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Politics_of_Hong_Kong

politics of hong kong takes place in a framework of a political system dominated by its quasi-constitutional document, the basic law of hong kong, its own legislature, the chief executive as the head of government and of the special administrative region, and of a multi-party system. executive power is exercised by the government. on july 1 1997, sovereignty of hong kong was transferred to the people's republic of china (prc), ending over one and a half centuries of british rule. hong kong became a special administrative region (sar) of the prc with a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign affairs and defence, which are responsibilities of the prc government. according to the sino-british joint declaration (1984) and the basic law, hong kong will retain its political, economic, and judicial systems and unique way of life and continue to participate in international agreements and organisations as a dependent territory for at least 50 years after retrocession. for instance, the international olympic committee recognises hong kong as a participating dependency under the name, "hong kong, china", separate from the delegation from the people's republic of china. ==overview== in accordance with article 31 of the constitution of the people's republic of china, hong kong has special administrative region status which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of "one country, two systems".wong, yiu-chung. [2004] (2004). one country, two systems in crisis: hong kong's transformation. lexington books. hong kong. isbn 0-7391-0492-6. the basic law, hong kong's constitutional document, was approved in march 1990 by national people's congress of china, and entered into force upon the transfer of sovereignty on 1 july 1997. the hong kong government is economically liberal, but currently universal suffrage is only granted in district council elections, and in elections for part of the legislative council. the head of the government (chief executive of hong kong) is elected through an electoral college with the majority of its members elected by a limited number of voters mainly within business and professional sectors. ==government== ===executive branch=== the chief executive (ce) is the head of the special administrative region, and is also the highest-ranking official in the government of hong kong special adm

Foreign_relations_of_Hong_Kong

under the basic law, the hong kong special administrative region is exclusively in charge of its internal affairs and external relations, whilst the government of the people's republic of china is responsible for its foreign affairs and defence.article 151, hong kong basic law as a separate customs territory, hong kong maintains and develops relations with foreign states and regions, and plays an active role in such international organizations as world trade organization (wto) and the asia-pacific economic cooperation (apec) in its own right under the name of hong kong, china.article 152, hong kong basic law ==overview== hong kong was under british rule before 1 july 1997. prior to the implementation of the hong kong economic and trade office act 1996 enacted by the british parliament, hong kong represented its interests abroad through the hong kong economic and trade offices (hketos) and via a special office in the british embassies or high commissions, but the latter has ceased after the sovereignty of hong kong was transferred to the prc and became a special administrative region (sar) of the prc in 1997.hong kong economic and trade office act 1996 at present, the hong kong economic and trade offices under the government of the hong kong special administrative region in countries that are the major trading partners of hong kong, including japan, canada, australia, singapore, the united kingdom, germany, the united states, the european union as well as an eto in geneva to represent hksar government in the wto. these offices serve as the official representative of the government of the hong kong sar in these countries and international organisations. its major functions include facilitating trade negotiations and handling trade related matters, inter-government relations with foreign governments; the promoting of investment in hong kong; and liaising with the media and business community. the hong kong government has also set up the hong kong tourism board with offices in other countries and regions to promote tourism. article 156, hong kong basic law the hong kong sar government also has an office in beijing, and three hketos at guangzhou (guangdong eto), shanghai and chengdu. an hketo will be set up at wuhan in the future. the central people's government of the prc also mai

Henryk_Sienkiewicz

henryk adam aleksander pius sienkiewicz (; also known by the pseudonym "litwos" ; 5 may 1846 – 15 november 1916) was a polish journalist, nobel prize-winning novelist, and philanthropist. he is best remembered for his historical novels. born into an impoverished polish noble family in russian-ruled congress poland, in the late 1860s he began publishing journalistic and literary pieces. in the late 1870s he traveled to the united states, sending back travel essays that won him popularity with polish readers. in the 1880s he began serializing novels that further increased his popularity. he soon became one of the most popular polish writers of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, and numerous translations gained him international renown, culminating in his receipt of the 1905 nobel prize in literature for his "outstanding merits as an epic writer." many of his novels remain in print. in poland he is best known for his "trilogy" of historical novels – with fire and sword, the deluge, and sir michael – set in the 17th-century polish-lithuanian commonwealth; internationally he is best known for quo vadis, set in nero's rome. the trilogy and quo vadis have been filmed, the latter several times, with hollywood's 1951 version receiving the most international recognition. ==life== ===early years=== sienkiewicz was born on 5 may 1846 in wola okrzejska, a village in the eastern polish region of podlasie, then part of the russian empire. his family were impoverished polish nobles, on his father's side deriving from tatars who had settled in the [[grand duch

Horror_film

horror is a film genre seeking to elicit a negative emotional reaction from viewers by playing on the audience's primal fears. inspired by literature from authors like edgar allan poe, bram stoker, mary shelley, horror films have for more than a century featured scenes that startle the viewer. the macabre and the supernatural are frequent themes. thus they may overlap with the fantasy, supernatural, and thriller genres. horror films often deal with the viewer's nightmares, hidden fears, revulsions and terror of the unknown. plots within the horror genre often involve the intrusion of an evil force, event, or personage, commonly of supernatural origin, into the everyday world. prevalent elements include ghosts, aliens, vampires, werewolves, demons, gore, torture, vicious animals, evil witches, monsters, zombies, cannibals, and serial killers. conversely, movies about the supernatural are not necessarily always horrific. ==history== ===1890-1920s=== the first depictions of supernatural events appear in several of the silent shorts created by the film pioneer georges méliès in the late 1890s, the best known being le manoir du diable, which is sometimes credited as being the first horror film. another of his horror projects was 1898's la caverne maudite (aka, the cave of the unholy one, literally "the accursed cave"). japan made early forays into the horror genre with bake jizo and sh

H._G._Wells

herbert george "h. g." wells (21 september 1866 – 13 august 1946) was a prolific english writer in many genres, including the novel, history, politics, and social commentary, and textbooks and rules for war games. he is now best remembered for his science fiction novels, and wells is sometimes called the father of science fiction, as are jules verne and hugo gernsback.adam charles roberts (2000), "the history of science fiction": page 48 in science fiction, routledge, isbn 0-415-19204-8. his most notable science fiction works include the war of the worlds, the time machine, the invisible man, and the island of doctor moreau. wells's earliest specialized training was in biology, and his thinking on ethical matters took place in a specifically and fundamentally darwinian context.robert m. philmus and david y. hughes, ed., h. g. wells: early writings in science and science fiction (berkeley, los angeles, and london: university of california press, 1975), p. 179. he was also from an early date an outspoken [[socia

Holocene

the holocene is a geological epoch which began at the end of the pleistocene (at 11,700 calendar years bp)walker, m., johnsen, s., rasmussen, s. o., popp, t., steffensen, j.-p., gibbard, p., hoek, w., lowe, j., andrews, j., bjo¨ rck, s., cwynar, l. c., hughen, k., kershaw, p., kromer, b., litt, t., lowe, d. j., nakagawa, t., newnham, r., and schwander, j. 2009. formal definition and dating of the gssp (global stratotype section and point) for the base of the holocene using the greenland ngrip ice core, and selected auxiliary records. j. quaternary sci., vol. 24 pp. 3–17. issn 0267-8179. and continues to the present. the holocene is part of the quaternary period. its name comes from the greek words (holos, whole or entire) and (kainos, new), meaning "entirely recent". it has been identified with the current warm period, known as mis 1, and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age based on that evidence. the holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all its written history, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present. human impacts of the modern era on the earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for future evolution of living species, including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence, or more recently atmospheric evidence of human impacts. given these, a new term anthropocene, is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history and of significant human impact since the epoch of the neolithic revolution (around 12,000 years bp). ==overview== it is accepted by the international commission on stratigraphy that the holocene started approximately 11,700 years bp (before present). the epoch follows the pleistocene and the last glacial period (local names for the last glacial period include the wisconsinan in north america,{{cite journal|last1=clayton|first1=l.|last2=moran|first2=s.r.|title=chronology of late wisconsinan glaciation in middle north america|journal=quaternary science revi

