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Anarchism

anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates stateless societies often defined as self-governed voluntary institutions,"anarchism, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man's natural social tendencies." george woodcock. "anarchism" at the encyclopedia of philosophy"in a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions." peter kropotkin. "anarchism" from the encyclopædia britannica"anarchism." the shorter routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. 2005. p. 14 "anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."sheehan, sean. anarchism, london: reaktion books ltd., 2004. p. 85 but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations."as many anarchists have stressed, it is not government as such that they find objectionable, but the hierarchical forms of government associated with the nation state." judith suissa. anarchism and education: a philosophical perspective. routledge. new york. 2006. p. 7"that is why anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organisation and preaches free agreement — at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist." peter kropotkin. anarchism: its philosophy and ideal"anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy — hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society." "b.1 why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy?" in an anarchist faq anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. {{cite journal |last=malatesta|first=errico|title=towards anarchism|journal=man!|publisher=international group of san francisco|location=los angeles|oclc=3930443|url=http://w

Academy_Awards

the academy awards or the oscars (the official title was rebranded as the oscars in 2013 – changed from the academy awards.) is an annual american awards ceremony honoring cinematic achievements in the film industry. the various category winners are awarded a copy of a statuette, officially the academy award of merit, that is better known by its nickname oscar. the awards, first presented in 1929 at the hollywood roosevelt hotel, are overseen by the academy of motion picture arts and sciences (ampas). the awards ceremony was first televised in 1953 and is now seen live in more than 200 countries. the oscars is also the oldest entertainment awards ceremony; its equivalents, the emmy awards for television, the tony awards for theatre, and the grammy awards for music and recording, are modeled after the academy awards. the 86th academy awards ceremony was held on march 2, 2014, at the [[dolby theatre

Anthropology

anthropology is the scientific study of humans, past and present,"anthropology" at britannica online encyclopedia that draws and builds upon knowledge from the social sciences and life sciences, as well as the humanities.wolf, eric (1994) perilous ideas: race, culture, people. current anthropology 35: 1-7. p.227 since the work of franz boas and bronisław malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, social anthropology in great britain and cultural anthropology in the us has been distinguished from ethnologyhan f. vermeulen, "the german invention of völkerkunde: ethnological discourse in europe and asia, 1740–1798." in: sara eigen and mark larrimore, eds. the german invention of race. 2006. and from other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons, long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research. cultural anthropology in particular has emphasized cultural relativism, holism, and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques.hylland eriksen, thomas. (2004) "what is anthropology" pluto. london. p. 79. this has been particularly prominent in the united states, from boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through margaret mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism. ethnography is one of its primary research designs as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.on varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see spiro, melford e. (1987) "some reflections on cultural determinism and relativism with special reference to emotion and reason," in culture and human nature: theoretical papers of melford e. spiro. edited by b. kilborne and l. l. langness, pp. 32–58. chicago: university of chicago press.{{cite journal|last1=heyck|first1=thomas william|last2=stocking|first2=george w.|last3=goody|first3=jack|title=after tylor: british social anthropology 1888–1951.|journal=the american historical review|volume=102|issue=5|year=1997|pages=1486–1488|issn=00028762|doi=10.2307/2171126|jstor=2171

American_Football_Conference

the american football conference (afc) is one of the two conferences of the national football league (nfl). this conference and its counterpart, the national football conference (nfc), currently contain 16 teams each, making up the 32 teams of the nfl. ==current teams== since 2002, the afc has 16 teams, organized into four divisions each with four teams: east, north, south and west. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left" ! division ! team ! city/town ! stadium |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | east | buffalo bills | orchard park, ny | ralph wilson stadium |- | miami dolphins | miami gardens, fl | sun life stadium |- | new england patriots | foxborough, ma | gillette stadium |- | new york jets | east rutherford, nj | metlife stadium |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | north | baltimore ravens | baltimore, md | m&t bank stadium |- | cincinnati bengals | cincinnati, oh | paul brown stadium |- | cleveland browns | cleveland, oh | firstenergy stadium |- | pittsburgh steelers | pittsburgh, pa | heinz field |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | south | houston texans | houston, tx | reliant stadium |- | indianapolis colts | indianapolis, in | lucas oil stadium |- | jacksonville jaguars | jacksonville, fl | everbank field |- | tennessee titans | nashville, tn | lp field |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | west | denver broncos | denver, co | sports authority field at mile high |- | kansas city chiefs | kansas city, mo | arrowhead stadium |- | oakland raiders | oakland, ca | o.co coliseum |- | san diego chargers | san diego, [[california|ca

Analysis_of_variance

analysis of variance (anova) is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the differences between group means and their associated procedures (such as "variation" among and between groups), developed by r.a. fisher. in the anova setting, the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. in its simplest form, anova provides a statistical test of whether or not the means of several groups are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test to more than two groups. as doing multiple two-sample t-tests would result in an increased chance of committing a statistical type i error, anovas are useful in comparing (testing) three or more means (groups or variables) for statistical significance. ==motivating example== thumb|no fit.thumb|fair fitthumb|very good fitthe analysis of variance can be used as an exploratory tool to explain observations. a dog show provides an example. a dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are male, adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. a histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. before we could do that, we would need to explain the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. a successful grouping will split dogs such that a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way). in the illustrations to the right, each group is identified as x1, x2, etc. in the first illustration, we divide the dogs according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (thus, group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a large variance, and since the means are very close across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in does not allow us to make any reasonable statements as to what that dog's weight is likely to be. thus, this grouping fails to fit the distribution we are trying to explain (yellow-orange). an attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as (pet vs working breed) and (les

Assistive_technology

thumb|250px|hearing aid assistive technology is an umbrella term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and also includes the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. == assistive technology and adaptive technology == the term adaptive technology is often used as the synonym for assistive technology, however, they are different terms. assistive technology refers to "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities", while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for persons with disabilities and would seldom be used by non-disabled persons. in other words, "assistive technology is any object or system that increases or maintains the capabilities of people with disabilities," while adaptive technology is "any object or system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the capabilities of people with disabilities." consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access. ==mobility impairment and wheelchairs== thumb|a typical modern battery powered chair. wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people enjoy. wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility related activities of daily living which include feeding, toileting, dressing grooming and bathing. the devices comes in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control, or other input devices. often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. wheelchairs are used by

Apollo_11

{{infobox spaceflight | name = apollo 11 | image = apollo 11 first step.jpg | image_caption = neil armstrong descends a ladder to become the first human to step onto the surface of the moon | insignia = apollo_11_insignia.png | insignia_alt = circular insignia: eagle with wings outstretched holds olive branch on moon with earth in background, in blue and gold border. | mission_type = manned lunar landing | operator = nasa | cospar_id = csm: 1969-059alm: 1969-059c | satcat = csm: 4039lm: 4041 | mission_duration = 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes, 35 seconds | spacecraft = apollo csm-107apollo lm-5 | manufacturer = csm: north american rockwelllm: grumman | launch_mass = cm: sm: lm: | landing_mass = | launch_date =  utc | launch_rocket = saturn v sa-506 | launch_site = kennedy lc-39a | landing_date =  utc | landing_site = north pacific ocean | orbit_epoch = july 19, 1969, 21:44 utc | orbit_reference = selenocentric | orbit_periapsis = | orbit_apoapsis = | orbit_inclination = 1.25 degrees | orbit_period = 2 hours | apsis = selene |interplanetary = {{infobox spaceflight/ip |type = lander |object = lunar |component = lunar module |arrival_date = july 20, 1969, 20:18:04 utc |departure_date = july 21, 1

Anatomy

anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of animals and their parts; it is also referred to as zootomy to separate it from human anatomy. in some of its facets, anatomy is related to embryology and comparative anatomy, which itself is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny. human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. the discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal’s body parts using unaided eyesight. gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology and also in the study of cells. the history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including x-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. == definition == thumb|left|300px|human compared to elephant frame thumb|upright|anatomical chart by vesalius, epitome, 1543 derived from the greek anatemnō "i cut up, cut open" from ἀνά ana "up", and τέμνω temnō "i cut",o.d.e. 2nd edition 2005 anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. it includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts

Adobe

adobe (, ,definition of adobe from oxford dictionaries online. retrieved 25 december 2010. ; arabic: الطوب) is the spanish word for mud brick, a natural building material made from sand, clay, water, and some kind of fibrous or organic material (sticks, straw, and/or manure), usually shaped into bricks using molds and dried in the sun. adobe buildings are similar to cob and rammed earth buildings, but cob and rammed earth are directly made into walls rather than bricks. these bricks were used to make pueblos in new mexico. the anasazi, hopi, and zuni peoples used this. the romanian name for this material is chirpici. for a deeper understanding of adobe, one might examine a cob building. cob, a close cousin to adobe, contains proportioned amounts of soil, clay, water, manure, and straw. this is blended, but not formed like adobe. cob is spread and piled over the home's frame and allowed to air dry for several months before habitation. adobe, then, can be described as dried bricks of cob, stacked and mortared together with more adobe mixture to create a thick wall and/or roof. adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. compared to wooden buildings, adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, in hot climates, but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage.short documentary about adobe preparation and 2010 chile earthquake livingatlaschile.com, fich, retrieved 5 march 2014 cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 guatemala earthquake and the 2003 bam earthquake. buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in west asia, north africa, west africa,marchand, trevor. the masons of djenne. bloomington: university of indiana press, 2009 south america, southwestern north america, spain (usually in the mudéjar style), eastern europemuseum of lithuanian life rumsiskes lithuania (2011) and east anglia, particularly norfolk, known as clay

Angola

{{infobox country |conventional_long_name = republic of angola |native_name = |common_name = angola |image_flag = flag of angola.svg |image_coat = coat of arms of angola.svg |symbol_type = emblem |national_anthem = file:angola avante instrumental.ogg |image_map = location angola au africa.svg |map_caption = |capital = luanda |latd=8 |latm=50 |latns=s |longd=13 |longm=20 |longew=e |largest_city = capital |official_languages = portuguese |national_languages = |regional_languages = |languages_type = |languages = |ethnic_groups = |ethnic_groups_year = 2000 |demonym = angolan |government_type = unitary presidential republic |leader_title1 = president |leader_name1 = |leader_title2 = vice president |leader_name2 = manuel vicente |legislature = national assembly |sovereignty_type = independence |established_event1 = from portugal |established_date1 = 11 november 1975 |area_rank = 23rd |area_magnitude = 1 e12 |area_km2 = 1246700 |area_sq_mi = 481354 |percent_water = negligible |population_estimate = |population_estimate_rank = 59 |population_estimate_year = 2014 |population_census = 24,383,301 |population_census_year = 2014 |population_density_km2 = 14.8 |population_density_sq_mi = 38.4 |population_density_rank = 199th |gdp_ppp = $139.059 billion |gdp_ppp_rank = 64th |gdp_ppp_year = 2014 |gdp_ppp_per_capita = $6,484 |gdp_ppp_per_capita_rank = 107th |gdp_nominal = $129.785 billion |gdp_nominal_rank = 61st |gdp_nominal_year = 2014 |gdp_nominal_per_capit

Albert_Einstein

{{infobox scientist | name = albert einstein | image = einstein 1921 by f schmutzer - restoration.jpg | caption = albert einstein in 1921 | birth_date = | birth_place = ulm, kingdom of württemberg, german empire | death_date = | death_place = | children = "lieserl" (1902–1903?)hans albert (1904–1973)eduard "tete" (1910–1965) | spouse = mileva marić (1903–1919) | residence = germany, italy, switzerland, austria, belgium, united states | citizenship = | ethnicity = jewish | fields = physics, philosophy | workplaces = | alma_mater = | doctoral_advisor = alfred kleiner | thesis_title = folgerungen aus den capillaritätserscheinungen| thesis_url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/andp.19013090306 | thesis_year = 1901 | academic_advisors = heinrich friedrich weber | notable_students = | known_for = | awards = {{plainlist| * barnard medal (1920) * nobel prize in physics (1921) * matteucci medal (1921) * copley medal (1925) * max planck medal (1929) * [[time 100: the most important people of the

Art

art is a diverse range of human activities and the products of those activities. in their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. this article focuses primarily on the visual arts, which includes the creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential—in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example. music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of art or the arts."art, n. 1". oed online. december 2011. oxford university press. http://www.oed.com. (accessed 26 february 2012.); until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. in modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts. art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. during the romantic period, art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science". though the definition of what constitutes art is disputed{{cite book |title=artworks: definition, meaning, value |author=robert stecker |publisher=pennsylvania state university p

Anthophyta

the anthophytes were thought to be a clade comprising plants bearing flower-like structures. the group contained the angiosperms - the extant flowering plants - as well as the gnetales and the extinct bennettitales. it also includes such plants as roses, tulips, and common plants found to have flower structures. detailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually monophyletic, with proposed floral homologies of the gnetophytes and the angiosperms having evolved in parallel. this makes it easier to reconcile molecular clock data that suggests that the angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms around . some more recent studies have used the word anthophyte to describe a group which includes the angiosperms and a variety of fossils (glossopterids, pentoxylon, bennettitales, and caytonia), but not the gnetales. ==references==

Apiales

the apiales are an order of flowering plants. the families are those recognized in the apg iii system. this is typical of the newer classifications, though there is some slight variation, and in particular the torriceliaceae may be divided.gregory m. plunkett, gregory t. chandler, porter p. lowry, steven m. pinney, and taylor s. sprenkle (2004). "recent advances in understanding apiales and a revised classification". south african journal of botany 70(3):371-381. under this definition, well-known members include carrots, celery, parsley, and ivy. the order apiales is placed within the asterid group of eudicots as circumscribed by the apg iii system. within the asterids, apiales belongs to an unranked group called the campanulids,richard c. winkworth, johannes lundberg, and michael j. donoghue (2008). "toward a resolution of campanulid phylogeny, with special reference to the placement of dipsacales". taxon 57(1):53-65. and within the campanulids, it belongs to a clade known in phylogenetic nomenclature as apiidae. in 2010, a subclade of apiidae named dipsapiidae was defined to consist of the three orders: apiales, paracryphiales, and dipsacales. the circumscriptions of some of the families have changed. in 2009, one of the subfamilies of araliaceae was shown to be polyphyletic. ==history== the present understanding of the apiales

Alfred_Hitchcock

sir alfred joseph hitchcock, kbe (13 august 1899 â€“ 29 april 1980) was an english film director and producer. often nicknamed "the master of suspense", he pioneered many techniques in the suspense and psychological thriller genres. after a successful career in british cinema in both silent films and early talkies, renowned as england's best director, hitchcock moved to hollywood in 1939life, 19 june 1939, p. 66: [http://books.google.com/books?id=b0keaaaambaj&pg=pa66&lpg=pa66&dq=alfred+hitchcock+englands+best+director+starts+work+in+hollywood&source=bl&ots=zlfr62hjhg&sig=p6sh_vuhm-vrzmtjyg__ngbpkso&hl=en&sa=x&ei=xqxtupiqcygx0qx9viggcg&ved=0cfuq6aewbg#v=onepage&q=alfred%20hitchcock%20englands%20best%20director%20starts%20work%20in%20hollywood&f=false alfred hitchcock: england's best director starts work in hollywoo

