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Ivory-billed_woodpecker

the ivory-billed woodpecker (campephilus principalis) is or was one of the largest woodpeckers in the world, at roughly 20 inches in length and 30 inches in wingspan. it was native to the virgin forests of the southeastern united states (along with a separate subspecies native to cuba). due to habitat destruction, and to a lesser extent hunting, its numbers have dwindled to the point where it is uncertain whether any remain, though there have been reports that it has been seen again. almost no forests today can maintain an ivory-billed woodpecker population. the species is listed as critically endangered and possibly extinct by the international union for conservation of nature (iucn). the american birding association (aba) lists the ivory-billed woodpecker as a class 6 species, a category the aba defines as "definitely or probably extinct." reports of at least one male ivory-billed woodpecker in arkansas in 2004 were investigated and subsequently published in april 2005 by a team led by the cornell lab of ornithology. no definitive confirmation of those reports emerged, despite intensive searching over five years following the initial sightings. a $10,000 reward was offered in june 2006 for information leading to the discovery of an ivory-billed woodpecker nest, roost or feeding site.{{cite web | last = | first = | date = 21 june 2006 | url = http://www.myeyewitnessnews.com/news/tristate/story.aspx?content_id=2cf788b2-ba49-4e9d-a5f0-63e21ce2dbf4 | title = wildlife group proposes $10,000 reward for ivory-billed evidence| work = eyewitness news everywhere | publisher = clear channel broadcasting | accessdate =8 july 2006 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060828034840/http://www.myeyewitnessnews.com/news/tristate/story.aspx?content_

ISO/IEC_8859

iso/iec 8859 is a joint iso and iec series of standards for 8-bit character encodings. the series of standards consists of numbered parts, such as iso/iec 8859-1, iso/iec 8859-2, etc. there are 15 parts, excluding the abandoned iso/iec 8859-12. the iso working group maintaining this series of standards has been disbanded. iso/iec 8859 parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 were originally ecma international standard ecma-94. ==introduction== while the bit patterns of the 95 printable ascii characters are sufficient to exchange information in modern english, most other languages that use latin alphabets need additional symbols not covered by ascii. iso/iec 8859 sought to remedy this problem by utilizing the eighth bit in an 8-bit byte to allow positions for another 96 printable characters. early encodings were limited to 7 bits because of restrictions of some data transmission protocols, and partially for historical reasons. however, more characters were needed than could fit in a single 8-bit character encoding, so several mappings were developed, including at least ten suitable for various latin alphabets. the iso/iec 8859-n encodings only contain printable characters, and were designed to be used in conjunction with control characters mapped to the unassigned bytes. to this end a series of encodings registered with the iana add the c0 control set (control characters mapped to bytes 0 to 31) from iso 646 and the c1 control set (control characters mapped to bytes 128 to 159) from iso 6429, resulting in full 8-bit character maps with most, if not all, bytes assigned. these sets have iso-8859-n as their preferred mime name or, in cases where a preferred mime name isn't specified, their canonical name. many people use the terms iso/iec 8859-n and iso-8859-n interchangeably. iso/iec 8859-11 did not get such a charset assigned, presumably because it was almost identical to tis 620. ==characters== the iso/iec 8859 standard is designed for reliable information exchange, not typography; the standard omits symbols needed for high-quality typography, such as optional ligatures, curly quotation marks, dashes, etc. as a result, high-quality typesetting systems often use proprietary or idiosyncratic extensions on top of the ascii and iso/iec 8859 standards, or use unicode instead. as a rule of thumb, if a character or symbol was not already part of a widely used data-processing character set and was also not usually provided on typewriter keyboards for a national language, it didn't get in. hence the directional double quotation marks « and » used for some

Counties_of_Ireland

the counties of ireland (; ulster-scots: coonties o airlann) are sub-national divisions that have been, and in some cases continue to be, used to geographically demarcate areas of local government. these land divisions were formed following the norman invasion of ireland in imitation of the counties then in use as units of local government in the kingdom of england.bryne, t., local government in britain, (1994) the older term "shire" was historically equivalent to "county". the principal function of the county was to impose royal control in the areas of taxation, security and the administration of justice at the local level. cambro-norman control was initially limited to the south-eastern parts of ireland; a further four centuries elapsed before the entire island was shired. at the same time, the now obsolete concept of county corporate elevated a small number of towns and cities to a status which was deemed to be no less important than the existing counties in which they lay. this double control mechanism of 32 counties plus 10 counties corporate remained unchanged for a little over two centuries until the early 19th century, since when counties have been adapted and in some cases divided by legislation to meet new administrative and political requirements. the powers exercised by the cambro-norman barons and the old english nobility waned over time. new offices of political control came to be established at a county level. in the republic of ireland, some counties have been split resulting in the creation of new counties. along with certain defined cities, counties still form the basis for the demarcation of areas of local government in the republic of ireland. currently, there are 26 county level, 3 city level and 2 city and county entities – the modern equivalent of counties corporate – that are used to demarcate areas of local government in the republic. in northern ireland, counties are no longer used for local government; districts are instead used. upon the partition of ireland in 1921, the county became one of the basic land divisions employed, along with county boroughs. ==terminology== the word "county" has come to be used in different senses for different purposes. in common usage, many people have in mind the 32 counties that existed prior to 1838 – the so-called traditional counties. however, in official usage in the republic of ireland, the term often refers to the 28 modern counties. the term is also conflated with the 31 areas currently used to demarcate areas of local government in the republic of ireland at the level of [[nuts of the republic of

International_Space_Station

{{infobox space station | station = international space station | station_image =international space station after undocking of sts-132.jpg | station_image_alt = a rearward view of the international space station backdropped by the limb of the earth. in view are the station's four large, gold-coloured solar array wings, two on either side of the station, mounted to a central truss structure. further along the truss are six large, white radiators, three next to each pair of arrays. in between the solar arrays and radiators is a cluster of pressurised modules arranged in an elongated t shape, also attached to the truss. a set of blue solar arrays are mounted to the module at the aft end of the cluster. | station_image_size = 300px | extra_image_size = 300px | extra_image_caption = the international space station on 23 may 2010 as seen from the departing during sts-132. | sign = alpha, station | crew = fully crewed 6currently aboard 6(expedition 42) | launch = 1998 | launch_pad = | mass = approximately | length = | width = | height = c. 20 m (c. 66 ft)nadir–zenith, arrays forward–aft(27 november 2009) | volume = (3 november 2014) | pressure = 101.3 kpa (29.91 inhg, 1 atm) | apogee = amsl | perigee = amsl | inclination =  degrees | speed = | period =  minutes | in_orbit = () | occupied = () | orbits = | orbit_epoch = | decay = 2 km/month | nssdc_id = 1998-067a | as_of = 9 march 2011(unless noted otherwise) | stats_ref ={{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/521138main_fd04_ep.pdf|publisher=nasa|dat

Isoelectric_point

the isoelectric point (pi, ph(i), iep), is the ph at which a particular molecule carries no net electrical charge. the standard nomenclature to represent the isoelectric point is ph(i),acceptable variants on ph(i) would include phi, phiep, etc; the main point is that one cannot take the 'power' of i, rather one measures the ph subject to a nominated condition. although pi is also commonly seen,iupac. compendium of chemical terminology, 2nd ed. (the "gold book"). compiled by a. d. mcnaught and a. wilkinson. blackwell scientific publications, oxford (1997). xml on-line corrected version: http://goldbook.iupac.org (2006-) created by m. nic, j. jirat, b. kosata; updates compiled by a. jenkins. isbn 0-9678550-9-8. doi:10.1351/goldbook. last update: 2014-02-24; version: 2.3.3. doi of this term: doi:10.1351/goldbook.i03275. and is used in this article for brevity. the net charge on the molecule is affected by ph of its surrounding environment and can become more positively or negatively charged due to the gain or loss, respectively, of protons (h+). surfaces naturally charge to form a double layer. in the common case when the surface charge-determining ions are h+/oh-, the net surface charge is affected by the ph of the liquid in which the solid is submerged. the pi value can affect the solubility of a molecule at a given ph. such molecules have minimum solubility in water or salt solutions at the ph that corresponds to their pi and often precipitate out of solution. biological amphoteric molecules such as proteins contain both acidic and basic functional groups. amino acids that make up proteins may be positive, negative, neutral, or polar in nature, and together give a protein its overall charge. at a ph below their pi, proteins carry a net positive charge; above their pi they carry a net negative charge. proteins can, thus, be separated according to their isoelectric point (overall charge) on a polyacrylamide gel using either qpnc-page or a technique called isoelectric focusing, which uses a ph gradient to separate proteins. isoelectric focusing is also the first step in 2-d gel polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. == calculating pi values == for an amino acid with only one amine and one carboxyl group, the pi can be calculated from the mean of the pkas of this molecule.for derivation of this expression see acid dissociation constant : pi = {{pka_1} + {pka_2} \over 2} the ph of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the buffer used for that gel. if the ph of the buffer is above the pi of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). if the ph of the buffer is

Insulator_(electricity)

thumb|250px|ceramic insulator used on railway thumb|250px|3-core copper wire power cable, each core with individual colour-coded insulating sheaths all contained within an outer protective sheath an electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and therefore make it very hard to conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field. a perfect insulator does not exist, because a portion of the insulator could become electrically conductive if the voltage applied across it exceeds the breakdown voltage. this is known as breakdown voltage of an insulator. some materials such as glass, paper and teflon, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. a much larger class of materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to insulate electrical wiring and cables. examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics. such materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts). insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. an insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. the term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers. they support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground. ==physics of conduction in solids== electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. electronic band theory (a branch of physics) says that a charge flows if states are available into which electrons can be excited. this allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a metal. if no such states are available, the material is an insulator. most (though not all, see mott insulator) insulators have a large band gap. this occurs because the "valence" band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next band above it. there is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that gives electrons enoug

INTERCAL

right|thumb|don woods, one of the authors of intercal, in 2010 thumb|jim lyon, the other author of intercal, in 2005 the compiler language with no pronounceable acronym, abbreviated intercal, is an esoteric programming language that was created as a parody by don woods and james m. lyon, two princeton university students, in 1972. it satirizes aspects of the various programming languages at the time, as well as the proliferation of proposed language constructs and notations in the 1960s. there are two currently maintained versions of intercal: c-intercal, formerly maintained by eric s. raymond, and clc-intercal, maintained by claudio calvelli. == history == according to the original manual by the authors, the original princeton implementation used punched cards and the ebcdic character set. to allow intercal to run on computers using ascii, substitutions for two characters had to be made: $ substituted for ¢ as the mingle operator, "represent[ing] the increasing cost of software in relation to hardware", and ? was substituted for ⊻ as the unary exclusive-or operator to "correctly express the average person's reaction on first encountering exclusive-or". in recent versions of c-intercal, the older operators are supported as alternatives; intercal programs may now be encoded in ascii, latin-1, or utf-8. == details == intercal was intended to be completely different from all other computer languages. common operations in other languages have cryptic and redundant syntax in intercal. from the intercal reference manual: {{quote| it is a well-known and oft-demonstrated fact that a person whose work is incomprehensible is held in high esteem. for example, if one were to state that the simplest way to store a value of 65536 in a 32-bit intercal variable is

Iconoclasm

thumb|288px|"triumph of orthodoxy" over iconoclasm under the byzantine empress theodora. late 14th – early 15th century icon. iconoclasmliterally, "image-breaking", from . iconoclasm may be also considered as a back-formation from iconoclast (from greek εἰκοκλάστης). the corresponding greek word for iconoclasm is εἰκονοκλασία – eikonoklasia. is opposition to the veneration of inanimate representations, religious icons, and other symbols or monuments. in time, the word has also come to refer to the opposition to institutional inertia in one's own culture, usually for religious or political motives. it is a frequent component of major political or religious changes. the term does not generally encompass the specific destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow (damnatio memoriae). people who engage in or support iconoclasm are called iconoclasts, a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any individual who challenges "cherished beliefs or venerated institutions on the grounds that they are erroneous or pernicious".oed, "iconoclast, 2", see also "iconoclasm" and "iconoclastic". conversely, one who reveres or venerates religious images is called (by iconoclasts) an iconolater; in a byzantine context, such a person is called an iconodule or iconophile. iconoclasm may be carried out by people of a different religion, but is often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. in christianity, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by people who adopt a literal interpretation of the ten commandments, which forbid the making and worshipping of "graven images or any likeness of anything"."you shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 5 you shall not bow down to them or serve them. . . ." (exodus 20:4–5a, esv.) the degree of iconoclasm among christian sects greatly varies. islam, in general, tends to be more iconoclastic than christianity, with sunni islam being more iconoclastic than shia islam. ==major instances== * in judaism, king hezekiah purged solomon's temple in jerusalem and the land of israel of figures, including the nehushtan, as recorded in the second book of kings. his reforms were reversed in the reign of his son manasseh. * in 305-306, the synod of elvira appeared to endorse iconoclasm. canon 36 states, "pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration."{{citation | url = http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/canon%20law/elviraca

Isle_of_Wight

the isle of wight , known to the ancient romans as vectis, is a county and the second largest island of england. it is located in the english channel, about off the coast of hampshire and is separated from mainland great britain by the solent. the island has several resorts which have been holiday destinations since victorian times. the history of the isle of wight includes a brief period of time as an independent kingdom in the 15th century. until 1995, like jersey and guernsey, the island had a governor. home to the poets swinburne and tennyson and to queen victoria, who built her much-loved summer residence and final home osborne house at east cowes, the island has a maritime and industrial tradition including boat building, sail making, the manufacture of flying boats, the world's first hovercraft, and the testing and development of britain's space rockets. the isle hosts annual festivals including the isle of wight international jazz festival, bestival and the recently revived isle of wight festival, which, in 1970,

Interferon

interferons (ifns) are proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells. in a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to ramp up their anti-viral defenses. ifns belong to the large class of proteins known as cytokines, molecules used for communication between cells to trigger the protective defenses of the immune system that help eradicate pathogens. interferons are named for their ability to "interfere" with viral replication by protecting cells from virus infection. ifns also have other functions: they activate immune cells, such as natural killer cells and macrophages; they increase host defenses by up-regulating antigen presentation by virtue of increasing the expression of major histocompatibility complex (mhc) antigens. certain symptoms of infections, such as fever, muscle pain and "flu-like symptoms", are also caused by the production of ifns and other cytokines. more than twenty distinct ifn genes and proteins have been identified in animals, including humans. they are typically divided among three classes: type i ifn, type ii ifn, and type iii ifn. ifns belonging to all three classes are important for fighting viral infections and for the regulation of the immune system. ==types of interferon== based on the type of receptor through which they signal, human interferons have been classified into three major types. * interferon type i: all type i ifns bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as the ifn-α/β receptor (ifnar) that consists of ifnar1 and ifnar2 chains. the type i interferons present in humans are ifn-α, ifn-β, ifn-ε, ifn-κ and ifn-ω. * [

ISO_9660

iso 9660 (also known as ecma-119), also referred to as cdfs (compact disc file system) by some hardware and software providers, is a file system standard published by the international organization for standardization (iso) for optical disc media. it aims at supporting different computer operating systems such as windows, classic mac os, and unix-like systems, so that data may be exchanged. ==history== iso 9660 traces its roots to the high sierra format file system. high sierra arranged file information in a dense, sequential layout to minimize nonsequential access by using a hierarchical (eight levels of directories deep) tree file system arrangement, similar to unix and fat. to facilitate cross platform compatibility, it defined a minimal set of common file attributes (directory or ordinary file and time of recording) and name attributes (name, extension, and version), and used a separate system use area where future optional extensions for each file may be specified. high sierra was adopted in december 1986 (with changes) as an international standard by ecma international as ecma-119 and submitted for fast tracking to the iso, where it was eventually accepted as iso 9660:1988. the iso 9660 file system format is now used throughout the industry. == specifications == ===relation to cd-rom modes=== data in a cd-rom is structured in tracks, with each track being composed of a sequential series of sectors. each sector can contain up to 2,352 bytes of data, with the amount depending on the type of the sector. tracks with cd-rom mode 1 sectors or cd-rom xa mode 2 form 1 sectors, used for computer data, store 2,048 bytes of actual data per sector, with the rest of the bytes in the sector being used for headers and error correction. each data track on a cd-rom can contain a complete file system in a format such as iso 9660. a cd-rom can contain several tracks with different file systems in each, or even audio tracks coexisting with tracks containing data file systems. since the iso 9660 file system is used for computer data, it is usually found on tracks with mode 1 or mode 2 form 1 sectors. ===overall structure=== the following is the rough overall structure of the iso 9660 file system: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2 | iso 9660 file system |- | system area (32,768 b) | unused by iso 9660 |- | rowspan=9 | data area |- | volume de

Intel_80486

the intel 486 ("eighty-four-eighty-six"), also known as the i486 or 80486 was a higher performance follow-up to the intel 80386 microprocessor. the 486 was introduced in 1989 and was the first tightlythe 386, 286, and even the 8086 all had overlapping fetch, decode, execution (calculation), and write back; however, tightly pipelined usually means that all stages o perform their respective duties within the same length time slot. in contrast loosely pipelined implies that some kind of buffering is used to decouple the units and allow them to work more independently. both the original 8086 and the x86-chips of today are "loosely pipelined" in this sense, while the 486 and the original pentium were "tightly pipelined". pipelined x86 design as well as the first x86 chip to use more than a million transistors, due to a large on-chip cache and an integrated floating-point unit. it represents a fourth generation of binary compatible cpus since the original 8086 of 1978. a 50 mhz 486 executes around 40 million instructions per second on average and is able to reach 50 mips peak performance. the i486 does not have the usual 80-prefix because of a court ruling that prohibits trademarking numbers (such as 80486). later, with the introduction of the pentium brand, intel began branding its chips with words rather than numbers. ==background== the 486 was announced at spring comdex in april 1989. at the announcement, intel stated that samples would be available in the third quarter of 1989 and production quantities would ship in the fourth quarter of 1989.486 32-bit cpu breaks new ground in chip density and operating performance. (intel corp.) (product announcement) edn | may 11, 1989 | pryce, dave the first 486-based pcs were announced in late 1989, but some advised that people wait until 1990 to purchase an 486 pc because there were early reports of bugs and software incompatibilities.{{cite news |url = http://www.n