Hippocrates

hippocrates of cos (; ; hippokrátēs; c. 460 – c. 370 bc), was a greek physician of the age of pericles (classical greece), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. he is referred to as the father of western medicine in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the hippocratic school of medicine. this intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with theurgy and philosophy, thus establishing medicine as a profession. however, the achievements of the writers of the corpus, the practitioners of hippocratic medicine, and the actions of hippocrates himself were often commingled; thus very little is known about what hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician, credited with coining the hippocratic oath, still relevant and in use today. he is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the hippocratic corpus and other works. ==biography== historians agree that hippocrates was born around the year 460 bc on the greek island of cos. other biographical information, however, is likely

Roman_Britain

(latin), (; ), today known as roman britain, was a province of the roman empire from 43 to 409, spanning at its height in 160, the southern three-quarters of the island of great britain. before the roman conquest began in 43 ad, iron age britain had already established cultural and economic links with continental europe, but the roman invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanisation, industry and architecture. beyond the first few decades after the initial invasion, roman historians generally mention britannia only in passing. thus, most knowledge of roman britain has derived from archaeological investigations, and the epigraphic evidence lauding the britannic achievements of an emperor of rome, such as hadrian ( 117–38) and antoninus pius (r. 138–61), whose walls demarcated the northern borders of roman britain. julius caesar conducted the first roman campaigns in britain in 55 and 54 bc., abridged by ; c

Hinduism

hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life, of the indian subcontinent, and consists of many diverse traditions. it includes shaivism, vaishnavism and shaktism among numerous other traditions, and a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. hinduism is a categorisation of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of beliefs. hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world, and some practitioners refer to it as , "the eternal law" or the "eternal way" beyond human origins. it prescribes the "eternal" duties, such as honesty, mercy, purity, self-restraint, among others. western scholars regard hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots

High_German_languages

:this article deals with the regional variety; "hochdeutsch" or "high german" is also used in the sense of standard german. the high german languages or high german dialects () comprise the varieties of german spoken south of the benrath and uerdingen isoglosses in central and southern germany, austria, liechtenstein, switzerland, and luxembourg as well as in neighboring portions of belgium (eupen-malmedy) and the netherlands (southeast limburg), france (alsace and northern lorraine), italy (south tyrol), and poland (upper silesia). they are also spoken in diaspora in romania, russia, the united states, brazil, argentina, chile, and namibia. the high german languages are marked by the high german consonant shift, separating them from low german and low franconian (dutch) within the continental west germanic dialect continuum. ==classification== 360px|thumb|right| the present-day distribution of continental high german languages: as a technical term, the "high" in high german is a geographical reference to the group of dialects that forms "high german" (in the broader sense), out of which developed standard german ("high german" in the narrower sense), yiddish and luxembourgish. it refers to the central uplands (mittelgebirge) and alpine areas of central and southern germany, it also includes luxembourg, austria, liechtenstein and most of switzerland. this is opposed to low german, which is spoken on the lowlands and along the flat sea coasts of the north german plain.see the definition of "high" in the oxford english dictionary (concise edition): "... situated far above ground, sealevel, etc; upper, inland, as ... high german". high german in this broader sense can be subdivided into upper german (oberdeutsch, this includes the austrian and swiss german dialects), [[centr

Herodotus

herodotus (; hēródotos [hɛːródotos]) was a greek historian who was born in halicarnassus, caria (modern-day bodrum, turkey) and lived in the fifth century bc ( 484–425 bc). widely referred to as "the father of history" (first conferred by cicero), he was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically and critically, and then to arrange them into a historiographic narrative.new oxford american dictionary, "herodotos", oxford university press the histories—his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced—is a record of his "inquiry" (or historía, a word that passed into latin and acquired its modern meaning of "history"), being an investigation of the origins of the greco-persian wars and including a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. although some of his stories were fanciful and others possibly inaccurate, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. little is known of his personal history. ==place in history== herodotus announced the size and scope of his work at the beginning of his researches or histories: {{quotation|Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι, τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τὰ τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι. herodotus of halicarnassus, his researches are set down to preserve the memory of the past by putting on record the astonishing achievements of both the greeks and the barbarians; and more particularly, to show how they cam

Hugo_de_Garis

right|thumb hugo de garis (born 1947, sydney, australia) was a researcher in the sub-field of artificial intelligence (ai) known as evolvable hardware. he became known in the 1990s for his research on the use of genetic algorithms to evolve neural networks using three-dimensional cellular automata inside field programmable gate arrays. he claimed that this approach would enable the creation of what he terms "artificial brains" which would quickly surpass human levels of intelligence. he has more recently been noted for his belief that a major war between the supporters and opponents of intelligent machines, resulting in billions of deaths, is almost inevitable before the end of the 21st century. he suggests ais may simply eliminate the human race, and humans would be powerless to stop them because of technological singularity. this prediction has attracted debate and criticism from the ai research community, and some of its more notable members, such as kevin warwick, bill joy, ken macleod, ray kurzweil, and hans moravec, have voiced their opinions on whether or not this future is likely. de garis originally studied theoretical physics, but he abandoned this field in favour of artificial intelligence. in 1992 he received his phd from université libre de bruxelles, belgium. he worked as a researcher at atr (advanced telecommunications research institute international, 国際電気通信基礎技術研究所), japan from 1994–2000, a researcher at starlab, brussels from 2000–2001, and associate professor of computer science at utah state university from 2001–2006. until his retirement in late 2010biography: hugo de garis, xiamen university, china he was a professor at xiamen university, where he taught theoretical physics and computer science, and ran the artificial

Hipparchus

hipparchus of nicaea (; ; c. 190 – c. 120 bce), was a greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the hellenistic period. he is considered the founder of trigonometry but is most famous for his incidental discovery of precession of the equinoxes.g j toomer's chapter "ptolemy and his greek predecessors" in "astronomy before the telescope", british museum press, 1996, p. 81. hipparchus was born in nicaea, bithynia (now iznik, turkey), and probably died on the island of rhodes. he is known to have been a working astronomer at least from 162 to 127 bce. hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. he was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the sun and moon survive. for this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the babylonians and other people from mesopotamia. he developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. with his solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses. his other reputed achievements include the discovery and measurement of earth's precession, the compilation of the first comprehensive star catalog of the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, also of the armillary sphere, which he used during the creation of much of the star catalogue. it would be three centuries before claudius ptolemaeus' synthesis of astronomy would supersede the work of hipparchus. ==life and work== relatively little of hipparchus's direct work survives

Hexen:_Beyond_Heretic

hexen: beyond heretic is a dark fantasy first-person shooter video game developed by raven software, published by id software, and distributed by gt interactive beginning on october 30, 1995. it is the sequel to 1994's heretic, and the second game in raven software's "serpent riders" series. the title comes from the german noun "hexen", which means "witches" (in plural) or the verb "hexen" which means "to cast a spell". ==plot== following the tale of d'sparil's defeat in heretic, hexen takes place in another realm, cronos, which is besieged by the second of the serpent riders, korax. three heroes set out to destroy korax. the player assumes the role of one such hero. ==gameplay== a new series feature introduced in hexen is the choice of character class. players may choose to play as a fighter, cleric, or mage. each character has unique weapons and physical characteristics, lending an additional degree of variety and replay value to the gameplay. the fighter relies mainly on close quarter martial attacks with weapons both mundane and magical in nature, and is tougher and faster than the other characters. the mage uses an assortment of long-range spells, whose reach is counterbalanced by the fact that he is the most fragile and slowest moving of the classes. the cleric arms himself with a combination of both melee and ranged capabilities, being a middle ground of sorts between the other two classes. additionally, certain items behave differently when collected and used by each of the classes, functioning in a manner better suiting

Herman_Melville

herman melville (august 1, 1819 â€“ september 28, 1891) was an american novelist, writer of short stories, and poet from the american renaissance period. the bulk of his writings was published between 1846 and 1857. best known for his whaling novel moby-dick (1851), he is also legendary for having been forgotten during the last thirty years of his life. melville's writing is characteristic for its allusivity. "in melville's manipulation of his reading", scholar stanley t. williams wrote, "was a transforming power comparable to shakespeare's".williams (1956), 231 born in new york city, he was the third child of a merchant in french dry-goods, with revolutionary war heroes for grandfathers. not long after the death of his father in 1832, his schooling stopped abruptly. after having been a schoolteacher for a short time, he signed up for a merchant voyage to liverpool in 1839. a year and a half into his first whaling voyage, in 1842 he jumped ship in the marquesas islands, where he lived among the natives for a month. his first book, typee (1846),