Aegean_Sea

thumb|right|upright=1.10 the aegean sea (; ; or ege denizinin orijinal adı nedir?, turkish naval force web site (in turkish)) is an elongated embayment of the mediterranean sea located between the greek and anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of greece and turkey. in the north, it is connected to the marmara sea and black sea by the dardanelles and bosporus. the aegean islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including crete and rhodes. the sea was traditionally known as archipelago (in greek, Αρχιπέλαγος, meaning "chief sea"), but in english this word's meaning has changed to refer to the aegean islands and, generally, to any island group. ==etymology== in ancient times, there were various explanations for the name aegean. it was said to have been named after the greek town of aegae, or after aegea, a queen of the amazons who died in the sea, or aigaion, the "sea goat", another name of briareus, one of the archaic hecatonchires, or, especially among the athenians, aegeus, the father of theseus, who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died. a possible etymology is a derivation from the greek word – aiges = "waves" (hesychius of alexandria; metaphorical use of (aix) "goat"), hence "wavy sea", cf. also (aigialos = aiges (waves)

Alexander_Graham_Bell

{{infobox person | name = alexander graham bell | image = alexander graham bell.jpg | caption = portrait photo taken between 1914–19. | birth_date = march 3, 1847 | birth_place = edinburgh, scotland | death_date = | death_place = beinn bhreagh, nova scotia, canada | death_cause = complications from diabetes | occupation = | residence = | citizenship = | alma_mater = | known_for = | awards = | spouse = | parents = | signature = agb signature.svg | children = four | relatives = {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap | gardiner g. hubbard | david c. bell | gilbert h. grosvenor | david fairchild | melville bell grosvenor | mabel grosvenor | a. graham bell fairchild | [[gilbert melville grosvenor|gilbert grosveno

Andy_Warhol

andy warhol (;random house webster's unabridged dictionary: "warhol" august 6, 1928 â€“ february 22, 1987) was an american artist who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as pop art. his works explore the relationship between artistic expression, celebrity culture and advertisement that flourished by the 1960s. after a successful career as a commercial illustrator, warhol became a renowned and sometimes controversial artist. the andy warhol museum in his native city, pittsburgh, pennsylvania, holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives. it is the largest museum in the united states dedicated to a single artist. warhol's art encompassed many forms of media, including hand drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, silk screening, sculpture, film, and music. he was also a pioneer in computer-generated art using amiga computers that were introduced in 1984, two years before his death. he founded interview magazine and was the author of numerous books, including the philosophy of andy warhol and popism: the warhol sixties. he managed and produced the velvet underground, a rock band which had a strong influence on the evolution of punk rock music. he is also notable as a gay man who lived openly as such before the gay liberation movement. his studio, the factory, was a famous gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, bohemian street people, hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. he coined the widely used expression "15 minutes of fame". many of his creations are very collectible and highly valuable. the highest price ever paid for a warhol painting is us$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled "silver car crash (double disaster)".{{cite news

Abugida

an abugida (from ge‘ez አቡጊዳ ’äbugida), also called an alphasyllabary, is a segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as a unit: each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is secondary. this contrasts with a full alphabet, in which vowels have status equal to consonants, and with an abjad, in which vowel marking is absent or optional. (in less formal contexts, all three types of script may be termed alphabets.) abugidas include the extensive brahmic family of scripts of south and southeast asia. abugida as a term in linguistics was proposed by peter t. daniels in his 1990 typology of writing systems. ’abugida is an ethiopian name for the ge‘ez script, taken from four letters of that script, ’ä bu gi da, in much the same way that abecedary is derived from latin a be ce de, and alphabet is derived from the names of the two first letters in the greek alphabet, alpha and beta. as daniels used the word, an abugida is in contrast with a syllabary, where letters with shared consonants or vowels show no particular resemblance to one another, and also with an alphabet proper, where independent letters are used to denote both consonants and vowels. the term alphasyllabary was suggested for the indic scripts in 1997 by william bright, following south asian linguistic usage, to convey the idea that "they share features of both alphabet and syllabary".he describes this term as "formal", i.e., more concerned with graphic arrangement of symbols, whereas abugida was "functional", putting the focus on sound–symbol correspondence. however, this is not a distinction made in the literature.william bright (2000:65–66): a matter of typology: alphasyllabaries and abugidas. in: studies in the linguistic sciences. volume 30, number 1, pages 63–71 abugidas were long considered to be syllabaries, or intermediate between syllabaries and alphabets, and the term syllabics is retained in the name of canadian aboriginal syllabics. other terms that have been used include neosyllabary ([[james-germain fé

Alfons_Maria_Jakob

alfons maria jakob (2 july 1884, aschaffenburg/bavaria–17 october 1931, hamburg) was a german neurologist who worked in the field of neuropathology. he was born in aschaffenburg, bavaria and educated in medicine at the universities of munich, berlin, and strasbourg, where obtained his doctorate in 1908. in 1909 he commenced clinical work under the psychiatrist emil kraepelin and did laboratory work with franz nissl and alois alzheimer in munich. in 1911 he went to hamburg to work with theodor kaes and became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric state hospital hamburg-friedrichsberg. following the death of kaes in 1913, jakob succeeded him as prosector. after serving in the german army in world war i, he returned to hamburg and climbed the academic ladder. he was habilitated in neurology in 1919 and in 1924 became professor of neurology. under jakob's guidance the department grew rapidly. he made notable contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology. jakob published five monographs and more than 75 papers. his neuropathological studies contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis and friedreich's ataxia. he first recognised and described alper's disease and creutzfeldt-jakob disease (the latter with hans gerhard creutzfeldt). he accumulated experience in neurosyphilis, having a 200-bedded ward devoted exclusively to that disorder. jakob made a lecture tour of the united states and south america where he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever. he suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last 7 years of his life. this eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation. ==associated eponym== * creutzfeldt-jakob disease: a very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disease. it is the most common form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions. ==bibliography== * die extrapyramidalen erkrankungen. in: monograph

Astatine

astatine is a radioactive chemical element with the chemical symbol at and atomic number 85. it occurs on earth only as the result of the radioactive decay of certain heavier elements. all of its isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.1 hours. accordingly, much less is known about astatine than most other elements. the observed properties are consistent with it behaving as a heavier analog of iodine; many other properties have been estimated based on this resemblance. elemental astatine has never been viewed, because a mass large enough to be seen (by the naked human eye) would be immediately vaporized by the heat generated by its own radioactivity. astatine may be dark, or it may have a metallic appearance and be a semiconductor, or it may even be a metal. it is likely to have a much higher melting point than iodine, on par with those of bismuth and polonium. chemically, astatine behaves more or less as a halogen (the group including chlorine and fluorine), and would be expected to form ionic astatides with alkali or alkaline earth metals; it is known to form covalent compounds with nonmetals, including other halogens. it does, however, also have a notable cationic chemistry that distinguishes it from the lighter halogens. the second longest-lived isotope of astatine, astatine-211, is the only one currently having any commercial application, being employed in medicine to diagnose and treat some diseases via its emission of alpha particles (helium-4 nuclei). only extremely small quantities are used, however, due to its intense radioactivity. the element was first produced by dale r. corson, kenneth ross mackenzie, and emilio segrè at the university of california, berkeley in 1940. they named the element "astatine", a name coming from the great instability of the synthesized matter (the source greek word αστατος (astatos) means "unstable"). three years later it was found in nature, although it is the least abundant element in the earth's crust among the non-transuranic elements, with a total existing amount of much less than one gram at any given time. six astatine isotopes, with mass numbers of 214 to 219, are present in nature as the products of various decay routes of heavier elements, but neither the most stable isotope of astatine (with mass number 210) nor astatine-211 (which is used in medicine) is produced naturally. ==characteristics== astatine is an extremely radioactive element; all its isotopes have half-lives

Anglican_Communion

the anglican communion is an international association of churches consisting of the church of england and of national and regional anglican churches in full communion with it. the status of full communion means, ideally, that there is mutual agreement on essential doctrines and that full participation in the sacramental life of each church is available to all communicant anglicans. the archbishop of canterbury, primate of all england, has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the anglican communion. he is recognized as primus inter pares, or first among equals. the archbishop does not exercise direct authority in the provinces outside england, but instead acts as a focus of unity. the anglican communion considers itself to be part of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church and to be both catholic and reformed. for some adherents it represents a non-papal catholicism, for others a form of protestantism though without a dominant guiding figure such as luther, knox, calvin, zwingli or wesley. for others, their self-identity represents some combination of the two. the communion encompasses a wide spectrum of belief and practice including evangelical, liberal, and catholic. with a membership currently estimated at around 80 million members worldwide, the anglican communion is the third largest christian communion in the world, after the roman catholic church and the eastern orthodox church. some of these churches are known as anglican, such as the anglican church of canada, due to their historical link to england (ecclesia anglicana means "english church"). some, for example the church of ireland, the scottish

Alvin_Toffler

alvin toffler (born october 4, 1928) is an american writer and futurist, known for his works discussing the digital revolution, communication revolution and technological singularity. toffler is a former associate editor of fortune magazine. in his early works he focused on technology and its impact through effects like information overload. he moved on to examining the reaction to changes in society. his later focus has been on the increasing power of 21st-century military hardware, the proliferation of new technologies, and capitalism. he founded toffler associates, a management consulting company, and was a visiting scholar at the russell sage foundation, visiting professor at cornell university, faculty member of the new school for social research, a white house correspondent, an editor of fortune magazine, and a business consultant.“alvin toffler speaker biography”—milken institute, 2003. toffler is married to heidi toffler, also a writer and futurist. they live in the bel air section of los angeles, california, just north of sunset boulevard. the couple’s only child, karen toffler, (1954–2000), died at the age of 46 after more than a decade suffering from guillain–barré syndrome.https://secure.flickr.com/photos/urbanphotos/2415309182/ ==early

Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis

acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (adem) is a rare autoimmune disease marked by widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. adem typically damages myelin, causing destruction of white matter. it is often triggered following a viral infection or vaccination. adem's symptoms are similar to multiple sclerosis (ms) and is considered part of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases. adem has several differentiating features from ms. unlike ms, adem occurs usually in children and is marked with rapid fever. adem consists of a single episode whereas ms is marked with several episodes over a long period of time. adem is also distinguished by a loss of consciousness. the incidence rate is about 8 per 1,000,000 people per year.{{cite journal |author=leake ja, albani s, kao as, et al. |title=acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in childhood: epidemiologic, clinical and laboratory features |journal=pediatr. infect. dis. j. |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=756–64 |date=august 2004 |pmid=15295226 |doi= 10.1097/01.inf.00001330

Agatha_Christie

dame agatha mary clarissa christie, dbe (née miller; 15 september 1890 â€“ 12 january 1976) was an english crime novelist, short story writer, and playwright. she also wrote six romances under the name mary westmacott, but she is best known for the 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections she wrote under her own name, most of which revolve around the investigations of such characters as hercule poirot, miss jane marple, mr satterthwaite, and tommy and tuppence. she also wrote the world's longest-running play, the mousetrap. born into a wealthy upper-middle-class family in torquay, devon, christie served in a hospital during the first world war, before marrying and starting a family in london. she was initially unsuccessful at getting her work published; but in 1920 the bodley head press published her novel the mysterious affair at styles, featuring the character of poirot. this launched her literary career. the guinness book of world records lists christie as the best-selling novelist of all time. her novels have sold roughly 2 billion copies, and her estate claims that her works come third in the rankings of the world's most-widely published books,{{cite news |url=http://www.variety.com/article/vr1117776459.html?categoryid=3&cs=1 |title=agatha christie gets a clue for filmmakers |last=flemming |first=michael |date=15 february 2000 |work=va

Miss_Marple

jane marple, usually referred to as miss marple, is a fictional character appearing in 12 of agatha christie's crime novels and in 20 short stories. miss marple is an elderly spinster who lives in the village of st. mary mead and acts as a consulting detective. alongside hercule poirot, she is one of the most loved and famous of christie's characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen. her first appearance was in a short story published in the sketch magazine in 1926, "the tuesday night club", which later became the first chapter of the thirteen problems (1932). her first appearance in a full-length novel was in the murder at the vicarage in 1930. ==origins== the character of miss marple is based on christie's step grandmother, or her aunt (margaret west), and her cronies.margaret west married agatha christie's great grandfather nathaniel frary miller in 1863 in westbourne, west sussex. he died in 1869 and she dedicated a stained glass window to his memory in st.john's church, main road, southbourne, west sussex. "agatha christie used her step grandmother as a model for miss marple, new tapes reveal", stephen adams, the daily telegraph, 16 september 2008. agatha christie attributed the inspiration for the character of miss marple to a number of sources, stating that miss marple was "the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmother's ealing cronies – old ladies whom i have met in so many villages where i have

April_30

==events== * 311 – the diocletianic persecution of christians in the roman empire ends. * 313 – battle of tzirallum: emperor licinius defeats maximinus ii and unifies the eastern roman empire. * 642 – chindasuinth is proclaimed king by the visigothic nobility and bishops. *1315 – enguerrand de marigny is hanged on the public gallows at montfaucon. *1492 – spain gives christopher columbus his commission of exploration. *1513 – edmund de la pole, yorkist pretender to the english throne, is executed on the orders of henry viii. *1557 – mapuche leader lautaro is killed by spanish forces at the battle of mataquito in chile. *1598 – juan de oñate makes a formal declaration of his conquest of new mexico. *1636 – eighty years' war: dutch republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from spain after a nine-month siege. *1671 – petar zrinski, the croatian ban from the zrinski family, is executed. *1789 – on the balcony of federal hall on wall street in new york city, george washington takes the oath of office to become the first elected president of the united states. *1803 – louisiana purchase: the united states purchases the louisiana territory from france for $15 million, more than doubling the size of the young nation. *1812 – the territory of orleans becomes the 18th u.s. state under the name louisiana. *1838 – nicaragua declares independence from the central american federation. *1863 – a 65-man french foreign legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2,000 mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in hacienda camarón, mexico. *1871 – the camp grant massacre takes place in arizona territory. *1885 – governor of new york david b. hill signs legislation creating the niagara reservation, new york's first state park, ensuring that niagara falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use. *1894 – coxey's army reaches washington, d.c. to protest the unemployment caused by the panic of 1893. *1900 – hawaii becomes a territory of the united states, with sanford b. dole as governor. * 1900 – casey jones dies in a train wreck in vaughan, mississippi, while trying to make up time on the cannonball express. *1904 – the [[louisiana purchase expo

Algebraically_closed_field

in abstract algebra, an algebraically closed field f contains a root for every non-constant polynomial in f[x], the ring of polynomials in the variable x with coefficients in f. ==examples== as an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x2 + 1 = 0  has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. the same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. also, no finite field f is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, …, an are the elements of f, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) Â·Â·Â· (x − a'n) + 1 has no zero in f. by contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers. ==equivalent properties== given a field f, the assertion "f is algebraically closed" is equivalent to other assertions: ===the only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one=== the field f is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring f[x] are those of degree one. the assertion "the polynomials of degree one are irreducible" is trivially true for any field. if f is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of f[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of x − a. since p(x) is irreducible, this means that p(x) = k(x − a), for some k âˆˆ f \ {0}. on the other hand, if f is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in f[x] without roots in f. let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). since p(x) has no roots in f, q(x) also has no roots in f. therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in f. ===every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials=== the field f is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n â‰¥ 1, with coefficients in f, splits into linear factors. in other words, there are elements k, x1, x2, â€¦, xn of the field f such