Impi

right|thumb|300px|the impi was an indigenous military formation that transformed the face of southern africa, on into east and central africa. its highest development took place under shaka, initiator of several important organizational, weapons and tactical innovations.donald morris, 'the washing of the spears,' touchstone, 1965. impi is a zulu word for any armed body of men. however, in english it is often used to refer to a zulu regiment, which is called an ibutho in zulu. its beginnings lie far back in historic tribal warfare customs, when groups of armed men called impis battled. they were systematised radically by the zulu king shaka, who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king senzangakona, but already showing much prowess as a general in the army of mthethwa king dingiswayo in the mthethwa-ndwandwe war in the early 1810s. ==genesis of the impi== the zulu impi is popularly identified with the ascent of shaka, ruler of the relatively small zulu tribe before its explosion across the landscape of southern africa, but its earliest shape as a purposeful instrument of statecraft lies in the innovations of the mwetha chieftain dingiswayo, according to some historians (morris 1965).donald morris, the washing of the spears. p. 32-67 these innovations in turn drew upon existing tribal customs, such as the intanga. this was an age grade tradition common among many of the bantu peoples of the continent's southern region. youths were organised into age groups, with each cohort responsible for certain duties and tribal ceremonies. periodically, the older age grades were summoned to the kraals of sub-chieftains, or indunas, for consultations, assignments, and an induction ceremony that marked their transition from boys to full-fledged adults and warriors, the ukubutbwa. kraal or settlement elders generally handled local disputes and issues. above them were the indunas, and above the indunas stood the chief of a particular clan lineage or tribe. the indunas handled administrative matters for their chiefs – ranging from settlement of disputes, to the collection of taxes. in time of war, the indunas supervised the fighting men in their areas, forming leadership of the military forces deployed for combat. the age grade intangas, under the guidance of the indunas, formed the basis for the systematic regimental organisation that would become known worldwide as the impi.morris, 32–67 ===limited nature of early tribal warfare=== militarily, warfare was mild among the bantu prior to the rise of shaka, though it occurred frequently. objectives were typically limited to such matters as recovering cattle, avenging some personal insult, or resolving disputes over segments of grazing land. generally a loose mob, called an impi participated in these

IEEE_754-1985

ieee 754-1985 was an industry standard for representing floating-point numbers in computers, officially adopted in 1985 and superseded in 2008 by the current revision. during its 23 years, it was the most widely used format for floating-point computation. it was implemented in software, in the form of floating-point libraries, and in hardware, in the instructions of many cpus and fpus. the first integrated circuit to implement the draft of what was to become ieee 754-1985 was the intel 8087. ieee 754-1985 represents numbers in binary, providing definitions for four levels of precision, of which the two most commonly used are: {| class="wikitable" |- !level !width !range at full precision !precision* |- |single precision |32 bits |±1.18 to ±3.4 |approx. 7 decimal digits |- |double precision |64 bits |±2.23 to ±1.80 |approx. 15 decimal digits |} :* precision: the number of decimal digits precision is calculated via number_of_mantissa_bits * log10(2). thus ~7.2 and ~15.9 for single and double precision respectively. the standard also defines representations for positive and negative infinity, a "negative zero", five exceptions to handle invalid results like division by zero, special values called nans for representing those exceptions, denormal numbers to represent numbers smaller than shown above, and four rounding modes. == representation of numbers == right|frame|the number 0.15625 represented as a single-precision ieee 754-1985 floating-point number. see text for explanation. right|frame|the three fields in a 64bit ieee 754 float floating-point numbers in ieee 754 format consist of three fields: a sign bit, a biased exponent, and a fraction. the following example illustrates the meaning of each. the decimal number 0.1562510 represented in binary is 0.001012 (that is, 1/8 + 1/32). (subscripts indicate the number base.) analogous to scientific notation, where numbers are written to have a single non-zero digit to the left of the decimal point, we rewrite this number so it has a single 1 bit to the left of the "binary point". we simply multiply by the appropriate power of 2 to compensate for shifting the bits left by three positions: : 0.00101_2 = 1.01_2 \times 2^{-3} now we can read off the fraction and the exponent: the fraction is .012 and the exponent is −3. as illustrated in the pictures, the three fields in the ieee 754 representation of this number are: : sign = 0, because the number is positive. (1 indicates negative.) : biased exponent = −3 + the "bias". in single precision, th

Insertion_sort

insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array (or list) one item at a time. it is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, heapsort, or merge sort. however, insertion sort provides several advantages: * simple implementation: bentley shows a three-line c version, and a five-line optimized version * efficient for (quite) small data sets * more efficient in practice than most other simple quadratic (i.e., o(n2)) algorithms such as selection sort or bubble sort * adaptive, i.e., efficient for data sets that are already substantially sorted: the time complexity is when each element in the input is no more than places away from its sorted position * stable; i.e., does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys * in-place; i.e., only requires a constant amount o(1) of additional memory space * online; i.e., can sort a list as it receives it when people manually sort something (for example, a deck of playing cards), most use a method that is similar to insertion sort.robert sedgewick, algorithms, addison-wesley 1983 (chapter 8 p. 95) == algorithm == 300px|thumb|right|a graphical example of insertion sort. insertion sort iterates, consuming one input element each repetition, and growing a sorted output list. each iteration, insertion sort removes one element from the input data, finds the location it belongs within the sorted list, and inserts it there. it repeats until no input elements remain. sorting is typically done in-place, by iterating up the array, growing the sorted list behind it. at each array-position, it checks the value there against the largest value in the sorted list (which happens to be next to it, in the previous array-position checked). if larger, it leaves the element in place and moves to the next. if smaller, it finds the correct position within the sorted list, shifts all the larger values up to make a space, and inserts into that correct position. the resulting array after k iterations has the property where the first k + 1 entries are sorted ("+1" because the first entry is skipped). in each iteration the

Intel_80188

the intel 80188 microprocessor was a variant of the intel 80186. the 80188 had an 8-bit external data bus instead of the 16-bit bus of the 80186; this made it less expensive to connect to peripherals. the 16-bit registers and the one megabyte address range were unchanged, however. it had a throughput of 1 million instructions per second. ==description== ===features and performance=== the 80188 series was generally intended for embedded systems, as microcontrollers with external memory. therefore, to reduce the number of chips required, it included features such as clock generator, interrupt controller, timers, wait state generator, dma channels, and external chip select lines. while n80188 was compatible with the numerics co-processor 8087, the 80c188 was not. it didn't had the esc control codes integrated. the initial clock rate of the 80188 was 6 mhz, but due to more hardware available for the microcode to use, especially for address calculation, many individual instructions ran faster than on an 8086 at the same clock frequency. for instance, the common register+immediatein fact, all variants, including reg+reg and reg+reg+immediate were faster. addressing mode was significantly faster than on the 8086, especially when a memory location was both (one of the) operand(s) and the destination. multiply and divide also showed great improvement being several times as fast as on the original 8086 and multi-bit shifts were done almost four times as quickly as in the 8086. ==notes and references== ==external links== * intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de * scan of the intel 80188 data book at datasheetarchive.com es:intel 80186 y 80188

Integrated_Services_Digital_Network

integrated services for digital network (isdn) is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. it was first defined in 1988 in the ccitt red book. prior to isdn, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. the key feature of isdn is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. there are several kinds of access interfaces to isdn defined as basic rate interface (bri), primary rate interface (pri), narrowband isdn (n-isdn), and broadband isdn (b-isdn). isdn is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog phone can provide. it offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. a major market application for isdn in some countries is internet access, where isdn typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions. channel bonding can achieve a greater data rate; typically the isdn b-channels of three or four bris (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded. isdn should not be mistaken for its use with a specific protocol, such as q.931 whereas isdn is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the osi model. in a broad sense isdn can be considered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of the osi model. isdn is designed to provide access to voice and data services simultaneously. however, common use reduced isdn to be limited to q.931 and related protocols, which are a set of protocols for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced calling features for the user. they were introduced in 1986.{{cite journal |last1 =aaron |first1 =r | last2 = wyndrum | first2 = r |title= future trends |journal= ieee communications magazine |date=march 1986 | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 38–43 | format = pdf | url = http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/35/23852/010930

Imam

an imam (; , plural: ; ) is an islamic leadership position. it is most commonly in the context of a worship leader of a mosque and muslim community by sunni muslims. in this context, imams may lead islamic worship services, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. for shi'a muslims, the imam has a more central meaning and role in islam through the concept of imamah, the term is only applicable to those members of the house of the prophet ahl al-bayt, designated as infallibles. imam may also be used in the form of a title for renowned muslim scholars. ==sunni imams== the sunni branch of islam does not have imams in the same sense as the shi'a, an important distinction often overlooked by those outside of the islamic faith. in everyday terms, the imam for sunni muslims is the one who leads islamic formal (fard) prayers, even in locations besides the mosque, whenever prayers are done in a group of two or more with one person leading (imam) and the others following by copying his ritual actions of worship. friday sermon is most often given by an appointed imam. all mosques have an imam to lead the (congregational) prayers, even though it may sometimes just be a member from the gathered congregation rather than an officially appointed salaried person. women can not lead prayers, except amongst female-only congregations; these are often the wives of imams (see nusi)). the person that should be chosen according to hadith is one who has most knowledge of the qu'ran and is of good character, the age is immaterial. the term is also used for a recognized religious scholar or authority in islam, often for the founding scholars of the four sunni madhhabs, or schools of jurisprudence (fiqh). it may also refer to the muslim scholars who created the analytical sciences related to hadith or it may refer to the heads of the prophet muhammad's family in their generational times. the following table shows the considered imams in the context of scholarly authority by sunni muslims: {| class="wikitable" width="60%" |- |madhhab (schools of jurisprudence) |aqidah (schools of theology) |science of hadith |- |imam abu hanifa |imam ahmad ibn hanbal (athari) |imam bukhari |- |imam malik |imam [

Infinitive

infinitive is a grammatical term used to refer to certain verb forms that exist in many languages. as with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. the word is derived from late latin infinitivus, a derivative of infinitus meaning "infinite". infinitives are used mostly as non-finite verbs. in traditional descriptions of english, the infinitive is the basic dictionary form of a verb when used non-finitely, with or without the particle to. thus to go is an infinitive, as is go in a sentence like "i must go there" (but not in "i go there", where it is a finite verb). the form without to is called the bare infinitive, and the form with to is called the full infinitive or to-infinitive. in many other languages the infinitive is a single word, often with a characteristic inflective ending, such as morir ("(to) die") in spanish, manger ("(to) eat") in french, portare ("(to) carry") in latin, lieben ("(to) love") in german, etc. however some languages do not have any forms identifiable as infinitives. many native american languages and some languages in africa and australia do not have direct equivalents to infinitives or verbal nouns; in their place they use finite verb forms in ordinary clauses or various special constructions. as a verb, an infinitive may take objects and other complements and modifiers to form a verb phrase (called an infinitive phrase). like other non-finite verb forms (such as participles, converbs, gerunds and gerundives) infinitives do not generally have an expressed subject; thus an infinitive verb phrase also constitutes a complete non-finite clause, called an infinitive (infinitival) clause. such phrases or clauses may play a variety of roles within sentences, often as nouns (for example as the subject of a sentence or as a complement of another verb), and sometimes as adverbs or other types of modifier. infinitives are not usually inflected for tense, person, etc. as finite verbs are, although some degree of inflection sometimes occurs; for example latin has distinct active and passive infinitives. ==infinitive phrases and clauses== an infinitive phrase is a verb phrase constructed with the verb in infinitive form. this consists of the verb together with its objects and other complements and modifiers. some examples of

Inquests_in_England_and_Wales

inquests in england and wales are held into sudden and unexplained deaths and also into the circumstances of discovery of a certain class of valuable artefacts known as "treasure trove". in england and wales inquests are the responsibility of a coroner. ==where an inquest is needed== there is a general duty upon every person to report a death to the coroner if an inquest is likely to be required. however, this duty is largely unenforceable in practice and the duty falls on the responsible registrar. the registrar must report a death where:halsbury vol.9(2) 949-950 *the deceased was not attended by a doctor during their last illness; *the cause of death has not been certified by a doctor who saw the deceased after death or within the 14 days before death; *the cause of death is unknown; *the registrar believes that the cause of death was unnatural, caused by violence, neglect or abortion, or occurred in suspicious circumstances; *death occurred during surgery or while under anaesthetic; *the cause of death was an industrial disease. the coroner must hold an inquest where the death was:halsbury vol.9(2) 939 *violent or unnatural; *sudden and of unknown cause; or *in prison or police custody. where the cause of death is unknown, the coroner may order a post mortem examination in order to determine whether the death was violent. if the death is found to be non-violent, an inquest is unnecessary. in 2004 in england and wales, there were 514,000 deaths of which 225,500 were referred to the coroner. of those, 115,800 resulted in post-mortem examinations and there were 28,300 inquests, 570 with a jury.department for constitutional affairs (2006) in 2014 the royal college of pathologists claimed that up to 10,000 deaths a year recorded as being from natural causes should have been investigated by inquests. they were particularly concerned about people whose death occurred as a result of medical errors. "we believe a medical examiner would have been alerted to what was going on in mid-staffordshire long before this long list of avoidable deaths reached the total it did," said archie prentice, the pathologists' president. ==juries== a coroner must summon a jury for an inquest if the death occurred in prison or in police custody, or in the execution of a police officer's

Internet_Engineering_Task_Force

the internet engineering task force (ietf) develops and promotes voluntary internet standards, in particular the standards that comprise the internet protocol suite (tcp/ip). it is an open standards organization, with no formal membership or membership requirements. all participants and managers are volunteers, though their work is usually funded by their employers or sponsors. the ietf started out as an activity supported by the us federal government, but since 1993 it has operated as a standards development function under the auspices of the internet society, an international membership-based non-profit organization. ==organization== the ietf is organized into a large number of working groups and informal discussion groups (bofs), each dealing with a specific topic and operates in a bottom-up task creation mode, largely driven by these working groups. each working group has an appointed chairperson (or sometimes several co-chairs), along with a charter that describes its focus, and what and when it is expected to produce. it is open to all who want to participate, and holds discussions on an open mailing list or at ietf meetings, where the entry fee in july 2014 was usd $650 per person."register for the next ietf meeting", ietf. retrieved 21 july 2014. rough consensus is the primary basis for decision making. there are no formal voting procedures. because the majority of the ietf's work is done via mailing lists, meeting attendance is not required for contributors. each working group is intended to complete work on its topic and then disband. in some cases, the wg will instead have its charter updated to take on new tasks as appropriate. the working groups are organized into area

Ink

ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, or quill. thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. ink can be a complex medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluoresces, and other materials. the components of inks serve many purposes; the ink’s carrier, colorants, and other additives affect the flow and thickness of the ink and its appearance when dry. ==types== ink formulas vary, but commonly involve four components: * colorants * vehicles (binders) * additives * carrier substances inks generally fall into four classes: * aqueous * liquid * paste * powder ===colorants=== pigment inks are used more frequently than dyes because they are more color-fast, but they are also more expensive, less consistent in color, and have less of a color range than dyes. ====pigments==== pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color. pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline structures that are 0.1–2 µm in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness vary depending on the source and type of pigment. ====dyes==== dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. however, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, making the ink less efficient and potentially allowing the ink to bleed at the edges of an image. to circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the fresh print. other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. the latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings (which must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as inkjet printer inks. another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. if the dye has the opposite charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. cellulose, the wood-deri

Integrated_development_environment

an integrated development environment (ide) or interactive development environment is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. an ide normally consists of a source code editor, build automation tools and a debugger. most modern ides offer intelligent code completion feature. some ides contain a compiler, interpreter, or both, such as net beans and eclipse; others do not, such as sharpdevelop and lazarus. the boundary between an integrated development environment and other parts of the broader software development environment is not well-defined. sometimes a version control system and various tools are integrated to simplify the construction of a graphical user interface (gui). many modern ides also have a class browser, an object browser, and a class hierarchy diagram, for use in object-oriented software development. == overview == integrated development environments are designed to maximize programmer productivity by providing tight-knit components with similar user interfaces. ides present a single program in which all development is done. this program typically provides many features for authoring, modifying, compiling, deploying and debugging software. this contrasts with software development using unrelated tools, such as vi, gcc or make. one aim of the ide is to reduce the configuration necessary to piece together multiple development utilities, instead providing the same set of capabilities as a cohesive unit. reducing that setup time can increase developer productivity, in cases where learning to use the ide is faster than manually integrating all of the individual tools. tighter integration of all development tasks has the potential to improve overall productivity beyond just helping with setup tasks. for example, code can be continuously parsed while it is being edited, providing instant feedback when syntax errors are introduced. that can speed learning a new programming language and its associated libraries. some ides are dedicated to a specific programming language, allowing a feature set that most closely matches the programming paradigms of the language. however, there are many multiple-language ides, such as eclipse, activestate komodo, intellij idea, myeclipse, oracle jdeveloper, netbeans, codenvy and microsoft visual studio. xcode, xojo and delphi are dedicated to a closed language or set of programming languages. while most modern ides are graphical, text-based ides such as [[turbo pascal

Inca_Empire

the inca empire or inka empiresee quechuan and aymaran spelling shift for more information regarding this spelling difference (quechua: tawantinsuyu) was the largest empire in pre-columbian america.{{cite book|last=mcewan|first=gordon f.|title=after collapse: the regeneration of complex societies|year=2010|publisher=university of arizona press|isbn=978-0816529360|page=98|url=http://www.amazon.com/after-collapse-regeneration-complex-societies/dp/0816529361/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=utf8&qid=1369848254&sr=1-1&key