Holy_orders

in christian churches, holy orders are special roles within the church such as bishop, priest or deacon. in the roman catholic (latin: sacri ordines), eastern catholic, eastern orthodox (ιερωσύνη [hierōsynē], ιεράτευμα [hierateuma], Священство [svyashchenstvo]), oriental orthodox, anglican, assyrian, old catholic, independent catholic churches and some lutheran churches holy orders comprise the three orders of bishop, priest and deacon, or the sacrament or rite by which candidates are ordained to those orders. except for lutherans and some anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament (the sacramentum ordinis). the anglo-catholic party within anglicanism tends to identify with the roman catholic position with regard to the sacramental nature of ordination. denominations have varied conceptions of holy orders. in the anglican churches and some lutheran churches the traditional orders of bishop, priest and deacon are bestowed using ordination rites. the extent to which ordination is considered sacramental in these traditions has, however, been a matter of some internal dispute. many other denominations do not consider the role of ministry as being sacramental in nature and would not think of it in terms of "holy orders" as such. historically, the word "order" (latin ordo) designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordinatio meant legal incorporation into an ordo. the word "holy" refers to the church. in context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the church. other positions such as pope, patriarch, cardinal, monsignor, archbishop, archimandrite, archpriest, protopresbyter, hieromonk, protodeacon, archdeacon, etc., are not sacramental orders. these are simply offices or titles. ==eastern christianity== thumb|300px|after the transmutation of the holy gifts, the bishop presents to the newly ordained priest a portion of the lamb (i.e., the body of christ)" the eastern orthodox church considers ordination (known as cheirotonia, "laying on of hands")

Horse

the horse (equus ferus caballus) is one of two extant subspecies of equus ferus. it is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family equidae. the horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 bc, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 bc. horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. these feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse. there is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. horses' anatomy enables them to make use of

Hvergelmir

in norse mythology, hvergelmir (old norse "bubbling boiling spring"orchard (1997:93)) is a major spring. hvergelmir is attested in the poetic edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the prose edda, written in the 13th century by snorri sturluson. in the poetic edda, hvergelmir is mentioned in a single stanza, which details that it is the location where liquid from the antlers of the stag eikþyrnir flow, and that the spring, "whence all waters rise", is the source of numerous rivers.thorpe (1866:23). the prose edda repeats this information and adds that the spring is located in niflheim, that it is one of the three major springs at the primary roots of the cosmic tree yggdrasil (the other two are urðarbrunnr and mímisbrunnr), and that within the spring are a vast amount of snakes and the dragon níðhöggr. ==attestations== hvergelmir is attested in the following works: ===poetic edda=== hvergelmir receives a single mention in the poetic edda, found in the poem grímnismál: {| | :eikthyrnir the hart is called, :that stands o'er odin's hall, :and bites from lærad's branches; :from his horns fall drops into hvergelmir, :whence all waters rise: | |} this stanza is followed three stanzas consisting mainly of the names of 42 rivers. some of these rivers lead to the dwelling of the gods (such as gömul and geirvimul), while at least two (gjöll and leipt), reach to hel. ===prose edda=== hvergelmir is mentioned several times in the prose edda. in gylfaginning, just-as-high explains that the spring hvergelmir is located in the foggy realm of niflheim: "it was many ages before the earth was created that niflheim was made, and in its midst lies a spring called hvergelmir, and from it flows the rivers called svol, gunnthra, fiorm, fimbulthul, slidr and hrid, sylg and ylg, vid, leiptr; gioll is next to hell-gates."faulkes (1995:9-10). later in gylfaginning, just-as-high describes the central tree yggdrasil. just-as-high says that three roots of the tree support it and "extend very, very far" and that the third of these three roots extends over niflheim. beneath this root, says just-as-high, is the spring hvergelmir, and that the base of the root is gnawed on by the dragon níðhöggr.faulkes (1995:17). additionally, high says that hvergelmir contains not only níðhöggr but also so many snakes that "no tongue can enumerate them".faulkes (1995:19). the spring is mentioned a third time in gylfaginning where high recounts its source: the stag eikþyrnir stands on top of the afterlife hall valhalla feeding branches of yggdrasil, and from the stag's antlers drips great amounts of liquid down into hvergelmir. high tallies 26 rivers here.faulkes (1995:33). hvergelmir is mentioned a final tim

Henry_Ainsworth

henry ainsworth (1571–1622) was an english nonconformist clergyman and scholar. ==life== he was born of a farming family of swanton morley, norfolk. he was educated at st john's college, cambridge, later moving to caius college, and, after associating with the puritan party in the church, eventually joined the separatists. driven abroad about 1593, he found a home in "a blind lane at amsterdam", acting as "porter" to a bookseller, who, on discovering his knowledge of hebrew, introduced him to other scholars. when part of the london church, of which francis johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in amsterdam, ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. in 1596 he drew up a confession of their faith, reissued in latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various universities of europe (including st andrews, scotland). johnson joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and ainsworth composed an apology or defence of such true christians as are commonly but unjustly called brownists. organizing the church was not easy and dissension was rife. though often involved in controversy, ainsworth was not arrogant, but was a steadfast and cultured champion of the principles represented by the early congregationalists. amid all the controversy, he steadily pursued his studies. the combination was so unique that some have mistaken him for two different individuals. (confusion has also been occasioned through his friendly controversy with one john ainsworth, who left the anglican for the roman catholic church.) in 1610 ainsworth was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of their church, from johnson and those who adhered to him. a difference of principle as to the church's right to revise its officers' decisions had been growing between them; ainsworth taking the more congregational view. in spirit he remained a man of peace. he died in 1622 in amsterdam. ==works== in 1608 ainsworth answered richard bernard's the separatist schisme, but his greatest minor work in this field was his reply to john smyth (commonly called "the se-baptist"), entitled defence of holy scripture, worship and ministry used in the christian churches separated from antichrist, against the challenges, cavils and contradictions of mr smyth (1609). his scholarly works include his annotations—on genesis (1616); exodus (1617); leviticus (161

Hilversum

{{infobox settlement | name = hilversum | settlement_type = municipality | image_skyline = hilversum centrum a.jpg | image_alt = | image_caption = hilversum city centre | image_flag = hilversum vlag.svg | flag_size = 100x67px | flag_alt = | image_shield = coat of arms of hilversum.svg | shield_size = 100x80px | shield_alt = | image_map = map - nl - municipality code 0402 (2009).svg | map_alt = highlighted position of hilversum in a municipal map of north holland | map_caption = location in north holland | latd = 52 |latm = 14 |latns = n | longd = 5 |longm = 10 |longew = e | coordinates_display = inline,title | coordinates_footnotes = | coordinates_region = nl | subdivision_type = country | subdivision_name = netherlands | subdivision_type1 = province | subdivision_name1 = north holland | government_footnotes = | governing_body = municipal council | leader_party = pvda | leader_title = mayor | leader_name = pieter broertjes | leader_title1 = aldermen | leader_name1 = | unit_pref = metric <!-- for references: use tags --> | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = | area_land_km2 = | area_water_km2 = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = 15 | elevation_max_footnotes = <!-- for references: use tags --> | elevation_max_m = | elevation_min_footnotes = <!-- for references: use tags --> | elevation_min_m = | population_footnotes = | population_total = | population_as_of = | population_density_km2 = | population_demonym = hilversummer | timezone = cet | utc_offset = +1 | timezone_dst = cest | utc_offset_dst = +2 | postal_co