Aristophanes

aristophanes ( or ;jones, daniel; roach, peter, james hartman and jane setter, eds. cambridge english pronouncing dictionary. 17th edition. cambridge up, 2006. , ; c. 446 – c. 386 bc), son of philippus, of the deme cydathenaeum,alan sommerstein, aristophanes: lysistrata, the acharnians, the clouds, penguin books, 1973, page 9 was a comic playwright of ancient athens. eleven of his thirty plays survive virtually complete. these, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as old comedy, and they are used to define the genre.aristophanes: clouds k.j.dover (ed), oxford university press 1970, intro. page x. also known as the father of comedy'aristophanes in performance 421 bc-ad 2007:peace, birds and frogs edith hall and amanda wrigley, legenda (oxford) 2007, page 1 and the prince of ancient comedy,character sketches of romance, fiction and the drama, vol. 1 aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient athens more convincingly than any other author.barrett (2003) page 26 his powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; platothe apology translated by benjamin jowett, section 4apology, greek text, edited j. burnet, section 19c singled out aristophanes' play the clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of

Amateur

an amateur (french amateur "lover of", from old french and ultimately from latin amatorem nom. amator, "lover") is generally considered a person attached to a particular pursuit, study, or science in a non-professional or unpaid manner. amateurs often have little or no formal training in their pursuits, and many are autodidacts (self-taught). amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. since amateurs often do not have formal training, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. for example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball or football are regarded as having a lower level of ability than professional athletes. on the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner. an amateur who dabbles in a field out of casual interest rather than as a profession or serious interest, or who possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante. the lack of financial benefit can also be seen as a sign of commitment to an activity; and until the 1970s the olympic rules required that competitors be amateurs. receiving payment to participate in an event disqualified an athlete from that event, as in the case of jim thorpe. the only olympic events that still require participants to be amateurs are boxing and wrestling, but amateurism in these cases are defined in terms of fight rules rather than whether the athlete receives any money for his sport. many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional west end or broadway performances. astronomy, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the myriad fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. charles darwin and gregor mendel were amateur scientists who never held a position in their field of study. william shakespeare and leonardo da vinci were considered amateur artists and autodidacts in their fields of study. radio astronomy was founded by grote reber, an amateur radio operator; radio itself was greatly advanced if not founded by guglielmo marconi, a young italian gentleman who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. pierre de fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose

Politics_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda

the politics of antigua and barbuda takes place in a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, wherein the sovereign of antigua and barbuda is the head of state, appointing a governor-general to act as vice-regal representative in the nation. a prime minister is appointed by the governor-general as the head of government, and of a multi-party system; the prime minister advises the governor-general on the appointment of a council of ministers. executive power is exercised by the government. legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the parliament. the bicameral parliament consists of the senate (seventeen-member body appointed by the governor general) and the house of representatives (seventeen seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms). antigua and barbuda has a long history of free elections, three of which have resulted in peaceful changes of government. since the 1951 general election, the party system has been dominated by the antigua labour party (alp), for a long time was dominated by the bird family, particularly prime ministers vere and lester bird. the opposition claimed to be disadvantaged by the alp's longstanding monopoly on patronage and its control of the media, especially in the 1999 general election. the most recent elections to the house of representatives were held on 12 june 2014. the antigua labour party government was elected with fourteen seats. the united progressive party has three seats in the house of representatives. constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. antigua and barbuda is a member of the eastern caribbean court system. the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. jurisprudence is based on english common law. ==executive branch== as head of state, queen elizabeth ii is represented in antigua and barbuda by a governor general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. |monarch |queen elizabeth ii | |6 february 1952 |- |governor-general |rodney williams | |14 august 2014 |- |prime minister |gaston browne |[[antigua labour party|labour p

Geography_of_Azerbaijan

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 2em; width: 20em; font-size: 90%;" cellspacing="3" |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;" | geography of azerbaijan |- | colspan="2" style="padding: 1em 0; text-align: center;" | 250px|azerbaijan |- style="vertical-align: top;" |continent |style="padding-right: 1em;" |asia and europe |- style="vertical-align: top;" |region |style="padding-right: 1em;" | caucasus |- style="vertical-align: top;" |coordinates |style="padding-right: 1em;" | |- style="vertical-align: top;" |area |style="padding-right: 1em;" | ranked 119th86,600 km2 |- style="vertical-align: top;" |coastline |style="padding-right: 1em;" | 0 km (landlocked) |- style="vertical-align: top;" |borders |style="padding-right: 1em;" | 2,013 km (armenia 877 km georgia 322 km iran 611 km russia 284 km turkey 9 km) |- style="vertical-align: top;" |highest point |style="padding-right: 1em;" | bazarduzu dagi 4,485 m |- style="vertical-align: top;" |lowest point |style="padding-right: 1em;" | caspian sea -28 m |- style="vertical-align: top;" |longest river |style="padding-right: 1em;" | kura river 1,514 km |- style="vertical-align: top;" |largest lake |style="padding-right: 1em;" | mingäçevir reservoir 605 km2 |} azerbaijan is situated in the caucasus region of eurasia. three physical features dominate azerbaijan: the caspian sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the greater caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. about the size of portugal or the state of maine, azerbaijan has a total land area of approximately 86,600 square kilometers, less than 1% of the land area of the former soviet union. of the three transcaucasian states, azerbaijan has the greatest land area. special administrative subdivisions are the nakhchivan autonomous republic, which is separated from the rest of azerbaijan by a strip of armenian territory, and the nagorno-karabakh autonomous region, entirely within azerbaijan. (the status of nagorno-karabakh was under negotiation in 1994.) located in the region of the southern caucasus mountains, azerbaijan borders the caspian sea to the east, georgia and russia to the north, iran to the south, and arme

Politics_of_American_Samoa

politics of american samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. american samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the united states, administered by the office of insular affairs, u.s. department of the interior. its constitution was ratified 1966 and came into effect 1967. executive power is discharged by the governor and the lieutenant governor. legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. the party system is a based on the united states party system. the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. there is also the traditional village politics of the samoa islands, the "faamatai" and the "faasamoa", which continues in american samoa and in independent samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. the fa'asamoa is the language and customs, and the fa'amatai the protocols of the "fono" (council) and the chiefly system. the fa'amatai and the fono take place at all levels of the samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the region, to national matters. the "matai" (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the fono of the extended family and village(s) concerned. the matai and the fono (which is itself made of matai) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. the majority of lands in american samoa and independent samoa are communal. a matai can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both american samoa and independent samoa. ==government== the government of american samoa is defined under the constitution of american samoa. as an unincorporated territory, the ratification act of 1929 vested all civil, judicial, and military powers in the president, who in turn delegated authority to the secretary of the interior in . the secretary promulgated the constitution of american samoa which was approved by a constitutional convention of the people of american samoa and a majority of the voters of american samoa voting at the 1966 election, and came into effect in 1967. the governor of american samoa is the head of government and along with the lieutenant governor of american samoa is elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year

Amplitude_modulation

amplitude modulation (am) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. am works by varying the strength (amplitude) of the carrier in proportion to the waveform being sent. that waveform may, for instance, correspond to the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. this contrasts with frequency modulation, in which the frequency of the carrier signal is varied, and phase modulation, in which its phase is varied, by the modulating signal. am was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. it was developed during the first two decades of the 20th century beginning with reginald fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900. it remains in use today in many forms of communication; for example it is used in portable two way radios, vhf aircraft radio and in computer modems. "am" is often used to refer to mediumwave am radio broadcasting. ==forms of amplitude modulation== in electronics and telecommunications, modulation means varying some aspect of a higher frequency continuous wave carrier signal with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an audio signal which represents sound, or a video signal which represents images, so the carrier will "carry" the information. when it reaches its destination, the information signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation. in amplitude modulation, the amplitude or "strength" of the carrier oscillations is what is varied. for example, in am radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal (a sinusoidal carrier wave) has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission. the audio waveform modifies the amplitude of the carrier wave and determines the envelope of the waveform. in the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. standard am is thus sometimes called "double-sideband amplitude modulation" (dsb-am) to distinguish it from more sophisticated modulation methods also based on am. one disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques (not only standard am) is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal propor

August_2

==events== *338 bc – a macedonian army led by philip ii defeated the combined forces of athens and thebes in the battle of chaeronea, securing macedonian hegemony in greece and the aegean. *216 bc – second punic war: battle of cannae – the carthaginian army led by hannibal defeats a numerically superior roman army under command of consuls lucius aemilius paullus and gaius terentius varro. * 461 – majorian is arrested near tortona (northern italy) and deposed by the suebian general ricimer as puppet emperor. *1343 – olivier de clisson is found guilty of treason and beheaded at les halles in paris. as a result, his wife, jeanne de clisson, sold their holding, bought a fleet of ships, and took to the sea as a pirate to seek revenge against the french king and nobility. *1377 – russian troops are defeated in the battle on pyana river. *1610 – henry hudson sails into what is now known as hudson bay thinking he had made it through the northwest passage and reached the pacific ocean. *1776 – the signing of the united states declaration of independence took place. *1790 – the first united states census is conducted. *1798 – french revolutionary wars: the battle of the nile concludes in a british victory. *1830 – charles x of france abdicates the throne in favor of his grandson henri. *1869 – japan's samurai, farmer, artisan, merchant class system (shinōkōshō) is abolished as part of the meiji restoration reforms. (traditional japanese date: june 25, 1869). *1870 – tower subway, the world's first underground tube railway, opens in london, england, united kingdom. *1873 – the clay street hill railroad begins operating the first cable car in san francisco's famous cable car system. *1897 – anglo-afghan war: the siege of malakand ends when a relief column is able to reach the british garrison in the malakand states adjacent to india's north west frontier province. *1903 – fall of the ottoman empire: an unsuccessful uprising led by

Anaximander

anaximander (; anaximandros; c. 610 – c. 546 bc) was a pre-socratic greek philosopher who lived in miletus,"anaximander" in chambers's encyclopædia. london: george newnes, 1961, vol. 1, p. 403. a city of ionia (in modern-day turkey). he belonged to the milesian school and learned the teachings of his master thales. he succeeded thales and became the second master of that school where he counted anaximenes and arguably, pythagoras amongst his pupils. little of his life and work is known today. according to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies,themistius, oratio 36, §317 although only one fragment of his work remains. fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man. he was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long.park, david (2005) the grand contraption, princeton university press isbn 0-691-12133-8 like many thinkers of his time, anaximander's contributions to philosophy relate to many disciplines. in astronomy, he tried to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the earth. in physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things led greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. his knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the [[gnomon]

Antisymmetric_relation

in mathematics, a binary relation r on a set x is antisymmetric if there is no pair of distinct elements of x each of which is related by r to the other. more formally, r is antisymmetric precisely if for all a and b in x :if r(a,b) and r(b,a), then a = b, or, equivalently, :if r(a,b) with a â‰  b, then r(b,a) must not hold. as a simple example, the divisibility order on the natural numbers is an antisymmetric relation. and what antisymmetry means here is that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact, the same number; equivalently, if n and m are distinct and n is a factor of m, then m cannot be a factor of n. in mathematical notation, this is: :\forall a, b \in x,\ r(a,b) \and r(b,a) \; \rightarrow \; a = b or, equivalently, :\forall a, b \in x,\ r(a,b) \and a \ne b \rightarrow \lnot r(b,a) . the usual order relation ≤ on the real numbers is antisymmetric: if for two real numbers x and y both inequalities x â‰¤ y and y â‰¤ x hold then x and y must be equal. similarly, the subset order ⊆ on the subsets of any given set is antisymmetric: given two sets a and b, if every element in a also is in b and every element in b is also in a, then a and b must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal: :a \subseteq b \and b \subseteq a \rightarrow a = b partial and total orders are antisymmetric by definition. a relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric (e.g., the equality relation), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (e.g., the "preys on" relation on biological species). antisymmetry is different from asymmetry, which requires both antisymmetry and irreflexivity. ==examples== the relation "x is even, y is odd" between a pair (x, y) of integers is antisymmetric: ::even and odd antisymmetric relation every asymmetric relation is also an antisymmetric relation. ==see also== * symmetry in mathematics ==references== * *

Alloy

an alloy is a material composed of two or more metals or a metal and a nonmetal.metals and alloys. bbc an alloy may be a solid solution of the elements (a single phase), a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions) or an intermetallic compound with no distinct boundary between the phases. solid solution alloys give a single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions exhibit two or more phases that may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on the thermal (heat treatment) history of the material. an inter-metallic compound has one other alloy or pure metal embedded within another pure metal. alloys are used in some applications, where their properties are superior to those of the pure component elements for a given application. examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, phosphor bronze and an amalgam. the alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. they can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic (where there is no distinct boundary between phases). ==introduction== thumb|liquid bronze, being poured into molds during casting. thumb|a brass lamp. an alloy is a mixture of either pure or fairly pure chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. an alloy is distinct from an impure metal, such as wrought iron, in that, with an alloy, the added impurities are usually desirable and will typically have some useful benefit. alloys are made by mixing two or more elements; at least one of which being a metal. this is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. the other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture. when the alloy cools and solidifies (crystallizes), its mechanical properties will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. a metal that is normally very soft and malleable, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, like copper. although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resul

Alan_Turing

alan mathison turing, obe, frs ( ; 23 june 1912 â€“ 7 june 1954) was a british mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, pioneering computer scientist, mathematical biologist, and marathon and ultra distance runner. he was highly influential in the development of computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of "algorithm" and "computation" with the turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general purpose computer. turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. during world war ii, turing worked for the government code and cypher school (gc&cs) at bletchley park, britain's codebreaking centre. for a time he led hut 8, the section responsible for german naval cryptanalysis. he devised a number of techniques for breaking german ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war polish bombe method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the enigma machine. winston churchill said that turing made the single biggest contribution to allied victory in the war against nazi germa

Alfonso_Cuarón

alfonso cuarón orozco (; born november 28, 1961) is a mexican film director, screenwriter, producer and editor best known for his films a little princess (1995), y tu mamá también (2001), harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban (2004), children of men (2006), and gravity (2013). most of his work has been praised by both audience and critics, mostly by his famous and groundbreaking continuous uninterrupted shots technique; he also has been nominated for six academy awards including best original screenplay for y tu mamá también, best adapted screenplay and best film editing for children of men, and best picture for gravity, which also earned him the best director and best film editing awards alongside with the golden globe award for best director and the bafta awards for best british film and best direction. he also won a bafta award for best film not in the english language as one of the producers of guillermo del toro's pan's labyrinth. cuarón's brother carlos, as well as his son jonás, are writers and directors as well and both acted as co-writers in some of his works. he is also friends with fellow mexican directors guillermo del toro and alejandro gonzález iñárritu, collectively known as "the three amigos of cinema." ==early life== alfonso cuarón was born in mexico city, and is the son of alfredo cuarón, a nuclear physicist who worked for the united nations' international atomic energy agency for many years. he has two brothers, carlos, also a filmmaker, and alfredo,