Isaac_Klein

isaac klein (september 5, 1905 – 1979) was a prominent rabbi and halakhic authority within conservative judaism. == personal life, education, and career== klein was born in the small village of palanka in what was then hungary and emigrated with his family to the united states in 1921. he earned a ba from city college in new york in 1931. although nearing ordination at the yeshiva university's rabbi isaac elchanan theological seminary, he transferred to the jewish theological seminary of america (jtsa), where he was ordained in 1934 and received the advanced jewish legal degree of hattarat hora’ah under the great talmudic scholar rabbi professor louis ginzberg. he was one of only three people, along with boaz cohen and louis finkelstein, to ever to receive this degree from jtsa. klein subsequently earned a phd from harvard under the pioneering academic of judaic studies harry wolfson. he married the former henriette levine in 1932 and had three daughters, hannah, miriam, and rivke. devoted to his family, he dedicated his major work, a guide to jewish religious practice to his children, sons-in-law and 13 grandchildren listing each by name. klein served as rabbi at kadimoh congregation in springfield, massachusetts from 1934–1953; temple emanu-el, buffalo, new york, 1953–1968; temple shaarey zedek, buffalo, (which was created from the merger of emanu-el with temple beth david in 1968), 1968-1972. a beloved rabbi, he influenced generations of congregants and visiting students and, together with his wife who was an educator, founded jewish day schools in both springfield and buffalo. despite the difficulties facing a congregational rabbi raising a family, klein volunteered for the u.s. army during world war ii as a chaplain, motivated by a cause he saw as clearly right with important implications for the jewish people. he served over 4 years, rising to the rank of major and was an advisor to the high commissioner of the occupation government. he also served on special assignments for jewish soldiers in the u.s. army in the 1950s, receiving the simulated rank of brigadier general for these missions. his experiences in the war are described in his book the anguish and the ecstasy of a jewish chaplain. == role within conservative judaism == klein was a leader of the right-wing of the conservative movement. he was president of the rabbinical assembly, 1958–1960, and a member of its committee on jewish law and standards, 1948-1979. he was the author of several books, notably, a guide to jewish religious practice. one of the outstanding halakhists of the movement, he served as a leading member of the committee on jewish law and standards from 1948 until his death in 1979. as a leading authority on halakha he authored many important teshuvot (responsa), many of which were published in his influential "responsa and halakhic

Ice_age

thumb|300px|an artist's impression of ice age earth at glacial maximum. based on: an ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed "glacial periods" (or alternatively "glacials" or "glaciations" or colloquially as "ice age"), and intermittent warm periods are called "interglacials". glaciologically, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres. by this definition, we are in an interglacial period—the holocene—of the ice age that began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the pleistocene epoch, because the greenland, arctic, and antarctic ice sheets still exist. == origin of ice age theory == in 1742 pierre martel (1706–1767), an engineer and geographer living in geneva, visited the valley of chamonix in the alps of savoy. note: p. 374 two years later he published an account of his journey. he reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the fact that the glaciers had once extended much farther.{{cite book |auth

Irreducible_complexity

: this article covers irreducible complexity as used by those who argue for intelligent design. for information on irreducible complexity as used in systems theory, see irreducible complexity (emergence). irreducible complexity (ic) is an argument by proponents of intelligent design that certain biological systems are too complex to have evolved from simpler, or "less complete" predecessors, through natural selection acting upon a series of advantageous naturally occurring, chance mutations.see *. *pseudoscience and extraordinary claims of the paranormal: a critical thinker's toolkit, jonathan c. smith, p 307, isbn 1-4051-8123-0 * * * see also list of scientific societies explicitly rejecting intelligent design the argument is central to intelligent design, and is rejected by the scientific community at large,"we therefore find that professor behe’s claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large." ruling, judge john e. jones iii, kitzmiller v. dover area school district which overwhelmingly regards intelligent design as pseudoscience."true in this latest creationist variant, advocates of so-called intelligent design ... use more slick, pseudoscientific language. they talk about things like 'irreducible complexity'" — "for most members of the mainstream scientific community, id is not a scientific theory, but a creationist pseudoscience." {{cite journal |author=david mu |title=trojan horse or legitimate science: decons

Irenaeus

irenaeus (; greek: ) (early 2nd century – c. ad 202), also referred to as saint irenaeus, was bishop of lugdunum in gaul, then a part of the roman empire (now lyon, france). he was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of christian theology. he was a hearer of polycarp,eusebius of caesarea, ecclesiastical history book v. chapter v. who in turn was traditionally a disciple of john the evangelist. irenaeus' best-known book, adversus haereses or against heresies (c. 180), is a detailed attack on gnosticism, which was then a serious threat to the church, and especially on the system of the gnostic valentinus. as one of the first great christian theologians, he emphasized the traditional elements in the church, especially the episcopate, scripture, and tradition."caesar and christ"(new york: simon and schuster, 1972) against the gnostics, who said that they possessed a secret oral tradition from jesus himself, irenaeus maintained that the bishops in different cities are known as far back as the apostles and that the bishops provided the only safe guide to the interpretation of scripture. his writings, with those of clement and ignatius, are taken as among the earliest signs of the developing doctrine of the primacy of the roman see.cross, f. l., ed. the oxford dictionary of the christian church (new york: oxford university press, 2005) irenaeus is the earliest witness to recognition of the canonical charact

ITU_prefix

the international telecommunication union (itu) allocates call sign prefixes for radio and television stations of all types. they also form the basis for, but do not exactly match, aircraft registration identifiers. these prefixes are agreed upon internationally, and are a form of country code. a call sign can be any number of letters and numerals but each country must only use call signs that begin with the characters allocated for use in that country. a few countries do not fully comply with these rules. australian broadcast stations officially have—but do not use—the vl prefix, and canada uses chile's cb for its own canadian broadcasting corporation stations. this is through a special agreement with the government of chile, which is officially assigned the cb prefix. with regard to the second and/or third letters in the prefixes in the list below, if the country in question is allocated all callsigns with a to z in that position, then that country can also use call signs with the digits 0 to 9 in that position. for example, the united states is assigned ka–kz, and therefore can also use prefixes like kw0 or k1. many large countries in turn have internal rules on how and where specific subsets of their callsigns can be used (such as mexico's xe for am and xh for fm radio and television broadcasting), which are not covered here. ==unallocated and unavailable call sign prefixes== unallocated: the following call sign prefixes are available for future allocation by the itu. (x represents any letter; n represents any digit from 2–9.) * e8, e9, h5, j9, on, s4, t9*, un, v9, xn, yz*, z4–z7, z9, 4n*. (* indicates a prefix that has recently been returned to the itu.) unavailable: under present itu guidelines the following call sign prefixes shall not be allocated .http://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/res-13.pdf they are sometimes used unofficially - such as amateur radio operators operating in a disputed territory or in a nation state that has no official prefix (e.g. s0 in western sahara or station 1a0 at knights of malta headquarters in rome). (x represents any letter; n represents any digit from 2–9.) * nn, x0, x1, 0x, 1x, qx. * no prefixes beginning with q are used—they may be confused with q codes. * no prefixes with the digits 1 or 0 are used—they may be confused with the letters i or o. * two digit prefixes (nn) are not as yet considered by the itu. ==table of allocation of international call sign series== {| class="wikitable" | call sign series | allocated to |- !"#cccccc" colspan="2"

Ithaca_College

ithaca college is a coeducational, nonsectarian private college located on the south hill of ithaca, new york, united states. the school was founded by william egbert in 1892 as a conservatory of music. the college has a strong liberal arts core, but also offers several pre-professional programs and some graduate programs.carnegie classifications: ithaca college carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching. the college is also known internationally for its communications program, the roy h. park school of communications, which was most recently ranked as a top school for journalism,survey: the top 20 journalism schools - tv week. 2013. film"hollywood reporter names ithaca college one of the top 25 film schools", 2013 and media."linkedin: best schools for media professionals", 2014 the college is set against the backdrop of cayuga lake, the city of ithaca, and several waterfalls and gorges. the college is perhaps best known for its large list of alumni who play or have played substantial roles in the worlds of media and entertainment. ithaca college has been ranked among the top ten master's universities in the north by u.s. news & world report every year since 1996.[http://www.ithaca.edu/news/release.php?id=1968 "u.s. news & world report america's best colle

Internet_protocol_suite

the internet protocol suite is the computer networking model and set of communications protocols used on the internet and similar computer networks. it is commonly known as tcp/ip, because its most important protocols, the transmission control protocol (tcp) and the internet protocol (ip), were the first networking protocols defined in this standard. often also called the internet model, it was originally also known as the dod model, because the development of the networking model was funded by darpa, an agency of the united states department of defense. tcp/ip provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. this functionality is organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved.rfc 1122, requirements for internet hosts – communication layers, r. braden (ed.), october 1989.rfc 1123, requirements for internet hosts – application and support, r. braden (ed.), october 1989 from lowest to highest, the layers are the link layer, containing communication technologies for a single network segment (link), the internet layer, connecting hosts across independent networks, thus establishing internetworking, the transport layer handling host-to-host communication, and the application layer, which provides process-to-process application data exchange. the tcp/ip model and related protocol models are maintained by the internet engineering task force (ietf). ==history== ===early research=== thumb|right|diagram of the first internetworked connection the internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the defense advanced research projects agency (darpa) in the late 1960s."the dod internet architecture model", vinton g. cerf and edward cain, computer networks, 7 (1983), north-holland, pp. 307-318 after initiating the pioneering arpanet in 1969, darpa started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. in 1972, robert e. kahn joined the darpa information processing technology office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. in the spring of 1973, vinton cerf, the developer of the existing arpanet network control program (ncp) protocol, joined kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next proto

International_Society_of_Olympic_Historians

for the parody hardcore punk band international superheroes of hardcore, see ishc. the international society of olympic historians (isoh) is a non-profit organization founded in 1991 with the purpose of promoting and studying the olympic movement and the olympic games. the majority of recent books on the olympic games have been written by isoh members. the isoh publishes the journal of olympic history (joh, formerly citius, altius, fortius) three times a year. ==history== the international society of olympic historians (isoh) was formed as the result of a meeting in london, england in december 1991. the idea of forming an olympic historical society had been the subject of correspondence – mainly between bill mallon (united states) and ture widlund (sweden) – for many years. on thursday, 5 december 1991, a group of potential members met at the duke of clarence, a small pub in the kensington section of london. those present were ian buchanan (great britain), stan greenberg (great britain), ove karlsson (sweden), bill mallon (united states), peter matthews (great britain), david wallechinsky (united states), and ture widlund (sweden). the invited guests who sent regrets were: anthony bijkerk (netherlands), peter diamond (united states), pim huurman (netherlands), erich kamper (austria), volker kluge (germany), john lucas (united states), and wolf lyberg (sweden). isoh was formed with the purpose of promoting and studying the olympic movement and the olympic games. this purpose is achieved primarily through research into their history, through the gathering of historical and statistical data concerning the olympic movement and olympic games, through the publication of the research via journals and other publications, and through the cooperation of the membership. from its inception to 2000, ian buchanan has been the president of the isoh. in 2000, this function was taken over by bill mallon. from 2004 to 2012 dr. karl lennartz (germany) served as president and since 2012 david wallechinsky (united states) has been president. ==journal of olympic history== the isoh publishes the journal of olympic history (formerly citius, altius, fortius). ==membership== , the isoh has about 340 members from 48 nations.isoh 2007, cited. the membership includes well-known olympic historians and researchers on olympic topics. the majority of recent books on the olympic games have been written by isoh members. over 20 isoh members have received the olympic order for their contributions to the olympic movement, and several members of the ioc and several olympians are members.isoh 20

Isaac_Bashevis_Singer

isaac bashevis singer (; november 21, 1902 – july 24, 1991) was a polish-born jewish-american author. the polish form of his birth name was izaak zynger and he used his mother's first name in an initial pseudonym, izaak baszewis, which he later expanded to the form under which he is now known.several of his professional identification cards using localized spellings and further variants of these names are reproduced in, he was a leading figure in the yiddish literary movement, writing and publishing only in yiddish, and was awarded the nobel prize in literature in 1978. he also was awarded two u.s. national book awards, one in children's literature for his memoir a day of pleasure: stories of a boy growing up in warsaw (1970) and one in fiction for his collection, a crown of feathers and other stories (1974). ==personal life== ===early life=== thumb|krochmalna street in warsaw (2012) isaac bashevis singer was born in 1902 in leoncin village near warsaw, poland, then part of the russian empire. a few years later, the family moved to a nearby polish town of radzymin, which is often and erroneously given as his birthplace. the exact date of his birth is uncertain, but most probably it was november 21, 1902, a date that singer gave both to his official biographer paul kresh, and his secretary dvorah telushkin. it is also consistent with the historical events he and his brother re

Integral

thumb|300px|a definite integral of a function can be represented as the signed area of the region bounded by its graph.|alt=definite integral example the integral is an important concept in mathematics. integration is one of the two main operations in calculus, with its inverse, differentiation, being the other. given a function f of a real variable x and an interval of the real line, the definite integral : \int_a^b \! f(x)\,dx is defined informally as the signed area of the region in the xy-plane that is bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis and the vertical lines and . the area above the x-axis adds to the total and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total. the term integral may also refer to the related notion of the antiderivative, a function f whose derivative is the given function f. in this case, it is called an indefinite integral and is written: :f(x) = \int f(x)\,dx. however, the integrals discussed in this article are those termed definite integrals. the principles of integration were formulated independently by isaac newton and gottfried leibniz in the late 17th century. through the fundamental theorem of calculus, which they independently developed, integration is connected with differentiation: if f is a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval , then, once an antiderivative f of f is known, the definite integral of f over that interval is given by :\int_a^b \! f(x)\,dx = f(b) - f(a). integrals and derivatives became the basic tools of calculus, with numerous applications in science and engineering. the founders of calculus thought of the integral as an infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width. a rigorous mathematical definition of the integral was given by bernhard riemann. it is based on a limiting procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region into thin vertical slabs. beginning in the nineteenth century, more sophisticated notions of integrals began to appear, where the type of the function as well as the domain over which the integration is performed has been generalised. a line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the interval of integration is replaced by a certain curve connecting two points on the plane or in the space. in a surface integral, the

Demographics_of_Japan

the demographic features of the population of japan include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects regarding the population. thumb|450px|changes in japan's population. thumb|450px|japanese birth and death rates since 1950. based on the census from october 2010, japan's population was at one of its peaks – 128,057,352. as of march 2012 the population estimate was 127,650,000see links to the census and the monthly population estimate through the japan statistical agency homepage. making it the world's tenth-most populous country. current statistics do not showcase much difference in population numbers.statistics on the total population in japan, international monetary fund. april 2013. retrieved june 26, 2013. japan's population size can be attributed to high growth rates experienced during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in recent years, japan has experienced net population loss due to falling birth rates and almost no net immigration, despite having one of the highest life expectancies in the world at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.cia - the world factbook - rank order - life expectancy at birth using the annual estimate for october of each year, the population peaked in 2008 at 128,083,960 and had fallen 285,256 by october 2011.japan statistical agency monthly population estimate. japan's population density was 336 people per square kilometer. based on the health and welfare ministry estimation released in january 2012, japan's population will keep declining by about one million people every year in the coming decades, which will leave japan with a population of 87 million in 2060. by that time, more than 40% of the population is expected to be over age 65. in 2012, the population had for six consecutive years declined by 212,000, the largest drop on record since 1947 and also a record low of 1.03 million births. in 2013, a new record of population drop happened with 244,000 people. in 2013, more than 20 percent of the population are age 65 and over.{{cite web |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/japans-population-falls-by-record-244000-in-2

James_Joyce

james augustinethe second name was mistakenly registered as "augusta". joyce was actually named and baptized james augustine joyce, for his paternal grandfather, costello (1992) p. 53, and the birth and baptismal certificate reproduced in the article also shows "augustine". ellman says: "the second child, james augusta (as the birth was incorrectly registered) ...". ellmann (1982) p. 21. aloysius joyce (2 february 1882 – 13 january 1941) was an irish novelist and poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early 20th century. joyce is best known for ulysses (1922), a landmark work in which the episodes of homer's odyssey are paralleled in an array of contrasting literary styles, perhaps most prominent among these the stream of consciousness technique he utilized. other well-known works are the short-story collection dubliners (1914), and the novels a portrait of the artist as a young man (1916) and finnegans wake (1939). his other writings include three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism, and his published letters. joyce was born in 41 brighton square, rathgar, dublin—a kilometre from his mother's birthplace in terenure—into a middle-class family on the way down. a brilliant student, he excelled at the jesuit schools clongowes and belvedere, despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's love of drink and precarious finances. he went on to attend university college dublin. in 1904, in his early twenties he emigrated permanently to continental europe with his partner nora barnacle. they lived in trieste, paris, and zurich. though most of his adult life was spent abroad, joyce's fictional universe centres on dublin, and is populated largely by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there; ulysses in particular is set with precision in the streets and alleyways of the city. shortly after the publication of ulysses he elucidated this preoccupation somewhat, saying, "for myself, i always write about dublin, because if i can get to the heart of dublin i can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. in the particular is contained the universal.&

Simon–Ehrlich_wager

julian l. simon and paul ehrlich entered in a widely followed scientific wager in 1980, betting on a mutually agreed-upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990. simon had ehrlich choose five commodity metals. copper, chromium, nickel, tin, and tungsten were chosen and simon bet that their prices would decrease, while ehrlich bet they would increase. the contest occurred in the pages of social science quarterly, where simon challenged ehrlich to put his money where his mouth was. in response to ehrlich's published claim that "if i were a gambler, i would take even money that england will not exist in the year 2000"—a proposition simon regarded as too silly to bother with—simon countered with "a public offer to stake us$10,000 ... on my belief that the cost of non-government-controlled raw materials (including grain and oil) will not rise in the long run." ehrlich lost the bet, as all five commodities that were bet on declined in price from 1980 through 1990, the wager period. however, economists later showed that ehrlich would have won in the majority of 10-year periods over the last century, and if the wager was extended by 30 years to 2011, he would have won on four out of the five metals. ==background== in 1968, ehrlich published the population bomb, which argued that mankind was facing a demographic catastrophe with the rate of population growth quickly outstripping growth in the supply of food and resources. simon was highly skeptical of such claims, so proposed a wager, telling ehrlich to select any raw material he wanted and select "any date more than a year away," and simon would bet that the commodity's price on that date would be lower than what it was at the time of the wager. ehrlich and his colleagues picked five metals that they thought would undergo big price increases: chromium, copper, nickel, tin, and tungsten. then, on paper, they bought $200 worth of each, for a total bet of $1,000, using the prices on september 29, 1980, as an index. they designated september 29, 1990, 10 years hence, as the payoff date. if the inflation-adjusted prices of the various metals rose in the interim, simo