Hebrew_numerals

the system of hebrew numerals is a quasi-decimal alphabetic numeral system using the letters of the hebrew alphabet. the system was adopted from that of the greek numerals in the late 2nd century bc; it is also known as the hebrew alphabetic numerals to contrast with earlier systems of writing numerals used in classical antiquity. these systems were inherited from usage in the aramaic and phoenician scripts, attested from c. 800 bc in the so-called samaria ostraca and sometimes known as hebrew-aramaic numerals, ultimately derived from the egyptian hieratic numerals. the greek system was adopted in hellenistic judaism and had been in use in greece since about the 5th century bc. stephen chrisomalis, numerical notation: a comparative history, cambridge university press, 2010, p. 157. solomon gandz, hebrew numerals, proceedings of the american academy for jewish research vol. 4, (1932 - 1933), pp. 53-112. in this system, there is no notation for zero, and the numeric values for individual letters are added together. each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and the first four hundreds (100, 200, 300, 400) a separate letter. the later hundreds (500, 600, 700, 800 and 900) are represented by the sum of two or three letters representing the first four hundreds. to represent numbers from 1,000 to 999,999, the same letters are reused to serve as thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. gematria (jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively. in israel today, the decimal system of arabic numerals (ex. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.) is used in almost all cases (money, age, date on the civil calendar). the hebrew numerals are used only in special cases, such as when using the hebrew calendar, or numbering a list (similar to a, b, c, d, etc.), much as roman numerals are in the west. ==main table== {| class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="2"|decimal !rowspan="2"|hebrew !rowspan="2"|glyph !colspan="2" |cardinal(ex. one, two, three) !colspan="2" |ordinal(ex. first, second, third) |- ! masculine ! feminine ! masculine ! feminine |- |0 | colspan="2" | n/a | colspan="2" align="center"| efes (אֶפֶס) | colspan="2" align="center"| n/a |- |1 |aleph | א | align="center"| echad(אֶחַד) | align="center"| achat(אַחַת) | align="center"| rishon (רִאשׁוֹן‏) | align="center"| rishona(רִאשׁוֹנָה‏) |- |2 |bet | ב | align="center"| shnayim

Hero_Wars

:this page is about hero wars and its revision, heroquest. for the games workshop game, see heroquest (board game). hero wars is the name for the fantasy role-playing game published by issaries, inc. ==description== the first-edition rulebook, hero wars, was published in 2000. like runequest, hero wars is set in the world of glorantha but the rules system is designed for more epic games; there is no real relationship between the runequest game and hero wars except for the setting of glorantha. hero wars used an innovative resolution system capable of fulfilling either simulationist or narrativist play with no modification. some players found the abstraction of the system problematic, while others have found it to have been a better match for the mythic vision of glorantha. the first-edition core books had serious quality issues as the publisher did not have sufficient funding to complete production.shannon appelcline, a brief history of game ...2006-09-18 as of 2002 the line has expanded to * hero wars: roleplaying in glorantha, containing the core rules. * narrator's book, containing advanced rules and sample adventures. * glorantha: introduction to the hero wars, world background (with no game rules whatsoever) * anaxial's roster, rules and myths for all sorts of creatures and races. * thunder rebels and storm tribe, two books describing the heortling barbarians' culture for players and narrators. * barbarian adventures and orlanth is dead, two adventure books for heortling rebels against the lunar empire. the game's extensively revised second edition was published in 2003 as heroquest; the hero wars products are highly compatible, and conversion guidelines are available at http://www.heroquest-rpg.com ==references== ==external links== *hero wars fr:hero wars

History_of_physics

physics (from ancient greek: φύσις physis "nature") is a branch of science that developed out of philosophy, and was thus referred to as natural philosophy until the late 19th century—a term describing a field of study concerned with "the workings of nature". currently, physics is traditionally defined as the study of matter, energy, and the relation between them. physics is, in some senses, the oldest and most basic pure science; its discoveries find applications throughout the natural sciences, since matter and energy are the basic constituents of the natural world. the other sciences are generally more limited in their scope and may be considered branches that have split off from physics to become sciences in their own right. physics today may be divided loosely into classical physics and modern physics. ==ancient history== elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics, and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry. these mathematical disciplines began in antiquity with the babylonians and with hellenistic writers such as archimedes and ptolemy. meanwhile, philosophy, including what was called "physics", focused on explanatory (rather than descriptive) schemes, largely developed around the aristotelian idea of the four types of "causes". ===ancient greece=== the move towards a rational understanding of nature began at least since the archaic period in greece (650 – 480 bce) with the pre-socratic philosophers. the philosopher thales of miletus (7th and 6th centuries bce), dubbed "the father of science" for refusing to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.singer, c. this shift from ecclesiastical reasoning to scientific reasoning marked the beginning of scientific methodology. a short history of science to the 19th century. streeter press, 2008. p. 35. thales also made advancements in 580 bce by suggesting that water is the basic element, experimenting with magnets and attraction to rubbed amber, and formulating the first cosmologies. anaximander, famous for his proto-evolutionary theory, disputed the ideas of thales and proposed that

History_of_Poland

the history of poland is rooted in the arrival of the slavs, who gave rise to permanent settlement and historic development on polish lands. during the piast dynasty christianity was adopted in 966 ad and a medieval monarchy established. the jagiellonian dynasty period brought close ties with the grand duchy of lithuania, cultural development and territorial expansion, culminating in the establishment of the polish–lithuanian commonwealth in 1569. the commonwealth in its early phase constituted a continuation of the jagiellonian prosperity, with its remarkable development of a sophisticated noble democracy. from the mid-17th century, the huge state entered a period of decline caused by devastating wars and deterioration of the country's system of government. significant internal reforms were introduced during the later part of the 18th century, but the reform process was not allowed to run its course, as the russian empire, the kingdom of prussia, and the austrian habsburg monarchy through a series of invasions and subsequent partitions terminated the commonwealth's independent existence in 1795. from then until 1918 there was no independent polish state. the poles engaged intermittently in armed resistance until 1864. after the failure of the last uprising, the nation preserved its identity through educational initiatives and the program of "organic work", intended to modernize the economy and society. the opportunity to regain freedom appeared only after world war i, when the partitioning imperial powers were defeated by war and revolution. the second polish republic was established and existed from 1918 to 1939. it was destroyed by nazi germany and the soviet union by their invasion of poland at the beginning of world war ii. millions of polish citizens perished in the course of the nazi occupation as nazi germany classified ethnic poles, jews and romani (gypsies) as subhuman, targeting the latter two groups for imminent extermination. the polish government in exile kept functioning and through the many polish military formations on the western and eastern fronts the poles contributed to the allied victory. nazi germany's forces were compelled to retreat from poland as the soviet red army advanced, which led to the creation of the communist polish people's republic, a [[sate

Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn

the hermetic order of the golden dawn (or, more commonly, the golden dawn) was an organization devoted to the study and practice of the occult, metaphysics, and paranormal activities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. known as a magical order, the hermetic order of the golden dawn was active in great britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development. many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as wiccacolquhoun, ithell (1975) the sword of wisdom: macgregor mathers & the golden dawn. new york: g.p. putnam's sons.phillips, julia (1991) history of wicca in england: 1939 - present day. lecture at the wiccan conference in canberra, 1991. and thelema, were inspired by the golden dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th-century western occultism.jenkins, phillip (2000) mystics and messiahs: cults and new religions in american history, pg. 74. "also in the 1880s, the tradition of ritual magic was revived in london by a group of masonic adepts, who formed the order of the golden dawn, which would prove an incalculable influence on the whole subsequent history of occultism." usa: oxford university press.smoley, richard (1999) hidden wisdom: a guide to the western inner traditions, ppg 102-103. "founded in 1888, the golden dawn lasted a mere twelve years before it was shattered by personal conflicts. at its height it probably had no more than a hundred members. yet its influence on magic and esoteric thought in the english-speaking world would be hard to overestimate." usa: quest books. the three founders, william robert woodman, william wynn westcott, and samuel liddell macgregor mathers were freemasons and members of societas rosicruciana in anglia (s.r.i.a.).regardie, 1993, page 10 westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the golden dawn. the golden dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation like the masonic lodges; however women were admitted on an equal basis with men. the "golden dawn" was the first of three orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the "golden dawn". the first order taught esoteric philosophy based on the hermetic qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four classical elements as well as the basics of astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy. the second or "inner" order, the rosae rubeae et aureae crucis (the ruby rose and cross of gold), taught proper magic, includ