Alpha_decay

thumb|240px|right|visual representation of alpha decay alpha decay, or α-decay, is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle and thereby transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less. for example, uranium-238 decaying through α-particle emission to form thorium-234 can be expressed as:suchocki, john. conceptual chemistry, 2007. page 119. :\mathrm{~^{238}_{92}u}\rightarrow\mathrm{~^{234}_{90}th} + {\alpha } because an alpha particle is the same as the nucleus of a helium-4 atom - consisting of two protons and two neutrons and thus having mass number 4 and atomic number 2 - this can also be written as: :\mathrm{~^{238}_{92}u}\rightarrow\mathrm{~^{234}_{90}th} + \mathrm{~^{4}_{2}he} notice how, on either side of the nuclear equation, both the mass number and the atomic number are conserved: the mass number is 238 on the left side and (234 + 4) on the right side, and the atomic number is 92 on the left side and (90 + 2) on the right side. the alpha particle also has a charge +2, but the charge is usually not written in nuclear equations, which describe nuclear reactions without considering the electrons. this convention is not meant to imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms. alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. in theory it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a minimum, and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. in practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitter being the lightest isotopes (mass numbers 106–110) of tellurium (element 52). alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind (in nuclear fission, a number of different pairs of daughters of approximately equal size are formed). alpha decay is the most likely cluster decay because of the combined extremely high binding energy and relatively small mass of the helium-4 product nucleus (the alpha particle). alpha decay, like other cluster decays, is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. unlike beta decay, alpha decay is governed by the interplay between the nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 mev (that is, ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 tj/kg) and a speed of 15,000 km/s. this corresponds to a speed of around 0.05 c. there is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the heavy dependence of the half-life o

List_of_Governors_of_Alabama

the governor of alabama is the chief executive of the u.s. state of alabama. the governor is the head of the executive branch of alabama's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. the governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the alabama legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment.al const., art. v. the governor is also the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. there have officially been 53 governors of the state of alabama; this official numbering skips acting and military governors. the first governor, william wyatt bibb, served as the only governor of the alabama territory. five people have served as acting governor, bringing the total number of people serving as governor to 58, spread over 63 distinct terms. four governors have served multiple non-consecutive terms: bibb graves, jim folsom, and fob james each served two, and george wallace served three non-consecutive periods. officially, these non-consecutive terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. william d. jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity. the longest-serving governor was george wallace, who served sixteen years over four terms. the shortest term for a non-acting governor was that of hugh mcvay, who served four and a half months after replacing the resigning clement comer clay. lurleen wallace, wife of george wallace, was the first and so far only woman to serve as governor of alabama, and the third woman to serve as governor of any state. the current governor is republican robert j. bentley, who took office on january 17, 2011. ==governors== ===governor of the territory of alabama=== :for the period before alabama territory was formed,

Abalone

abalone ( or ; via spanish , from the (rumsen language) aulón) is a common name for any of a group of small to very large edible sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family haliotidae.bouchet, p.; gofas, s. (2014). haliotis linnaeus, 1758. accessed through: world register of marine species at

Annales_School

the annales school () is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by french historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history. it is named after its scholarly journal annales d'histoire économique et sociale, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and monographs.see for recent issues the school has been highly influential in setting the agenda for historiography in france and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social rather than political or diplomatic themes, and for being generally hostile to the class analysis of marxist historiography. the school deals primarily with late medieval and early modern europe (before the french revolution), with little interest in later topics. it has dominated french social history and influenced historiography in europe and latin america. prominent leaders include co-founders lucien febvre (1878–1956) and marc bloch (1886–1944). the second generation was led by fernand braudel (1902–1985) and included georges duby (1919–1996), pierre goubert (1915–2012), robert mandrou (1921–1984), pierre chaunu (1923–2009), jacques le goff (1924–2014), and ernest labrousse (1895–1988). institutionally it is based on the annales journal, the sevpen publishing house, the (fmsh), and especially the 6th section of the École pratique des hautes études, all based in paris. a third generation was led by emmanuel le roy ladurie (1929– ) and includes jacques revel,since 1978, revel has taught at the ecole des hautes etudes en sciences sociales (paris), where he is directeur d'études (full professor); he served as president of the ecole from 1995 to 2004. and philippe ariès (1914–1984), who joined the group in 1978. the third generation stressed history from the point of view of mentalities, or mentalités. the fourth generation of annales historians, led by roger chartier (1945– ), clearly distanced itself from the mentalities approach, replaced by the cultural and linguistic turn, which emphasize analysis of the social history of cultural practices. the main scholarly outlet has been the journal annales d'histoire economique et sociale ("annals of economic and social history"), founded in 1929 by lucien febvre and marc bloch, which broke radically with traditional historiography by insisting on the importance of taking all levels of society into consideration and emphasized the collective nature of mentalities. its contributors viewed events as less fundamental than the mental framewor

Antiparticle

corresponding to most kinds of particles, there is an associated antiparticle with the same mass and opposite charge (including electric charge). for example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positively charged electron, or positron, which is produced naturally in certain types of radioactive decay. the laws of nature are very nearly symmetrical with respect to particles and antiparticles. for example, an antiproton and a positron can form an antihydrogen atom, which is believed to have the same properties as a hydrogen atom. this leads to the question of why the formation of matter after the big bang resulted in a universe consisting almost entirely of matter, rather than being a half-and-half mixture of matter and antimatter. the discovery of charge parity violation helped to shed light on this problem by showing that this symmetry, originally thought to be perfect, was only approximate. particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, total charge is conserved. for example, the positrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly annihilate themselves with electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays, a process exploited in positron emission tomography. antiparticles are produced naturally in beta decay, and in the interaction of cosmic rays in the earth's atmosphere. because charge is conserved, it is not possible to create an antiparticle without either destroying a particle of the same charge (as in beta decay) or creating a particle of the opposite charge. the latter is seen in many processes in which both a particle and its antiparticle are created simultaneously, as in particle accelerators. this is the inverse of the particle-antiparticle annihilation process. although particles and their antiparticles have opposite charges, electrically neutral particles need not be identical to their antiparticles. the neutron, for e

Associative_property

in mathematics, the associative property is a property of some binary operations. in propositional logic, associativity is a valid rule of replacement for expressions in logical proofs. within an expression containing two or more occurrences in a row of the same associative operator, the order in which the operations are performed does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed. that is, rearranging the parentheses in such an expression will not change its value. consider the following equations: :(2+3)+4=2+(3+4)=9 \, :2\times(3\times4)=(2\times3)\times4=24 \, even though the parentheses were rearranged, the values of the expressions were not altered. since this holds true when performing addition and multiplication on any real numbers, it can be said that "addition and multiplication of real numbers are associative operations." associativity is not to be confused with commutativity, which addresses whether a × b = b × a. associative operations are abundant in mathematics; in fact, many algebraic structures (such as semigroups and categories) explicitly require their binary operations to be associative. however, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; some examples include subtraction, exponentiation and the vector cross product. in contrast to the theoretical counterpart, the addition of floating point numbers in computer science is not associative, and is an important source of rounding error. == definition == thumbnail|associative binary operation * on the set s. formally, a binary operation * on a set s is called associative if it satisfies the associative law: (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for any x, y, z in s. here, * is used to replace the symbol of the operation, which may be any symbol, and even the absence of symbol like for the multiplication. (xy)z=x(yz) = xyz for any x, y, z in s. the associative law can also be expressed in functional notation thus: f(f(x, y), z) = f(x, f(y, z)). ==generalized associative law== if a binary operation is associative, repeated application of the operation produces the same result

Atanasoff–Berry_computer

thumb|250px|atanasoff–berry computer replica at first floor of durham center, iowa state university the atanasoff–berry computer (abc) was the first automatic electronic digital computer, an early electronic digital computing device that has remained somewhat obscure. to say that it was the first is a debate among historians of computer technology as it was not programmable. many credit john mauchly and j. presper eckert, creators of the eniac,john presper eckert jr. and john w. mauchly, electronic numerical integrator and computer, united states patent office, us patent 3,120,606, filed 26 june 1947, issued 4 february 1964, and invalidated 19 october 1973 after court ruling on honeywell v. sperry rand. which came into use in july 1946, with the title. others cite the british contender colossus, a development team headed by tommy flowers demonstrated colossus to be working on december 8, 1943. the world's first electronic digital computer that was programmable, it ran at a remarkable (for the time) 5.8 mhz. designed and used exclusively for code breaking during world war ii, after the war alternative uses were considered, but they remained in use for their original purpose until the late 1950s. some historians argue that the credit undisputedly belongs to iowa state mathematics and physics professor john vincent atanasoff for his work with the 'abc,' with the help of graduate student clifford berry. conceived in 1937, the machine was not programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear equations. it was successfully tested in 1942. however, its intermediate result storage mechanism, a paper card writer/reader, was unreliable, and when john vincent atanasoff left iowa state college for world war ii assignments, work on the machine was discontinued. the abc pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, but its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. the computer was designated an ieee milestone in 1990.{{cite web |url=http://www

Ammonia

{{chembox | watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 464364488 | imagefile1 = ammonia-dimensions-from-greenwood&earnshaw-2d.png | imagename1 = stereo structural formula of the ammonia molecule | imagefilel1 = ammonia-3d-balls-a.png | imagenamel1 = ball-and-stick model of the ammonia molecule | imagefiler1 = ammonia-3d-vdw.png | imagenamer1 = space-filling model of the ammonia molecule | iupacname = azane | othernames = hydrogen nitride trihydrogen nitride nitro-sil | section1 = | section2 = {{chembox properties | formula = nh3 | molarmass = 17.031 g/mol | appearance = colourless gas | odor = strong pungent odor | density = 0.86 kg/m3 (1.013 bar at boiling point) 0.769  kg/m3 (stp)http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gas-density-d_158.html 0.73 kg/m3 (1.013 bar at 15 Â°c) 681.9 kg/m3 at −33.3 Â°c (liquid) 817 kg/m3 at −80 Â°c (transparent solid) | meltingptc = −77.73 | boilingptc = −33.34 | solubility = 47% w/w (0 Â°c)31% w/w (25 Â°c)18% w/w (50 Â°c) | solubleother = soluble in chloroform, ether, ethanol, methanol | solvent = | pka = 32.5 (−33 Â°c),perrin, d. d., ionisation constants of inorganic acids and bases in aqueous solution; 2nd ed., pergamon press: oxford, 1982. 10.5 (dmso) | pkb = 4.75 | refractindex = 1.3327 | coviscosity = 0.276 cp (−40 °c) |

Alligatoridae

the alligatoridae family of crocodylians includes alligators and caimans. == true alligators == the lineage including alligators proper (alligatorinae) occurs in the fluvial deposits of the age of the upper chalk in europe, where they did not die out until the pliocene age. the true alligators are today represented by two species, a. mississippiensis in the southeastern united states, which can grow to 14 ft (4.24 m) and weigh 1000 lbs (455 kg)http://www.eparks.org/marine_and_coastal/marine_wildlife/alligator.asp and the small a. sinensis in the yangtze river, china, which grows to an average of 5 ft (1.5 m). their name derives from the spanish el lagarto, which means "the lizard". == caimans == in central and south america, the alligator family is represented by five species of the genus caiman, which differs from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. some authorities further divide this genus into three, splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus paleosuchus and the black caiman into melanosuchus. caimans tend to be more agile and crocodile-like in their movements, and have longer, sharper teeth than alligators. c. crocodilus, the spectacled caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern mexico to the northern half of argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 2.2 m (7 ft). the largest is the near-threatened melanosuchus niger, the jacare-assu or large or black caiman of the amazon river basin. black caimans grow to 16.5 ft (5 m), with the largest recorded size 5.79 m (19 ft). the black caiman and american alligator are the only members of the alligator family that pose the same danger to humans as the larger species of the crocodile family. although caiman have not been studied in-depth, scientists have learned their mating cycles (previously thought to be

Amazing_Grace

"amazing grace" is a christian hymn with words written by the english poet and clergyman john newton (1725–1807), published in 1779. with the message that forgiveness and redemption are possible regardless of sins committed and that the soul can be delivered from despair through the mercy of god, "amazing grace" is one of the most recognizable songs in the english-speaking world. newton wrote the words from personal experience. he grew up without any particular religious conviction, but his life's path was formed by a variety of twists and coincidences that were often put into motion by his recalcitrant insubordination. he was pressed (forced into service involuntarily) into the royal navy, and after leaving the service, he became involved in the atlantic slave trade. in 1748, a violent storm battered his vessel so severely that he called out to god for mercy, a moment that marked his spiritual conversion. however, he continued his slave trading career until 1754 or 1755, when he ended his seafaring altogether and began studying christian theology. ordained in the church of england in 1764, newton became curate of olney, buckinghamshire, where he began to write hymns with poet william cowper. "amazing grace" was written to illustrate a sermon on new year's day of 1773. it is unknown if there was any music accompanying the verses; it may have simply been chanted by the congregation. it debuted in print in 1779 in newton and cowper's olney hymns but settled into relative obscurity in england. in the united states however, "amazing grace" was used extensively during the second great awakening in the early 19th century. it has been associated with more than 20 melodies, but in 1835 it was joined to a tune named "new britain" to which it is most frequently sung today. author gilbert chase writes that "amazing grace" is "without a doubt the most famous of all the folk hymns,"chase, p. 181. and jonathan aitken, a newton biographer, estimates that it is performed about 10 million times annually. it has had particular influence in folk music, and has become an emblematic african american spiritual. its universal message has been a significant factor in its crossover into secular music. "amazing grace" saw a resurgence in popularity in the u.s. during the 1960s and has been recorded thousands of times during and since the 20th century, occasionally appearing on popular music charts. == john newton's conversion == {{quote box | width = 22em | quote = how industrious is satan served. i was formerly one of his active undertemptors and had my

April_29

==events== * 711 – islamic conquest of hispania: moorish troops led by tariq ibn-ziyad land at gibraltar to begin their invasion of the iberian peninsula (al-andalus). *1091 – battle of levounion: the pechenegs are defeated by byzantine emperor alexius i. *1386 – battle of the vikhra river: the principality of smolensk is defeated by the grand duchy of lithuania and becomes its vassal. *1429 – joan of arc arrives to relieve the siege of orleans. *1483 – gran canaria, the main island of the canary islands is conquered by the kingdom of castile. *1521 – swedish war of liberation: swedish troops under gustav vasa defeat a danish force under didrik slagheck in the battle of västerÃ¥s and soon capture the city of västerÃ¥s. the danish-held castle, however, does not surrender to the swedes until 31 january the following year, after a nine-month siege. *1770 – james cook arrives at and names botany bay, australia. *1781 – american revolutionary war: british and french ships clash in the battle of fort royal off the coast of martinique. *1832 – Évariste galois is released from prison. *1861 – american civil war: maryland's house of delegates votes not to secede from the union. *1862 – american civil war: new orleans, louisiana falls to union forces under admiral david farragut. *1864 – theta xi fraternity is founded at rensselaer polytechnic institute, the only fraternity to be founded during the american civil war. *1882 – the "elektromote" – forerunner of the trolleybus – is tested by ernst werner von siemens in berlin. *1903 – a 30 million cubic-metre landslide kills 70 in frank, north-west territories, canada. *1910 – the parliament of the united kingdom passes the people's budget, the first budget in british history with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the british public. *1916 – world war i: the british 6th indian division surrenders to ottoman forces at the siege of kut in one of the largest surrenders of british forces up to that point. * 1916 – easter rising: martial law in ireland is lifted and the rebellion is officially over with the surrender of irish nationalists to [[united kingdom of great