James_Cameron

james francis cameronspace foundation. (n.d.). america's vision: the case for space exploration, p. 42. retrieved december 12, 2009. (born august 16, 1954) is a canadian film director, film producer, screenwriter, editor, and deep-sea explorer who has directed the two biggest box office films of all time.name = "box office mojo">"all time box office". retrieved february 23, 2014sony (2009). james cameron returns to abyss with reality camera system. retrieved december 25, 2009.thompson a (2009). "the innovative new 3d tech behind james cameron's avatar". fox news. retrieved december 25, 2009. he first found success with the science-fiction hit the terminator (1984). he then became a popular hollywood director and was hired to write and direct aliens (1986); three years later he fol

John_Baskerville

john baskerville (28 january 1706 â€“ 8 january 1775) was an english businessman, in areas including japanning and papier-mâché, but he is best remembered as a printer and type designer. == life == baskerville was born in the village of wolverley, near kidderminster in worcestershire and was a printer in birmingham, england. he was a member of the royal society of arts, and an associate of some of the members of the lunar society. he directed his punchcutter, john handy, in the design of many typefaces of broadly similar appearance. in 1757, baskerville published a remarkable quarto edition of virgil on wove paper, using his own type. it took three years to complete, but it made such an impact that he was appointed printer to the university of cambridge the following year.lyons, martyn. (2011). books: a living history. los angeles, ca: getty publications. pp. 111 thumb|left|a modern sample of the baskerville typeface john baskerville printed works for the university of cambridge in 1758 and, although an atheist, printed a splendid folio bible in 1763. his typefaces were greatly admired by benjamin franklin, a printer and fellow member of the royal society of arts, who took the designs back to the newly created united states, where they were adopted for most federal government publishing. baskerville's work was criticised by jealous competitors and soon fell out of favour, but since the 1920s many new fonts have been released by linotype, monotype, and other type foundries â€“ revivals of his work and mostly called 'baskerville'. emigre released a popular revival of this typeface in 1996 called mrs eaves, named for baskerville's wife, sarah eaves. baskerville's most notable typeface baskerville represents the peak of transitional type face and bridges the gap between old style and modern type design.meggs, philip b., purvis, alston w. "graphic design and the industrial revolution" history of graphic design. hoboken, n.j: wiley, 2006. p.122. baskerville also was responsible for significant innovations in printing, paper and ink production. he developed a technique which produced a smoother whiter p

Jurassic

thumbnail|the late jurassic picture the jurassic (; from jura mountains of the alps) is a geologic period and system that extends from ma (million years ago) to  ma; from the end of the triassic to the beginning of the cretaceous. the jurassic constitutes the middle period of the mesozoic era, also known as the age of reptiles. the start of the period is marked by the major triassic–jurassic extinction event. two other extinction events occurred during the period: the late pliensbachian/early toarcian event in the early jurassic, and the late tithonian event at the end; however, neither event ranks among the 'big five' mass extinctions. the jurassic is named after the jura mountains within the european alps, where limestone strata from the period were first identified. thumbnail|jurassic in the early times by the beginning of the jurassic, the supercontinent pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses, laurasia to the north and gondwana to the south. this created more coastlines and shifted the continental climate from dry to humid, and many of the arid deserts of the triassic were replaced by lush rainforests. on land, the fauna transitioned from the triassic fauna, dominated by both dinosauromorph and crocodylomorph archosaurs, to one dominated by dinosaurs alone. the first birds also appeared during the jurassic, having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs. other major events include the appearance of the earliest lizards, and the evolution of therian mammals, including primitive placentals. crocodylians made the transition from a terrestrial to an aquatic mode of life. the oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, while pterosaurs were the dominant flying vertebrates. ==etymology== the chronostratigraphic term "jurassic" is directly linked to the jura mountains. alexander von humboldt recognized the mainly limestone dominated mountain range of the jura mountains as a separate formation that had not been included in the established stratigraphic system defined by abraham gottlob werner, and he named it "jurakalk" in 1795.humboldt names the jura limestone ("jurakalk") deposits in: alexander von humboldt, ueber die unterirdischen gasarten und die mittel, ihren nachteil zu vermindern, ein beitrag zur physik der praktischen bergbaukunde [on the types of subterranean gases and means of minimizing their harm, a contribution to the physics of practical mining] (braunschwei

Transport_in_Jamaica

transport in jamaica consists of roadways, railways, ship and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system. ==roadways== the jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres is paved.the cia world factbook - jamaica retrieved june 27, 2007 the jamaican government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. this project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres of freeway. the highway 2000 project, which seeks ultimately to link kingston with montego bay and the north coast, is currently undergoing a series of phases/legs. phase 1 is the highway network between kingston and mandeville which itself has been divided into sub-phases: phase 1a (kingston-bushy park (in actuality, kingston-sandy bay) highway and the upgrade of the portmore causeway) which was completed june 2006, and phase 1b (sandy bay-williamsfield). phase 2a is the highway between old harbour and ocho rios, and phase 2b is the highway between mandeville and montego bay.highway 2000: project schedule retrieved march 25, 2007 total: . paved: . unpaved: (1997 est.). == railways == railways in jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. of the 272 kilometres of railway found in jamaica, only 57 kilometres remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite. in 2008, with increasing traffic congestion, moves are being made to reconstruct old railway lines. total: 370 km standard gauge: 370 km gauge. of these, 207 km belong to the jamaica railway corporation in common carrier service but are no longer operational. the other 163 km is privately owned and used to transport bauxite. ==air transport== there are two international airports in jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: norman manley international airport

History_of_Jersey

thumb|the bailiwick of jersey. the island of jersey and the other channel islands represent the last remnants of the medieval duchy of normandy that held sway in both france and england. jersey lies in the bay of mont saint-michel and is the largest of the channel islands. it has enjoyed self-government since the division of the duchy of normandy in 1204. ==prehistory== the earliest evidence of human activity in jersey dates to about 250,000 years ago (before jersey became an island) when bands of nomadic hunters used the caves at la cotte de st brelade as a base for hunting mammoth. it has been an island for approximately 8,000 years and at its current extremes it measures 10 miles east to west and six miles north to south. after jersey became an island, there is evidence of settled communities in the neolithic period, which is marked by the building of the ritual burial sites known as dolmens. the number, size and visible locations of these megalithic monuments (especially la hougue bie) have suggested that social organisation over a wide area, including surrounding coasts, was required for the construction. archaeological evidence shows that there were trading links with brittany and the south coast of england during this time. it would appear that the island was significant enough to inspire large-scale construction projects. ===hoards=== evidence of occupation and wealth has been discovered in the form of hoards. in 1889, during construction of a house in saint helier, a 746g gold torc of irish origin was unearthed. a bronze age hoard consisting of 110 implements, mostly spears and swords, was discovered in saint lawrence in 1976 - probably a smith's stock. hoards of coins were discovered at la marquanderie, in saint brelade, le câtel, in trinity, and le câtillon, in grouville (1957).balleine's history of jersey, marguerite syvret and joan stevens (1998) isbn 1-86077-065-7 in june 2012, two metal detectorists announced that they had uncovered what could be europe's largest hoard of iron age celtic coins, and which may be worth up to £10 m, after a search spanning 30 years. it was reported that the extracted mass including soil and the hoard weighed about three quarters of a tonne, and could contain up to 50,000 roman and celtic coins."jersey pair in 30-year search for iron age coins" at bbc.co.uk this came after an earlier find of 60 celtic coins, in the same area, by the same men.jersey pair find more than 60 iron age coins it is thought th

Politics_of_Jordan

the politics of jordan takes place in a framework of a parliamentary monarchy, whereby the prime minister of jordan is head of government, and of a multi-party system. jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on january 8, 1952. as of 1 february 2011, jordanian prime minister samir rifai resigned and king abdullah asked marouf al-bakhit , a former prime minister, to form a new more democratic government. ==executive branch== |king |abdullah ii of jordan | |- |prime minister |abdullah ensour |independent |11 october 2012 |} executive authority is vested in the king and his cabinet. the king signs, executes, and vetoes all laws. the king may also suspend or dissolve parliament, and shorten or lengthen the term of session. a veto by the king may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of parliament at his discretion, most recently in november 2009.freedomhouse.org http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2010&country=7849 he appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the armed forces. cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. the cabinet, led by a prime minister, was formerly appointed by the king, but following the 2011 jordanian protests, king abdullah agreed to an elected cabinet. the cabinet is responsible to the chamber of deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by that body. ==legislative branch== legislative power rests in the bicameral national assembly. the national assembly (majlis al-umma) has two chambers. the chamber of deputies (majlis al-nuwaab) has 150 members, elected for a four-year terms in single-seat constituencies with 15 seats reserved for women by a special electoral college. in addition nine seats are reserved for christians and three for chechens/circassians. while the chamber of deputies is elected by the people, its main legislative abilities are limited to approving, rejecting, or amending legislation with little power to initiate laws. the assembly of senators (majlis al-aayan) has 60 members appointed by the king for a four-year term. the assembly of senators is responsible to the chamber of deputies and can be removed by a "vote of no confidence". political factions or blocs in the jordanian p

Jim_Jarmusch

james roberto "jim" jarmusch (; born january 22, 1953) is an american independent film director, screenwriter, actor, producer, editor and composer. jarmusch has consistently been a major proponent of independent cinema since the 1980s. ==early life== jarmusch was born to a family of middle-class suburbanites in cuyahoga falls, ohio in 1953. his mother, of irish and german descent, had been a reviewer of film and theatre for the akron beacon journal before marrying his father, a businessman of czech and german descent who worked for the b.f. goodrich company. she introduced the future director, the middle of three children, to the world of cinema by leaving him at a local cinema to watch matinee double features such as attack of the crab monsters and creature from the black lagoon while she ran errands. the first adult film he recalls having seen was the 1958 cult classic thunder road (starring robert mitchum) the violence and darkness of which left an impression on the seven-year-old jarmusch. another b-movie influence from his childhood was ghoulardi, an eccentric cleveland television show which featured horror films. despite his enthusiasm for film, jarmusch, an avid reader in his youth, had a greater interest in literature, a pursuit in which he was encouraged by his grandmother. though he refused to attend church with his episcopalian parents (not being enthused by "the idea of sitting in a stuffy room wearing a little tie"), jarmusch credits literature with shaping his metaphysical beliefs and leading him to reconsider theology in his mid-teens. from his peers he developed a taste for counterculture: he and his friends would steal the records and books of their older siblings – william burroughs, jack kerouac, mothers of invention. they made fake identity documents which allowed them to visit bars at the weekend but also the

Johannes_Rau

johannes rau (; 16 january 193127 january 2006) was a german politician of the spd. he was president of germany from 1 july 1999 until 30 june 2004, and minister-president of north rhine-westphalia from 1978 to 1998. ==education and work== rau was born in the barmen part of wuppertal, rhine province, as the third of five children. his family was strongly protestant. as a schoolboy, rau was active in the confessing church, a circle of the german protestant church which actively resisted nazism. rau left school in 1949 and worked as a journalist and publisher, especially with the protestant youth publishing house. ==political biography== rau was a member of the all-german people’s party (gvp), which was founded by gustav heinemann. this party was known for proposing german reunification, from 1952 until it was disbanded in 1957. in 1958, rau and his political mentor, gustav heinemann, joined the social democratic party of germany (spd), where he was active in the wuppertal chapter. he served as deputy chairman of the spd party of wuppertal, and was elected later on to the city council (1964–1978), where he served as chairman of the spd group (1964–1967) and later as mayor (1969–1970). in 1958, rau was elected for the first time as member of the landtag (state parliament) of north rhine-westphalia (nrw). in 1967, he became chairman of the spd fraction in the landtag, and in 1970 minister of science and education in the cabinet of minister president heinz kühn. he soon gained a reputation

January_1

the preceding day is december 31 of the previous year. __toc__ ==history== during the middle ages under the influence of the catholic church, many countries in western europe moved the start of the year to one of several important christian festivals – december 25 (the nativity of jesus), march 1, march 25 (the annunciation), or even easter. eastern european countries (most of them with populations showing allegiance to the orthodox church) began their numbered year on september 1 from about 988. in england, january 1 was celebrated as the new year festival, but from the 12th century to 1752 the year in england began on march 25 (lady day). so, for example, the parliamentary record notes the execution of charles i as occurring on january 30, 1648, (as the year did not end until march 24), although modern histories adjust the start of the year to january 1 and record the execution as occurring in 1649. most western european countries changed the start of the year to january 1 before they adopted the gregorian calendar. for example, scotland changed the start of the scottish new year to january 1 in 1600. england, ireland and the british colonies changed the start of the year to january 1 in 1752. later that year in september, the gregorian calendar was introduced throughout britain and the british colonies. these two reforms were implemented by the calendar (new style) act 1750. january 1 became the official start of the year as follows: *1362 grand duchy of lithuania *1522 republic of venice *1544 holy roman empire (germany) *1556 spain, portugal *1559 prussia, sweden *1564 france *1576 southern netherlands *1579 lorraine *1583 united provinces of the netherlands (northern) *1600 scotland *1700 russia *1721 tuscany *1752 great britain (excluding scotland) and its colonies ==events== *153 bc – roman consuls begin their year in office. *45 bc – the julian calendar takes effect as the civil calendar of the roman empire, establishing january 1 as the new date of the new year. *42 bc – the roman senate posthumously deifies julius caesar *69 – the roman legions in germania superior refuse to swear loyalty to galba. they rebel and proclaim vitellius as emperor. *193 – the senate chooses pertinax against his will to succeed commodus as roman emperor. *404 – an infuriated roman mob tears telemachus, a christian monk, to pieces for trying to

June_7

==events== * 421 – emperor theodosius ii marries aelia eudocia. the wedding was celebrated at constantinople (byzantine empire). *1099 – first crusade: the siege of jerusalem begins. *1420 – troops of the republic of venice capture udine, ending the independence of the patriarchal state of friuli. *1494 – spain and portugal sign the treaty of tordesillas which divides the new world between the two countries. *1628 – the petition of right, a major english constitutional document, is granted the royal assent by charles i and becomes law. *1654 – louis xiv is crowned king of france. *1692 – port royal, jamaica, was hit by a catastrophic earthquake; in just three minutes, 1,600 people were killed and 3,000 were seriously injured. *1776 – richard henry lee presents the "lee resolution" to the continental congress. the motion was seconded by john adams and led to the united states declaration of independence. *1788 – french revolution: day of the tiles — civilians in grenoble toss roof tiles and various objects down upon royal troops. *1800 – david thompson reaches the mouth of the saskatchewan river in manitoba. *1810 – the newspaper gazeta de buenos ayres is first published in argentina. *1832 – asian cholera reaches quebec, brought by irish immigrants, and kills about 6,000 people in lower canada. *1862 – the united states and the united kingdom agree to suppress the slave trade. *1863 – during the french intervention in mexico, mexico city is captured by french troops. *1866 – 1,800 fenian raiders are repelled back to the united states after they looted and plundered around saint-armand and frelighsburg, quebec. *1880 – war of the pacific: the battle of arica, the assault and capture of morro de arica (arica cape), ends the campaña del desierto (desert campaign). *1892 – benjamin harrison becomes the first president of the united states to attend a baseball game. * 1892 – homer plessy is arrested for refusing to leave his seat in the "whites-only" car of a train; he lost the resulting court case, plessy v. ferguson. *1893 – mohandas gandhi commits his first act of

June_28

in common years it is always in iso week 26. this date is the only date each year where both the month and day are different perfect numbers, june 6 being the only date where the month and day are the same perfect number. ==events== *1098 – fighters of the first crusade defeat kerbogha of mosull. *1360 – muhammed vi becomes the tenth nasrid king of granada after killing his brother-in-law ismail ii. *1461 – edward iv is crowned king of england. *1519 – charles v is elected emperor of the holy roman empire. *1635 – guadeloupe becomes a french colony. *1651 – the battle of beresteczko between poland and ukraine starts. *1709 – peter the great defeats charles xii of sweden at the battle of poltava. *1745 – war of the austrian succession: a new england colonial army captures louisbourg, new france, after a forty-seven-day siege (new style). *1776 – the battle of sullivan's island ends with the first decisive american victory in the american revolutionary war leading to the commemoration of carolina day. * 1776 – thomas hickey, continental army private and bodyguard to general george washington, is hanged for mutiny and sedition. *1778 – the american continentals engage the british in the battle of monmouth courthouse resulting in standstill and british withdrawal under cover of darkness. *1807 – second british invasion of the río de la plata; john whitelock lands at ensenada on an attempt to recapture buenos aires and is defeated by the locals. *1838 – coronation of victoria of the united kingdom. *1841 – the paris opera ballet premieres giselle in the salle le peletier *1855 – sigma chi fraternity was founded in north america. *1859 – the first conformation dog show is held in newcastle-upon-tyne, england. *1865 – the army of the potomac is disbanded. *1880 – the australian bushranger ned kelly is captured at glenrowan. *1881 – secret treaty between austria and serbia. *1882 – the [[anglo-french conv

John_Horton_Conway

john horton conway frs (; born 26 december 1937) is a british mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. he has also contributed to many branches of recreational mathematics, notably the invention of the cellular automaton called the game of life. conway is currently professor of mathematics and john von neumann professor in applied and computational mathematics at princeton university. he is also currently a visiting professor at cuny's queens college. ==biography== conway's parents were agnes boyce and cyril horton conway. he was born in liverpool, lancashire. he became interested in mathematics at a very early age and his mother recalled that he could recite the powers of two when he w

