "We need to look more closely at this behaviour and how the interaction can be managed in the classroom."

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The Republic of Mozambique is a constitutional democracy with an estimated population of 20 million. President Armando Guebuza was elected in December 2004 in what national and international observers judged to be generally free and fair elections, despite some irregularities. The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) has been the ruling political party since independence in 1975, heavily influencing both policymaking and implementation. While civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces, there were some instances in which elements of the security forces acted independently. Incidents of serious human rights abuses in some areas—including unlawful killings by security forces and vigilante killings—increased during the year. Prison conditions remained harsh and life threatening, resulting in several deaths. Arbitrary arrest and detention as well as lengthy pretrial detentions were problems. An understaffed and inadequately trained judiciary was inefficient and heavily influenced by the ruling party. Judicial decisions involving independent media outlets created a more constraining environment for press freedom. In addition societal problems such as domestic violence, discrimination against women, abuse, exploitation, and forced labor of children, trafficking in women and children, and discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS remained widespread. RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS Section 1 Respect for Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life Although the government or its agents did not commit any political killings during the year, security forces committed unlawful killings. Violence as a first resort, excessive use of force, and abuse by police remained problems. Authorities often failed to investigate police violence and bring the perpetrators to justice. However, authorities expelled and, in some cases, brought criminal charges against dozens of officers for disciplinary offenses during the year. A sharp increase in crime, particularly in and around Maputo City, was likely a factor in the increase in the number of unlawful killings committed by security forces during the year. An overanxious police force responded with a strong show of force and often resorted to violence. Police arbitrarily shot and killed numerous persons. For example, on April 4, three policemen shot and killed Carlos Cossa, Mustafa Assene Momede, and Francisco Antonio Nhantumbo on a football field in a Maputo suburb. An investigation by the Criminal Investigation Police (PIC) indicated the victims were criminals who had escaped from a police car. However, the Attorney General's Office concluded that the shots fired by police were at close range, suggesting summary executions. Further investigation into the killings continued at year's end. On November 8, members of the riot police shot and killed Juliao Macul in Massinga, Inhambane Province. Minister of Interior Jose Pacheco explained the killing as a police reaction to a denunciation of the suspect and added that Macul attempted to avoid being questioned by police. However, media reports indicated that police mistook Macul for a wanted criminal and made no attempt to identify or arrest Macul before shooting him seven times. Police set up a commission of inquiry to investigate the death, but no further information was available at year's end. On December 22, police shot and killed Augusto Covilas who had called the police to report that his house was being robbed. Upon arriving at the scene, two members of the police opened fire without attempting to find out who was in the house. Authorities arrested the two officers involved and an investigation was underway at year's end. Police use of torture resulted in deaths. For example, on August 15, PIC agent Alexandre Francisco Balate drugged, beat, and burned Abranches Afonso Penicelo and left him for dead, according to press reports. Penicelo survived and made it to a hospital before dying from his injuries the following day. Family members of Penicelo claimed the killing was perpetrated by a death squad with which Balate was affiliated. An investigation by the Attorney General's Office was ongoing at year's end. There were no developments in the following 2006 killings by security forces: the January police killing of an unarmed civilian who was trying to persuade a group of policemen to stop beating a younger woman; the January killing by police of five suspects during a warehouse raid; the March police killing of four detainees in a high security prison; the May killing of at least two prison escapees; the June killing by military police of a secondary student for allegedly wearing boots that belonged to a military officer; the June killing by three members of the Presidential Guard of an unarmed citizen who disobeyed orders to stop his vehicle; and, the July police killings of a prisoner who was active in organized crime and planned to testify in court. There were no developments in the trial of police who shot six gang members in Matsinho, Manica in 2005. There was one reported killing as a result of torture and other reports of abuse by members of the Community Policing Councils (CPC), nonstatutory bodies set up by the Mozambican National Police (PRM) in many districts to prevent crime. On April 2, Nzero Zamala, the CPC chairman of Nhamatanda District, Sofala Province, whipped Manuel Chinzo Joao more than 60 times, allegedly because Joao was having an affair with Zamala's wife. Joao was not taken to a hospital until April 6, where he subsequently died from his injuries, according to the Agencia de Informacao de Mocambique (AIM). Land mine-related accidents resulted in deaths and injuries. The government continued to cooperate with international organizations and donors as well as commercial firms to clear suspected land mine areas. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports of killings by unknown actors. The investigation into the March 2006 killing of leading opposition party Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) deputy Jose Gaspar Mascarenhas by an unknown gunman was ongoing at year's end. Killings by vigilante groups were widespread during the year. The nongovernmental organization (NGO) Human Rights League (LDH) and other civil society groups claimed these killings were related to increased crime, lack of police presence in certain neighborhoods, and an ineffective justice system. Most targets of such killings were suspected muggers, thieves, and drug dealers. While nationwide statistics were not available, the press reported at least 26 killings by vigilantes during the year, most of which occurred in and around Maputo City, Matola, and Beira. For example, in June a mob in the Vaz neighborhood of Beira beat to death two suspected thieves. In July a mob killed a suspected thief by beating him, soaking him in gasoline, and burning him to death. In November vigilantes apprehended a suspected petty thief, beat him to death, and burned his body. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reported mob killings of persons suspected of witchcraft. There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment While the constitution and law prohibit such practices, police continued to commit abuses. During the year human rights advocates and media outlets reported complaints of torture and other cruel treatment, including several instances involving sexual abuse of women, beatings, and prolonged detention. There were a few reports of deaths resulting from police torture. The LDH reported that torture in prisons continued to be a problem. Torture and other abusive treatment continued at police squadrons, according to the LDH. On April 28, police in Macia, Maputo Province, reportedly beat British citizen Alan Evans at a checkpoint. Evans was treated at a clinic in Swaziland for injuries sustained in the incident. There was no further information by year's end. On July 2, policemen at the 5th squadron in Machava, Maputo Province, severely beat and threatened to kill trainee lawyer Aguinaldo Mandlate, who was at the station to represent clients being interrogated by the PIC. While police claimed he was "trying to escape" and received his injuries after falling, Mandlate stated he fled after police threatened him with a gun. Police gave chase, beat Mandlate, and threw him in a cell with other inmates for several hours before he was rescued by colleagues and taken to the hospital for treatment of head injuries. There were no further updates at year's end. No action was taken against police involved in the following 2006 torture cases: the May torture of Alexandre Emilio and several others by police from Maputo's 12th Squadron; and the May beating of Generosa Anselmo Cossa, a delegate of RENAMO. There continued to be reports of abuse and violence by members of the CPC. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports of violence between FRELIMO and RENAMO supporters during the year. Vigilante violence also resulted in deaths and injuries. Prison and Detention Center Conditions Prison conditions were extremely harsh and life threatening. The Administration for Prison Services operated 211 prisons in 10 provinces and is under the Ministry of Justice. The Ministry of Interior and the police are responsible for jails at police stations. Overcrowding remained a serious problem. The LDH noted that many prisons held up to three times the number of prisoners for which they were built, and that often prisoners slept in bathrooms, standing up, or in shifts. For example, the Maputo Central Prison held 2,246 prisoners in a facility designed to hold 800, and the Inhambane Provincial Prison held 346 prisoners in a facility designed to hold 75. During the first half of the year, the LDH visited 74 prisons and detention facilities, which held a total of 11,424 inmates in facilities designed to hold 5,913. The LDH found that more than 500 detainees in the Maputo Central Prison (Machava) had been held beyond the 90-day preventive detention period. Of the prisons visited, 399 prisoners remained in jail after the end of their sentences (including 206 at the Maputo Central Prison). The LDH described 35 facilities as "physically inadequate." In detention facilities, overcrowding did not appear to be a serious problem. During the first half of the year, the LDH visited several police station detention facilities and noted that some detainees continued to be held beyond the maximum police station preventive detention period of 48 hours. Reports continued that most prisoners received only one meal per day. In 13 of the prisons visited, the LDH characterized the provision of food as "poor." It was customary for families to bring food to prisoners; however, there continued to be occasional reports that guards demanded bribes in exchange for delivering food to prisoners. In several prisons, inmates prostituted themselves in exchange for food, according to the LDH. There continued to be many reported deaths in prison, the vast majority due to illness. In many facilities overcrowding, lack of sanitation, potable water, and food also led to sickness. In a series of prison visits conducted during the first half of the year, the LDH found malaria, scabies, and tuberculosis to be frequent among prisoners in nearly all of the country's prisons. LDH also found other illnesses caused by malnutrition, including paralysis and blindness. Both healthy and sick prisoners regularly were kept in the same cells. The spread of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases was a serious problem for the prison population, and the LDH noted that in many prisons, authorities denied condoms to inmates. In the first half of 2007, the LDH reported 39 juveniles under the age of 16 held with adults from the general prison population. Pretrial detainees were held with convicted prisoners. International and domestic human rights groups had access to prisoners, although at the discretion of ministries of justice and interior. Unlike in previous years, the LDH reported facing serious problems obtaining credentials to visit prisons. While in some cases authorities simply did not respond to the LDH requests for credentials, in other cases certain prison directors denied the LDH access to visits despite having credentials. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention While the constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, both practices continued to occur. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus Forces under the Ministry of Interior, including the PIC, the PRM, and the Rapid Intervention Force, are responsible for internal security. An additional security body, the State Information and Security Service, reports directly to the president. The armed forces (FADM) are responsible for external security, but patrolled with the PRM and manned checkpoints due to a significant increase in crime during the year. The police continued to be poorly paid, despite an increase in pay during the year. Trainee-level officers reportedly received approximately $89 (2,113 meticais) a month, while those at higher rank received approximately $115 (2,725 meticais) a month. Corruption and extortion by police were widespread, and impunity remained a problem. In January Deputy Interior Minister Jose Mandra said that criminal elements had infiltrated the police force. Police regularly detained persons for arbitrary reasons and demanded identification documents solely to extort payments. Many crime victims reportedly avoided police assistance because of expected demands for bribes and a lack of confidence that the police would help. During the 12 months preceding April, the Maputo City Police Command initiated disciplinary and criminal proceedings against 113 Maputo policemen, expelling 28 of these from the force. The most common reasons for disciplinary action, according to Maputo's police chief, were collaboration with criminals, extortion of goods and money, excessive alcohol consumption, and abandonment of post. During the year the Ministry of Interior expelled at least 160 police officers. However, the vast majority of police who committed infractions were "recycled," sent back to school, and then transferred to a new unit. In the three months preceding March, the Ministry "recycled" 178 police. These included suspected criminals, thieves, and agents suspected of collaborating with criminals. A government-sponsored survey ranked the PRM as the second most corrupt public institution. Professional training for police officers continued during the year; in August 60 PRM officers in Gaza Province completed human rights training. Implementation of the 2003-12 strategic plan of action and modernization for the PRM continued; seven of its nine "guiding principles" reflected respect for human rights. While the plan acknowledged the problem of abuse of police powers, it made no specific provision for ensuring greater accountability for such abuses. Arrest and Detention Although the law provides that persons be arrested openly with warrants issued by a judge or prosecutor (except persons caught in the act of committing a crime), police continued to arrest and detain citizens arbitrarily. By law the maximum length of investigative detention without a warrant is 48 hours, during which time a detainee has the right to judicial review of the case. The individual may be detained another 90 days while the PIC continues its investigation. When a person is accused of a crime carrying a sentence of more than eight years, the individual may be detained up to 84 days without being charged formally. With court approval, such detainees may be held for two more periods of 84 days each without charge while the police complete the investigative process. The law provides that when the prescribed period for investigation has been completed and no charges have been brought, the detainee must be released. In many cases the authorities either were unaware of these regulations or ignored them, often also ignoring a detainee's constitutional right to counsel and to contact relatives or friends. The law provides that citizens have access to the courts as well as the right to representation, regardless of ability to pay for such services. However, due to a shortage of legal professionals, indigent defendants frequently had no legal representation. The bail system remained poorly defined. Prisoners, their families, and NGOs continued to complain that police and prison officials demanded bribes for releasing prisoners. There were reports that police harassed and arbitrarily detained persons, including journalists, during the year. Government statistics indicated that approximately 40 percent of inmates were still awaiting trial. In addition there continued to be reports of detainees who spent longer in pretrial detention than the period of the sentence they eventually received. By law a judge has 48 hours to validate a detention in any proceeding; however, this statute often was not enforced. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary; however, the executive branch and the ruling FRELIMO party heavily influenced an understaffed and inadequately trained judiciary, particularly in the lower tiers. The judicial system continued to suffer from a lack of transparency and often did not comply with the principles of promotion and protection of human rights. In May the parliament passed a new judicial organization law, which establishes intermediate appeals courts and expands the powers of district courts to rule on more serious criminal cases. The new law also empowers district court judges to rule on criminal cases with penalties ranging between eight and 12 years, compared with up to only two years before the law. The law permits judges to rule on a significantly higher number of cases and was expected to reduce the backlog in the judicial sector. In addition alternative measures such as work brigades, conditional release for prisoners who have completed half of their sentence, and traveling tribunals continued. Approximately 93 of the country's 128 judicial districts had functioning courts; however, a shortage of judges and qualified staff was a major problem. In March Chief Justice Mario Mangaze reiterated that the country had only 36 percent of the judges and prosecutors needed to administer justice effectively. There were 221 judges (or approximately one per 90,500 inhabitants), 183 of whom held law degrees as required by law for all judges appointed after 2000. During the year 7 percent of the 1,429 staff employed by the courts held university degrees. Continuing problems included chronic absenteeism, unequal treatment, low salaries, corruption, deliberate delays, and omissions in handling cases. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that judges were expelled for illicit behavior. The president appoints both the Supreme Court president and vice president. The Higher Judicial Magistrates' Council (CSMJ) prepares Supreme Court nominations and submits a list of qualified potential nominees to the president. Members of the CSMJ tended to be either FRELIMO members or FRELIMO-affiliated. The president makes all other judicial appointments. There are two complementary formal justice systems: the civil justice system and the military justice system. The Supreme Court administers the civil system, and the Ministry of National Defense administers military courts. Under the Supreme Court there are province and district-level courts, and each province has a court of appeal. Cases in military courts may be appealed to the Supreme Court. Civilians are not under the jurisdiction of, or tried in, the military courts. There also are courts that exercise limited, specialized jurisdiction, such as the Administrative Court, the Customs Court, and the Maritime Court. The Constitutional Council is charged with determining the constitutionality of laws and decrees, supervising the electoral process, declaring and validating electoral results, and ruling on electoral disputes. A separate court system exists for minors 16 years of age and younger. The government may send minors to correctional, educational, or other institutions. Persons accused of crimes against the government are tried publicly in regular civilian courts under standard criminal judicial procedures. Members of the media may attend trials, although space limitations prevented the general public from attending. A judge may order a trial closed to the media in the interest of national security or to protect the privacy of the plaintiff in a sexual assault case. Article 12 of the judicial organization law "prohibits the production and public transmission of images and sounds at trials." There is no trial by jury. In regular courts all accused persons, in principle, are presumed innocent and have the right to legal counsel and appeal; however, authorities did not always respect these rights. Although the law specifically provides for public defenders for the accused, such assistance generally was not available in practice, particularly in rural areas. The LDH reported that most citizens remained unaware of this right, and many had no access to legal counsel. Some NGOs continued to offer limited legal counsel at little or no cost to both defendants and prisoners. Only judges or lawyers may confront or question witnesses. Outside the formal court system, local customary courts, and traditional authority figures often adjudicated matters such as estate and divorce cases. Respected local arbiters with no formal training staffed customary courts. Political Prisoners and Detainees There were no confirmed reports of political prisoners or detainees. Unlike in the previous year, RENAMO did not continue to allege that 10 of its party members were being held as political prisoners in Mutarara District in Tete Province. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies Although the law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, in practice the judiciary was subject to political interference. f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. However, opposition party members alleged that government intelligence services and ruling party activists continued without warrants to monitor telephone calls, conduct surveillance of their offices, follow opposition members, use informants, and disrupt party activities in certain areas of the country, including in Cabo Delgado and Nampula Provinces. By law police require a warrant to enter homes and businesses and also to monitor telephone calls. In August the media reported that the FADM required senior members to complete a confidential questionnaire regarding party affiliation, activities in support of the party, and whether the individual supported FRELIMO. Some observers believed the questionnaire was evidence of the politicization of the FADM. Media reports noted that while Minister of Defense Tobias Dai denied knowledge of the questionnaire, Brigadier General Jorge Gune acknowledged that he had filled out several questionnaires since achieving higher rank in the FADM. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that school administrators in Muecate district in Nampula Province forced single male teachers to marry to mitigate the number of sexual assaults of female students by teachers. Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, in practice there were some restrictions on these rights. There were occasional reports that police harassed journalists, and journalists admitted that self-censorship was common. In its annual report on press freedom, the NGO Freedom House noted that the press was "partially free," while also acknowledging the continued growth of private media. The NGO Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) noted in its annual report that court decisions involving several independent media outlets during the year created a constraining environment. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views. The government maintained majority ownership in Noticias, the main newspaper and the only daily with nationwide distribution. Noticias, the daily Diario de Mocambique, and the weekly Domingo largely reflected the views of the government and provided marginal, often critical coverage of RENAMO but also demonstrated a willingness to examine government actions. The government-run news agency, AIM, often printed stories critical of the performance of government ministries or agencies. The international media were allowed to operate freely. There were numerous private radio stations that operated throughout the country. Radio Mocambique, which received 60 percent of its operating budget from the government, was the most influential media service with the largest audience in the country. While broadcasting debates on important issues of the country, Radio Mocambique tended to invite participants that were not critical of the government. MISA noted that the process for obtaining a radio operating license was often long, convoluted, and politically biased. According to MISA, a new law was needed which would clearly delineate the difference between commercial and public radio. The government supplied 80 percent of the operating budget for Televisao de Mocambique (TVM), the television station that broadcast to the largest percentage of the population. While TVM provided more balanced news coverage than in previous years, it retained a strong government and FRELIMO bias. On January 3, the Maputo City Court ordered the return of all equipment seized by law enforcement officers in December 2006 from the private television station STV. While the seizure ostensibly involved a severance pay dispute, STV was a frequent critic of the government, leading many civil society groups to believe the seizure was a crackdown on STV. Security forces harassed and arbitrarily detained local journalists during the year. In January police in Beira detained without charge photojournalist Celeste MacAurthur of the Diario de Mocambique for taking pictures of an abandoned house. Police released MacAurthur later the same day. In March police arrested Celso Manguana, a reporter for Canal de Mocambique, and detained him for three days. Police accused Manguana of "insulting authority" after he went to a police station to inquire about the arrests of several demonstrators. He was released after the intervention of the attorney general and the LDH. In August Canal de Mocambique reported that one of its journalists, Luis Nhachote, received a threat message on his cell phone apparently for an article he published critical of FRELIMO. In November Nyimpine Chissano, oldest son of former President Joaquim Chissano, and "joint moral author" in the killing of investigative journalist Carlos Cardoso in 2000, died. The National Union of Journalists, MISA, and the Mozambican Editor's Forum criticized the new judicial organization law. The groups argued that Article 12, which "prohibits the production and public transmission of images and sounds at trials" was a serious threat to press freedom by imposing a blanket ban on microphones and cameras in the courtroom. Defamation of the president is prohibited; however, no one was charged with the offense during the year. MISA condemned at least two court rulings in libel suits brought against the independent newspapers Horizonte and Faisca during the year. While the cases did not involve the government, MISA argued that the damages demanded would shut down the newspapers and silence the few alternatives to government sources of information. Newsprint and other printing supplies must be imported from South Africa, and the government did not exempt these supplies from import duties. Some newspapers found it more cost-effective to print in South Africa and import the final product. Other journals were only published in electronic versions, severely limiting their readership. Journals printed on paper had limited readership beyond Maputo, due to high transportation costs. There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. While public access to the Internet continued to expand, particularly in the larger cities, lack of infrastructure in the rural parts of the country and installation costs limited overall use. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events While the government generally did not restrict academic freedom, there were reports that teachers at the university, secondary, and primary school level felt pressure to align themselves with FRELIMO, particularly in the central and northern provinces. In April the Administrative Tribunal reinstated Ismael Mussa, a RENAMO parliamentary deputy and lecturer demoted from his position as director of social services at the state-run Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) in 2005. Despite the ruling, in July the UEM again removed Mussa from his position as director. While university regulations allow the vice chancellor to appoint or dismiss directors, observers suspected political harassment. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association Freedom of Assembly The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly; however, there was one instance in which police briefly detained demonstrators during the year. While the law regulates public demonstrations, it does not apply to private gatherings held indoors and by individual invitation, nor does it affect religious gatherings or election campaigning. In April police, apparently without cause, detained 10 protestors in front of the National Assembly building. According to the newsfax A Canal de Mocambique, six of the protestors were held overnight before being released without explanation the following day. In March, for the first time since 2004, local authorities in Maputo city permitted a group of madjermanes to hold a public march. The madjermanes, a group of approximately 15,000 citizens who worked in the former East Germany, demanded payment of benefits for their past work. Freedom of Association The constitution and law generally provide for freedom of association, although the government imposed some limits on this right. According to the law a political party is required to demonstrate that it has no regional, racial, ethnic, or religious exclusiveness and must secure at least 2,000 signatures to be recognized. There were approximately 50 registered political parties. A government decree regulates the registration and activities of foreign NGOs. The registration process for foreign NGOs and religious groups reportedly involved significant discretion on the part of government officials and regularly took several months. c. Freedom of Religion The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution and the law governing political parties specifically forbid religious groups from organizing political parties and any political party from sponsoring religious propaganda as threats to national unity. The Catholic Church and some Muslim communities continued to request the return of certain properties nationalized by the government in the years immediately following independence, including schools, health centers, shops, and residences. Societal Abuses and Discrimination Relations among various religions groups were generally amicable. In September the PRM arrested Fernando Bernardo Arrone and Fabiao Domingos for their roles in burning three mosques in late August in Lichinga, Niassa Province. Arrone confessed that he received $337 (8,000 meticais) from the Catholic Church for each mosque. The investigation into the incidents was ongoing at year's end. There was a very small Jewish population, and there were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2007 International Religious Freedom Report. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons While the law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, the government sometimes infringed upon these rights in practice. Traffic checkpoints are legal and under the jurisdiction of traffic police. Checkpoints occasionally affected freedom of movement, and according to press reports, authorities sometimes abused and demanded bribes from citizens at checkpoints. Police sometimes stopped foreigners and ordered them to present original passports or resident papers, refused to accept notarized copies, and fined or detained those who failed to show proper documents. Police, including members of CPCs, also routinely harassed, detained, and extorted bribes from local citizens for failure to carry identity papers. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not use it. Protection of Refugees The laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against "refoulement," the return of persons to a country where there is reason to believe they feared persecution. The government cooperated with the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees and asylum seekers. While the government assisted in the repatriation of 300 refugees in May, Canal de Mocambique reported in July that due to a lack of resources, the government was not able to satisfy requests by some refugees to return to their countries of origin. In April AIM reported on several attacks against Burundian and Congolese refugees in Nampula Province. The government continued to limit refugee movement within the country. Refugees must request authorization to move outside the geographic region in which they have been registered. In addition refugees residing within the Marratane camp in Nampula Province must request authorization to leave its boundaries, which has perpetuated the extracting of bribes by officials. Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation In 2004 citizens elected Armando Guebuza of the ruling FRELIMO party as president in the country's third multiparty general elections. While domestic and international observers noted that voting day procedures generally followed international norms, they also documented irregularities during the campaign and in the vote count. FRELIMO used significant state funds and resources for campaign purposes, in violation of election law. RENAMO issued complaints of election fraud to several agencies, including the Constitutional Council. In January 2005 the Constitutional Council affirmed Guebuza as the winner. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports of violence between FRELIMO and RENAMO supporters during the year. There were 93 women in the 250-seat National Assembly. The prime minister was a woman, and women held six of the 24 ministerial positions and four of the 18 vice ministerial positions. Women held 30 percent of the seats on FRELIMO's 160-member Central Committee and six seats on the 17-member Political Commission. Members of many ethnic groups held key positions in both the legislative and executive branches. There was no evidence that specific ethnic groups were excluded. Government Corruption and Transparency While the law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials often engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. No corruption cases involving high-profile individuals have been brought to trial during the Guebuza administration. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem. Despite the government's strong anticorruption rhetoric, corruption in the executive and legislative branches was widely perceived to be endemic. Petty corruption by low-level government officials to supplement low incomes, and high-level corruption by a small group of politically connected elites continued to be the norm. Corruption largely resulted from a lack of checks and balances, minimal accountability, and a culture of impunity. Local NGOs, such as the Center for Public Integrity, and media groups continued to be the main forces fighting corruption, reporting and investigating numerous corruption cases. The law requires that all members of the government declare and deposit their assets with the Constitutional Council, but does not require that such information be made available to the general public. The Central Office for the Combat of Corruption (GCCC) functions as an autonomous unit under the attorney general's office with its own state budget. According to the GCCC, from January to August prosecutors brought charges in 13 cases of corruption. In December the Ministry of Civil Service reported that authorities expelled nearly 400 public servants for various irregularities during the year. In August the Supreme Court refused to consider some 15 corruption cases brought forward by the GCCC after several judges claimed the GCCC lacked legal authority to prosecute. In December the attorney general announced that the GCCC would no longer have the power to investigate cases of forgery, swindling, murder, and theft, drastically reducing its scope. Several new cases of corruption were reported. In January the GCCC ordered the arrest of Deputy Director of the Maputo Central Prison Arminda Parruque for under invoicing and the disappearance of large sums of money. Parruque was being held at the Maputo Civil Prison, and an investigation was ongoing at year's end. In January authorities arrested six health service administrators in Cabo Delgado Province for the theft of approximately $126,000 (3 million meticais) intended for funding health services in six districts. There were no further developments by year's end. In March authorities arrested the provincial administrator for youth and sports in Niassa Province for the theft of $76,000 (1.8 million meticais). The investigation was ongoing at year's end. There were no further developments in the 2006 investigations into alleged corruption by government officials. The NGO Etica Mozambique, which operated corruption reporting centers in major cities to provide a mechanism for citizens to anonymously report incidences of corruption, became inactive during the year. Management and resource constraints were ongoing problems, and none of the cases it had transferred to the Ministry of Justice had gone to trial. There were no laws providing for public access to government information, and in practice the government restricted citizens' and noncitizens' access to public information. Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Although at times slow, government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. Registration procedures for NGOs often were lengthy. While an independent ombudsman position to investigate allegations of abuses, including human rights violations, by state officials was created by constitutional amendment in 2005, an ombudsman had yet to be named. Section 5 Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, but in practice discrimination persisted against women, persons with disabilities, and persons with HIV/AIDS. The law prohibits rape (excluding spousal rape) but was not effectively enforced. Penalties ranged from two to eight years' imprisonment if the victim is 12 years of age or older, and eight to 12 years' imprisonment if the victim is under the age of 12. While there were no official estimates as to the extent of spousal rape, it was regarded as a common problem. According to NGO reports, many families preferred to settle such matters privately through financial remuneration rather than through the formal judicial system. In August the Maputo High Court sentenced Luis Camillo to 17 years' imprisonment for the 2004 rape of two South African women near Johannesburg. Reports indicated that domestic violence against women, particularly spousal rape and beatings, was widespread, and the PRM received 5,667 reports of violence against women through September. There is no law that defines domestic violence as a crime, but laws prohibiting rape, battery, and assault could be used to prosecute domestic violence. In many circles women believed it was acceptable for their husbands to beat them. Cultural pressures discouraged women from taking legal action against abusive spouses. A 15-month survey released in August 2006 revealed that 54 percent of women respondents admitted suffering an act of physical or sexual violence by a man at some point in their lives, 37 percent in the last five years, and 21 percent during the past year. There was no update on the December 2006 case of Antineco Chibewa, who killed his 36-year-old wife for being too old. The government and NGOs often worked together to combat domestic violence. The PRM operated special women and children's units in police squadrons that received cases of domestic violence, sexual assault, and violence against children; the units provided assistance to victims and their families. All 30 police squadrons in Maputo had women and children's centers. In addition all police squadrons in the country installed a "green line" (a free phone line) to receive complaints of violence against women and children. Kukuyana, a national network of women living with HIV/AIDS, reported that many women were expelled from their homes and/or abandoned by their husbands and relatives because they were HIV positive. It also reported that some women who were widowed by HIV/AIDS were accused of being witches who purposely killed their husbands to acquire belongings, and in retribution were deprived of all belongings. Prostitution is legal, although it is governed by several laws against indecency and immoral behavior and restricted to certain areas. The practice was widespread and particularly prevalent along major transportation corridors and in border towns where long-distance truckers overnight. Young women without means of support were at the greatest risk for being drawn into prostitution. Sexual harassment is illegal; however, it was pervasive in business, government, and education. Although no formal data exists, the media reported numerous instances of harassment during the year. Forced marriage of girls and women was a problem. "Purification," whereby a widowed woman is obligated to have unprotected sex with a member of her husband's family, continued to be practiced, particularly in rural areas. With the exception of some ethnic and religious groups, the groom's family provided a dowry to the bride's family, usually in the form of livestock, money, or other goods. For Muslims, the bride's family usually paid for the wedding and provided gifts. These exchanges contributed to violence and other inequalities, due to the perception that the women subsequently were "owned" by the husband. The Family Law (which took effect in 2005) sets the age of marriage for both genders at 18 for those with parental consent, and 21 for those without parental consent. The law also eliminates husbands' de facto status as heads of families, and legalizes civil, religious, and common law unions. While the law does not recognize new cases of polygyny, it grants women already in polygynous marriages full marital and inheritance rights. The law more precisely defines women's legal rights with regard to property, child custody, and other issues. However, nearly three years after taking effect, a survey conducted by the NGO MULEIDE found that approximately 63 percent of women remained uninformed about the law. A Save the Children report on inheritance practices released in June noted that 60 percent of women cited discrimination in the inheritance process. The same report highlighted cases in which women lost inheritance rights for not being "purified" following the death of their husbands. Customary law was still practiced in many parts of the country. In some regions, particularly the northern provinces, women had limited access to the formal judicial system for enforcement of rights provided under the civil code and instead relied on customary law to settle disputes. Under customary law, women have no rights to the disposition of land. The law grants citizenship to the foreign-born wife of a male citizen but not to the foreign-born husband of a female citizen. Women continued to experience economic discrimination, were three times less likely than men to be represented in the public and private sectors, and often received lower pay than men for the same work. While the government continued to stress the importance of children's rights and welfare, significant problems remained. A UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) report released in May estimated that the level of birth registration was less than 40 percent, and that 94 percent of children under age four were not registered. In some cases, particularly in rural areas, lack of birth certificates prevented citizens from registering for school, access to health care, and the right to obtain public documents, such as identity cards or passports. Education is compulsory through age 12, but enforcement was inconsistent due to the lack of resources and the need for additional schools. Public education is free, but most families paid enrollment fees for each child and purchased books, uniforms, and other school supplies. Children who have a certificate that testifies their parents' incomes are below a certain poverty level are exempt from fees, but for most families, fees and associated costs remained a significant financial burden. During the year UNICEF estimated that 94 percent of children were enrolled in school; primary school enrollment reached 4.5 million, and secondary school enrollment increased from 45,000 to approximately 360,000 since 1992. Despite joint government/NGO initiatives in specific localities and districts to improve girls' school attendance, completion rates for primary school students were approximately 41 percent for boys and 29 percent for girls. In January a report released by Save the Children noted that more than one million children (the majority of whom were girls) between the ages of six and 11 either had never been to school or did not currently attend. Primary schools remained overcrowded, and approximately 70 percent lacked adequate sanitation. The PRM reported more than 2,800 cases of child abuse during the year, but noted that the vast majority of cases went unreported. Most cases involved sexual abuse, physical abuse, or negligence. Several cases of fathers sexually abusing their daughters were reported during the year. Sexual abuse in schools was a growing problem. An analysis undertaken by Actionaid International in Zambezia, Manica, and Maputo provinces revealed that 78 percent of girls between eight and 18 were forced to have sex with their professors to pass their class. A separate joint study by UNICEF, Actionaid International, and Save the Children revealed that one in five girls over the age of 15 reported being sexually abused by professors and that most children did not report these cases because they were afraid or ashamed. The press continued to report cases in which primary and secondary school students often paid teachers in exchange for a spot in a class or better grades. There continued to be reports in newspapers of physical abuse of students by teachers during the year. Local customs, primarily in the northern provinces and in Muslim and South Asian communities, resulted in underage marriage. The daily Noticias reported that in the rural areas of Nampula Province, some districts reported 10 percent fewer female students enrolled in school compared with 2006 as a result of child marriage. While the law prohibits pornography, child prostitution, and sexual abuse of children under 16 and proscribes prison sentences and fines for perpetrators, exploitation of children below the age of 15 continued, and child prostitution remained a problem. In practice perpetrators of these crimes rarely were identified and prosecuted, and punishment was not commensurate with the crime. The country continued to have a problem with street children, but no nationwide figures were available. Zimbabwean children, many of whom entered the country alone, continued to face labor exploitation and discrimination. They lacked protection due to inadequate documentation and had limited access to schools and other social welfare institutions. Coercion of girls into the sex industry was common. The government took steps to address the problems facing HIV/AIDS orphans. A 2006 UNICEF study estimated that of the country's 1.6 million orphans, more than 380,000 lost either one or both parents to HIV/AIDS. Several government