History_of_Israel

the history of israel encompasses the history of the modern state of israel, as well as that of the jews in the land of israel. the area of modern israel is small, about the size of wales or half the size of costa rica, and is located roughly on the site of the ancient kingdoms of israel and judah except that these ancient kingdoms also included what is now the west bank. it is the birthplace of the hebrew language spoken in israel, and of the abrahamic religions. it contains sites believed to be sacred to judaism, christianity, islam, druze and bahá'í faith. although coming under the sway of various empires and home to a variety of ethnicities, the land of israel was predominantly jewish until the 3rd century."the chosen few : how education shaped jewish history, 70 - 1492, by botticini and eckstein, chapter 1, especially page 17, princeton 2012" the area became increasingly christian after the 3rd century and then largely muslim from the 7th century conquest until the middle of the 20th century. it was a focal point of conflict between christianity and islam between 1096 and 1291, and from the end of the crusades until the british conquest in 1917 was part of the syrian province of first the mamluk sultanate of egypt and then (from 1517) the ottoman empire. in the late-19th century, persecution of jews, particularly in europe, led to the creation of the zionist movement. following the british conquest of syria, the balfour declaration in world war i and the formation of the mandate of palestine, aliyah (jewish immigration to the land of israel) increased and gave rise to arab–jewish tensions, and a collision of the arab and jewish nationalist movements. israeli independence in 1948 was marked by massive migration of jews from both europe and the muslim countries to israel, and of arabs from israel leading to the extensive arab–israeli conflict. about 42% of the world's jews live in israel today.{{cite book |last=louza |first=marcel |title=hamishiya: the story of five friends |url=http://books.google.com.ar/books?id=i_uoraahodqc&pg=

Hadron

in particle physics, a hadron (, hadrós, "stout, thick") is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force (in a similar way as molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force). hadrons are categorized into two families: baryons (such as protons and neutrons, made of three quarks) and mesons (such as pions, made of one quark and one antiquark). a tetraquark state (an exotic meson), named the z(4430)– was discovered in 2014 by the lhcb collaboration.lhcb collaboration (2014): observation of the resonant character of the z(4430)– state other types of exotic hadrons may exist, such as pentaquarks (exotic baryons), but no current evidence conclusively suggests their existence.w.-m. yao et al. (2006): particle listings – &theta;+c. amsler et al. (2008): pentaquarks of the hadrons, protons are stable, and neutrons bound within atomic nuclei are stable, whereas other hadrons are unstable under ordinary conditions; free neutrons decay with a half-life of about 880 seconds. experimentally, hadron physics is studied by colliding protons or nuclei of heavy elements such as lead, and detecting the debris in the produced particle showers. ==etymology== the term "hadron" was introduced by lev b. okun in a plenary talk at the 1962 international conference on high energy physics. in this talk he said: not withstanding the fact that this report deals with weak interactions, we shall frequently have to speak of strongly interacting particles. these particles pose not only numerous scientific problems, but also a terminological problem. the point is that "strongly interacting particles" is a very clumsy term which does not yield itself to the formation of an adjective. for this reason, to take but one instance, decays into strongly interacting particles are called non-leptonic. this definition is not exact because "non-leptonic" may also signify "photonic". in this report i shall call strongly interacting particles "hadrons", and the corresponding decays "hadronic" (the greek ἁδρός signifies "large", "massive", in contrast to λεπτός which means "small", "light"). i hope that this terminology will prove to be ==properties== [[image:hadron colors.svg|ri

Hebrew_grammar

hebrew grammar is the grammar of the hebrew language. ==history of studies in hebrew grammar== the masoretes in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of hebrew. as early as the 9th century judah ibn kuraish discussed the relationship between arabic and hebrew. in the 10th century, aaron ben moses ben asher refined the tiberian vocalization, an extinct pronunciation of the hebrew bible. the first treatises on hebrew grammar appear in the high middle ages, in the context of midrash (a method of interpreting and studying the hebrew bible). the karaite tradition originated in abbasid baghdad around the 7th century. the diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the hebrew bible.g. khan , j. b. noah, the early karaite tradition of hebrew grammatical thought (2000) solomon ibn gabirol in the 11th century composed a versified hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. in the 12th century, ibn barun compared the hebrew language with arabic in the islamic grammatical tradition.pinchas wechter, ibn barūn's arabic works on hebrew grammar and lexicography (1964) 11th to 12th century grammarians of the golden age of jewish culture in spain included judah ben david hayyuj, jonah ibn janah, abraham ibn ezra, joseph kimhi, moses kimhi and david kimhi. ibn ezra gives a list of the oldest hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his moznayim (1140). roger bacon was "a tolerable hebrew scholar". profiat duran published an influential grammar in 1403. judah messer leon's 1454 grammar is a product of the italian renaissance. hebrew grammars by christian authors appeared during the renaissance. hieronymus buclidius, a friend of erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a branch of hebrew studies at louvain in flanders. elijah levita was called to the chair of hebrew at the university of paris. cardinal grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the church, studied hebrew and the cabala with jewish teachers; even the warrior guido rangoni attempted the hebrew language with the aid of jacob mantino (1526). pico de la mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect hebrew manuscripts, and reuchlin was the first to write a modern grammar of the hebrew language (1506). conrad gesner (d. 1565) was the first christian to compile a catalogue of hebrew books. paul fagius and elia levita operated the first hebrew printing office in the 1540s. levita also compiled the first hebrew-yiddish dictionary. through the influence of johannes buxtorf (d. 1629)

Hampshire

{| class="infobox" 1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse; =; width:300px;" |+ hampshire |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:whit"| 150px|the flag of hampshire flag of hampshire county council |- | colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;" | 200px|hampshire within england |- | colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | geography |- ! style="width:45%;"| status ||ceremonial and (smaller) non-metropolitan county |- !region: |south east england |- ! style="font-weight: normal;" | area- total- admin. council- admin. area |ranked 9th3,769&nbsp;km² (1,455&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) ranked 7th3,679&nbsp;km² (1,420&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) |- !admin hq: |winchester |- !county flower: |tudor rose |- !iso 3166-2: |gb-ham |- !ons code: |24 |- !nuts 3: |ukj33 |- | colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | demographics |- ! style="font-weight: normal;" | population- total ()- density- admin. council- admin. pop. |ranked ranked |- !ethnicity: |96.7% white1.3% s. asian 0.8% mixed 1.2% other |- | colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | politics |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|hampshire county councilhttp://www.hampshire.gov.uk |- !executive | |- ! members of parliament | * james arbuthnot (c) * steve brine (c) * john denham (l) * caroline dinenage (c) * mike hancock (ld) * damian hinds (c) * mark hoban (c) * george hollingbery (c) * gerald howarth (c) * [[juli

History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah

israel and judah were related iron age kingdoms of the ancient levant. the kingdom of israel emerged as an important local power by the 9th century bce before falling to the neo-assyrian empire in 722&nbsp;bce. israel's southern neighbor, the kingdom of judah, emerged in the 8th centurygrabbe 2008, pp. 225–6. and enjoyed a period of prosperity as a client-state of first assyria and then babylon before a revolt against the neo-babylonian empire led to its destruction in 586&nbsp;bce. following the fall of babylon to the persian king cyrus the great in 539&nbsp;bce, some judean exiles returned to jerusalem, inaugurating the formative period in the development of a distinctive judahite identity in the persian province of yehud. yehud was absorbed into the subsequent hellenistic kingdoms that followed the conquests of alexander the great, but in the 2nd century bce the judaeans revolted against the hellenist seleucid empire and created the hasmonean kingdom. this, the last nominally independent judean kingdom, came to an end in 63&nbsp;bce with its conquest by pompey of rome. with the installation of client kingdoms under the herodian dynasty, the kingdom of israel was wracked by civil disturbances which culminated in the jewish revolt, the destruction of the temple, the emergence of rabbinical judaism and early christianity. ==periods== *iron age i: 1200–1000 *iron age ii: 1000–586 *neo-babylonian: 586–539 *persian: 539–332 *hellenistic: 332–53king 2001, p. xxiii. ==sources== the sources for the history of ancient israel and judah can be broadly divided into the biblical narrative (the hebrew bible, deuterocanonical and non-biblical works for the later period) and the archaeological record. the latter can again be divided between epigraphy (written inscriptions, both from israel and other lands including mesopotamia and egypt) and the material record (everything else). ===the biblical narrative=== the torah contains "sagas, heroic epics, oral traditions, annals, biographies, narrative histories, novellae, belles lettres, proverbs and wisdom-sayings, poetry, prophecy, apocalyptic, and much mor