June_18

==events== * 618 – li yuan becomes emperor gaozu of tang, initiating three centuries of tang dynasty rule over china. *1053 – battle of civitate: three thousand horsemen of norman count humphrey rout the troops of pope leo ix. *1178 – five canterbury monks see what is possibly the giordano bruno crater being formed. it is believed that the current oscillations of the moon's distance from the earth (on the order of meters) are a result of this collision. *1264 – the parliament of ireland meets at castledermot in county kildare, the first definitively known meeting of this irish legislature. *1429 – french forces under the leadership of joan of arc defeat the main english army under sir john fastolf at the battle of patay. this turns the tide of the hundred years' war. *1633 – charles i, is crowned king of scots at st giles cathedral, edinburgh *1684 – the charter of the massachusetts bay colony is revoked via a scire facias writ issued by an english court. *1757 – battle of kolín between prussian forces under frederick the great and an austrian army under the command of field marshal count leopold joseph von daun in the seven years' war. *1767 – samuel wallis, an english sea captain, sights tahiti and is considered the first european to reach the island. *1778 – american revolutionary war: british troops abandon philadelphia, pennsylvania. *1799 – action of 18 june 1799: a frigate squadron under rear-admiral perrée is captured by the british fleet under lord keith *1812 – war of 1812: the u.s. congress declares war on great britain, canada, and ireland. *1815 – napoleonic wars: the battle of waterloo results in the defeat of napoleon bonaparte by the duke of wellington and gebhard leberecht von blücher forcing him to abdicate the throne of france for the second and last time. *1830 – french invasion of algeria. *1858 – charles darwin receives a paper from alfred russel wallace that includes nearly identical conclusions about evolution as darwin's own, prompting darwin to publish his theory. *1859 – first ascent of aletschhorn, second summit of the bernese alps. *1873

John_Steinbeck

john ernst steinbeck, jr.<!-- ' --> (february 27, 1902&nbsp;– december 20, 1968) was an american author of twenty-seven books, including sixteen novels, six non-fiction books, and five collections of short stories. he is widely known for the comic novels tortilla flat (1935) and cannery row (1945), the multi-generation epic east of eden (1952), and the novellas of mice and men (1937) and the red pony (1937). the pulitzer prize-winning the grapes of wrath (1939), widely attributed to be part of the american literary canon, is considered steinbeck's masterpiece. in the first 75 years since it was published, it sold 14 million copies. the award of the 1962 nobel prize for literature to steinbeck was controversial in the united states. the award citation lauded steinbeck "for his realistic and imaginative writings, combining as they do sympathetic h

John_Donne

john donne ( ) (22 january 1572 – 31 march 1631) was an english poet and a cleric in the church of england. he is considered the pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets. his works are noted for their strong, sensual style and include sonnets, love poems, religious poems, latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. his poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, especially compared to that of his contemporaries. donne's style is characterised by abrupt openings and various paradoxes, ironies and dislocations. these features, along with his frequent dramatic or everyday speech rhythms, his tense syntax and his tough eloquence, were both a reaction against the smoothness of conventional elizabethan poetry and an adaptation into english of european baroque and mannerist techniques. his early career was marked by poetry that bore immense knowledge of english society and he met that knowledge with sharp criticism. another important theme in donne's poetry is the idea of true religion, something that he spent much time considering and about which he often theorized. he wrote secular poems as well as erotic and love poems. he is particularly famous for his mastery of metaphysical conceits.bookrags.com despite his great education and poetic talents, donne lived in poverty for several years, relying heavily on wealthy friends. he spent much of the money he inherited during and after his education on womanising, literature, pastimes, and travel. in 1601, donne secretly married anne more, with whom he had twelve children.luminarium.org in 1615, he became an anglican priest, although he did not want to take anglican orders. he did so because king james i persistently ordered it. in 1621, he was appointed the dean of st paul's cathedral in london. he also served as a member of parliament in 1601 and in 1614. in 1962,

July_3

==events== * 324 &ndash; battle of adrianople: constantine i defeats licinius, who flees to byzantium. * 987 &ndash; hugh capet is crowned king of france, the first of the capetian dynasty that would rule france until the french revolution in 1792. *1035 &ndash; william the conqueror becomes the duke of normandy, reigns until 1087. *1608 &ndash; québec city is founded by samuel de champlain. *1754 &ndash; french and indian war: george washington surrenders fort necessity to french forces. *1767 &ndash; pitcairn island is discovered by midshipman robert pitcairn on an expeditionary voyage commanded by philip carteret. * 1767 &ndash; norway's oldest newspaper still in print, adresseavisen, is founded and the first edition is published. *1775 &ndash; american revolutionary war: george washington takes command of the continental army at cambridge, massachusetts. *1778 &ndash; american revolutionary war: british forces kill 360 people in the wyoming valley massacre. *1819 &ndash; the bank of savings in new york city, the first savings bank in the united states, opens. *1839 &ndash; the first state normal school in the united states, the forerunner to today's framingham state college, opens in lexington, massachusetts with three students. *1844 &ndash; the last pair of great auks is killed. *1848 &ndash; slaves are freed in the danish west indies (now u.s. virgin islands) by peter von scholten in the culmination of a year-long plot by enslaved africans. *1849 &ndash; the french enter rome in order to restore pope pius ix to power. this would prove a major obstacle to italian unification. *1852 &ndash; congress establishes the united states' 2nd mint in san francisco. *1863 &ndash; american civil war: the final day of the battle of gettysburg culminates with pickett's charge. *1866 &ndash; austro-prussian war is decided at the battle of königgratz, resulting in prussia taking over as the prominent german nation from austria. *1884 &ndash; dow jones and company publishes its first stock average. *1886 &ndash; karl benz officially unveils the benz patent motorwagen &ndash; the first purpose-built automobile. * 1886 &ndash; the new york tribune becomes the first newspaper to use a linotype machine, eliminating typesetting by hand. *1890 &ndash; idaho is admitted as the 43rd u.s. state. *1898 &ndash; spanish–american war: the spanish fleet, le

June_1

==events== * 193 &ndash; the roman emperor didius julianus is assassinated. *1215 &ndash; zhongdu (now beijing), then under the control of the jurchen ruler emperor xuanzong of jin, is captured by the mongols under genghis khan, ending the battle of zhongdu. *1252 &ndash; alfonso x is elected king of castile and león. *1298 &ndash; residents of riga and grand duchy of lithuania defeated the livonian order in the battle of turaida. *1495 &ndash; friar john cor records the first known batch of scotch whisky. *1533 &ndash; anne boleyn is crowned queen of england. *1535 &ndash; combined forces loyal to charles v attack and expel the ottomans from tunis during the conquest of tunis. *1648 &ndash; the roundheads defeat the cavaliers at the battle of maidstone in the second english civil war. *1649 &ndash; start of the sumuroy revolt: filipinos in northern samar led by agustin sumuroy revolt against spanish colonial authorities. *1660 &ndash; mary dyer is hanged for defying a law banning quakers from the massachusetts bay colony. *1670 &ndash; in dover, england, charles ii of great britain and louis xiv of france sign the secret treaty of dover, which will force england into the third anglo-dutch war. *1679 &ndash; the scottish covenanters defeat john graham of claverhouse at the battle of drumclog. *1779 &ndash; benedict arnold, a general in the continental army during the american revolutionary war, is court-martialed for malfeasance. *1792 &ndash; kentucky is admitted as the 15th state of the united states. *1794 &ndash; the battle of the glorious first of june is fought, the first naval engagement between britain and france during the french revolutionary wars. *1796 &ndash; tennessee is admitted as the 16th state of the united states. *1812 &ndash; war of 1812: the u.s. president james madison asks the congress to declare war on the united kingdom. *1813 &ndash; james lawrence, the mortally-wounded commander of the , gives his final order: "don't give up the ship!" *1815 &ndash; napoleon promulgates a revised constitution after it passes a plebiscite.

John_Lynch_(New_Hampshire)

john h. lynch (born november 25, 1952) is an american businessman and politician who served as the 80th governor of the u.s. state of new hampshire. lynch was first elected governor in 2004, defeating first-term incumbent governor craig benson - the first time an incumbent governor was denied a second term in 78 years. lynch won re-election in landslide victories in 2006 and 2008, and comfortably won a historic fourth term in 2010. lynch is the most popular governor in new hampshire history and, while in office, consistently ranked among the nation's most popular governors.{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/11/nyregion/cuomo-among-most-popular-governors-polls-show.html?_r=0 |newspaper=the new york times |first=thomas |last=kaplan |title=cuomo among most popular governors, polls show |date=may 1

Java_(programming_language)

{{infobox programming language | name = java | logo = 100px | paradigm = multi-paradigm: object-oriented, structured, imperative, functional, generic, reflective, concurrent | year = | designer = james gosling andsun microsystems | developer = oracle corporation | written_in = c++ | latest release version = java standard edition 8 update 25 (1.8.0_25) | latest release date = | latest preview version = | latest preview date = | frequently updated = | turing-complete = yes | typing = static, strong, safe, nominative, manifest | implementations = openjdk, gnu compiler for java(gcj), many others | influenced_by = ada 83, c++, c#,java 5.0 added several new language features (the enhanced for loop, autoboxing, varargs and annotations), after they were introduced in the similar (and competing) c# language eiffel, generic java, mesa, modula-3, oberon,niklaus wirth stated on a number of public occasions, e.g. in a lecture at the polytechnic museum, moscow in september, 2005 (several independent first-hand accounts in russian exist, e.g. one with an audio recording: ), that the sun java design team licenced the oberon compiler sources a number of years prior to the relea

July_26

==events== * 657 &ndash; first fitna: in the battle of siffin, troops led by ali ibn abu talib clash with those led by muawiyah i. * 811 &ndash; battle of pliska: byzantine emperor nikephoros i i is killed and his heir staurakios is seriously wounded. * 920 &ndash; rout of an alliance of christian troops from navarre and léon against the muslims at pamplona. *1309 &ndash; henry vii is recognized king of the romans by pope clement v. *1469 &ndash; wars of the roses: the battle of edgecote moor, pitting the forces of richard neville, 16th earl of warwick against those of edward iv of england, takes place. *1509 &ndash; the emperor krishnadeva raya ascends to the throne, marking the beginning of the regeneration of the vijayanagara empire. *1581 &ndash; plakkaat van verlatinghe (act of abjuration): the northern low countries declare their independence from the spanish king, philip ii. *1745 &ndash; the first recorded women's cricket match takes place near guildford, england. *1758 &ndash; french and indian war: the siege of louisbourg ends with british forces defeating the french and taking control of the gulf of saint lawrence. *1775 &ndash; the office that would later become the united states post office department is established by the second continental congress. *1788 &ndash; new york ratifies the united states constitution and becomes the 11th state of the united states. *1803 &ndash; the surrey iron railway, arguably the world's first public railway, opens in south london, united kingdom. *1822 &ndash; josé de san martín arrives in guayaquil, ecuador, to meet with simón bolívar. * 1822 &ndash; first day of the three-day battle of dervenakia, between the ottoman empire force led by mahmud dramali pasha and the greek revolutionary force led by theodoros kolokotronis. *1847 &ndash; liberia declares its independence. *1861 &ndash; american civil war: george b. mcclellan assumes command of the army of the potomac following a disastrous union defeat at the first battle of bull run. *1863 &ndash; american civil war: morgan's raid ends; at salineville, ohio, confederate cavalry leader john hunt morgan and 360 of his volunteers are captured by union forces. *1882 &ndash; premiere of richard wagner's opera parsifal at [[ba

John_Sparrow_David_Thompson

sir john sparrow david thompson, kcmg, pc, qc (november 10, 1845 – december 12, 1894) was a canadian lawyer, judge, politician, and university professor, who served as the fourth prime minister of canada from december 5, 1892 until his sudden death in office on december 12, 1894. he also served as the fifth premier of nova scotia in 1882. he was the first roman catholic to hold the office of prime minister. ==early years== born in halifax, nova scotia, to john sparrow thompson and charlotte pottinger, he was of irish descent. some sources say he was born on november 10, 1845, others say 1844. thompson married annie affleck (1842–1913) in 1870. annie thompso

Dan_Quayle

james danforth "dan" quayle (; born february 4, 1947), quayle, james danforth (dan) – biographical information the 44th vice president of the united states, served with president george h. w. bush (1989–1993). he served as a u.s. representative and u.s. senator from the state of indiana. quayle was born in indianapolis and spent most of his childhood living in arizona. he married marilyn tucker in 1972 and obtained his j.d. from indiana university robert h. mckinney school of law in 1974. he practiced law in huntington, indiana with his wife before his election to the united states house of representatives in 1976, aged 29. in 1980 quayle won election to the senate. in 1988, vice president george h. w. bush, the [[republican party

John_Calvin

john calvin (; , ; born : 10 july 150927 may 1564) was an influential french theologian and pastor during the protestant reformation. he was a principal figure in the development of the system of christian theology later called calvinism. originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the roman catholic church around 1530. after religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against protestants in france, calvin fled to geneva, switzerland, where he published the first edition of his seminal work institutes of the christian religion in 1536. in that year, calvin was recruited by william farel to help reform the church in geneva. the city council resisted the implementation of calvin's and farel's ideas, and both men were expelled. at the invitation of martin bucer, calvin proceeded to strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of french refugees. he continued to support the reform movement in geneva, and was eventually invited back to lead its church. following his return, calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. during this period, michael servetus, a spaniard regarded by both catholics and protestants as having heretical views, arrived in geneva. he was denounced by calvin and executed by the city council. following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, calvin's opponents were forced out. calvin spent his final years promoting the reformation both in geneva and throughout europe. calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. he also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including philipp melanchthon and heinrich bullinger. in addition to the institutes, he wrote commentaries on most books of the bible, as well as theological treatises and confessional documents. he regularly preached sermons throughout the week in geneva. ca

John_Newton

john newton (; 24 july 1725 o.s./4 august n.s. 21 december 1807) was an english sailor, in the royal navy for a period, and later a captain of slave ships. he became ordained as an evangelical anglican cleric, served olney, buckinghamshire for two decades, and also wrote hymns, known for amazing grace and glorious things of thee are spoken. newton started his career at sea at a young age, and worked on slave ships in the slave trade for several years, even after having a christian conversion. although newton continued in the slave trade for several years, he later became a prominent supporter of abolitionism, living to see britain's abolition of the african slave trade in 1807. ==early life== john newton was born in wapping, london, in 1725, the son of elizabeth (née scatliff) and john newton sr., a shipmaster in the mediterranean service. elizabeth was the only daughter of simon scatliff, an instrument maker from london (the marriage register records her maiden name as seatcliffe). elizabeth was brought up as a nonconformist. she died of tuberculosis (then called consumption) in july 1732, about two weeks before john's seventh birthday. newton spent two years at boarding school before going to live in aveley in essex, the home of his father's new wife. at age eleven he first went to sea with his father. newton sailed six voyages before his father retired in 1742. at that time, newton's father made plans for him to work at a sugar plantation in jamaica. instead, newton signed on with a merchant ship sailing to the mediterranean sea. ===impressment=== in 1743, while going to visit friends, newton was captured and pressed into the naval service by the royal navy. he became a midshipman aboard hms harwich. at one point newton tried to desert and was punished in front of the crew of 350. stripped to the waist and tied to the grating, he received a flogging of eight dozen lashes and was reduced to the rank of a common seaman. following that disgrace and humiliation, newton initially contemplated murdering the captain and committing suicide by throwing himself overboard.{{

Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council

the judicial committee of the privy council (jcpc) is one of the highest courts in the united kingdom. established by the judicial committee act 1833 (or with the privy council appeals act 1832) to hear appeals formerly heard by the king-in-council (s. 3),judicial committee act 1833 (c. 41) it is the highest court of appeal (or court of last resort) for several independent commonwealth countries, the british overseas territories and the british crown dependencies.p.a. howell, the judicial committee of the privy council, 1833–1876: its origins, structure, and development, cambridge, uk: cambridge university press, 1979section 2 the jurisdiction of the judicial committee i. commonwealth jurisdiction, jcpc.gov.uk it is often referred to as the privy council, as in most cases appeals are made to ‘her majesty in council’ (i.e. the british monarch as formally advised by her privy counsellors), who then refers the case to the judicial committee for ‘advice’; the ‘report’ of the judicial committee is always accepted by the queen in council as judgment. the panel of judges (typically five in number) hearing a particular case is known as ‘the board’. in commonwealth republics retaining the jcpc as their final court of appeal, appeals are made directly to the judicial committee itself. in the case of brunei, appeals are made to the sultan of brunei, who then refers the case to the judicial committee for advice. formerly the judicial committee gave a unanimous report, but since the judicial committee (dissenting opinions) order 1966 dissenting opinions have been allowed. in july 2007, the judicial committee held that it had the power to depart from precedent if it concluded that one of its own previous decisions was inco

July_29

==events== * 238 &ndash; the praetorian guard storm the palace and capture pupienus and balbinus. they are dragged through the streets of rome and executed. on the same day, gordian iii, age 13, is proclaimed emperor. * 615 &ndash; pakal ascends the throne of palenque at the age of 12. * 904 &ndash; sack of thessalonica: saracen raiders under leo of tripoli sack thessaloniki, the byzantine empire's second-largest city, after a short siege, and plunder it for a week. *1014 &ndash; byzantine–bulgarian wars: battle of kleidion &ndash; byzantine emperor basil ii inflicts a decisive defeat on the bulgarian army, and his subsequent treatment of 15,000 prisoners reportedly causes tsar samuil of bulgaria to die of a heart attack less than three months later, on october 6. *1018 &ndash; count dirk iii defeats an army sent by emperor henry ii in the battle of vlaardingen. *1030 &ndash; ladejarl-fairhair succession wars: battle of stiklestad &ndash; king olaf ii fights and dies trying to regain his norwegian throne from the danes. *1148 &ndash; the siege of damascus ends in a decisive crusader defeat and leads to the disintegration of the second crusade. *1565 &ndash; the widowed mary, queen of scots, marries henry stuart, lord darnley, duke of albany, at holyrood palace in edinburgh, scotland. *1567 &ndash; james vi is crowned king of scotland at stirling. *1588 &ndash; anglo-spanish war: battle of gravelines &ndash; english naval forces under the command of lord charles howard and sir francis drake defeat the spanish armada off the coast of gravelines, france. *1693 &ndash; war of the grand alliance: battle of landen &ndash; france wins a pyrrhic victory over allied forces in the netherlands. *1793 &ndash; john graves simcoe decides to build a fort and settlement at toronto, having sailed into the bay there. *1836 &ndash; inauguration of the arc de triomphe in paris, france. *1848 &ndash; irish potato famine: tipperary revolt &ndash; in tipperary, ireland, then in the united kingdom, an unsuccessful nationalist revolt against british r