Aare

the aare () or aar is a tributary of the high rhine and the longest river that both rises and ends entirely within switzerland. its total length from its source to its junction with the rhine comprises about 295 km (183 miles), during which distance it descends , draining an area of , almost entirely within switzerland, and accounting for close to half the area of the country, including all of central switzerland. there are more than 40 hydroelectric plants along the course of the aare river. the river's name dates to at least the la tène period, and it is attested as nantaror "aare valley" in the berne zinc tablet which dates back to roman gaul. the name was latinized as arula/arola/araris ==course== thumb|inside the aare gorge the aare rises in the great aargletschers (aare glaciers) of the bernese alps, in the canton of bern and west of the grimsel pass. the unteraargletscher (lower aare-glacier) is the main source of the water, for the source lake grimsel, along with the finsteraargletscher, oberaargletscher (upper aare-glacier), and lauteraargletscher. it runs east to the grimsel hospice, below the finsteraarhorn, and then northwest through the haslital, forming on the way the magnificent handegg waterfall, , past guttannen. between innertkirchen and meiringen, the river carves through a limestone ridge in the aare gorge or aareschlucht. it is here that the aare proves itself to be more than just a river, as it attracts thousands of tourists annually to the causeways through the gorge. a little past meiringen, near brienz, the river expands into lake brienz. near the west end of the lake it r

Abydos_(Hellespont)

abydos () or abydus, an ancient city of troad (troas), in asia minor, situated at nara burnu or nagara point on the best harbor on the asiatic shore of the hellespont. across abydos lies sestus on the european side, marking one of the narrowest points of the dardanelles, slightly more than a nautical mile broad (the narrowest point is at Çanakkale). the strategic site has been a prohibited zone in the 20th century. hero and leander's story took place near abydos. abydos was first mentioned in the catalogue of trojan allies.iliad ii.836 it probably was a thracian town, as strabo has it, but was afterwards colonized by milesians, with the consent of gyges, king of lydia, around 700 bc. it was occupied by the persians in 514 bc, and darius burnt it in 512 bc. here xerxes built two pontoon bridges later known as xerxes' pontoon bridges and crossed the strait in 480 bc when he invaded greece.herodotus. histories, 7.34. abydos is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against philip v of macedon in 200 bc.polybius. the histories, 16.29-34 it is famous in myth as the home of leander. in literature, it is memorable from byron having adopted its name in the bride of abydos. it minted coins from the early 5th century bc to the mid-3rd century ad. the town remained until late byzantine times an important toll and customs station of the hellespont, its importance thereafter being transferred to the dardanelles, after the building of the "old castles" by sultan mehmet ii (c. 1456). == bishopric == the bishopric of abydus in the roman province of hellespontus appears in all the notitiae episcopatuum from the mid-7th century until the time of andronicus iii (1341), first as a suffragan of cyzicus and t

APL_(programming_language)

thumb|promotional material for apl from 1976 apl (named after the book a programming language) is a programming language developed in the 1960s by kenneth e. iverson. it was an important influence on the development of spreadsheets, functional programming, and computer math packages. it has also inspired several other programming languages. it is still used today for certain applic

Ask_and_Embla

in norse mythology, ask and embla (from old norse askr ok embla)—male and female respectively—were the first two humans, created by the gods. the pair are attested in both the poetic edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the prose edda, written in the 13th century by snorri sturluson. in both sources, three gods, one of whom is odin, find ask and embla and bestow upon them various corporeal and spiritual gifts. a number of theories have been proposed to explain the two figures, and there are occasional references to them in popular culture. ==etymology== thumb|upright|a depiction of ask and embla (1919) by robert engels. old norse askr literally means "ash tree" but the etymology of embla is uncertain, and two possibilities of the meaning of embla are generally proposed. the first meaning, "elm tree", is problematic, and is reached by deriving *elm-la from *almilōn and subsequently to almr ("elm").simek (2007:74). the second suggestion is "vine", which is reached through *ambilō, which may be related to the greek term ámpelos, itself meaning "vine, liana".simek (2007:74). the latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories. according to benjamin thorpe "grimm says the word embla, emla, signifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, aml, ambl, assiduous labour; the same relation as meshia and meshiane, the ancient persian names of the first man and woman, who were also formed from trees."thorpe (1907:337). ==attestations== in stanza 17 of the poetic edda poem völuspá, the völva reciting the poem states that hœnir, lóðurr and odin once found ask and embla on land. the völva says that the two were capable of very little, lacking in ørlög and says that they were given three gifts by the three gods: {| | :old norse: :Ǫnd þau né átto, óð þau né hǫfðo, :lá né læti né lito góða. :Ǫnd gaf Óðinn, óð gaf hœnir, :lá gaf lóðurr ok lito góða.dronke (1997:11). | :benjamin thorpe translation: :spirit they possessed not, sense they had not, :blood nor motive powers, nor goodly colour. :spirit gave odin, sense gave hœnir, :blood gave lodur, and goodly colour.thorpe (1866:5). | :henry adams bellows translation: :soul they had not, sense they had not, :heat nor motion, nor goodly hue; :soul gave othin, sense gave hönir, :heat gave lothur

August_17

==events== * 309/310 – pope eusebius is banished by the emperor maxentius to sicily, where he dies, perhaps from a hunger strike. * 986 – byzantine–bulgarian wars: battle of the gates of trajan – the bulgarians under the comitopuli samuel and aron defeat the byzantine forces at the gates of trajan, with byzantine emperor basil ii barely escaping. *1186 – georgenberg pact: duke ottokar iv of styria and duke leopold v of austria sign a heritage agreement in which ottokar gives his duchy to leopold and to his son frederick under the stipulation that austria and styria would henceforth remain undivided. *1386 – karl topia, the ruler of princedom of albania forges an alliance with the republic of venice, committing to participate in all wars of the republic and receiving coastal protection against the ottomans in return. *1424 – hundred years' war: battle of verneuil – an english force under john, duke of bedford defeats a larger french army under the duke of alençon, john stewart, and earl archibald of douglas. *1498 – cesare borgia, son of pope alexander vi, becomes the first person in history to resign the cardinalate. on the same day, the french king louis xii names him duke of valentinois. *1549 – battle of sampford courtenay – the prayer book rebellion is quashed in england. *1560 – the roman catholic church is overthrown and protestantism is established as the national religion in scotland. *1585 – eighty years' war: siege of antwerp – antwerp is captured by spanish forces under alexander farnese, duke of parma, who orders protestants to leave the city and as a result over half of the 100,000 inhabitants flee to the northern provinces. * 1585 – a first group of colonists sent by sir walter ralegh under the charge of ralph lane lands in the new world to create roanoke colony on roanoke island, off the coast of present-day north carolina. *1597 – islands voyage: robert devereux, 2nd earl of essex, and sir walter raleigh set sail on an expedition to the [[azores

Albert_Alcibiades,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Kulmbach

albert alcibiades () (28 march 1522 – 8 january 1557) was a margrave of brandenburg-kulmbach, also known as brandenburg-bayreuth. because of his bellicose nature albert received the cognomen alcibiades after his death; during his lifetime albert was known as bellator (the warlike). he was a member of the franconian branch of the house of hohenzollern. ==biography== albert was born at ansbach and, having lost his father casimir in 1527, he came under the guardianship of his uncle george, margrave of brandenburg-ansbach, a strong adherent of protestantism. in 1541, he received bayreuth as his share of the family lands, but, as the chief town of his principality was kulmbach, he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of brandenburg-kulmbach. his restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted emperor charles v in his war with france in 1543. the peace of crépy in september 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a considerable reputation, and when charles was preparing to attack the schmalkaldic league, he took pains to win albert's assistance. sharing in the attack on the electorate of saxony, albert was taken prisoner at rochlitz in march 1547 by elector john frederick of saxony, but was released as a result of the emperor's victory at the battle of mühlberg in the succeeding april. he then followed the fortunes of his friend elector maurice of saxony, deserted charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with king henry ii of france. he took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the peace of passau was signed in august 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in franconia, which led to the second margrave war. having extort

Aspirin

aspi

Ainu_people

the ainu or the aynu (ainu アィヌ aynu; japanese: ainu; russian: ajny), and in historical japanese texts ezo/emishi/ebisu () or aino () are an indigenous people of japan (hokkaido, and formerly northeastern honshu) and russia (sakhalin and the kuril islands). historically, they spoke ainu and related varieties, though today very few can do so. most of those who identify themselves as ainu still live in this same region, though the exact number of living ainu is unknown. this is due to confusion over mixed heritages and to ethnic issues in japan resulting in those with ainu backgrounds hiding their identities. intermarriage with japanese has blurred the concept of a pure ainu ethnic group. official estimates of the population are of around 25,000, while the unofficial number is upward of 200,000 people.poisson, b. 2002, the ainu of japan,

Amaranth

amaranthus, collectively known as amaranth, is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants. some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, cereals, and ornamental plants. most of the species from amaranthus are summer annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweed.bensch et al. (2003). interference of redroot pigweed (amaranthus retroflexus), palmer amaranth (a. palmeri), and common waterhemp (a. rudis) in soybean. weed science 51: 37-43. catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn. approximately 60 species are recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to green or gold. members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus celosia. "amaranth" derives from greek liddell & scott, a greek-english lexicon, s.v. ἀμάραντος (amarantos), "unfading," with the greek word for "flower," ἄνθος (anthos), factoring into the word's development as "amaranth." the more accurate "amarant" is an archaic variant. == taxonomy == amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. although the family (amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included. this complicates taxonomy and amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a

Antonio_Agliardi

thumb|antonio agliardi. antonio agliardi (4 september 1832 – 19 march 1915) was an italian roman catholic cardinal, archbishop, and papal diplomat. he was born at cologno al serio, in what is now the province of bergamo. he studied theology and canon law, and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the pope to canada as a bishop's chaplain. on his return he was appointed secretary to the congregation of the propaganda. in 1884, he was created by pope leo xiii archbishop of caesarea in partibus and sent to india as an apostolic delegate to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. in 1887 he again visited india, to carry out the terms of the concordat arranged with portugal. the same year he was appointed secretary of the congregation super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis. in 1889 he became papal apostolic nuncio to bavaria at munich and in 1892 at vienna. allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes that divided hungary in 1895, he was made the subject of formal complaint by the hungarian government and in 1896 was recalled. in the consistory of 1896 he was elevated to cardinal-priest of santi nereo e achilleo. in 1899 he was made cardinal bishop of albano. in 1903, he was named vice-chancellor of the catholic church, and became the chancellor of the apostolic chancery in the secretariat of state in 1908. he died in rome and was buried in bergamo. ==notes== ==references== *catholic-hierarchy.org *

Ahmad_Shah_Durrani

ahmad shāh durrānÄ« (c. 1722 â€“ 16 october 1772) (pashto/), also known as ahmad khān abdālÄ« (pashto/persian: احمد خان ابدالي), was the founder of the durrani empire and is regarded as the founder of the modern state of afghanistan. he began his career by enlisting as a young soldier in the military of the afsharid kingdom and quickly rose to become a commander of the abdali regiment, a cavalry of four thousand abdali pashtun soldiers. after the death of nader shah afshar in 1747, ahmad shah durrani was chosen as king of afghanistan. rallying his afghan tribes and allies, he pushed east towards the mughal and the maratha

Ajax_(mythology)

:"aias" redirects here. for other uses of this name, see aias (disambiguation) and ajax (disambiguation). ajax or aias ( or ; ) was a mythological greek hero, the son of king telamon and periboea, and the half-brother of teucer."salamis the island" salamis the island -- salamina municipality - greek island he plays an important role in homer's iliad and in the epic cycle, a series of epic poems about the trojan war. to distinguish him from ajax, son of oileus (ajax the lesser), he is called "telamonian ajax," "greater ajax," or "ajax the great". in etruscan mythology, he is known as aivas tlamunus. ==family== ajax is the son of telamon, who was the son of aeacus and grandson of zeus, and his first wife periboea. he is the cousin of achilles, and is the elder half-brother of teucer. many illustrious athenians, including cimon, miltiades, alcibiades and the historian thucydides, traced their descent from ajax. the italian scholar maggiani recently showed that on an etruscan tomb dedicated to racvi satlnei in bologna (5th century bc) there is a writing that says: "aivastelmunsl = family of ajax télamon". ==description== in homer's iliad he is described as of great stature, colossal frame and strongest of all the achaeans. known as the "bulwark of the achaeans",homer, iliad 6.5. he was trained by the centaur chiron (who had trained ajax' father telamon and achilles' father peleus and would later die of an accidental wound inflicted by heracles, whom he was at the time training), at the same time as achilles. he was described as vicious, fearless, strong and powerful but also with a very high level of combat intelligence. ajax commands his army wielding a huge shield made of seven cow-hides with a layer of bronze. most notably, ajax is not wounded in any of the battles described in the iliad, and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive substantial assistance from any of the gods who take part in the battles, although, in book 13, poseidon strikes ajax with his staff, renewing his strength. ===trojan war=== in the iliad, ajax is notable for his abundant strength and courage, seen particularly in two fights with hector. in book 7, ajax is chosen by lot to meet hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole da

Alcmene

in greek mythology, alcmene or alcmena () was the wife of amphitryon and mother, by zeus, of heracles. she was also the mother by amphitryon of iphicles and laonome. ==background== according to the bibliotheca, alcmene was born to electryon, the son of perseus and andromeda, and king of tiryns and mycenae or medea in argolis.pausanias, description of greece 2.25.9 her mother was anaxo, daughter of alcaeus and astydamia.apollodorus, library 2.4.5 other accounts say her mother was lysidice, the daughter of pelops and hippodameia,plutarch, lives theseus 7.1 or eurydice the daughter of pelops.diodorus siculus, library of history 4.9. according to pausanias, the poet asius made alcmene the daughter of amphiaraus and eriphyle.pausanias, description of greece 5.17.8. hesiod describes alcmene as the tallest, most beautiful woman with wisdom surpassed by no person born of mortal parents. it is said that her face and dark eyes were as charming as aphrodite's, and that she honoured her husband like no woman before her.hesiod, shield of heracles 1ff. ==exile to thebes== according to the bibliotheca, alcmene went with amphitryon to thebes, where he was purified by creon for accidentally killing electryon. alcmene refused to marry amphitryon until he had avenged the death of her brothers.apollodorus, library 2.4.6 during amphitryon's expedition against the taphians and teleboans,apollodorus, library 2.4.7 zeus visited alcmene disguised as amphitryon. extending one night into three, zeus slept with alcmene, his great-granddaughter, thereby conceiving heracles, while recounting amphitryon's victories a

Alexander_I_of_Scotland

alexander i (c. 1078 – 23 april 1124), (medieval gaelic: alaxandair mac maíl coluim; modern gaelic: alasdair mac mhaol chaluim) and nicknamed "the fierce",this nickname however is not attested for another three centuries, in the work of andrew of wyntoun. was king of the scots from 1107 to his death. ==life== alexander was the fifth son of malcolm iii by his wife margaret of wessex, grandniece of edward the confessor. alexander was named after pope alexander ii. he was the younger brother of king edgar, who was unmarried, and his brother's heir presumptive by 1104 (and perhaps earlier). in that year he was the senior layman present at the examination of the remains of saint cuthbert at durham prior to their re-interment. he held lands in scotland north of the forth and in lothian.barrow, p. 154. on the death of edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the scottish crown; but, in accordance with edgar's instructions, their brother david was granted an appanage in southern scotland. edgar's will granted david the lands of the former kingdom of strathclyde or cumbria, and this was apparently agreed in advance by edgar, alexander, david and their brother-in-law henry i of england. in 1113, perhaps at henry's instigation, and with the support of his anglo-norman allies, david demanded, and received, additional lands in lothian along the upper tweed and teviot. david did not receive the title of king, but of "prince of the cumbrians", and his lands remained under alexander's final authority.oram, pp. 60–63. the dispute over tweeddale and teviotdale does not appear to have damaged relations between alexander and david, although it was unpopular in some quarters. a gaelic poem laments:it's bad what malcolm's son has done,dividing us from alexander;he causes, like each king's son before,the plunder of stable alba.oram, p. 66 citing clancy, the triumph tree. the dispute over the eastern marches does not appear to have caus