History_of_India

the history of the indian subcontinent begins with evidence of human activity of anatomically modern humans, as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago.g. bongard-levin, a history of india (progress publishers: moscow, 1979) p. 11. the indus valley civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the indian subcontinent from c. 3300 to 1300 bce in present-day pakistan and northwest india, was the first major civilization in south asia.romila thapar, a history of india (penguin books: new york, 1966) p. 23. a sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the mature harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 bce.romila thapar, a history of india, p. 24. this civilization collapsed at the start of the second millennium bce and was later followed by the iron age vedic civilization, which extended over much of the indo-gangetic plain and which witness the rise of major polities known as the mahajanapadas. in one of these kingdoms, magadha, mahavira and gautama buddha propagated their shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century bce. most of the subcontinent was conquered by the maurya empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries bce. from the 3rd century bc onwards prakrit and pali literature in the north and the sangam literature in southern india started to flourish.researches into the history and civilization of the kirātas by g. p. singh p.33a social history of early india by brajadulal chattopadhyaya p.259 further, various parts of india were ruled by numerous middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years, among which the gupta empire stand out. this period, witnessing a hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "golden age of india". during this period, aspects of indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (hinduism and buddhism) spread to much of asia, while kingdoms in southern india had maritime business links with the roman empire from around 77 ce. during this period indian cultural influence spread over many parts of southeast asia which led to the establishment of indianized kingdoms in southeast asia.the cambridge history of southeast asia: from early times to c. 1800, band 1 by nicholas tarling p.281 7th-11th centuries saw the

Federation_of_Expellees

the federation of expellees or bund der vertriebenen (bdv) is a non-profit organization formed on 27 october 1957 to represent the interests of ethnic germans who either fled their homes in parts of central and eastern europe, or were forcibly expelled following world war ii, and their families. since 2014 the president of the federation has been bernd fabritius, a christian social union in bavaria politician. ==historical background== it is estimated that in the aftermath of world war ii between 13 and 16 million ethnic germans fled or were expelled from parts of central and eastern europe, including the former eastern territories of germany (parts of present-day poland), the czech republic, slovakia, slovenia, hungary, croatia, serbia (mostly from the vojvodina region), the kaliningrad oblast of russia (formerly the northern part of east prussia), lithuania, romania and other east european countries. the federation of expellees was formed on 27 october 1957. before its founding, the bund der heimatvertriebenen (league of expellees and deprived of rights), formed in 1950, represented the interests of displaced german expellees. from 1959 to 1964, the first president of the federation was hans krüger, a former nazi judge and activist.dw-world.de: league of german expellees unwilling to investigate own past, 14 august 2006. after the war krüger was a west german politician of the christian democratic union (cdu), was a member of parliament from 1957 to 1965, served as federal minister for displaced persons, refugees and war victims for 4 months in 1963-64 in the first cabinet of ludwig erhard. he stepped down from cabinet and other positions in 1964 amid controversy about his war-time background. krüger was succeeded as president by wenzel jaksch in 1964 who held the position until his untimely death in 1966.biography at spd-wiesbaden.de ===german laws concerning the expellees=== between 1953, when the federal expellee law was passed, and 1991 the west german government passed several laws dealing with german expellees. the most notable of these is the "law of return" which granted german citizenship to any ethnic german. several additions were later made to these laws. the german law of return

History_of_the_graphical_user_interface

[[file:sketchpad-apple.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.20|ivan sutherland demonstrating sketchpad (uvc via ia: video and thumbnails).]] the history of the graphical user interface, understood as the use of graphic icons and a pointing device to control a computer, covers a five-decade span of incremental refinements, built on some constant core principles. several vendors have created their own windowing systems based on independent code, but with basic elements in common that define the wimp "window, icon, menu and pointing device" paradigm. there have been important technological achievements, and enhancements to the general interaction in small steps over previous systems. there have been a few significant breakthroughs in terms of use, but the same organizational metaphors and interaction idioms are still in use. although many gui operating systems are controlled by using a mouse, the keyboard can also be used with keyboard shortcuts or arrow keys. the interface developments described, below, have been summarized and omit many details in the interest of brevity. the influence of game computers and joystick operation has been omitted. __toc__ ==initial developments== early dynamic information devices such as radar displays, where input devices were used for direct control of computer-created data, set the basis for later improvements of graphical interfaces. some early cathode-ray-tube (crt) screens used a lightpen, rather than a mouse, as the pointing device. the concept of a multi-panel windowing system was introduced by the first real-time graphic display systems for computers: the sage project and ivan sutherland's sketchpad. ===augmentation of human intellect (nls)=== in the 1960s, doug engelbart's augmentation of human intellect project at the augmentation research center at sri international in menlo park, california develo

Hanover,_New_Hampshire

hanover is a town along the connecticut river in grafton county, new hampshire, united states. the population was 11,260 at the 2010 census.united states census bureau, american factfinder, 2010 census figures. retrieved march 23, 2011. cnn and money magazine rated hanover the sixth best place to live in america in 2011, and the second best in 2007. dartmouth college and the [[u

Hansie_Cronje

wessel johannes "hansie" cronje (25 september 1969 – 1 june 2002) was a south african cricketer and captain of the south african national cricket team in the 1990s. he died in a plane crash in 2002. he was voted the 11th greatest south african in 2004 despite having been banned for life from professional cricket for his role in a match-fixing scandal. ==early life== born in bloemfontein, cronje matriculated in 1987 from grey college in bloemfontein where he was the headboy. an excellent a

Haggai

haggai (; , Ḥaggay or hag-i, koine greek: Ἀγγαῖος; ) was a hebrew prophet during the building of the second temple in jerusalem, and one of the twelve minor prophets in the hebrew bible and the author of the book of haggai. his name means "my holiday". he was the first of three post-exile prophets from the neo-babylonian exile of the house of judah (with zechariah, his contemporary, and malachi, who lived about one hundred years later), who belonged to the period of jewish history which began after the return from captivity in babylon. scarcely anything is known of his personal history. he may have been one of the captives taken to babylon by nebuchadnezzar. he began his ministry about sixteen years after the return of the jews to judah (ca. 520 bc). the work of rebuilding the temple had been put to a stop through the intrigues of the samaritans. after having been suspended for eighteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of haggai and zechariah. they exhorted the people, which roused them from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of a change in the policy of the persian government under darius the great. the name haggai, with various vocalizations, is also found in the book of esther, as a eunuch servant of the queen. ==haggai and officials of his time== haggai supported the officials of his time, specifically zerubbabel, the governor, and joshua the high priest. in the book of haggai, god refers to zerubbabel as "my servant" as king david was, and says he will make him as a "signet ring," as king jehoiachin was (haggai 2:23; cf. jer 22:24). the signet ring symbolized a ring worn on the hand of yahweh, showing that a king held divine favour. thus, haggai is implicitly, but not explicitly, saying that zerubbabel would preside over a restored davidic kingdom. == liturgical commemoration == on the eastern orthodox liturgical calendar, haggai is commemorated as a saint and prophet. his feast day is december 16 (for those churches which follow the traditional julian calendar, december 16 currently falls on december 29 of the modern gregorian calendar). he is also commemorated, in com