Japanese_cuisine

japanese cuisine is the food—ingredients, preparation and way of eating—of japan. the traditional food of japan is based on rice with miso soup and other dishes, with an emphasis on seasonal ingredients. the side dishes often consist of fish, pickled vegetables, and vegetables cooked in broth. fish is common in the traditional cuisine. it is often grilled, but it may also be served raw as sashimi or in sushi. seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter as tempura. apart from rice, staples include noodles, such as soba and udon. japan has many simmered dishes such as fish products in broth called oden, or beef in sukiyaki and nikujaga. foreign food, in particular chinese food in the form of noodles in soup called ramen and fried dumplings, gyoza, and western food such as curry and hamburger steaks are commonly found in japan. historically, the japanese shunned meat, but with the modernization of japan in the 1860s, meat-based dishes such as tonkatsu became common. japan has an indigenous form of sweets called wagashi, which include ingredients such as red bean paste, as well as its indigenous rice wine sake. japanese cuisine, particularly sushi, has now become popular throughout the world. ==overview of traditional japanese cuisine== japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food which is steamed white rice or with one or several okazu or main dishes and side dishes. this may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and tsukemono (pickles). the phrase refers to the makeup of a typical meal served, but has roots in classic kaiseki, honzen, and yūsoku cuisine. the term is also used to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays., p.158, explains that in the tea kaiseki, the rice is served in its own small bowl (chawan), and each course item is placed on its own small plate (sara) or bowl (hachi) for each individual portion. this is done even at home. it contrasts with the western-style dinners at home, where each individual takes helpings from the large serving dishes of food presented at the middle of the

January_23

==events== * 393 &ndash; roman emperor theodosius i proclaims his eight-year old son honorius co-emperor. * 971 &ndash; in china, the war elephant corps of the southern han are soundly defeated at shao by crossbow fire from song dynasty troops. *1368 &ndash; in a coronation ceremony, zhu yuanzhang ascends to the throne of china as the hongwu emperor, initiating ming dynasty rule over china that would last for three centuries. *1546 &ndash; having published nothing for eleven years, françois rabelais publishes the tiers livre, his sequel to gargantua and pantagruel. *1556 &ndash; the deadliest earthquake in history, the shaanxi earthquake, hits shaanxi province, china. the death toll may have been as high as 830,000. *1570 &ndash; james stewart, 1st earl of moray, regent for the infant king james vi of scotland, is assassinated by firearm, the first recorded instance of such. *1571 &ndash; the royal exchange opens in london. *1579 &ndash; the union of utrecht forms a protestant republic in the netherlands. *1656 &ndash; blaise pascal publishes the first of his lettres provinciales. *1719 &ndash; the principality of liechtenstein is created within the holy roman empire. *1789 &ndash; georgetown college, the first catholic university in the united states, is founded in georgetown, maryland (now a part of washington, d.c.) *1793 &ndash; second partition of poland. *1849 &ndash; elizabeth blackwell is awarded her m.d. by the geneva medical college of geneva, new york, becoming the united states' first female doctor. *1855 &ndash; the first bridge over the mississippi river opens in what is now minneapolis, minnesota, a crossing made today by the hennepin avenue bridge. *1870 &ndash; in montana, u.s. cavalrymen kill 173 native americans, mostly women and children, in what becomes known as the marias massacre. *1879 &ndash; anglo-zulu war: the battle of rorke's drift ends. *1897 &ndash; elva zona heaster is found dead in greenbrier county, west virginia. the resulting murder trial of her husband is perhaps the only case in united states history where the alleged testimony of a ghost helped secure a conviction. *1899 &ndash; the malolos constitution is inaugurated, establishing the first philippine republic. * 1899 &ndash; emilio aguinaldo is sworn in as president of t

Jean_Joseph_Marie_Amiot

jean joseph marie amiot (chinese: 錢德明, pinyin: qian deming; february 1718 - october 9, 1793) was a french jesuit missionary. ==life== joseph marie amiot was born at toulon. he entered the society of jesus in 1737 and was sent in 1750 as a missionary to china. he soon won the confidence of the qianlong emperor and spent the remainder of his life at beijing. he was a correspondent of the académie des sciences, official translator of western languages for emperor qianlong, and the spiritual leader of the french mission in peking.alain peyrefitte, "images de l'empire immobile", p.113 he died in peking in 1793, two days after the departure of the british macartney embassy. he could not meet lord macartney, but exhorted him to patience in two letters, explaining that "this world is the reverse of our own".alain peyrefitte, p.113 he used a chinese name (錢德明) while he was in china. ==works== thumb|a page from mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des chinois, 1780. amiot made good use of the advantages which his situation afforded, and his works did more than any before to make known to the western world the thought and life of the far east. his manchu dictionary dictionnaire tatare-mantchou-français (paris, 1789) was a work of great value, the language having been previously quite unknown in europe. in 1772 he translated 'the art of war', one of the most influential war strategy and tactics treatises in military history, written around the 6th century bce and attributed to general sun tzu, into french. the first successful translation to english would not be achieved before another 138 years, in 1910.wikipedia-the art of war his other writings are to be found chiefly in the mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des chinois (15 volumes, paris, 1776–1791). the vie de confucius, the twelfth volume of that collection, was more complete and accurate than any predecessors. amiot tried to impress mandarins in beijing with rameau's harpsichord piecethomas christensen, "rameau and musical thought in the enlightenment", cambridge university press, 1993. isbn 0-521-42040-7. page 295. on google books les sauvages, a suite that was later reworked as part of rameau's opera-ballet les indes galantes."indes galantes, les (the gallant indies," naxos.com websit

Jerome

saint jerome (latin: eusebius sophronius hieronymus; ; c.  347 – 30 september 420) was an illyrian latin christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, who also became a doctor of the church. he was the son of eusebius, of the city of stridon, on the border of dalmatia and pannonia. he is best known for his translation of the bible into latin (the vulgate), and his commentaries on the gospel of the hebrews. his list of writings is extensive.{{cite book | editor1-first= philip | editor1-last = schaff | editor1-link = philip schaff |others= henry wace |title= a select library of nicene and post-nicene fathers of the christian church | accessdate= 2010-06-07 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=nqunaaaaiaaj | volume = vi | year = 1893 | publisher = the christian literature company |location=new

July_14

==events== * 756 &ndash; an lushan rebellion: emperor xuanzong flees the capital chang'an as an lushan's forces advance toward the city. *1223 &ndash; louis viii becomes king of france upon the death of his father, philip ii of france. *1769 &ndash; an expedition led by gaspar de portolà establishes a base in california and sets out to find the port of monterey (now monterey, california). *1771 &ndash; foundation of the mission san antonio de padua in modern california by the franciscan friar junípero serra. *1789 &ndash; french revolution: citizens of paris storm the bastille. * 1789 &ndash; alexander mackenzie finally completes his journey to the mouth of the great river he hoped would take him to the pacific, but which turns out to flow into the arctic ocean. later named after him, the mackenzie is the second-longest river system in north america. *1790 &ndash; french revolution: citizens of paris celebrate the unity of the french people and the national reconciliation in the fête de la fédération. *1791 &ndash; the priestley riots drive joseph priestley, a supporter of the french revolution, out of birmingham, england. *1798 &ndash; the sedition act becomes law in the united states making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the united states government. *1853 &ndash; opening of the first major us world's fair, the exhibition of the industry of all nations in new york city. *1865 &ndash; first ascent of the matterhorn by edward whymper and party, four of whom die on the descent. *1874 &ndash; the chicago fire of 1874 burns down 47 acres of the city, destroying 812 buildings, killing 20, and resulting in the fire insurance industry demanding municipal reforms from chicago's city council. *1877 &ndash; the great railroad strike of 1877 begins in martinsburg, west virginia, us, when baltimore and ohio railroad workers have their wages cut for the second time in a year. *1881 &ndash; billy the kid is shot and killed by pat garrett outside fort sumner. *1900 &ndash; armies of the eight-nation alliance capture tientsin during the boxer rebellion. *1902 &ndash; the campanile in [[piazza san marco|st. mark'

January_20

in the ancient astronomy, it is the cusp day between capricorn and aquarius. in some years it is aquarius, but others capricorn. it depends on the year. ==events== * 250 &ndash; emperor decius begins a widespread persecution of christians in rome. pope fabian is martyred. * 649 &ndash; king chindasuinth, at the urging of bishop braulio of zaragoza, crowns his son recceswinth as co-ruler of the visigothic kingdom. *1265 &ndash; in westminster, the first english parliament conducts its first meeting held by simon de montfort in the palace of westminster, now also known colloquially as the "houses of parliament". *1320 &ndash; duke wladyslaw lokietek becomes king of poland. *1356 &ndash; edward balliol abdicates as king of scotland. *1523 &ndash; christian ii is forced to abdicate as king of denmark and norway. *1567 &ndash; battle of rio de janeiro: portuguese forces under the command of estácio de sá definitively drive the french out of rio de janeiro. *1576 &ndash; the mexican city of león is founded by order of the viceroy don martín enríquez de almanza. *1649 &ndash; charles i of england goes on trial for treason and other "high crimes". *1783 &ndash; the kingdom of great britain signs a peace treaty with france and spain, officially ending hostilities in the american revolutionary war (also known as the american war of independence). *1785 &ndash; invading siamese forces attempt to exploit the political chaos in vietnam, but are ambushed and annihilated at the mekong river by the tay son in the battle of rạch gầm-xoài mút. *1788 &ndash; the third and main part of first fleet arrives at botany bay. arthur phillip decides that botany bay is unsuitable for the location of a penal colony, and decides to move to port jackson. *1839 &ndash; in the battle of yungay, chile defeats an alliance between peru and bolivia. *1841 &ndash; hong kong island is occupied by the british. *1877 &ndash; last day of the constantinople conference which resulted in agreement for political reforms in the balkans. *1887 &ndash; the united states senate allows the navy to lease pearl harbor as a naval base. *1920 &ndash; the [[americ

John_Peel

john robert parker ravenscroft, obe (30 august 1939 – 25 october 2004), known professionally as john peel, was an english disc jockey, radio presenter, record producer and journalist. he was the longest serving of the original bbc radio 1 djs, broadcasting regularly from 1967 until his death in 2004. he was known for his eclectic taste in music and his honest and warm broadcasting style. he was one of the first broadcasters to play psychedelic rock and progressive rock records on british radio, and he is widely acknowledged for promoting artists working in various genres, including pop, reggae, indie pop, indie rock, alternative rock, punk, hardcore punk, breakcore, grindcore, death metal, british hip hop, electronic music and dance music. fellow dj paul gambaccini described him as "the most important man in music for about a dozen years". peel's radio 1 shows were notable for the regular "peel sessions", which usually consisted of four songs recorded by an artist live in the bbc's studios, and which often provided the first major national coverage to bands that later would achieve great fame. another popular feature of his shows was the annual festive fifty countdown of his listeners' favourite records of the year.garner, ken. the peel sessions: a story of teenage dreams and one man's love of new music. random house, 2010. peel appeared occasionally on british television as one of the presenters of top of the pops in the 1980s, and he provided voice-over commentary for a number of bbc programmes. he became popular with the audience of bbc radio 4 for his home truths programme, which ran from the 1990s, featuring unusual stories from listeners' domestic lives. ==life and career== ===early life=== john peel was born in heswall cottage hospital in heswall on the wirral peninsula, near liverpool, and grew

James_Cagney

james francis cagney, jr. (july 17, 1899march 30, 1986) was an american actor and dancer, both on stage and in film,obituary variety, april 2, 1986. though he had his greatest impact in film. known for his consistently energetic performances, distinctive vocal style, and deadpan comic timing, he won acclaim and major awards for a wide variety of performances. he is best remembered for playing multi-faceted tough guys in movies like the public enemy (1931), taxi! (1932), angels with dirty faces (1938) and white heat (1949) and was even typecast or limited by this view earlier in his career.mcgilligan, page 11 in 1999, the american film institute ranked him eighth among its 50 greatest american screen legends. no less a student of drama than orson welles said of cagney that he was "maybe the greatest actor who ever appeared in front of a camera." in his first professional acting performance, cagney danced costumed as a woman in the chorus line of the 1919 revue every sailor. he spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925. he secured several other ro

John_Hagelin

john samuel hagelin (born june 9, 1954) is an american particle physicist, three-time candidate of the natural law party for president of the united states (1992, 1996 and 2000), and director of the transcendental meditation movement for the united states. a former researcher at the european organization for nuclear research (cern) (1981–1982) and the stanford linear accelerator center (slac) (1982–1983), hagelin is now professor of physics and director of the institute of science, technology and public policy at maharishi university of management (mum). he has conducted research into unified field theory and the maharishi effect. his position on consciousness and its relationship to the unified field is not accepted by other physicists. non-academic positions hagelin holds include an appointment by maharishi mahesh yogi as raja of invincible america, president of the david lynch foundation and honorary chairman of the board of trustees of maharishi university of management. ==personal life== hagelin was born june 9, 1954, in pittsburgh, pennsylvania. he won a scholarship to taft school for boys, and while a student there he was involved in a motorcycle crash that led to hospitalization and a full body cast. during this time he was introduced to quantum mechanics and the transcendental meditation technique (tm), both of which had a major impact on his life.{{s

July_19

==events== * 64 &ndash; great fire of rome: a fire begins to burn in the merchant area of rome and soon burns completely out of control. according to a popular, but untrue legend, nero fiddled as the city burned. * 484 &ndash; leontius, roman usurper, is crowned eastern emperor at tarsus (modern turkey). he is recognized in antioch and makes it his capital. * 711 &ndash; umayyad conquest of hispania: battle of guadalete &ndash; umayyad forces under tariq ibn ziyad defeat the visigoths led by king roderic. *1333 &ndash; wars of scottish independence: battle of halidon hill &ndash; the english win a decisive victory over the scots. *1544 &ndash; italian war of 1542–46: the first siege of boulogne begins. *1545 &ndash; the tudor warship mary rose sinks off portsmouth; in 1982 the wreck is salvaged in one of the most complex and expensive projects in the history of maritime archaeology. *1553 &ndash; lady jane grey is replaced by mary i of england as queen of england after only nine days on the throne. *1588 &ndash; anglo-spanish war: battle of gravelines &ndash; the spanish armada is sighted in the english channel. *1701 &ndash; representatives of the iroquois confederacy sign the nanfan treaty, ceding a large territory north of the ohio river to england. *1702 &ndash; great northern war: a numerically superior polish-saxon army of augustus ii the strong, operating from an advantageous defensive position, is defeated by a swedish army half its size under the command of king charles xii in the battle of klissow. *1832 &ndash; the british medical association is founded as the provincial medical and surgical association by sir charles hastings at a meeting in the board room of the worcester infirmary. *1843 &ndash; brunel's steamship the ss great britain is launched, becoming the first ocean-going craft with an iron hull or screw propeller and becoming the largest vessel afloat in the world. *1848 &ndash; women's rights: a two-day women's rights convention opens in seneca falls, new york. *1863 &ndash; american civil war: morgan's raid &ndash; at buffington island in ohio, confederate [[general o

John_Wayne

marion mitchell morrison (born marion robert morrison; may 26, 1907&nbsp;– june 11, 1979), better known by his stage name john wayne, was an american film actor, director and producer. an academy award-winner, wayne was among the top box office draws for three decades. an enduring american icon, he epitomized rugged masculinity and is famous for his demeanor, including his distinctive calm voice, walk, and height. wayne was born in winterset, iowa, but his family relocated to the greater los angeles area when he was nine years old. he found work at local film studios when he lost his football scholarship to usc as a result of a bodysurfing accident.roberts, randy, and james s. olson (1995). john wayne: american. new york: free press. pp. 63–64. isbn 978-0-02-923837-0 initially working for the fox film corporation, he mostly appeared in small bit parts. his first leading role came in the widescreen epic the big trail (1930), which led to leading roles in numerous films throughout the 1930s, many of them in the western genre. his career rose to further heights in 1939, with john ford's stagecoach making him an instant superstar. wayne would go on to star in 142 pictures. am

Jacob

jacob (later given the name israel) is considered a patriarch of the israelites. according to the book of genesis, jacob (; standard&nbsp;tiberian&nbsp;; septuagint ; yah'qub; . see j. wells, longman pronunciation dictionary, 1990, p. 381, entry "jacob".) was the third hebrew progenitor with whom god made a covenant. in the hebrew bible, he is the son of isaac and rebekah, the grandson of abraham, sarah and of bethuel, and the younger twin brother of esau. jacob had twelve sons and at least one daughter, by his two wives, leah and rachel, and by their handmaidens bilhah and zilpah. the children named in genesis were reuben, simeon, levi, judah, dan, naphtali, gad, asher, issachar, zebulun, daughter dinah, joseph, and benjamin.enumerations of the twelve tribes vary. because jacob effectively adopted two of his grandsons by joseph and asenath, namely ephraim and manasseh, the two grandsons were often substituted for the tribe of joseph, yielding thirteen tribes, or twelve if levi is set apart. before the birth of benjamin, jacob is renamed israel by god ( and ). etymologically, the name "israel" comes from the hebrew words לִשְׂרות (lisrot, "wrestle") and אֵל (el, "god"). popular english translations typically reference the face off with god, ranging from active "wrestles with god" to passive "god contends",{{cite web|author=mike campbell |url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/israel |titl