Alexander_Severus

severus alexander (;in classical latin, alexander's name would be inscribed as marcvs avrelivs severvs alexander avgvstvs. 1 october 208 – 19 march 235) was roman emperor from 222 to 235. alexander was the last emperor of the severan dynasty. he succeeded his cousin elagabalus upon the latter's assassination in 222, and was ultimately assassinated himself, marking the epoch event for the crisis of the third century — nearly fifty years of civil wars, foreign invasion, and collapse of the monetary economy. alexander was the heir apparent to his cousin, the eighteen-year-old emperor who had been murdered along with his mother julia soaemias by his own guards, who, as a mark of contempt, had their remains cast into the tiber river.dio, 60:20:2 he and his cousin were both grandsons of the influential and powerful julia maesa, who had arranged for elagabalus' acclamation as emperor by the famous third gallic legion. it was the rumor of alexander's death that triggered the assassination of elagabalus and his mother.herodian, 5:8:5 as emperor, alexander's peace time reign was prosperous. however militarily rome was confronted with the rising sassanid empire. he managed to check the threat of the sassanids, but when campaigning against germanic tribes of germania, alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. this alienated many in the legions and led to a conspiracy to assassinate and replace him. ==domestic achievements== under the influence of his mother, alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity o

Alexis_(poet)

alexis (; c. 375 bc – c. 275 bc) was a greek comic poet of the middle comedy period. he was born at thurii (in present day calabria, italy) in magna graecia and taken early to athens,suda s.v. where he became a citizen, being enrolled in the deme oion () and the tribe leontides.stephanus of byzantium, s.v. it is thought he lived to the age of 106 and died on the stage while being crowned. according to the suda, a 10th-century encyclopedia, alexis was the paternal uncle of the dramatist menander and wrote 245 comedies, of which only fragments now survive, including some 130 preserved titles. ==life== it was said he had a son, called stephanus, who also wrote comedies.suda s.v. he appears to have been rather addicted to the pleasures of the table, according to athenaeus.athenaeus, deipnosophistae viii. p. 344 he won his first lenaean victory in the 350s bc, most likely, where he was sixth after eubulus, and fourth after antiphanes. while being a middle comic poet, alexis was contemporary with several leading figures of new comedy, such as philippides, philemon, diphilus, and even menander. there is also some evidence that, during his old age, he wrote plays in the style of new comedy. plutarch says that he lived to the age of 106 and 5 months, and that he died on the stage while being crowned victor.plutarch, defect. orac. p. 420 e he was certainly alive after 345 bc, for aeschines mentions him as alive in that year. he was also living at least as late as 288 bc, from which his birth date is calculated. according to the suda he wrote 245 comedies, of which only fragments including some 130 titles survive. his plays include meropis, ankylion, olympiodoros, parasitos (exhibited in 360 bc, in which he ridiculed plato), agonis (in which he ridiculed misgolas), and the adelphoi and the stratiotes, in which he satirized demosthenes, and acted shortly after 343 bc. also hippeis (316 bc) (in which he referred to the decree of sophocles against the philosophers), pyraunos (312 bc), ph

August_23

==events== * 30 bc – after the successful invasion of egypt, octavian executes marcus antonius antyllus, eldest son of marc antony, and caesarion, the last king of the ptolemaic dynasty of egypt and only child of caesar and cleopatra. * 20 bc – ludi volcanalici are held within the temple precinct of vulcan, and used by augustus to mark the treaty with parthia and the return of the legionary standards that had been lost at the battle of carrhae in 53 bc. * 79 – mount vesuvius begins stirring, on the feast day of vulcan, the roman god of fire. * 406 – gothic king radagaisus is executed after he is defeated by roman general stilicho and 12,000 "barbarians" are incorporated into the roman army or sold as slaves. * 476 – odoacer, chieftain of the germanic tribes (herulic - scirian foederati), is proclaimed rex italiae ("king of italy") by his troops. * 634 – abu bakr dies at medina and is succeeded by umar i who becomes the second caliph of the rashidun caliphate. *1244 – siege of jerusalem: the city's citadel, the tower of david, surrenders to khwarezmian empire. *1268 – battle of tagliacozzo: the army of charles of anjou defeats the ghibellines supporters of conradin of hohenstaufen marking the fall of the hohenstaufen family from the imperial and sicilian thrones, and leading to the new chapter of angevin domination in southern italy. *1305 – sir william wallace is executed for high treason at smithfield in london. *1328 – battle of cassel: french troops stop an uprising of flemish farmers. *1382 – siege of moscow: the golden horde led by khan tokhtamysh lays siege to the capital of the grand duchy of moscow. *1514 – the battle of chaldiran ends with a decisive victory for the sultan selim i, ottoman empire, over the shah ismail i, founder of the safavid dynasty. *1521 – christian ii of denmark is deposed as king of sweden and gustav vasa is elected regent. *1541 – french exp

April_28

==events== * 357 Рemperor constantius ii enters rome for the first time to celebrate his victory over magnus magnentius. *1192 Рassassination of conrad of montferrat (conrad i), king of jerusalem, in tyre, two days after his title to the throne is confirmed by election. the killing is carried out by hashshashin. *1253 Рnichiren, a japanese buddhist monk, propounds nam myoho renge kyo for the very first time and declares it to be the essence of buddhism, in effect founding nichiren buddhism. *1503 Рthe battle of cerignola is fought. it is noted as the first battle in history won by small arms fire using gunpowder. *1611 Рestablishment of the pontifical and royal university of santo tomas, the catholic university of the philippines, the largest catholic university in the world. *1788 Рmaryland becomes the seventh state to ratify the constitution of the united states. *1789 Рmutiny on the bounty: lieutenant william bligh and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew returns to tahiti briefly and then sets sail for pitcairn island. *1792 Рfrance invades the austrian netherlands (present day belgium), beginning the french revolutionary war. *1796 Рthe armistice of cherasco is signed by napoleon bonaparte and vittorio amedeo iii, the king of sardinia, expanding french territory along the mediterranean coast. *1869 Рchinese and irish laborers for the central pacific railroad working on the first transcontinental railroad lay 10 miles of track in one day, a feat which has never been matched. *1887 Рa week after being arrested by the prussian secret police, alsatian police inspector guillaume schnaebel̩ is released on order of german emperor william i, defusing a possible war. *1910 Рfrenchman louis paulhan wins the 1910 london to manchester air race, the first long-distance aeroplane race in england. *1920 Рazerbaijan is added to the soviet union. *1930 Рthe first night game in organized baseball history takes place in independence, kansas. *1932 Рa vaccine for yellow fever is announced for use on humans. *1944 Рworld war ii: nine german e-boats attacked us and uk units during exercise tiger, the rehearsal for the normandy landings, killing 946. *1945 Р[[benito m

Almoravid_dynasty

the almoravids ( imṛabḍen, al-murābiṭūn) were a berber dynasty of morocco,g. stewart, is the caliph a pope?, in: the muslim world, volume 21, issue 2, pages 185–196, april 1931: "the almoravid dynasty, among the berbers of north africa, founded a considerable empire, morocco being the result of their conquests"sadiqi, fatima, the place of berber in morocco, international journal of the sociology of language, 123.1 (2009): 7-22 : "the almoravids were the first relatively recent berber dynasty that ruled morocco. the leaders of this dynasty came from the moroccan deep south." who formed an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the western maghreb and al-andalus. founded by abdallah ibn yasin, their capital was marrakesh, a city they founded in 1062. the dynasty originated among the lamtuna and the gudala, nomadic berber tribes of the sahara, traversing the territory between the draa, the niger, and the senegal rivers.extract from encyclopedia universalis on almoravids. the almoravids were crucial in preventing the fall of al-andalus to the iberian christian kingdoms, when they decisively defeated a coalition of the castilian and aragonese armies at the battle of sagrajas in 1086. this enabled them to control an empire that s

Afonso_III_of_Portugal

afonso iii (; rare english alternatives: alphonzo or alphonse), or affonso (archaic portuguese), alfonso or alphonso (portuguese-galician) or alphonsus (latin), the bolognian (port. o bolonhês), king of portugal (5 may 1210 in coimbra – 16 february 1279 in alcobaça, coimbra or lisbon) was the first to use the title king of portugal and the algarve, from 1249. he was the second son of king afonso ii of portugal and his wife, urraca of castile; he succeeded his brother, king sancho ii of portugal, who was removed from the throne on 4 january 1248. ==early life== as the second son of king afonso ii of portugal, afonso was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his elder brother sancho. he lived mostly in france, where he married matilda, the heiress of boulogne, in 1238, thereby becoming count of boulogne, mortain, aumale and dammartin-en-goële jure uxoris. ==reign== [[file:marabotin à l'effigie d'alphonse iii dit le boulonnais.jpg|thumb|afonso iii of

Amara_Sinha

amara sinha (or simha) (c. ad 375) was a sanskrit grammarian and poet, of whose personal history hardly anything is known. he is said to have been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of vikramaditya," and according to the evidence of hsuan tsang, this is the chandragupta vikramaditya (chandragupta ii) that flourished about ad 375. other sources describe him as flourishing in c. ad 700."amara-simha" in chambers's encyclopædia. london: george newnes, 1961, vol. 1, p. 311. amara seems to have been a buddhist, and most of his work was destroyed, with the exception of what is the celebrated amara-kosha (treasury of amara), a vocabulary of sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called trikanda or the "tripartite". it is also known as "namalinganushasana". it contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. the first chapter of the kosha was printed at rome in tamil character in 1798. an edition of the entire work, with english notes and an index by ht colebrooke, appeared at serampore in 1808. the sanskrit text was printed at calcutta in 1831. a french translation by ala loiseleur-deslongchamps as published at paris in 1839. louie rice compiled the kannada version of it and its available 4th edition was printed in 1927 which contains three khandas and 25 sargas.amarakosha by louie rice edited by n.balasubhramanyam ==references== ;attribution * ==external links== * amarakosha sanskrit text

Amasis_II

amasis ii () or ahmose ii was a pharaoh (570 b.c.e. – 526 b.c.e.) of the twenty-sixth dynasty of egypt, the successor of apries at sais. he was the last great ruler of egypt before the persian conquest. ==life== most of our information about him is derived from herodotus (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. according to the greek historian, he was of common origins. a revolt which broke out among native egyptian soldiers gave him his opportunity to seize the throne. these troops, returning home from a disastrous military expedition to cyrene in libya, suspected that they had been betrayed in order that apries, the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his greek mercenaries; many egyptians fully sympathized with them. general amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels instead, and apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated. apries was either taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at memphis before being eventually strangled and buried in

Ambiorix

: for the racehorse, see ambiorix (horse). ambiorix was, together with cativolcus, prince of the eburones, leader of a belgic tribe of north-eastern gaul (gallia belgica), where modern belgium is located. in the 19th century ambiorix became a belgian national hero because of his resistance against julius caesar, as written in caesar's commentarii de bello gallico. ==early history== in 57 bc julius caesar conquered parts ofgaul and also belgica (belgium, modern-day northern france, luxembourg, part of present-day netherlands below the rhine river; and the north-western portion of north rhine-westphalia, germany). there were several tribes in the country who fought against each other frequently. the eburones were ruled by ambiorix and catuvolcus. in 54 bc caesar's troops urgently needed more food, and so the local tribes were forced to give up part of their harvest, which had not been good that year. understandably the starving eburones were reluctant to do so and caesar ordered that camps be built near the eburones' villages. each centurion was ordered to make sure the food supplies were delivered to the roman soldiers. this created resentment among the eburones. although julius caesar had freed him from paying tribute to the atuatuci, ambiorix joined catuvolcus in the winter of 54 bc in an uprising against the roman forces under q. titurius sabinus and l. aurunculeius cotta. ==resisting the romans== because a drought had disrupted his grain supply, caesar was forced to winter his legions among the rebellious belgic tribes. roman troops led by q. titurius sabinus and l. aurunculeius cotta were wintering among the eburones when they were attacked by them, led by ambiorix and cativolcus. ambiorix deceived the romans, telling them the attack was made without his consent, and further advised them to flee as a large germanic force was preparing to cross the rhine. trusting ambiorix, sabinus and cotta's troops left the next morning. a short distance from their camp, the roman troops were ambushed by the eburones and massacred. elsewhere, another roman force under q. tullius cicero, brother of the orator marcus, were wintering a

Abu_Bakr

abdullah ibn abi qhuhafah (), c. 573 ce – 23 august 634 ce, popularly known by his nickname abu bakr , from islam4theworld was a senior companion (sahabi) and the father-in-law of the islamic prophet muhammad. he ruled over the rashidun caliphate from 632 to 634 ce, when he became the first muslim caliph following muhammad's death., from encyclopædia britannica as caliph, abu bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by muhammad. he was called al-siddiq (the truthful)juan eduardo campo, "encyclopedia of islam", infobase publishin

Ammon

ammon (; ; ), also referred to as the ammonites and children of ammon, was an ancient nation best known from the old testament, which describes ammon as located east of the jordan river, gilead, and the dead sea, in present-day jordan. the chief city of the country was rabbah'

Amram

in the book of exodus, amram (), is the father of aaron, moses, and miriam and the husband of jochebed. ==in the bible== in addition to being married to jochebed, amram is also described in the bible as having been related to jochebed prior to the marriage, although the exact relationship is uncertain; some greek and latin manuscripts of the septuagint state that jochebed was amram's father's cousin, and others state that amram was jochebed's cousin,exodus 6:16–20, lxx - but the masoretic text states that he was jochebed's nephew.new american bible, footnote to exodus 6:20 textual scholars attribute the biblical genealogy to the book of generations, a document originating from a similar religiopolitical group and date to the priestly source.richard elliott friedman, who wrote the bible? according to biblical scholars, the torah's genealogy for levi's descendants, is actually an aetiological myth reflecting the fact that there were four different groups among the levites – the gershonites, kohathites, merarites, and aaronids;peake's commentary on the bible aaron – the eponymous ancestor of the aaronids – couldn't be portrayed as a brother to gershon, kohath, and merari, as the narrative about the birth of moses (brother of aaron), which textual scholars attribute to the earlier elohist source, mentions only that both his parents were levites (without identifying their names). biblical scholars suspect that the elohist account offers both matrilinial and patrilinial descent from levites in order to magnify the religious credentials of moses. ==in the qur'an== amram is arabicized to imran. in the qur'an, the name imran is used for two different people. the first one is amram the father of moses and the second one is joachim the father of mary, the mother of jesus. amram, the father of moses and aaron, is a revered patriarch of islam. the qur'an says: although muslim scholars have often debated over who this verse refers to, most classical commentators and modern translators have taken the opinion that this refers to amram, the father of moses and aaron. through