Homeostasis

homeostasis, also spelled homoeostasis (from greek: ὅμοιος homoios, "similar" and στάσις stasis, "standing still"), is the property of a system in which variables are regulated so that internal conditions remain stable and relatively constant. examples of homeostasis include the regulation of temperature and the balance between acidity and alkalinity (ph). it is a process that maintains the stability of the human body's internal environment in response to changes in external conditions. the concept was described by french physiologist claude bernard in 1865 and the word was coined by walter bradford cannon in 1926. although the term was originally used to refer to processes within living organisms, it is frequently applied to automatic control systems such as thermostats. homeostasis requires a sensor to detect changes in the condition to be regulated, an effector mechanism that can vary that condition; and a negative feedback connection between the two. ==examples from technology== the following are all examples of familiar homeostatic mechanisms: * a thermostat operates by switching heaters or air-conditioners on and off in response to the output of a temperature sensor. * cruise control adjusts a car's throttle in response to changes in speed. * an autopilot operates the steering controls of an aircraft or ship in response to deviation from a pre-set compass bearing or route. * process control systems in a chemical plant or oil refinery maintain fluid levels, pressures, temperature, chemical composition, etc. by controlling heaters, pumps and valves. * the centrifugal governor of a steam engine, as designed by james watt in 1788, reduces the throttle valve in response to increases in the engine speed, or opens the valve if the speed falls below the pre-set rate. ==biological== all living organisms depend on maintaining a complex set of interacting metabolic chemical reactions. from the simplest unicellular organisms to the most complex plants and animals, internal processes operate to keep the conditions within tight limits to allow these reactions to proceed. homeostatic processes act at the level of the cell, the tissue, and the organ, as well as for the organism as a whole. principal homeostatic processes include the following: * "warm-bloode

Helene_Kröller-Müller

helene kröller-müller, (11 february 1869 – 14 december 1939) was one of the first european women to put together a major art collection. she was born helene emma laura juliane müller at , essen, germany, into a wealthy industrialist family. her father, wilhelm müller, owned wm. h. müller & co., a prosperous supplier of raw materials to the mining and steel industries.joshua levine (21 may 2009), the vision quest of helene kroller-muller forbes magazine. she married dutch shipping and mining tycoon anton kröller in 1888 and used both surnames in accordance with dutch tradition. she studied under henk bremmer in 1906-1907. as she was one of the wealthiest women in the netherlands at the time, bremmer recommended that she form an art collection. in 1907, she began her collection with the painting train in a landscape by paul gabriël. subsequently, helene kröller-müller became an avid art collector, and one of the first people to recognise the genius of vincent van gogh. she eventually amassed more than 90 van gogh paintings and 185 drawings, one of the world's largest collections of the artist's work, second only to the van gogh museum in amsterdam. she also bought more than 400 works by dutch artist bart van der leck, but his popularity did not take off like van gogh's.sheila farr (may 23, 2004) how a museum founder helped turn van gogh into an international icon the seattle times. kröller-müller also collected works by modern artists, such as picasso, georges braque, jean metzinger, albert gleizes, fernand léger, diego rivera, juan gris, piet mondrian, [[gino severini]

Heap_(data_structure)

in computer science, a heap is a specialized tree-based data structure that satisfies the heap property: if a is a parent node of b then the key of node a is ordered with respect to the key of node b with the same ordering applying across the heap. either the keys of parent nodes are always greater than or equal to those of the children and the highest key is in the root node (this kind of heap is called max heap) or the keys of parent nodes are less than or equal to those of the children and the lowest key is in the root node (min heap). heaps are crucial in several efficient graph algorithms such as dijkstra's algorithm, and in the sorting algorithm heapsort. a common implementation of a heap is the binary heap, in which the tree is a complete binary tree (see figure). in a heap the highest (or lowest) priority element is always stored at the root, hence the name heap. a heap is not a sorted structure and can be regarded as partially ordered. as visible from the heap-diagram, there is no particular relationship among nodes on any given level, even among the siblings. when a heap is a complete binary tree, it has a smallest possible height—a heap with n nodes always has log n height. a heap is a useful data structure when you need to remove the object with the highest (or lowest) priority. note that, as shown in the graphic, there is no implied ordering between siblings or cousins and no implied sequence for an in-order traversal (as there would be in, e.g., a binary search tree). the heap relation mentioned above applies only between nodes and their parents, grandparents, etc. the maximum number of children each node can have depends on the type of heap, but in many types it is at most two, which is known as a binary heap. the heap is one maximally efficient implementation of an abstract data type called a priority queue, and in fact priority queues are often referred to as "heaps", regardless of how they may be implemented. note that despite the similarity of the name "heap" to "stack" and "queue", the latter two are abstract data types, while a heap is a specific data structure, and "priority queue" is the proper term for the abstract data type. a heap data structure should not be confused with the heap which is a common name for the pool of memory from which dynamically allocated memory is allocated. the term was originally used only

Hillbilly

hillbilly is a term (often derogatory) for people who dwell in rural, mountainous areas in the united states, primarily in appalachia, but also parts of the ozarks. due to its strongly stereotypical connotations, the term can be offensive to those americans of appalachian or ozark heritage. "hillbilly" first appeared in print in a 1900 new york journal article, with the definition: "a hill-billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him." the stereotype is two-fold in that it incorporates both positive and negative traits: “hillbillies” are often considered independent and self-reliant individuals that resist the modernization of society, but at the same time they are also defined as backward, violent, and uncivilized. scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in “white america." ==etymology and history== the appalachian mountains were settled in the eighteenth century by settlers from england, germany, and primarily from the province of ulster in northern ireland. the settlers from ulster were mainly protestants who migrated to ireland during the plantation of ulster in the 17th century from scotland and northern england. many further migrated to the american colonies beginning in the 1730s, and in america became known as the scotch-irish. scholars argue that the term "hillbilly" originated from scottish dialect. the term "hill-folk" referred to people that preferred isolation from the greater society and "billy" meant “comrade” or “companion." it is suggested that “hill-folk” and “billie” were combined when the cameronians fled to the highlands.{{cite journal|last1=green|first1=archie|title=hillbilly music: source and symbol

Horsepower

horsepower (hp) is a unit of measurement of power (the rate at which work is done). there are many different standards and types of horsepower. the most common horsepower&mdash;especially for electrical power&mdash;is 1&nbsp;hp = 746 watts. the term was adopted in the late 18th century by scottish engineer james watt to compare the output of steam engines with the power of draft horses. it was later expanded to include the output power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors and other machinery."horsepower", encyclopedia britannica online. retrieved 2012-06-24."international system of units" (si), encyclopedia britannica online. retrieved 2012-06-24. the definition of the unit varied between geographical regions. most countries now use the si unit watt for measurement of power. with the implementation of the eu directive 80/181/eec on january 1, 2010, the use of horsepower in the eu is permitted only as a supplementary unit."directive 2009/3/ec of the european parliament and of the council of 11 march 2009", official journal of the european union. retrieved 2013-02-15. ==definitions of term== units called "horsepower" have differing definitions: * the mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower, of exactly 550 foot-pounds per second is approximately equivalent to 745.7 watts. * the metric horsepower of 75&nbsp;kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts. **the pferdestärke ps (german translation of horsepower) is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size."horsepower", sizes.com. retrieved 2009-02-05"metric horsepower", sizes.com. retrieved 2012-06-24."conversion factors", page f-313 of handbook of chemistry

H.263

h.263 is a video compression standard originally designed as a low-bit-rate compressed format for videoconferencing. it was developed by the itu-t video coding experts group (vceg) in a project ending in 1995/1996 as one member of the h.26x family of video coding standards in the domain of the itu-t, and it was later extended to add various additional enhanced features in 1998 and 2000. smaller additions were also made in 1997 and 2001, and a unified edition was produced in 2005. the h.263 codec was first designed to be utilized in h.324 based systems (pstn and other circuit-switched network videoconferencing and videotelephony), but it also found use in h.323 (rtp/ip-based videoconferencing), h.320 (isdn-based videoconferencing), rtsp (streaming media) and sip (ip-based videoconferencing) solutions. h.263 is a required video codec in etsi 3gpp technical specifications for ip multimedia subsystem (ims), multimedia messaging service (mms) and transparent end-to-end packet-switched streaming service (pss).etsi (2009-04) etsi ts 126 234 v8.2.0 (2009-04); 3gpp ts 26.234; transparent end-to-end packet-switched streaming service (pss); protocols and codecs retrieved on 2009-06-02.etsi (2009-01) etsi ts 126 140 v8.0.0 (2009-01); 3gpp ts 26.140; multimedia messaging service (mms); media formats and codes retrieved on 2009-06-02.etsi (2009-01) etsi ts 126 141 v8.0.0 (2009-01); 3gpp ts 26.141; ip multimedia system (ims) messaging and presence; media formats and codecs retrieved on 2009-06-02. in 3gpp specifications, h.263 video is usually used in 3gp container format. h.263 also found many applications on the internet: much flash video content (as used on sites such as youtube, google video, myspace, etc.) used to be encoded in sorenson spark format (an incomplete implementation of h.263{{cite mailing list | url=http://lists.mplayerhq.hu/pipermail/ffmpeg-devel/2009-march/065410.html | mailinglist=ffmpeg-devel | author=benjamin larsson | title=h263-svq3 optimizations | quote=sorenson _spark_ and h.263 are actually very similar. they differ mostly in header structure and ranges of the coefficients. | date=2009-03-17 | accessdate=2