John_Brunner_(novelist)

john kilian houston brunner (24 september 1934 – 26 august 1995) was a british author of science fiction novels and stories. his 1968 novel stand on zanzibar, about an overpopulated world, won the 1969 hugo award for best science fiction novel, and the bsfa award the same year. the jagged orbit won the bsfa award in 1970. ==life== brunner was born in preston crowmarsh, near wallingford in oxfordshire, and went to school at st andrew's prep school, pangbourne, then to cheltenham college. he wrote his first novel, galactic storm, at 17, and published it under the pen-name gill hunt, but he did not start writing full-time until 1958. he served as an officer in the royal air force from 1953 to 1955, and married marjorie rosamond sauer on 12 july 1958. brunner's health began to decline in the 1980s and worsened with the death of his wife in 1986. he remarried, to li yi tan, on 27 september 1991. he died of a heart attack in glasgow on 25 august 1995, while attending the world science fiction convention there. ==literary works== at first writing conventional space opera, brunner later began to experiment with the novel form. his 1968 novel stand on zanzibar exploits the fragmented organizational style john dos passos invented for his usa trilogy, but updates it in terms of the theory of media popularised by marshall mcluhan. the jagged orbit (1969) is set in a united states dominated by weapons proliferation and interracial violence, and has 100 numbered chapters varying in length from a single syllable to several pages in length. the sheep look up (1972) was a prophetic warning of ecological catastrophe. brunner is credited with coining the term "worm" and predicting the emergence of computer viruses in his 1975 novel the shockwave rider, in which he used the term to describe software which reproduces itself across a computer network. together with stand on zanzibar, these novels have been called the "club of rome quartet", named after the club of rome whose 1972 report [[the limits to grow

Jazz_guitar

the term jazz guitar may refer to either a type of guitar or to the variety of guitar playing styles used in the various genres which are commonly termed "jazz". the jazz-type guitar was born as a result of using electric amplification to increase the volume of conventional acoustic guitars. conceived in the early 1930s, the electric guitar became a necessity as jazz musicians sought to amplify their sound. arguably, no other musical instrument had greater influence on how music evolved since the beginning of the twentieth century. although the earliest guitars used in jazz were acoustic and acoustic guitars are still sometimes used in jazz, most jazz guitarists since the 1940s have performed on an electrically amplified guitar or electric guitar. traditionally, jazz electric guitarists use an archtop with a relatively broad hollow sound-box, violin-style f-holes, a "floating bridge", and a magnetic pickup. solid body guitars, mass-produced since the early 1950s, are also used. jazz guitar playing styles include "comping" with jazz chord voicings (and in some cases walking bass lines) and "blowing" (improvising) over jazz chord progressions with jazz-style phrasing and ornaments. comping refers to playing chords underneath a song's melody or another musician's solo improvisations. when jazz guitar players improvise, they may use the scales, modes, and arpeggios associated with the chords in a tune's chord progression. ==history== ===1900-mid-1930s=== the stringed, chord-playing rhythm be heard in groups which included military band-style instruments such as brass, saxes, clarinets, and drums, such as early jazz groups. as the acoustic guitar became a more popular instrument in the early 20th century, guitar-makers began building louder guitars which would be useful in a wider range of settings. the gibson l5, an acoustic archtop guitar which was first produced in 1923, was an early “jazz”-style guitar which was used by early jazz guitarists such as eddie lang. by the 1930s, the guitar began to displace the banjo as the primary chordal rhythm instrument in jazz music, because the guitar could be used to voice chords of greater harmonic complexity, and it had a somewhat more muted tone that blended well with the upright bass, which, by this time, had almost completely replaced the tuba as the dominant bass instrument in jazz music. ===late 1930s-1960s=== during the late 1930s and through the 1940s—the heyday of big band jazz and [[swing

Jewish_prayer

thumb|right|morning prayer, 2005. jewish prayer (, tefillah ; plural , tefillos or tefillot ; yiddish תּפֿלה tfile , plural תּפֿלות tfilles ; yinglish: davening from yiddish דאַוונען davnen ‘to pray’) are the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of rabbinic judaism. these prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the siddur, the traditional jewish prayer book. in general, jewish men are obligated to pray three times a day within specific time ranges (zmanim),since the invention and rise of the reform movement in judaism during the early nineteenth century, there have developed irregular practices in the reform movement which are no longer based on jewish tradition but, simply put, on majority decisions made inside the movement. "while many called out for reforms in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, attempted changes in synagogue worship and education were short lived until the hamburg temple was founded in 1818 (..)" (cf. meyer, 'response to modernity: a history of the reform movement in judaism', 1978, p.61) "there is little evidence of interaction between the us and european movements until the german immigration in the 1840s." (cf. meyer, response to modernity, pp.235-236). while, according to the talmud, women are only required to pray once daily, as they are generally exempted from obligations that are time dependent. traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily: # shacharit or shaharit (שַחֲרִת), from the hebrew shachar or shahar (שַחָר) "morning light," # mincha or minha (מִנְחָה), the afternoon prayers named for the flour offering that accompanied sacrifices at the temple in jerusalem, # arvit (עַרְבִית) or maariv (מַעֲרִיב), from "nightfall." additional prayers: * musaf (מוּסָף, "additional") are recited by orthodox and conservative congregations on shabbat, major jewish holidays (including chol hamoed), and rosh chodesh. * a fifth prayer service, ne'ila (נְעִילָה, "closing"), is recited only on yom kippur, the day of atonement. according to the talmud, prayer is a biblical commandmenttractate taanit 2a, in reference to {{bibleverse||de

July_23

==events== *1319 &ndash; a knights hospitaller fleet scores a crushing victory over an aydinid fleet off chios. *1632 &ndash; three hundred colonists bound for new france depart from dieppe, france. *1677 &ndash; scanian war: denmark–norway captures the harbor town of marstrand from sweden. *1793 &ndash; kingdom of prussia re-conquers mainz from france. *1821 &ndash; while the mora rebellion continues, greeks capture monemvasia castle. turkish troops and citizens are transferred to minor asia coasts. *1829 &ndash; in the united states, william austin burt patents the typographer, a precursor to the typewriter. *1833 &ndash; cornerstones are laid for the construction of the kirtland temple in kirtland, ohio. *1840 &ndash; the province of canada is created by the act of union. *1862 &ndash; american civil war: henry halleck takes command of the union army. *1874 &ndash; aires de ornelas e vasconcelos is appointed the archbishop of the portuguese colonial enclave of goa, india. *1881 &ndash; the boundary treaty of 1881 between chile and argentina is signed in buenos aires. *1903 &ndash; the ford motor company sells its first car. *1908 &ndash; the second constitution accepted by the ottomans. *1914 &ndash; austria-hungary issues a series of demands in an ultimatum to the kingdom of serbia demanding serbia to allow the austrians to determine who assassinated archduke franz ferdinand. serbia accepts all but one of those demands and austria declares war on july 28. *1926 &ndash; fox film buys the patents of the movietone sound system for recording sound onto film. *1927 &ndash; the first station of the indian broadcasting company goes on the air in bombay. *1929 &ndash; the fascist government in italy bans the use of foreign words. *1936 &ndash; in catalonia, spain, the unified socialist party of catalonia is founded through the merger of socialist and communist parties. *1940 &ndash; the united states' under secretary of state sumner welles issues a declaration on the u.s. non-recognition policy of the soviet annexation and incorporation of thre

Jane_Shore

elizabeth "jane" shore (c.1445 – c.1527) was one of the many mistresses of king edward iv of england, one of three whom he described as "the merriest, the wiliest, and the holiest harlots" in his realm.oxford dictionary of national biography, "elizabeth shore" she also became a concubine to other noblemen, including edward's stepson, thomas grey, 1st marquess of dorset, and william hastings, 1st baron hastings, his close friend and adviser. == early life and first marriage == born in london in about 1445, elizabeth lambert was the daughter of a prosperous merchant, john lambert, and his wife amy, who was the daughter of a well-off grocer named robert marshall. the name "jane", which has sometimes been attached to her, was the invention of a 17th-century playwright (heywood), because during the course of the sixteenth century, her real first name was omitted, then forgotten by authors. spending time in her father’s shop at a young age may have brought the young elizabeth into contact with ladies of high rank. c j s thompson's highly romanticised biography, the witchery of jane shore, the rose of london: the romance of a royal mistress (1933) claimed that she was able to observe their behaviour and gain an understanding of the manners of those higher ranking than herself.thompson,c.j.s. the witchery of jane shore, the rose of london. the romance of a royal mistress. london, 1933, 34. she was thought to have been highly intelligent, and as a result received an education that was not usually associated with a person of her class.thompson,c.j.s. the witchery of jane shore, the rose of london. the romance of a royal mistress. london, 1933, 32. thompson also claimed that her beauty earned her the title of “the rose of london” – although this is not mentioned in contemporary sources. she attracted many suitors, among them william hastings, 1st baron hastings, friend and confidant of edward iv. it is likely hastings fell in love with elizabeth lambert before her marriage. his affection for her is apparent later in life by his continual protection of her.thompson,c.j.s. the witchery of jane shore, the rose of london. the romance of a royal mistress. london, 1933, 48. her beauty was not the only characteristic that made her appealing for men. she was also admired for her pleasant, warm-hearted personality and her wit.scofield, cora l. the life and reign of edward the fourth: king of england and of france and lord of ireland. 2, london: frank cass and co. ltd., 1967, 162. such extreme attention made finding his daughter a suitable husband desirous for john lambert.thompson,c.j.s. the witchery of jane shore. whitefish: kessinger publishing, 2003, 52. such an opportunity presented itself with william shore (d. 1494), a mercer and comm

Justinian_I

justinian i (; , ) (c. 482 – 14 november 565), sometimes known as justinian the great, was a byzantine (east roman) emperor from 527 to 565. during his reign, justinian sought to revive the empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical roman empire. one of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last roman emperor to speak latin as a first language,the inheritance of rome, chris wickham, penguin books ltd. 2009, isbn 978-0-670-02098-0 (page 90) justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the later roman empire. the impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the empire".j.f. haldon, byzantium in the seventh century (cambridge, 2003), 17–19. because of his restoration activities, justinian has sometimes been called the "last roman" in modern historiography.for instance by g.p. baker (justinian, ne

Joseph_Cotten

joseph cheshire cotten, jr. (may 15, 1905 – february 6, 1994) was an american film, stage and television actor. cotten achieved prominence on broadway, starring in the original stage productions of the philadelphia story and sabrina fair. he first gained worldwide fame in the orson welles films citizen kane (1941), the magnificent ambersons (1942), and journey into fear (1943), for which cotten was also credited with the screenplay. he went on to become one of the leading hollywood actors of the 1940s, appearing in films such as shadow of a doubt (1943), love letters (1945), duel in the sun (1946), portrait of jennie (1948) and the third man (1949). one of his final films was the infamous critical and financial failure michael cimino film heaven's gate (1980). ==life and career== joseph cotten was born in 1905 in petersburg, virginia, the son of joseph cheshire cotten, sr., an assistant postmaster and his wife, sally willson cotten.cotten, joseph, vanity will get you somewhere. san francisco: mercury house. 1987 isbn 0-916515-17-6 he worked as an advertising agent after studying acting at the hickman school of speech and expression in washington, d.c. his work as a theatre critic inspired him to become involved in theatre productions, first in virginia, then in new york city. cotten made his broadway debut in 1930. in 1934 cotten met and became friends with orson welles, a fellow cast member on cbs radio's the american school of the air. cotten had his first starring role in welles's second production for the federal theatre project — the farce horse eats hat, adapted by welles and edwin denby from eugène marin labiche's play un chapeau de paille d'italie.{{rp|

Joystick

right|thumb|200px|video game joystick elements: 1. stick, 2. base, 3. trigger, 4. extra buttons, 5. autofire switch, 6. throttle, 7. hat switch (pov hat), 8. suction cup. a joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. a joystick, also known as the control column, is the principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian and military aircraft, either as a center stick or side-stick. it often has supplementary switches to control various aspects of the aircraft's flight. joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. a popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick. joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras, and zero turning radius lawn mowers. miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones. == aviation == right|thumb|cockpit of a glider with its joystick visible joysticks originated as controls for aircraft ailerons and elevators, and is first known to have been used as such on louis bleriot's bleriot viii aircraft of 1908, in combination with a foot-operated rudder bar for the yaw control surface on the tail. the name "joystick" is thought to originate with early 20th century french pilot robert esnault-pelterie. there are also competing claims on behalf of fellow pilots robert loraine, james henry joyce, and a. e. george. loraine is cited by the oxford english dictionary for using the term "joystick" in his diary in 1909 when he went to pau to learn to fly at bleriot's school. george was a pioneer aviator who with his colleague jobling built and flew a biplane at newcastle in england in 1910. he is alleged to have invented the "george stick" which became mor

Janis_Joplin

janis lyn joplin (; january 19, 1943 – october 4, 1970) was an american singer-songwriter who first rose to fame in the late 1960s as the lead singer of the psychedelic-acid rock band big brother and the holding company, and later as a solo artist with her own backing groups, the kozmic blues band and the full tilt boogie band. her first ever large scale public performance was at the monterey pop festival, this led her to becoming very popular and one of the major attractions to the woodstock festival and the festival express train tour. joplin charted five singles, and other popular songs from her four-year solo career include "down on me", "summertime", "piece of my heart", "ball 'n' chain", "maybe", "to love somebody", "kozmic blues", "work me, lord", "cry baby", "mercedes benz", and her only number one hit, "me and bobby mcgee". joplin was well known for her performing abilities, and her fans referred to her stage presence as "electric". at the height of her career, she was known as "the queen of psychedelic soul", and became known as "pearl" among her friends. she was also a painter, dancer and music arranger. rolling stone ranked joplin number 46 on its list of the 100 greatest artists of all time in 2004, and number 28 on its 2008 list of 100 greatest singers of all time. she was inducted into the rock and roll hall of fame in 1995. ==early life: 1943–1961== [[fi

Jacob_Lawrence

jacob lawrence (september 7, 1917 &ndash; june 9, 2000) was an african-american painter known for his portrayal of african-american life. lawrence referred to his style as "dynamic cubism," though by his own account the primary influence was not so much french art as the shapes and colors of harlem.robert hughes, american visions: the epic history of art in america, excerpted online at jacob lawrence, artchive.com. lawrence is among the best-known 20th-century african-american painters. he was 23 years old when he gained national recognition with his 60-panel migration series,migration series, phillips collection painted on cardboard. the series depicted the great migration of african americans from the rural south to the urban north. a part of this series was featured in a 1941 issue of fortune magazine. the collection is now held by two museums. lawrence's works are in the permanent collections of numerous museums, including the philadelphia museum of art, the museum of modern art, the whitney museum, the phillips collection, metropolitan museum of art, the brooklyn museum, and reynolda house museum of american art. ==life== jacob lawrence was born in 1917 in atlantic city, new jersey. he was thirteen when his family, including his sister and brother, moved to new york city. lawrence was introduced to art shortly after that, when their mother enrolled him in classes at an arts and crafts settlement house in harlem, in an effort to keep him busy. the young lawrence often drew patterns with crayons. in the beginning, he copied patterns of his mother's carpets; one of his art teachers noted great potential in lawrence. after dropping out of school at sixteen, lawrence worked in a laundry and a printing plant. he continued with art, attending classes at the harlem art workshop, taught by the noted african-american artist charles alston. alston urged him to attend the harlem community art center, led by the sculptor augusta savage. savage secured lawrence a scholarship to the american artists school and a paid position with the [[wor

Johann_von_Werth

thumb|250px|johann von werth, imperial general of cavalry count johann von werth (1591 &ndash; 16 january 1652), also jan von werth or in french jean de werth, was a german general of cavalry in the thirty years' war. == biography == werth was born in 1591 at büttgen in the duchy of jülich as the eldest son with eight more brothers and sisters. his parents (johann von wierdt († 1606) and elisabeth streithoven). he belonged to the numerous class of the lesser nobility, and at an early age he left home to follow the career of a soldier of fortune in the walloon cavalry of the spanish service. in 1622, at the taking of jülich, he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant. he served as a colonel of cavalry in the bavarian army in 1630. he obtained the command of a regiment, both titular and effective, in 1632, and in 1633 and 1634 laid the foundations of his reputation as a swift and terrible leader of cavalry forays. his services were even more conspicuous in the great pitched battle of nördlingen (1634), after which the emperor made him a freiherr of the empire, and the elector of bavaria gave him the rank of lieutenant field-marshal. about this time he armed his regiment with the musket as well as the sword. thumb|250px|johann von werth as burgrave (governor) of odenkirchen, oil on canvas in 1635 and 1636 werth's forays extended into lorraine and luxembourg, after which he projected an expedition into the heart of france. starting in july 1636, from the country of the lower meuse, he raided far and wide, and even urged the cardinal infante, who commanded in chief, to "plant the double eagle on the louvre". though this was not attempted. worth's horsemen appeared at saint-denis before the uprising of the french national spirit in the shape of an army of fifty thousand men at compiègne forced the invaders to retire whence they had come. the memory of this raid lasted long, and the name of "jean de wert" figures in folk-songs and serves as a bogey to quiet unruly children. in 1637 werth was once more in the rhine valley, destroying convoys, relieving besieged towns and surprising the enemy's camps. in february 1638 he defeated the weimar troops in an engagement at rheinfelden, but shortly afterwards was made prisoner by bernhard of saxe-weimar. his hopes of being exchanged for the swedish field marshal gustaf horn were disappointed for bernhard had to deliver up his captive to the french. the terrible jean de wert was brought to paris, amidst great rejoicings from the country people. he was lionized by the society of the

Josiah_Wedgwood

josiah wedgwood (12 july 1730 – 3 january 1795) was an english potter who founded the wedgwood company and is credited with the industrialisation of the manufacture of pottery. a prominent abolitionist, wedgwood is remembered for his "am i not a man and a brother?" anti-slavery medallion. he was a member of the darwin–wedgwood family. he was the grandfather of charles darwin and emma darwin. == biography == === early life === born in burslem, staffordshire, england, the eleventh and last child of thomas wedgwood and mary wedgwood (née stringer; d. 1766), josiah was raised within a family of english dissenters. by the age of nine, he was proving himself to be a skilled potter. he survived a childhood bout of smallpox to serve as an apprentice potter under his eldest brother thomas wedgwood iv. smallpox left josiah with a permanently weakened knee, which made him unable to work the foot pedal of a potter's wheel. as a result, he concentrated from an early age on designing pottery and then making it. in his early twenties, wedgwood began working with the most renowned english pottery-maker of his day, thomas whieldon, who eventually became his business partner in 1754. he began experimenting with a wide variety of techniques, an experimentation that coincided with the burgeoning of the nearby industrial city of manchester. inspired, wedgwood leased the ivy works in the town of burslem. over the course of the next decade, his experimentation (and a considerable injection of capital from his marriage to a richly-endowed distant cousin) transformed the sleepy artisan works into the first true pottery factory. === marriage and children === wedgwood married sarah wedgwood (1734–1815), his third cousin, in january 1764. they had eight children: * susannah wedgwood, mother of the englis