agencies, including the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Women and Social Action, implemented programs to provide health assistance and vocational education for HIV/AIDS orphans. The Maputo City Office of Women and Social Action continued its program of rescuing abandoned orphans and assisting single mothers who headed families of three or more persons. They also offered special classes to children of broken homes in local schools. NGO groups sponsored food, shelter, and education programs in all major cities. Trafficking in Persons Although the law does not prohibit trafficking in persons, traffickers could be prosecuted using 13 related articles of the penal code on sexual assault, rape, abduction, and child abuse. The country was a source, transit, and possibly a destination for trafficked persons. While there were no official statistics, NGOs believed that trafficking was becoming a serious problem. UNICEF released a report in January that revealed more than 1,000 cases of women and children trafficked from Mozambique to South Africa between 2002 and 2006. Most trafficking victims were transported to South Africa on the highway from Maputo to Johannesburg. The majority of victims were women and children trafficked for both sexual exploitation and forced labor. Boys were trafficked as laborers on South African farms and in mines, and girls were trafficked to work as prostitutes and as domestics. Poverty, a history of child migration, and weak border controls all contributed to trafficking. Child prostitution appeared to be most prevalent in Maputo, Nampula, Beira, and at border towns and overnight stopping points along key transportation routes. Child prostitution reportedly was growing in the Maputo, Beira, and Nacala areas, which had highly mobile populations and a large number of transport workers. Child prostitution also was reported in Sofala and Zambezia provinces. Some NGOs provided health care, counseling, and training in other vocations to children engaged in prostitution. Traffickers were principally citizens or South African. Trafficking groups included small networks of citizens based in Maputo and Nampula, and there were reports that organized crime groups were involved. Traffickers often lured victims by promising better jobs in South Africa. Once there, they were threatened with exposure of their illegal status and forced to work for little or no pay. Often women were sexually assaulted en route to their destination or once they arrived in South Africa. There were also reports that syndicates trafficked young girls from Thailand through the country en route to South Africa. The government's law enforcement efforts decreased over the previous year, and a paucity of training resources continued to hinder greater efforts. There were no prosecutions or convictions for trafficking cases during the year. Many lower-ranking police and border control agents were suspected of accepting bribes from traffickers. Due to a lack of resources, government officials regularly called on NGOs for the provision of protection and assistance to victims, including shelter, food, counseling, and rehabilitation. The Ministry of Interior expanded the number of offices for attending to women and child victims of violence from 96 to 152, and provided victims' assistance training for police officers who dealt with such cases. The police also conducted general training on trafficking and detecting at-risk children in the central provinces of Sofala, Manica, and Zambezia and the northern province of Nampula. Persons with Disabilities Although the constitution and law stipulate that citizens with disabilities shall fully enjoy the same rights as all other citizens, the government provided few resources to implement this provision. Discrimination was common against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and in the provision of other state services. The law does not mandate access to buildings for persons with disabilities, but the Ministry of Public Works and Habitation worked to ensure that public buildings in Maputo city provided access to persons with disabilities. Electoral law provides for the needs of voters with disabilities in the polling booths. Concerns of persons with disabilities included lack of access to socioeconomic opportunities and employment, limited access to buildings and transportation, and a lack of wheelchairs. Special access facilities were rare. There were few job opportunities for persons with disabilities in the formal sector. The country's only psychiatric hospital was overwhelmed with patients and lacked the means to guarantee even basic nutrition, medicine, or shelter. During the first six months of the year, the hospital received 1,160 patients, compared with 348 during the same period in 2006. Doctors at the hospital also reported that many abandoned family members with disabilities at the hospital. Veterans with disabilities continued to complain about not receiving pensions. The Ministry of Women and Social Action is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. The four-year National Action Plan in the Area of Disabilities announced in 2006 still required budget allocation to be effectively implemented. Maputo city offered free bus passes to persons with disabilities. There were reports of tension between newly arrived Chinese guest workers, often employed in construction, and citizens in Maputo city and Beira, Sofala Province. There were reports of discrimination by police against Zimbabwean immigrants during the year. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports of vigilante killings of West African immigrants. Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of HIV/AIDS, and the Ministry of Labor generally intervened in cases of perceived discrimination by employers. In July the Ministry of Labor reported receiving more than 100 cases annually of workers being dismissed by their employers for having HIV/AIDS. Often, the worker was obligated by the employer to take HIV/AIDS tests. In response to these violations, the ministry registered the complaints and confronted companies responsible for dismissals. The law does not specifically prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, and there were occasional such reports. Despite the absence of a law, the LDH reported cases of discrimination against homosexuals in the judicial system. The Workers Law, passed during the year, includes an article that prevents discrimination in the workplace based on a number of factors, including sexual orientation. Section 6 Worker Rights a. The Right of Association The constitution and law provide that all workers are free to join a trade union of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. Labor laws guaranteeing the right of association do not cover government employees, including firefighters, members of the judicial authorities, and prison guards. As of June the Mozambican Workers' Association (OTM) estimated that of the approximately 500,000 workers in the formal sector, 98,000 were unionized. Some unions alleged that the OTM was under the influence of FRELIMO. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination; however, there were reports that many companies continued to engage in antiunion discrimination by replacing persons at the end of contracts, dismissing workers for going on strike, and not abiding by collective bargaining agreements. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively Although the law provides for the right of workers to organize and engage in collective bargaining, such contracts covered less than 2 percent of the work force. The government did not set private sector salaries. Unions were responsible for negotiating wage increases. The law explicitly provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right in practice; however, civil servants, police, military personnel, and workers in other essential services (including sanitation, firefighting, and health care) do not have the right to strike. The law specifies that strikers must notify police, the government, union, and employers 48 hours in advance of intended strikes. On July 16, the head of the Mafambisse security force in Sofala province shot and killed striking worker Domingos Chanjane and injured two others. While workers participating in the strike insisted the perpetrator was also a member of the police, a PRM spokesman denied the claim. There were no further updates at year's end. There are no special laws or exemption from regular labor laws in the few export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor The law prohibits forced and compulsory labor, including by children, and while there were few reports that such practices occurred in the formal economy, forced and bonded labor, particularly by children, was common in rural areas. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment While the law prohibits child labor, it remained a problem. In the formal economy, the minimum working age without restrictions is 18 years of age. The law permits children between 15 and 18 to work, but the employer is required to provide for their education and professional training and to ensure that conditions of work are not damaging to their physical and moral development. Children between the ages of 12 and 15 are permitted to work under special conditions authorized jointly by the ministries of labor, health, and education. For children under the age of 18, the maximum workweek is 38 hours, the maximum workday is seven hours, and they are not permitted to work in unhealthy or dangerous occupations or those requiring significant physical effort. Children must undergo a medical examination before beginning work. By law children must be paid at least the minimum wage or a minimum of two-thirds of the adult salary, whichever is higher. Although the law prohibits forced and bonded labor by children, it was considered to be a common problem, especially in rural areas. Many children in rural areas were forced to work, particularly in commercial agriculture, as domestics, and in prostitution. The major factors contributing to the worst forms of child labor were chronic family poverty, lack of employment for adults, breakdown of family support mechanisms, the changing economic environment, lack of educational opportunities, gender inequality, and the impact of HIV/AIDS. Children, including those under the age of 15, commonly worked on family farms in seasonal harvests or on commercial plantations, where they picked cotton or tea leaves and were paid on a piecework basis. The Ministry of Labor regulates child labor in both the informal and formal sectors. Labor inspectors may obtain court orders and use police to enforce compliance with child labor provisions. Violations of child labor provisions are punishable with fines ranging from one to 40 monthly salaries at minimum wage. Enforcement mechanisms generally were adequate in the formal sector but remained poor in the informal sector. The Labor Inspectorate and police forces lacked adequate staff, funds, and training to investigate child labor cases, especially in areas outside the capital where a majority of the abuses occurred. Although the government provided training for police on child prostitution and abuse, there was no specialized child labor training for the Labor Inspectorate. The government disseminated information and provided education about the dangers of child labor to the general public. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work In May the government granted a 14 percent increase in the statutory minimum wage for industry and services (including employees in public administration), bringing it to approximately $69 (1,645 meticais) per month. The government granted a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage in the agricultural sector bringing the monthly total to $47 (1,126 meticais). Despite the increase, which was slightly above the 8.2 percent inflation rate reported during the year, neither minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Although the industrial sector frequently paid above minimum wage, there was little industry outside of the Maputo area. In addition less than 10 percent of workers held salaried positions, and the majority of the labor force worked in subsistence farming. Many workers used a variety of strategies to survive, including finding a second job, maintaining their own gardens, or depending on the income of other family members. The Ministry of Labor is responsible for enforcing the minimum wage rates in the private sector and the Ministry of Finance in the public sector. Violations of minimum wage rates usually were investigated only after workers registered a complaint. Workers generally received benefits, such as transportation and food, in addition to wages. The standard legal workweek is 40 hours but can be extended to 48 hours. After 48 hours, overtime must be paid at 50 percent over the base hourly salary. Overtime is limited by law to two hours per day and 100 hours per year. Foreign workers are protected under the law. Worker complaints continued during the year concerning: employers deducting social security contributions from wages but failing to pay them into accounts; lack of access to the social security system; not adhering to the law concerning firings; and intimidation of union members. In the small formal sector, health and environmental laws were in place to protect workers; however, the Ministry of Labor did not effectively enforce these laws, and the government only occasionally closed firms for noncompliance. There continued to be significant violations of labor laws in many companies and services. Workers have the right to remove themselves from work situations that endanger their health or safety without jeopardy to their continued employment; in practice threats of dismissal and peer pressure restricted this right. In October an inspector from the Ministry of Labor found some 90 workers at the Golden Fields Flower Company (owned by former Foreign Minister Leonard Simao and his wife), in slave-like conditions, working long hours without proper protective equipment, living in tents, and with no access to sanitary facilities or safe drinking water. The workers had been recruited in Tete and Manica provinces, promised good working conditions, and provided transportation to Maputo. However, when the workers complained to the owners and asked to be provided transportation back to their home provinces, they were denied. Following the visit of the labor inspector, the government immediately suspended the company's operations and ordered the return of workers to their home provinces. As of mid-September, the Ministry of Labor reported 62 labor accident victims, 40 of whom were temporarily incapacitated and 22 of whom were permanently incapacitated. While the law imposes fines for recurring accidents, no fines were imposed during the year. The law also requires that companies insure workers, but the Ministry of Labor estimates indicated that only between 50 and 60 percent of companies actually provided coverage.

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Earth Day 2012 Earth Day is a celebration of the environment each year that takes place worldwide in over 175 countries to encourage and increase the general populations awareness of our natural environment. It is estimated that on April, 22nd each year nearly 500 million people from around the world stage events, demonstrations, and projects to shed light on local and international environmental issues. The idea of Earth Day began in 1970 and has been credited to a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin. Gaylord Nelson was inspired to create an “environmental teach-in” (Earth Day) after witnessing the devastating 1969 oil spill in Santa Barbara, California. The grassroots efforts spread from that point forward and has evolved into much of what we see on Earth Day presently. So what are some of the ways a person could go about celebrating Earth Day 2012? Can an easy change in lifestyle behavior make a huge difference to the greater picture of the world we all share? As Sarah Palin would say “YOU BETCHA!” Renew Your New Years Resolution Did you make a promise to be more thoughtful of the environment as a New Years Resolution? Have you lived up to that resolution? Regardless of whether you’ve hit that goal of recycling 50% of your waste or you’ve been meaning to get around to building that backyard composting bin…Earth Day 2012 is the day to renew those resolutions. Take a look at our challenge: The Environmental Blog’s 7 Day Green Challenge and see whether you can do any of the challenges today in support of Earth Day. I wouldn’t worry about the ‘environmental police’ enforcers coming after you for using that non-green cleaning soap the past couple of months. Instead I would kindly encourage you to use less electricity today by enjoying the outdoors. Small things that we all do will add up in a big way. The more we encourage each other to be mindful of the environment, the more natural it will become in our every day lives. =) Sign Up to Reduce Your Junk Mail I have said it many times before on this website, but cutting down on your junk mail is one of the easiest ways to reduce wasted paper, reduce human energy, and transportation energy thus reducing our carbon footprint. Besides the obvious benefit of not getting applications for new credit cards every day from the bank, your privacy is also more secure because signing up for the Do Not Mail List will prevent banks, insurance companies, etc from accessing your credit report to send you offers in the first place. To drive the point home, here some astonishing environmental facts on the junk mail issue: - 44 percent of junk mail is thrown away unopened, but only half that much junk mail (22 percent) is recycled. - The average American household receives unsolicited junk mail equal to 1.5 trees every year — more than 100 million trees for all U.S. households combined. - Americans pay $370 million annually to dispose of junk mail that doesn’t get recycled. - On average, Americans spend 8 months opening junk mail in the course of their lives. - 5.6 million tons of catalogs and other direct mail advertisements end up in U.S. landfills annually. Connect with Nature What better way to celebrate Earth Day 2012 than connecting with nature? It’s as easy as going on a hike or getting your hands dirty in the backyard (if you have one). Even if you don’t have a backyard, joining a community garden has never been so easy. - You can start your own garden in the backyard. - You can join a community garden. - You can make sure to save seeds for the future. - You can beautify a blighted public space with a guerrilla garden…be sure to check out our guerrilla gardening tips before doing this. - You can visit a food forest for part of the day, but if one doesn’t exist in your area, get together with neighbors and decide on where to start one. There are so many things we can all do to honor Earth Day 2012. Let us know what you did or will do…we’d be happy to hear how YOU are saving the world. Reasons to JOIN US include: - It's absolutely FREE! - Get Green Tips You MUST know about. - How to's on going green, saving money, and having fun. - Keep up-to-date on our posts in cased you missed them.