Ananda

Ānanda (, ; chinese: 阿難 Ānán; japanese: 阿難 anan; sinhala: ආනන්ද) (also known as shannon) was one of the principal disciples and a devout attendant of the buddha. amongst the buddha's many disciples, Ānanda had the most retentive memory and most of the suttas in the sutta pitaka are attributed to his recollection of the buddha's teachings during the first buddhist council. for that, he was known as the guardian of the dharma. according to the buddha every buddha in the past and to come will have two chief disciples and one attendant during his ministry. in the case of gautama buddha the pair of disciples were sariputta and maudgalyayana and the attendant Ānanda. the word 'Ānanda' means 'bliss' in pali, sanskrit as well as other indian languages. it is a popular buddhist and hindu name, but popular also among muslims in indonesia. in the kannakatthala sutta (mn 90), ananda is identified with the meaning of his name: :then king pasenadi kosala said to the blessed one, "lord, what is the name of this monk?" :"his name is ananda, great king." :"what a joy he is! what a true joy!..." Ānanda was the first cousin of the buddha by their fathers, and was devoted to him. in the twentieth year of the buddha's ministry, he became the buddha's personal attendant, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and taking the part of interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. he is the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the buddha just before the buddha's parinibbana (the mahaparinibbana sutta (dn 16)); it is a panegyric for a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others. in the long list of the disciples given in the anguttara nikaya (i. xiv.) where each of them is declared to be the chief in some quality, Ānanda is mentioned five times (more often than any other). he was named chief in conduct, in service to others, and in power of memory. the buddha sometimes asked him to substitute for him as teacher and then later stated t

Ancus_Marcius

ancus marcius (r. 642 bc – 617 bc)"ancus marcius" in the new encyclopædia britannica. chicago: encyclopædia britannica inc., 15th edn., 1992, vol. 1, p. 379. was the legendary fourth king of rome. he was the son of marcius (whose father, also named marcius, had been a close friend of numa pompilius) and pompilia (daughter of numa pompilius).livy, ab urbe condita, 1:32 according to festus, marcius had the surname of ancus from his crooked arm. upon the death of the previous king, tullus hostilius, the roman senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who elected the new king. ==first acts as king== according to livy, his first act as king was to order the pontifex maximus to copy the text concerning the performance of public ceremonies of religion from the commentaries of numa pompilius to be displayed to the public, so that the rites of religion should no longer be neglected or improperly performed. ==war== he waged war successfully against the latins, and a number of them were settled on the aventine hill.livy, ab urbe condita, 1:33 according to livy the war was commenced by the latins who anticipated ancus would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, numa pompilius. the latins initially made an incursion on roman lands. when a roman embassy sought restitution for the damage, the latins gave a contemptuous reply. ancus accordingly declared war on the latins. the declaration is notable since, according to livy, it was the first time that the romans had declared war by means of the rites of the fetials. ancus marcius marched from rome with a newly levied army and took the latin town of politorium (situated near the town of lanuvium) by storm. its residents were removed to settle on the aventine hill in rome as new citizens, following the roman traditions from wars with the sabines and albans. when the other latins subsequently occupied the empty town of politorium, ancus took the town again and demolished it. the latin villages of tellenae and ficana were also sacked and demolished. the war then focused on the latin town of medullia. the town had a strong garrison and was well fortified. several engagements took place outside the town and the romans were eventually victorious. ancus returned to rome with much booty. more latins were brought to rome as citizens and we

Andrew_II_of_Hungary

andrew ii of jerusalem (, , , ; 117721 september 1235) was king of hungary and croatia between 1205 and 1235, and reigned in the principality of halych from 1188 till 1189 or 1190, and between 1208 or 1209 and 1210, using the title king during the latter period. he was the younger son of béla iii of hungary, who invested him with the government of the principality of halych. his rule was unpopular and the boyars expelled him. béla iii willed landed property and money to andrew, obliging him to lead a crusade to the holy land. however, after his father's death in 1196, andrew rose up in rebellion against his elder brother, emeric of hungary, forcing him to cede croatia and dalmatia as appanage to him. in addition, andrew occupied hum. although during emeric's reign andrew rebelled against him twice, on his deathbed emeric appointed andrew guardian of his son, ladislaus. after the premature death of his nephew, andrew mounted the throne in 1205. according to historian lászló kontler, "it was amindst the socio-political turmoil during his reign that the relations, arrangements, institutional framework and social categories that arose under stephen i, started to disintegrate in the higher echelons of society" in hungary.{{sfn|kontler|1999|p=75

Andronikos_I_Komnenos

andronikos i komnenos (or andronicus i comnenus, ; c. 1118 – september 12, 1185) was byzantine emperor from 1183 to 1185. he was the son of isaac komnenos and grandson of emperor alexios i komnenos. ==biography== ===early years=== andronikos komnenos was born around 1118. he was handsome and eloquent, active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician, but also licentious. his early years were spent alternately in pleasure and in military service. in 1141 he was taken captive by the seljuq turks and remained in their hands for a year. on being ransomed, he went to constantinople, where he was held at the court of his cousin, the emperor manuel i komnenos, to whom he was a great favourite. here the charms of his niece, eudoxia, attracted him and she became his mistress. in 1152, accompanied by eudoxia, he set out for an important command in cilicia. failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon mopsuestia, he returned but was again appointed to the command of a province. this second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in constantinople and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of eudoxia. ===exile=== about 1153, a conspiracy against the emperor in which andronikos participated was discovered, and he was thrown in prison. after repeated unsuccessful attempts, he escaped in 1165. after passing through many dangers, including captivity in vlach territory, he reached kiev, where his cousin yaroslav osmomysl of galicia held court. while und

August_28

==events== * 475 – the roman general orestes forces western roman emperor julius nepos to flee his capital city, ravenna. * 489 – theodoric, king of the ostrogoths defeats odoacer at the battle of isonzo, forcing his way into italy. * 663 – silla–tang armies crush the baekje restoration attempt and force yamato japan to withdraw from korea in the battle of baekgang. *1189 – third crusade: the crusaders begin the siege of acre under guy of lusignan. *1521 – the ottoman turks occupy belgrade. *1524 – the kaqchikel maya rebel against their former spanish allies during the spanish conquest of guatemala. *1542 – turkish–portuguese war (1538–1557): battle of wofla: the portuguese are scattered, their leader christovão da gama is captured and later executed. *1565 – pedro menéndez de avilés sights land near st. augustine, florida and founds the oldest continuously occupied european-established city in the continental united states. *1609 – henry hudson discovers delaware bay. *1619 – ferdinand ii is elected emperor of the holy roman empire. *1640 – second bishop's war: king charles i's english army loses to a scottish covenanter force at the battle of newburn. *1648 – siege of colchester ended when royalists forces surrender to the parliamentary forces after eleven weeks, during the english civil war. *1709 – meidingnu pamheiba is crowned king of manipur. *1789 – william herschel discovers a new moon of saturn: enceladus. *1810 – battle of grand port: the french accept the surrender of a british navy fleet. *1830 – the baltimore and ohio railroad's new tom thumb steam locomotive races a horse-drawn car, presaging steam's role in us railroads. *1833 – the slavery abolition act 1833 receives royal assent, abolishing slavery through most the british empire. *1845 – the first issue of scientific american magazine is published. *1849 – after a month-long siege, venice, which had declared itself independent as the republic of san marco, surrenders to austria. *1859 – the carrington event disrupt

Alexander_Selkirk

alexander selkirk (167613 december 1721), also known as alexander selcraig, was a scottish sailor who spent more than four years as a castaway after being marooned on an uninhabited island in the south pacific ocean. an unruly youth, selkirk joined buccaneering expeditions to the south sea, including one commanded by william dampier, which called in for provisions at the juan fernández islands off chile. selkirk judged correctly that his craft, the cinque ports, was unseaworthy, and asked to be left there. by the time he was rescued, he had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources he found on the island. his story of survival was widely publicised when he returned home, and became a likely source of inspiration for the writer daniel defoe's fictional character robinson crusoe. ==early life and privateering== the son of a shoemaker and tanner in lower largo, fife, scotland, alexander selkirk was born in 1676. in his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. summoned in august 1693 before the kirk session for his "indecent conduct in church", he "did not appear, being gone to sea." he was back at largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for beating up his brothers. early on he was engaged in buccaneering. in 1703 he joined an expedition of the english privateer and explorer william dampier to the south sea, setting sail from kinsale in ireland on 11 september. they carried letters of marque from the lord high admiral authorising their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies, as the war of the spanish succession was then going on between england and france.[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/journeys/voyage_html/transcripts/stgeorge.htm "letters of marque and reprisal for the st george,

Arnold_Schwarzenegger

arnold alois schwarzenegger (; ; born july 30, 1947) is an austrian-born american actor, filmmaker, activist, businessman, investor, writer, philanthropist, former professional bodybuilder, and politician. schwarzenegger served two terms as the 38th governor of california from 2003 until 2011. schwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15. he won the [[world amateur bodybuilding championships|mr. uni

April_23

==events== *215 bc – a temple is built on the capitoline hill dedicated to venus erycina to commemorate the roman defeat at lake trasimene. * 599 – maya king uneh chan of calakmul attacks rival city-state palenque in southern mexico, defeating queen yohl ik'nal and sacking the city. * 711 – dagobert iii is crowned king of the franks. *1014 – battle of clontarf: brian boru defeats viking invaders, but is killed in battle. *1016 – edmund ironside succeeds his father Æthelred the unready as king of england. *1343 – st. george's night uprising commences in the duchy of estonia. *1348 – the founding of the order of the garter by king edward iii is announced on st. george's day. *1516 – the bayerische reinheitsgebot (regarding the ingredients of beer) is signed in ingolstadt. *1521 – battle of villalar: king charles i of spain defeats the comuneros. *1635 – the first public school in the united states, boston latin school, is founded in boston. *1655 – the siege of santo domingo begins during the anglo-spanish war, and fails seven days later. *1660 – treaty of oliwa is established between sweden and poland. *1661 – king charles ii of england, scotland and ireland is crowned in westminster abbey. *1815 – the second serbian uprising: a second phase of the national revolution of the serbs against the ottoman empire, erupts shortly after the annexation of the country to the ottoman empire. *1910 – american president theodore roosevelt makes his "the man in the arena" speech. *1914 – first baseball game at wrigley field, then known as weeghman park in chicago. *1918 – world war i: the british royal navy makes a raid in an attempt to neutralise the belgian port of bruges-zeebrugge. *1920 – the grand national assembly of turkey (tbmm) is founded in ankara, turkey. it denounces the government of sultan mehmed vi and announces the preparation of a temporary constitution. *1927 – cardiff city defeat arsenal in the fa cup final, the only time it ha

Agathocles_of_Syracuse

agathocles (, agathoklḗs; 361 – 289 bc) was a greek tyrant of syracuse (317–289 bc) and king of sicily (304–289 bc). ==biography== agathocles was born at thermae himeraeae (modern name termini imerese) in sicily. the son of a potter who had moved to syracuse in about 343 bc, he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army. in 333 bc he married the widow of his patron damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. he was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligarchical party in syracuse. in 317 bc he returned with an army of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic constitution which was established after they took the city. having banished or murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master of syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of sicily. war with carthage followed. in 311 bc agathocles was defeated in the battle of the himera river and besieged in syracuse. in 310 bc he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack the enemy in africa. in africa he concluded the treaty with ophellas, ruler of cyrenaica. after several victories he was at last completely defeated (307 bc) and fled secretly to sicily. after concluding peace with carthage in 306 bc, agathocles styled himself king of sicily in 304 bc, and established his rule over the greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. a peace treaty with carthage left him in control of sicily east of the halycus river. even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on carthage at the time of his death. his last years were plagued by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson archagathus, at whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to others, he died a natural death. he was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant." agathocles restored the syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king. agathocles was married three times. his first wife was the widow of his patron damas by whom he had two sons: archagathus and agathocles, whom were both murdered in 307 bc. his second wife was alcia and they had a daughter called lanassa, who married as the second wife of king pyrrhus of epirus. his third wife was the greek ptolemaic princess theoxena, who was the

Antiprism

{| class="wikitable" bgcolor="#ffffff" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="margin-left:10px" width="280" !bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|set of uniform antiprisms |- |align=center colspan=2|280px|hexagonal antiprism |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|type||uniform polyhedron |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|faces||2 n-gons, 2n triangles |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|edges||4n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|vertices||2n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|vertex configuration||3.3.3.n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|schläfli symbol||s{2,2n}sr{2,n}{ } {n} |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|coxeter–dynkin diagrams|| |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|symmetry group||dnd, [2+,2n], (2*n), order 4n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|rotation group||dn, [2,n]+, (22n), order 2n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|dual polyhedron||trapezohedron |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|properties||convex, semi-regular vertex-transitive |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|net||150px |} in geometry, an n-sided antiprism is a polyhedron composed of two parallel copies of some particular n-sided polygon, connected by an alternating band of triangles. antiprisms are a subclass of the prismatoids. antiprisms are similar to prisms except the bases are twisted relative to each other, and that the side faces are triangles, rather than quadrilaterals. in the case of a regular n-sided base, one usually considers the case where its copy is twisted by an angle 180°/n. extra regularity is obtained by the line connecting the base centers being perpendicular to the base planes, making it a right antiprism. as faces, it has the two n-gonal bases and, connecting those bases, 2n isosceles triangles. ==uniform antiprism== a uniform antiprism has, apart from the base faces, 2n equilateral triangles as faces. as a class, the uniform antiprisms form an infinite series of vertex-uniform polyhedra, as do the uniform prisms. for we have as degenerate case the regular tetrahedron as a digonal antiprism, and for the non-degenerate regular octahedron as a triangular antiprism. the dual polyhedra of the antiprisms are the trapezohedra. their existence was first discussed and their name was coined by johannes kepler. ==cartesian coordinates== cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a right antiprism with n-gonal bases and isosceles triangles are :\left( \cos\frac{k\pi}{n}, \sin\frac{k\pi}{n}, (-1)^k h \right) with k ranging from 0 to 2n−1; if t

Astoria,_Oregon

{{infobox settlement |official_name = astoria, oregon |settlement_type = city |nickname = |motto = |image_skyline = astoria, or from the astoria column.jpg |imagesize = |image_caption = astoria and the astoria–megler bridge |image_flag = |image_seal = astoriaseal.png |image_map = clatsop_county_oregon_incorporated_and_unincorporated_areas_astoria_highlighted.svg |mapsize = 250px |map_caption = location in oregon |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = |coordinates_region = us-or |subdivision_type = country |subdivision_type1 = state |subdivision_type2 = county |subdivision_name = united states |subdivision_name1 = oregon |subdivision_name2 = clatsop |government_type = |leader_title = mayor |leader_name = willis l. van dusen |established_title = founded |established_title2 = incorporated |established_date = 1811 |established_date2 = 1876 |area_magnitude = |area_total_sq_mi = 10.11 |area_footnotes = |area_total_km2 = 26.18 |area_land_sq_mi = 6.16 |area_land_km2 = 15.95 |area_water_sq_mi = 3.95 |area_water_km2 = 10.23 |area_urban_sq_mi = |area_urban_km2 = |area_metro_sq_mi = |area_metro_km2 = |population_as_of = 2010 |population_est = 9527 |pop_est_as_of = 2012 |population_footnotes = |population_total = 9477 |population_density_km2 = 594.0 |population_density_sq_mi = 1538.5 |population_note = |population_metro = |population_urban = |timezone = pst |utc_offset = -8 |timezone_dst = pdt |utc_offset_dst = -7 |latd = 46 |latm = 11 |lats = 20 |latns = n |longd = 123 |longm = 49 |longs = 16 |longew = w |coordinates_display = title,inline |coordinates_type = type:city(10045)_region:us-or_source:gnis-1117076 |elevation_m = 7 |elevation_ft = 23 |website = www.astoria.or.us |postal_code_type = zip code |postal_code = 97103 |area_code = 503 and 971 |blank_name = fips code |blank_info = 41-03150 |blank1_name = gnis feature id |blank1_info = 1117076{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=us board on geogra