Jet_Li

li lianjie (; born 26 april 1963), better known by his english stage name jet li, is a chinese film actor, film producer, martial artist, and wushu champion who was born in beijing. he is a naturalised singaporean citizen. after three years of intensive training with wu bin, li won his first national championship for the beijing wushu team. after retiring from wushu at age 19, he went on to win great acclaim in china as an actor making his debut with the film shaolin temple (1982). he went on to star in many critically acclaimed martial arts epic films, most notably the once upon a time in china series, in which he portrayed folk hero wong fei-hung. li's first role in a hollywood film was as a villain in lethal weapon 4 (1998), and his first leading role in a hollywood film was as han sing in romeo must die (2000). he has gone on to star in many hollywood action films, including kiss of the dragon and unleashed. he co-starred in the forbidden kingdom (2008) with jackie chan, all three of [[the expendables (film series)|the expendables

John_James_Audubon

john james audubon (april 26, 1785&nbsp;&ndash; january 27, 1851), born jean-jacques audubon, was an american ornithologist, naturalist, and painter. he was notable for his expansive studies to document all types of american birds and for his detailed illustrations that depicted the birds in their natural habitats. his major work, a color-plate book entitled the birds of america (1827–1839), is considered one of the finest ornithological works ever completed. audubon identified 25 new species. ==early life== jean-jacques audubon was born in les cayes in the french colony of saint-domingue (now haiti)nelson, randy f. the almanac of american letters. los altos, california: william kaufmann, inc., 1981: 26. isbn 0-86576-008-x on his father's sugar plantation. he was the natural son of lieutenant jean audubon, a french naval officer (and privateer) from the south of brittany,repartition of the surname audubon in france beginning of the 20th century and his mistress jeanne rabine,sometimes, it is written "rabin" a 27-year-old chambermaid from les touches in the same province of brittany (now in the modern region pays de la loire).rhodes, richard john james audubon: the making of an american, new york: alfred a. knopf, 2004, p. 4, accessed 26 april 2011souder, 2005, p. 18 they named the boy jean rabin. his mother died when the boy was a few months old, as she had suffered from tropical disease since arriving on the island. his father already had an unknown number of mixed-race children (among them a daughter named marie-madeleine),delatt, carolyne e., lucy audubon: a biography (lsu press, 2008), page 21 some by his mulatto housekeeper, catherine "sanitte" bouffard (described as a quadroon, meaning she was three-quarters european in ancestry).rhodes, john james audubon (2004), p. 6 following jeanne rabin's death, jean audubo

James_Heckman

james joseph heckman (born 19 april 1944) is an american economist and nobel laureate. he is the henry schultz distinguished service professor of economics at the and director at the center for the economics of human development at the university of chicago, and a senior research fellow at the american bar foundation. heckman shared the nobel memorial prize in economics in 2000 with daniel mcfadden for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics. he is considered to be among the ten most influential economists in the world. ==biography== ===early years=== heckman was born to john jacob heckman and bernice irene medley in chicago, illinois. heckman received his b.a. in mathematics from colorado college, and received his ph.d. from princeton university in economics in 1971. heckman then served as an assistant professor at columbia university before moving to the university of chicago in 1973. in addition to serving as the henry b. schultz distinguished service professor of economics, heckman is also the director of the economics research center and the center for social program evaluation at the irving b. harris school of public policy. in 2004, he was appointed as the distinguished chair of microeconometrics at university college london. in june 2006 he was appointed as the professor of science and society at university college dublin.university college dublin web site. heckman is also a senior research fellow at the american bar foundation. ===research=== heckman is noted for his contributions to selection bias and self-selection analysis especially heckman correction, for which he was awarded the nobel prize in economics

Boulting_brothers

thumb|right |roy (left) and john (right) boulting, 1952 john edward boulting (21 december 1913 – 17 june 1985) and roy alfred clarence boulting (21 december 1913 – 5 november 2001), known collectively as the boulting brothers, were english filmmakers and identical twins who became known for their popular series of satirical comedies in the 1950s and 1960s. they produced many of their films through their own production company, charter film productions, which they set up in 1937.imdb: charter film productions linked 2013-05-24 ==early life== the twin brothers were born to arthur boulting and his wife rosetta (rose) née bennett in bray, berkshire, england on 21 december 1913 (though both brothers later gave their birthday as 21 november in who's who and elsewhere). john was the elder by half an hour. john was originally named joseph edward john boulting, while roy was originally named alfred fitzroy clarence boulting. their elder brother sydney boulting became an actor and stage producer as peter cotes; he was the original director of the mousetrap. a younger brother, guy, died aged eight. both twins were educated at reading school, where they formed a film society. they were extras in anthony asquith's 1931 film tell england

James_Blaylock

james paul blaylock (born september 20, 1950) is an american fantasy author.mark wingenfeld, "james p. blaylock" in bleiler, richard, ed. supernatural fiction writers: contemporary fantasy and horror. new york: thomson/gale, 2003. (pp. 89-98) isbn 9780684312507 he is noted for a distinctive, humorous style, as well as being one of the pioneers of the steampunk genre of science fiction. blaylock has cited jules verne, hg wells, robert louis stevenson, arthur conan doyle and charles dickens as his inspirations.http://www.thegeekgirlproject.com/2013/05/23/interview-with-james-p-blaylock/ he was born in long beach, california; studied english at california state university, fullerton, receiving an m.a. in 1974; and lives in orange, california, teaching creative writing at chapman university. he taught at the orange county school of the arts up until 2013. many of his books are set in orange county, california, and can more specifically be termed "fabulism"that is, fantastic things happen in our present-day world, rather than in traditional fantasy, where the setting is often some other world. his works have also been categorized as magic realism. he and his friends tim powers and k. w. jeter were mentored by philip k. dick. along with powers, blaylock invented the poet william ashbless. blaylock and powers have often collaborated with each other on writing stories, including "the better boy", "on pirates", and "the william ashbless memorial cookbook". blaylock is also currently director of the creative writing conservatory at the orange county high school of the arts, where powers is writer in residence.http://www.thegeekgirlproject.com/2013/05/23/interview-with-james-p-blaylock/ he has been married to his wife, viki blaylock, for more than 40 years. they have two sons, john and danny. ==awards== blaylock's short story "thirteen phantasms" won the 1997 world fantasy award for best short fiction. "paper dragons" won the award in 1986.http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1986.html ==novels==

Jurisprudence

jurisprudence is the study and theory of law. scholars in jurisprudence, also known as legal theorists (including legal philosophers and social theorists of law), hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions. modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of the natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. general jurisprudence can be broken into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered. contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems in two rough groups:shiner, "philosophy of law", cambridge dictionary of philosophy # problems internal to law and legal systems as such. # problems of law as a particular social institution as it relates to the larger political and social situation in which it exists. answers to these questions come from four primary schools of thought in general jurisprudence: *natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers. the foundations of law are accessible through human reason and it is from these laws of nature that human-created laws gain whatever force they have. *legal positivism, by contrast to natural law, holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from some basic social facts. legal positivists differ on what those facts are.soper, "legal positivism", cambridge dictionary of philosophy *legal realism is a third theory of jurisprudence which argues that the real world practice of law is what determines what law is; the law has the force that it does because of what legislators, judges, and executives do with it. similar approaches have been developed in many different ways in sociology of law. *critical legal studies is a younger theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s. it is primarily a negative thesis that holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of the dominant social group.moore, "critical legal studies", cambridge dictionary of philosophy also of note is the wo

John_Hanson

john hanson (&nbsp;– november 15, 1783) was a merchant and public official from maryland during the era of the american revolution. after serving in a variety of roles for the patriot cause in maryland, in 1779 hanson was elected as a delegate to the continental congress. he signed the articles of confederation in 1781 after maryland finally joined the other states in ratifying them. in november 1781, he was elected president of the continental congress, and became the first president to serve a one-year term under the provisions of the articles of confederation. while george washington is universally recognized by historians as the first president of the united states formed under the united states constitution, some biographies of hanson have made the unconventional argument that hanson was the first holder of the office. ==early life== john hanson was born in port tobacco parish in charles county in the province of maryland on april 3, 1721, which in the modern calendar system is equivalent to april 14. sources published prior to a 1940 genealogical study sometimes listed his birth date as april 13 or his year of birth as 1715. hanson was born on a plantation called "mulberry grove" into a wealthy and prominent family. his parents were samuel (c. 1685–1740) and elizabeth (storey) hanson (c. 1688–1764). samuel hanson was a planter who owned more than , and held a variety of political offices, including serving two terms in the maryland general assembly.{{sfn|mereness|1932

James_Hamilton,_1st_Earl_of_Abercorn

james hamilton, 1st earl of abercorn pc (12 august 1575calendar state papers scotland, vol. 5 (1907), 182. – 23 march 1618) was a scottish peer. ==biography== he was the eldest son of claud hamilton, 1st lord paisley (4th son of james hamilton, 2nd earl of arran), and of margaret, daughter of george seton, 7th lord seton. hamilton was made sheriff of linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of lands in scotland and ireland, was created in 1603 baron abercorn, and on 10 july 1606 was rewarded for his services in the matter of the union by being made earl of abercorn and lord paisley, hamilton, mountcastell and kilpatrick. he died on 23 march 1618 and was buried on 29 april 1618 at abbey church, paisley, renfrewshire, scotland. ==family== he married marion, daughter of thomas boyd, 6th lord boyd, and left nine children: *lady anne hamilton (1592–1620), married hugh sempill, 5th lord sempill and had issue *james hamilton, 2nd earl of abercorn (c. 1604 – c. 1670), created lord hamilton, baron of strabane in the peerage of ireland in his father's lifetime. *sir william hamilton, 1st baronet (c. 1605–1680) *claud hamilton, 2nd baron hamilton of strabane (c. 1606–1638) *sir george hamilton, 1st baronet (c. 1607–1679) *lady lucy hamilton (b. bef. 1618), a marriage was arranged for her with randal macdonnell, 1st marquess of antrim, but the wedding never took place *sir alexander hamilton (d. bef. 4 may 1669), married and had issue: **jamesoften wrongly called "alexander". hamilton (1642-1717), the count palatine's of the rhine privy councillor, chamberlain and envoy extraordinary to the court of james ii of england, was created 1695 reichsgraf jakob von hamilton, became 1698 lord of neuburg am inn, had issue: ***count julius von hamilton zu neuburg (1685-1759), privy councillor to joseph i, holy roman emperor,balfour paul, vol i, p47-48 sold neuburg in 1719, married and had issue ****count maximilian von hamilton (1714-1776), prince-bishop of olomouc ****count nikolaus von hamilton (1715-1769), privy councillor, 1749 - c. 1768 governor of trieste *lady margaret hamilton (d. c. 4 may 1642), married sir william cuninghame of caprington *lady isobel hamilton his heirs, earls of abercorn, heirs male of the hamilton family from 1651, became marquesses of abercorn in 1790, and dukes of abercorn in 1868; the 2nd duke of abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent unionist politician and chairman of the british south africa company. the present dukes are descended from his fourth son, sir

Joseph_Greenberg

joseph harold greenberg (may 28, 1915 – may 7, 2001) was a prominent american linguist, principally known for his work in two areas, linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages. ==life== === early life and education === (main source: croft 2003) joseph greenberg was born on may 28, 1915 to jewish parents in brooklyn, new york. his first love was music. at the age of 14, he gave a piano concert at steinway hall. he continued to play the piano daily throughout his life. after finishing high school, he decided to pursue a scholarly career rather than a musical one. he enrolled at columbia university in new york. in his senior year, he attended a class taught by franz boas on american indian languages. with references from boas and ruth benedict, he was accepted as a graduate student by melville j. herskovits at northwestern university in chicago. in the course of his graduate studies, greenberg did fieldwork among the hausa of nigeria, where he learned the hausa language. the subject of his doctoral dissertation was the influence of islam on a hausa group that, unlike most others, had not converted to it. in 1940, he began postdoctoral studies at yale university. these were interrupted by service in the u.s. army signal corps during world war ii, where he worked as a codebreaker and participated in the landing at casablanca. before leaving for europe in 1943, greenberg married selma berkowitz, whom he had met during his first year at columbia. ===career=== after the war, greenberg taught at the university of minnesota before returning to columbia university in 1948 as a teacher of anthropology. while in new york, he became acquainted with roman jakobson and andré martinet. they introduced him to the [[p

Justus

justus (occasionally iustus;higham convert kings p. 94 died on 10 november between 627 and 631) was the fourth archbishop of canterbury. he was sent from italy to england by pope gregory the great, on a mission to christianize the anglo-saxons from their native paganism, probably arriving with the second group of missionaries despatched in 601. justus became the first bishop of rochester in 604, and attended a church council in paris in 614. following the death of king Æthelberht of kent in 616, justus was forced to flee to gaul, but was reinstated in his diocese the following year. in 624 justus became archbishop of canterbury, overseeing the despatch of missionaries to northumbria. after his death he was revered as a saint, and had a shrine in st augustine's abbey, canterbury. ==arrival in britain== justus was an italian and a member of the gregorian mission sent to england by pope gregory&nbsp;i. almost everything known about justus a

James_Norris_Memorial_Trophy

the james norris memorial trophy is awarded annually to the national hockey league's top "defense player who demonstrates throughout the season the greatest all-round ability in the position". the james norris memorial trophy has been awarded 59 times to 25 different players since its beginnings in 1954. at the end of each season, members of the professional hockey writers' association vote to determine the player who was the best defenseman during the regular season. ==history== the trophy is named in honour of james e. norris, owner of the national hockey league's detroit red wings from 1932 to 1952. the trophy was first awarded at the conclusion of the 1953–54 nhl season. bobby orr of the boston bruins won the award for a record eight consecutive seasons (1968–75). doug harvey and nicklas lidstrom have won the award seven times, while ray bourque won it five times. the boston bruins have had the most norris trophies winners with 14; the montreal canadiens have had the second most with 12. only two players have won both the norris and hart memorial trophy for the league most valuable player in the same season: bobby orr, who won both trophies in the 1969–70, 1970–71 and 1971–72 seasons, and chris pronger, who won the hart and norris in the 1999–2000 nhl season. six different defensemen won the hart trophy before the norris trophy's establishment: herb gardiner, eddie shore (four times), albert "babe" siebert, ebbie goodfellow, tommy anderson and babe pratt. the voting is conducted at t

Jerome_K._Jerome

jerome klapka jerome (2 may 1859 – 14 june 1927) was an english writer and humourist, best known for the comic travelogue three men in a boat (1889). other works include the essay collections idle thoughts of an idle fellow (1886) and second thoughts of an idle fellow; three men on the bummel, a sequel to three men in a boat; and several other novels. == early life == jerome was born in caldmore, walsall, england. he was the fourth child of marguerite jones and jerome clapp (who later renamed himself jerome clapp jerome), an ironmonger and lay preacher who dabbled in architecture. he had two sisters, paulina and blandina, and one brother, milton, who died at an early age. jerome was registered, like his father's amended name, as jerome clapp jerome, and the klapka appears to be a later variation (after the exiled hungarian general györgy klapka). owing to bad investments in the local mining industry, the family fell into poverty and debt collectors visited often, an experience jerome described vividly in his autobiography my life and times (1926). the young jerome attended st marylebone grammar school. he wished to go into politics or be a man of letters, but the death of his father when the younger jerome was age 13 and of his mother when he was age 15 forced him to quit his studies and find work to support himself. he was employed at the london and north western railway, initially collecting coal that fell along the railway, and remained there for four years. == acting career and early literary works == in 1877, inspired by his older sister blandina's love for the theatre, jerome decided to try his hand at acting, under the stage name harold crichton. he joined a repertory troupe that produced plays on a shoestring budget, often drawing on the actors' own meagre resources – jerome was penniless at the time – to purchase costumes and props. after three years on the road with no evident success, the 21-year-old jerome decided he had had enough of stage life and sought other occupations. he tried to become a journalist, writing essays, satires and short stories, but most of these were rejected. over the next few years he was a school teacher, a packer, and a solicitor's clerk. finally, in 1885, he had some success with on the stage — and off (1885), a comic memoir of his experiences with the acting troupe, followed by idle thoughts of an idle fellow'

Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory

the jet propulsion laboratory (jpl) is a federally funded research and development center and nasa field center located in la cañada flintridge, california, united states. the jpl is managed by the nearby california institute of technology (caltech) for the national aeronautics and space administration. the laboratory's primary function is the construction and operation of robotic planetary spacecraft, though it also conducts earth-orbit and astronomy missions. it is also responsible for operating nasa's deep space network. among the laboratory's current major active projects are the mars science laboratory mission (which includes the curiosity rover), the cassini–huygens mission orbiting saturn, the mars exploration rover opportunity, the mars reconnaissance orbiter, the dawn mission to the dwarf planet ceres and asteroid vesta, the juno spacecraft en route to jupiter, the nuclear spectroscopic telescope array (nustar) x-ray telescope, and the spitzer space telescope. the jpl's space flight operations facility and twenty-five-foot space simulator are designated national historic landmarks. ==history== thumb|upright|left|the control room at jpl jpl traces its beginnings to 1936 in the guggenheim aeronautical laboratory at the california institute of technology (galcit) when the first set of rocket experiments were carried out in the arroyo seco. caltech graduate students frank malina, weld arnold, apollo m. o. smith, and tsien hsue-shen, along with jack parsons and edward s. forman, tested a small, alcohol-fuele