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The storage market continues to grow and new features are needed to move, manage, and protect stored data. Storage processing features such as virtualization, data protection, data security (encryption), and data compression to increase storage capacity are essential for storage solutions. In addition, storage solutions are rapidly moving toward serial interconnects. Protocols such as Fibre Channel, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Serial ATA (SATA) are dominating the storage protocol landscape. With feature enhancement comes a need to do more with less. System on a chip (SoC) solutions allow you to consolidate functions into a single silicon solution. The combination of the high-speed transceivers, dense logic, and deep memories of Altera® FPGAs coupled with the intellectual property (IP) solutions from Altera and Altera partners allow you to easily create an ideal SoC storage solution. Altera storage solutions fit nicely into the various storage categories. Data storage can be assigned to three categories: online, nearline, and offline storage. Each category has its own distinct set of features and functions. Online storage is in constant use in the data center performing real-time data transactions for server applications. Online storage consists of disk drive-based storage that resides in or is attached (direct or fabric) to a server. Direct-attached storage allows only that server attached to the storage to access the storage. Fabric-attached storage enables all servers attached to the fabric to share the available storage resources. The storage is shared by multiple servers commonly referred to as a storage area network (SAN). SAN protocols are usually Fibre Channel, SCSI, or Ethernet in the case of a network attached storage (NAS) enclosure. Online storage devices, such as just a bunch of disks (JBODs) and disk arrays, allow high-speed access to the storage, while at the same time providing data protection and security. The high-speed access to the storage is achieved with the high-speed I/O for the network, system bus, and disk drive interfaces. Data protection and security are provided with algorithms such as RAID for data protection and encryption. Nearline storage has many of the same features, performance, and device requirements as online storage. However, nearline storage is deployed for backup support for online storage. Demand for nearline storage is growing rapidly because more information must be archived for regulatory reasons. Nearline storage is frequently used for data backup because large volumes of data must be quickly backed up, which sometimes cannot be achieved with slower bandwidth rates to tape-based solutions. Nearline storage is built using less expensive disk drives such as SATA drives to store information that must be accessed more quickly than is possible through tape or tape libraries. Nearline storage designers must meet several requirements in their designs: - Flexibility with in-house I/O sequencing and RAID algorithms - Changing data-at-rest encryption standards - Use of specific compression algorithms - Tape emulation for existing customer back-up software Most key storage vendors of nearline storage use FPGAs to meet these design challenges. Altera provides a reference architecture and both in-house and partner IP for nearline storage designs. Offline storage is commonly referred to as “archive” or “back up” storage and is typically a tape drive or low-end disk drive (virtual tape). Offline storage is used to back up the data stored on both the online and nearline storage devices and is designed for storage of data for long periods of time. Because data is archived, offline storage appliances focus on data accuracy, protection, and security. Altera Storage Solutions Altera FPGAs, IP, and ecosystem partners combine to provide an ideal solution for development of online, nearline, and offline storage solutions. Altera Stratix®, Cyclone®, and MAX® devices are invaluable to storage system architects. These platforms allow you to develop extremely flexible applications quickly, efficiently, and affordably. They allow you to craft unique, scalable, and optimized application-centric processing solutions for SAN and NAS appliances. Table 1 shows storage features available in Altera FPGAs. |Table 1. Altera FPGA Storage Features| |Category||Network/Fabric I/O||Storage I/O||Data Protection||Data Security| |AES Type||Key Management and Authentication| |Online||Fibre Channel Ethernet ASSP or Switch |RAID 5, RAID 6||XTS-AES, AES-GCM||Authentication [SHA 1, SHA 256, SHA 384/512, MD5, Multi-mode (SHA 1. SHA 2, MD5), AES Based (XCBC, OMAC)] [RSA & Diffie-Hellman (Mod. EXP), True Random Number Generator (TRNG), Pseudo Random Number Generator (PRNG)] |Nearline||Fibre Channel Ethernet, PCIe||SATA||RAID 5, RAID 6||XTS-AES| |Offline||Fibre Channel Ethernet||Fibre Channel||RAID 5, RAID 6||XTS-AES, AES-GCM, AES-CCM|

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http://www.altera.com/end-markets/computer-storage/storage/cmp-storage.html

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Part of our extra training is to gain expertise in the area of thoracic (chest) surgery for children of all ages from newborns to teenagers. Our team of pediatric surgeons also care for children with traumatic (accidental) injuries to the chest. Thoracic surgeries include: - Chest wall to correct congenital (birth) defects - "Pectus" deformities - Operations on the lungs, esophagus (swallowing tube), diaphragm (muscle for breathing), ribs, and blood vessels around the heart. - Tumors of the chest - Empyema (complications of pneumonias and other infections) - Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) - Pectus excavatum ("sunken chest" - depression of the breastbone) - Hernias of the diaphragm, esophageal atresia (absence or a gap in the swallowing tube) - Tracheoesophageal fistula (an abnormal connection from the windpipe to the swallowing tube) - Lung cysts and sometimes tumors of the lung or other organs in the chest Minimally Invasive Techniques In addition to traditional surgery, we also treat many thoracic diseases or problems with endoscopic (telescope) techniques. This includes removing foreign bodies of the trachea and esophagus (objects like peanuts or coins that are swallowed by children) and removing infection or parts of lungs with thoracoscopy (telescopes placed through small holes in the chest). We are also now able to treat some chest wall deformities with these minimally invasive surgery techniques. Instead of major chest surgery, some procedures only require placing internal braces through small incisions.

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Immigration in the Early 20th Century The Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire, 1911 A majority of the immigrants that landed on America's shores made their way to the tenement sections of the teeming cities of the Northeast. Often illiterate and with a limited knowledge of English, they found jobs wherever they could, often taking the lowest paying and most menial employment. The Triangle Shirtwaist Company located in New York City exemplified the working conditions these new immigrants often encountered. The Triangle Shirtwaist Company occupied the top three floors of a ten-floor building in the heart of Manhattan's Garment District. The company employed over 500 women ranging in age from thirteen to twenty-three and mostly Jewish or Italian. The majority labored at sewing machines turning out clothing for which they were paid "by the piece." To encourage the seamstresses to stay at their machines and to inhibit stealing, company management routinely locked the exit doors. The hours were long (9-10 hours per day), the work monotonous, the pay low - in short, the Triangle Shirtwaist Company epitomized the "Sweatshop." |Bodies of victims liiter the street March 25, 1911 On Saturday March 25, 1911 disaster struck. As the women approached the end of their workday, a small fire started in the cutting room on the eighth floor. It was 4:30 in the afternoon. Within minutes, flames fueled by loose cloth lying in innumerable piles engulfed the area and spread to the floors above. Panic spread with the flames and smoke. The women madly dashed to the exits only to find them locked. They furiously pounded on the doors to no avail. The one fire escape at the rear of the building collapsed, killing many and cutting off that route of escape. Some attempted to slide down the elevator cables only to lose their grip and fall to their deaths. Others, their clothes afire, jumped in groups from the top of the building or from open windows on the lower floors. Bessie Gabrilowich ran frantically first to the locked main door and then luckily found an open stairway near the freight elevator. Groping her way through the smoke to the street below, she looked up to see many of her co-workers leaping from the windows of the upper stories. Among them was a friend, Dora Wolfovitch, aged 15. Years later Bessie recalled: "Everybody was running to get out. And there was this beautiful little girl, my friend Dora, I remember her face before she jumped." Dora did not survive. Firefighters arrived quickly but found their way to the building hindered by bodies lying in the street. Their ladders reached only to the sixth floor and their safety nets broke as they tried to catch groups of women jumping from the flaming building. |Firemen search for victims In less than 30 minutes, the fire had spent itself. In its wake it left 147 dead - the worst factory fire in New York City's history. The tragedy, and the working conditions it revealed, inflamed public opinion leading to reform of working conditions for women and children. It also fueled the union movement adding impetus to the organization of the International Garment Workers' Union. The owners of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company were tried for manslaughter but acquitted. Three years after the fire, a court ordered the owners to pay $75.00 to each of twenty-three families who had sued for the loss of family members. Stein, Leon, The Triangle Fire, (1962); The Los Angeles Times, obituary of Bessie Gabrilowich, (Feb. 1999) How To Cite This Article: "City Life at the turn of the 20th Century," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2000).

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