Absalon

absalon or axel ( – 21 march 1201) was a danish archbishop and statesman, who was the bishop of roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and archbishop of lund from 1178 until his death. he was the foremost politician and churchfather of denmark in the second half of the 12th century, and was the closest advisor of king valdemar i of denmark. he was a key figure in the danish policies of territorial expansion in the baltic sea, europeanization in close relationship with the holy see, and reform in the relation between the church and the public. he combined the ideals of gregorian reform ideals with loyal support of a strong monarchical power. absalon was born into the powerful hvide clan, and owned great land possessions. he endowed several church institutions, most prominently his family's sorø abbey. he was granted lands by the crown, and built the first fortification of the city that evolved into modern-day copenhagen. his titles were passed on to his nephews anders sunesen and peder sunesen. he died in 1201, and was interred at sorø abbey. ==early life== absalon was born around 1128 near sorø, zealand. due to a name which is unusual in denmark, it is speculated that he was christened on the danish "absalon" name day, october 30. he was the son of asser rig, a magnate of the hvide clan from fjenneslev on zealand. he was also a kinsman of archbishop eskil of lund.carl frederik bricka (ed.), dansk biografisk lexikon, vol. i [aaberg - beaumelle], 1887. a.d. jørgensen, "absalon" pp.70-81 he grew up at the castle of his father, and was brought up alongside his older brother esbern snare and the young prince valdemar, who later became king valdemar i of denmark. during the civil war following the death of eric iii of denmark in 1146, absalon travelled abroad to study theology in paris, while esbern fought for valdemar's ascension to the throne. at paris, he was influenced by the gregorian reform ideals of churchly independence from monarchical rule."gads historieleksikon", 3rd edition, 200

Alexius

alexius is the latinized form of the given name alexios (, polytonic , "defender", cf. alexander), especially common in the later byzantine empire. variants include alexis with the russian aleksey and its ukrainian counterpart oleksa/oleksiy deriving from this form. the female form is alexia () and its variants such as alessia. it may refer to: == rulers == * alexios i komnenos (1048-1118), byzantine emperor * alexios ii komnenos (1167-1183), byzantine emperor * alexios iii, byzantine emperor * alexios iv, byzantine emperor * alexios v, byzantine emperor * alexios i of trebizond, emperor of trebizond * alexios ii of trebizond, emperor of trebizond * alexios iii of trebizond, emperor of trebizond * alexios iv of trebizond, emperor of trebizond * alexius mikhailovich (1629-1676), tsar of russia * alexius petrovich (1690-1718), russian tsarevich ==religious figures== * alexius, metropolitan of moscow, (1354-1378) * patriarch alexius i of constantinople (1025-1043) * alexius (c. 1425-1488), russian archpriest who converted to judaism * patriarch alexius ii (1990-2008), late former patriarch of moscow and all russia * alexius of nicaea, metropolitan bishop * saint alexius of rome, fifth-century eastern saint * alexius, a monk and saint of kiev - see abraham and onesimus of kiev ==other people== * alexios apokaukos, byzantine statesman * alexios aspietes, byzantine governor * alexios branas, byzantine general * alexius meinong, austrian philosopher * alexios mosele (caesar), byzantine heir-apparent * alexios palaiologos (despot), byzantine heir-apparent * alexios philanthropenos, byzantine general * alexios raoul (protovestiarios), byzantine general * alexios strategopoulos, byzantine general * alexios xiphias, byzantine catepan of italy

Agarose_gel_electrophoresis

200px|thumb|right|digital image of 3 plasmid restriction digests run on a 1% w/v agarose gel, 3 volt/cm, stained with ethidium bromide. the dna size marker is a commercial 1 kbp ladder. the position of the wells and direction of dna migration is noted. agarose gel electrophoresis is a method of gel electrophoresis used in biochemistry, molecular biology, and clinical chemistry to separate a mixed population of dna or proteins in a matrix of agarose. the proteins may be separated by charge and/or size (ief agarose, essentially size independent), and the dna and rna fragments by length. biomolecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the charged molecules through an agarose matrix, and the biomolecules are separated by size in the agarose gel matrix.sambrook j, russel dw (2001). molecular cloning: a laboratory manual 3rd ed. cold spring harbor laboratory press. cold spring harbor, ny. agarose gels are easy to cast and are particularly suitable for separating larger dna of size range most often encountered in laboratories, which accounts for the popularity of its use. the separated dna may be viewed with stain, most commonly under uv light, and the dna fragments can be extracted from the gel with relative ease. most agarose gels used are between 0.7 - 2% dissolved in a suitable electrophoresis buffer. ==properties of agarose gel== right|thumb|an agarose gel cast in tray used for gel electrophoresis agarose gel is a three-dimensional matrix formed of helical agarose molecules in supercoiled bundles that are aggregated into three-dimensional structures with channels and pores through which biomolecules can pass. the 3-d structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. the melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35-42°c and a melting temperature of 85-95°c. low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available. agarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength that made it particularly suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of dna and large protein molecules. the pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from 100 nm to 200-500 nm,{{cite journal

Al-Qaeda

{{infobox war faction |name=al-qaedaالقاعدة |war= the global war on terrorism, the war in afghanistan, the iraq war, and the arab spring |image=border|260px |caption= |leaders=osama bin laden (1988–2011)ayman al-zawahiri (2011–present) |clans= |ideology= salafiyya jihadismqutbismwright, looming tower, 2006, p. 79worldwide caliphate |active=1988–present |headquarters= |area=worldwide * predominantly in the middle east |strength=in afghanistan: 40{{cite web|author=bill roggio|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2011/09/how_many_al_qaeda_fighters_are.php|title=how many al qaeda fighters are in afghanistan again? – threat matrix|publisher=longwarjournal.org|date=september 4, 2011|accessdate=august 18, 201

Apus

apus is a faint constellation in the southern sky, first defined in the late 16th century. its name means "no feet" in greek, and it represents a bird-of-paradise (which were once believed to lack feet). it is bordered by triangulum australe, circinus, musca, chamaeleon, octans, pavo and ara. its genitive is "apodis". ==history== apus was one of twelve constellations created by petrus plancius from the observations of pieter dirkszoon keyser and frederick de houtman. it first appeared on a 35 cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 or 1598 in amsterdam by plancius with jodocus hondius. plancius called the constellation paradysvogel apis indica; the first word is dutch for "bird of paradise", of genus pteridophora, but the others are latin for "indian bee". apis (latin for "bee") is presumably an error for avis ("bird"). the name apus is derived from the greek apous, meaning "without feet". this referred to the western misconception that the bird-of-paradise had no feet, which arose because the only specimens available in the west had their feet and wings removed. su

Aeon

the word aeon , also spelled eon, originally means "life" or "being", though it then tended to mean "age" in the sense of time - ages - "forever" or "for eternity". it is a latin transliteration from the koine greek word (ho aion), from the archaic (aiwon). in homer it typically refers to life or lifespan. its latest meaning is more or less similar to the sanskrit word kalpa and hebrew word olam. a cognate latin word aevum or aeuum (cf. ) for "age" is present in words such as longevity and mediaeval.math words page 16 although the term aeon may be used in reference to a period of a billion years (especially in geology, cosmology or astronomy), its more common usage is for any long, indefinite, period. aeon can also refer to the four aeons on the geologic time scale that make up the earth's history, the hadean, archean, proterozoic, and the current aeon phanerozoic. ==astronomy and cosmology== in astronomy an aeon is defined as a billion years (109). p. 4. roger penrose uses the word aeon to describe the period between successive and cyclic big bangs within the context of conformal cyclic cosmology. ==eternity or age== the bible translation is a treatment of the hebrew word olam and the greek word aion. both these words have similar meaning, and young's literal translation renders them and their derivatives as “age” or “age-during”. other english versions most often translate them to indicate eternity, being translated as eternal, everlasting, forever, etc. however, there are notable exceptions to this in all major translations, such as : “…i am with you always, to the end of the age” (nrsv), the word “age” being a translation of aion. rendering aion to indicate eternality in this verse would result in the contradictory phrase “end of eternity”, so the question arises whether it should ever be so.canon f. w. farrar “mercy and judgment” 1904 pages 378-382 proponents of universal reconciliation point out that this has significant implications for the problem of hell.thomas talbott "three pictures of god in western t

American_Civil_Liberties_Union

the american civil liberties union (aclu) is a nonpartisan non-profit organization whose stated mission is "to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the constitution and laws of the united states."aclu faqs it works through litigation, lobbying, and community education. founded in 1920 by roger baldwin, crystal eastman, and walter nelles, the aclu has over 500,000 members and has an annual budget of over $100 million. local affiliates of the aclu are active in all 50 states and puerto rico. the aclu provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk. legal support from the aclu can take the form of direct legal representation, or preparation of amicus curiae briefs expressing legal arguments (when another law firm is already providing representation). when the aclu was founded in 1920, its focus was on freedom of speech, primarily for anti-war protesters. during the 1920s, the aclu expanded its scope to include protecting the free speech rights of artists and striking workers, and working with the national association for the advancement of colored people (naacp) to combat racism and discrimination. during the 1930s, the aclu started to engage in work combating police misconduct and for native american rights. most of the aclu's cases came from the communist party and jehovah's witnesses. in 1940, the aclu leadership was caught up in the red scare, and voted to exclude communists from its leadership positions. during world war ii, the aclu defended japanese-american citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to [[japan

Apollo_14

{{infobox spaceflight | name = apollo 14 | image = apollo 14 shepard.jpg | image_caption = alan shepard plants an american flag on the moon during apollo 14 | insignia = apollo_14-insignia.png | mission_type = manned lunar landing | operator = nasa | cospar_id = csm: 1971-008alm: 1971-008c | satcat = csm: 4900lm: 4905 | mission_duration = 9 days, 1 minutes, 58 seconds | spacecraft = apollo csm-110apollo lm-8 | manufacturer = csm: north american rockwelllm: grumman | launch_mass = csm: lm: | landing_mass = | launch_date =  utc | launch_rocket = saturn v sa-509 | launch_site = kennedy lc-39a | landing_date =  utc | landing_site = south pacific ocean | orbit_epoch = | orbit_reference = selenocentric | orbit_periapsis = | orbit_apoapsis = | orbit_inclination = | orbit_period = 120 minutes | apsis = selene |interplanetary = | docking = {{infobox spaceflight/dock | docking_target = lm | docking_type = doc

Actinophryid

the actinophryids are small, familiar group of heliozoan protists. they are the most common heliozoa in fresh water, and are especially frequent in lakes and rivers, but a few are found in marine and soil habitats as well. each actinophryid are unicellular and roughly spherical in shape, without any shell or test, and with many pseudopodia supported by axopods radiating outward from the cell body, which adhere to passing prey and allows it to roll or float about. the outer portion of the cell, or ectoplasm, is distinct and is filled with many tiny vacuoles, which assist in flotation. this is very similar to the process of osmosis. the movement of water from inside the cell to the outside is not because of water concentration in this case. it is the cell pushing the excess water out. a few contractile vacuoles around the periphery of the cell expel excess water, and are visible as clear bulges when full. there are two genera included here. actinophrys have a single, central nucleus. most are around 40-50 μm in diameter, with axopods up to 100 μm in length, though this varies. actinosphaerium are several times larger, from 200-1000 μm in diameter, with many nuclei, and are found exclusively in fresh water. two other genera, echinosphaerium and camptonema, have been described but appear to be synonyms. reproduction takes place by fission, with open mitosis. under unfavourable conditions, the organism will form a cyst, which is multi-walled and covered in spikes. while encysted it may undergo a peculiar process of autogamy or self-fertilization, where it goes through meiosis and divides to form two gametes, which then fuse together again. this is the only form of sexual reproduction that occurs within the group, though it is really more genetic reorganization than reproduction. the axopods are supported by microtubules arranged in a unique and characteristic double-coil pattern. in actinophrys, these arise from the nuclear membrane, while in actinosphaerium some do and others don't. other heliozoa where the microtubules arise from the nucleus have been considered possible relatives, and it now appears that the actinophryids developed from axodines such as pedinella. these are specialized heterokont algae, related to golden algae, diatoms, brown algae, and the like, which have microtubule-supported tentacles. as far as the diet of the actinophyrys goes, the protist feeds on small flagellates, diminutive cilates, microscopic algae, etc.

Auschwitz_concentration_camp

auschwitz concentration camp ( ) was a network of german nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the third reich in polish areas annexed by nazi germany during world war ii. it consisted of auschwitz i (the original camp), auschwitz ii–birkenau (a combination concentration/extermination camp), auschwitz iii–monowitz (a labor camp to staff an ig farben factory), and 45 satellite camps. auschwitz i was first constr

Arbor_Day

arbor day (from the latin arbor, meaning tree) is a holiday in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant and care for trees. today, many countries observe such a holiday. though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate and suitable planting season. == origins == === first arbor day in the world === the small spanish village of villanueva de la sierra is the town where was held the first arbor day around the world, an initiative launched in 1805 by the local priest with the enthusiastic support of the entire population.herrero uceda, miguel. arbor day (in spanish). quercus, nature review. march 2011 === first american arbor day === thumb|birdsey northrop the first american arbor day was originated in nebraska city, nebraska, united states by j. sterling morton. on april 10, 1872, an estimated one million trees were planted in nebraska. birdsey northrop of connecticut was responsible for globalizing it when he visit

Amber_Road

thumb|250px|the amber road (east route), as hypothesized by polish historian jerzy wielowiejski, główny szlak bursztynowy w czasach cesarstwa rzymskiego (main route of the amber road of the roman empire), 1980 thumb|250px|the route from the baltic sea prehistoric trade routes between northern and southern europe were defined by the amber trade. the amber road was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber from coastal areas of the north sea and the baltic sea to the mediterranean sea.graciela gestoso singer, "amber in the ancient near east", i-medjat no. 2 (december 2008). papyrus electronique des ankou. as an important raw material, sometimes dubbed "the gold of the north", amber was transported from the north sea and baltic sea coasts overland by way of the vistula and dnieper rivers to italy, greece, the black sea, syria and egypt thousands of years ago, and long after. ==antiquity== from at least the sixteenth century bc amber was moved from northern europe to the mediterranean area.j. m. de navarro, "prehistoric routes between northern europe and italy defined by the amber trade", the geographical journal, vol. 66, no. 6 (december 1925), pp. 481-503.anthony f. harding, "reformation and barbarism in europe, 1300-600 bc", in barry w. cunliffe, ed., oxford illustrated history of prehstoric europe, oxford, oxford u. press, 2001. the breast ornament of the egyptian pharaoh tutankhamen (ca. 1333-1324 bc) contains large baltic amber beads reeves, c.n. the complete tutankhamun: the king, the tomb, the royal treasure. london, thames & hudson, 1990.serpico, m. and white, r. "resins, amber and bitumen". in p.t. nicholson - i. shaw (ed.). ancient egyptian materials and technology. cambridge, cambridge university press, 2000,part. ii, chapter 18, 430-475: 451-454). cited, gestoso singer.hood, s., "amber in egypt", in c. w. beck & j. bouzek (ed.) amber in archaeology (proceedings of the second international conference on amber in archaeology, liblice 1990, institute of archaeology): 230-35. prague: czech academy of sciences. heinrich schliemann found baltic amber beads at mycenae, as shown by spectroscopic investigation.curt w. beck, gretchen c. southard, audrey b. adams, "analysis and provenience of minoan and mycenaean amber, iv. mycenae", pp. 359-385. the quantity of amber in the royal tomb of qatna, syria, is unparalleled for known second mill