Humayun

nasir ud-din muhammad humayun (; os 7 march 1508 ad – os 17 january 1556 ad) was the second mughal emperor who ruled over territory in what is now afghanistan, pakistan, and parts of northern india from 1531–1540 and again from 1555–1556. like his father, babur, he lost his kingdom early, but regained it with persian aid, with additional territory. at the time of his death in 1556, the mughal empire spanned almost one million square kilometers. humayun succeeded his father in 1531, as ruler of the mughal territories in india. at the age of 23 humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power. his half-brother kamran mirza inherited kabul and lahore, the more northern parts of their father's empire. mirza was to become a bitter rival of humayun. humayun lost mughal territories to the pashtun noble, sher shah suri, and, with persian(safavid) aid, regained them 15 years later. humayun's return from persia was accompanied by a large retinue of persian noblemen and signaled an important change in mughal court culture. the central asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of persian art, architecture, language and literature. there are many stone carvings and thousands of persian manuscripts in india dating from the time of humayun. subsequently, in a very short time, humayun was able to expand the empire further, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, akbar. his peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title [[wikt:انØ

Hammered_dulcimer

the hammered dulcimer is a stringed musical instrument with the strings stretched over a trapezoidal sounding board. typically, the hammered dulcimer is set on a stand, at an angle, before the musician, who holds small mallet hammers in each hand to strike the strings (cf. appalachian dulcimer). the graeco-roman dulcimer (sweet song) derives from the latin dulcis (sweet) and the greek melos (song). the dulcimer, in which the strings are beaten with small hammers, originated from the psaltery, in which the strings are plucked. various types of hammered dulcimers are traditionally played in iraq, india, iran, southwest asia, china, and parts of southeast asia, central europe (hungary, romania, slovakia, poland, czech republic, switzerland (particularly appenzell), austria and bavaria), the balkans, eastern europe (ukraine and belarus) and scandinavia. the instrument is also played in the united kingdom (wales, east anglia, northumbria) and the u.s., where its traditional use in folk music saw a notable revival in the late 20th century.groce, nancy, the hammered dulcimer in america. washington, dc: smithsonian, 1983. page 72-73. ==strings and tuning== thumb|left|major scale pattern on a diatonic hammered dulcimer tuned in 5ths. thumb||left|hammered dulcimer accompanied by lute,tambourine and bagpipe. thumb|left|the salzburger hackbrett, a form of chromatic dulcimer. the hammered dulcimer comes in various sizes, identified by the number of strings that cross each of the bridges. a 15/14, for example, has two bridges (treble and bass) and

Hopewell_Centre_(Hong_Kong)

hopewell centre () is a , 64-storey skyscraper at 183 queen's road east, in wan chai, hong kong island in hong kong. the tower is the first circular skyscraper in hong kong. it is named after hong kong-listed property firm hopewell holdings limited, which constructed the building. hopewell holdings limited's headquarters are in the building and its chief executive officer, gordon wu, has his office on the top floor. ==description== thumb|left|hopewell centre front entrance at street level construction started in 1977 and was completed in 1980. upon completion, hopewell centre surpassed jardine house as hong kong's tallest building. it was also the second tallest building in asia at the time. it kept its title in hong kong until 1989, when the bank of china tower was completed. the building uses a circular floor plan. although the front entrance is on the 'ground floor', commuters are taken through a set of escalators to the 3rd floor lift lobby. hopewell centre stands on the slope of a hill so steep that the building has its back entrance on the 17th floor towards kennedy road. there is a circular private swimming pool on the roof of the building. thumb|left|view of wan chai from hopewell centre on november 2006 a revolving restaurant located on the 62nd floor, called "revolving 66", overlooks other tall buildings below and the harbour. it was originally called revolving 62, but soon changed its name as locals kept calling it revolving 66. it completes a 360-degree rotation each hour. passengers take either office lifts (faster) or the scenic lifts (with a view) to the 56/f, where they transfer to smaller lifts up to the 62/f. the restaurant is now named view 62 by paco roncero. the building compr

History_of_Asia

the history of asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as, east asia, south asia, and the middle east linked by the interior mass of the eurasian steppe. the coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. these valleys were fertile because the soil there was rich and could bear many root crops. the civilizations in mesopotamia, the indus valley, and china shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands. the steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of the asian continent. the northern part of the continent, covering much of siberia was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra. these areas in siberia were very sparsely populated. the centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. the caucasus, himalaya, karakum desert, and gobi desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. while technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. however, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. thus the nomads who conquered states in the middle east were soon forced to adapt to the local societies. asia's history would feature major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well as events that would affect those other regions. these include the trade of the silk road, which spread cultures, languages, religion, and disease throughout afro-eurasian trade. another major advancement was the innovation of gunpowder in medieval china, which led to advanced warfare through the use of guns. ==prehistory== a temple area in southeastern turkey at göbekli tepe dated to 10000 bce has been seen as the beginning of the "neolithic 1" culture. this site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherers since there is no permanent housing in the vicinity. this temple site is the oldest known man-made place of worship. by 8500–8000 bce farming communities began to spread to anatolia, northern africa and north mesopotamia. a report by archaeologist rakesh tewari o

History_of_Zimbabwe

following the lancaster house agreement there was a transition to majority rule in 1980; the united kingdom ceremonially granted zimbabwe independence on 18 april that year. in the 2000s zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including mismanagement and corruption, the imposition of sanctions, such as among others the zimbabwe democracy and economic recovery act of 2001, following the switch from willing buyer, willing seller to fast track land reform. economic instability led several members of the military to try to overthrow the government in a coup d'état in 2007. prior to independence as zimbabwe, the nation had been known by several names: rhodesia, southern rhodesia, and zimbabwe-rhodesia. == pre-colonial era (1000–1887) == zimbabwean history can be tracked as far back as perhaps the first bantu speakers to arrive in present day zimbabwe were the makers of early iron age pottery belonging to the silver leaves or matola tradition, third to fifth centuries a.d., found in southeast zimbabwe. this tradition was part of the eastern stream of bantu expansion (sometimes called kwale) which originated west of the great lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern kenya and north eastern tanzania, and then southwards to mozambique, south eastern zimbabwe and natal. more substantial in numbers in zimbabwe were the makers of the ziwa and gokomere ceramic wares, of the fourth century a.d. their early iron age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream, which moved inland to malawi and zimbabwe. imports of beads have been found at gokomere and ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast. a later phase of the gokomere culture was the zhizo in southern zimbabwe. zhizo communities settled in the shashe-limpopo area in the tenth century. their capital there was schroda (just across the limpopo river from zimbabwe). many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there, figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls. the inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. imported beads found there and at o

Herat

herat (;herat - definition and more from the free merriam-webster dictionary. merriam-webster.com (2012-08-31). retrieved on 2013-07-12. ; dari: هرات) is the third largest city of afghanistan. it has a population of about 436,300, w

Hydrophobe

thumb|165 degree water contact angle on a surface modified using plasma technology system surface chemistry. the contact angle is the red angle plus 90 degrees. thumb|water drops on the hydrophobic surface of grass in chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule (known as a hydrophobe) that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water.aryeh ben-na'im hydrophobic interaction plenum press, new york, isbn 0-306-40222-x (strictly speaking, there is no repulsive force involved; it is an absence of attraction.) hydrophobic molecules tend to be non-polar and, thus, prefer other neutral molecules and non-polar solvents. hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together, forming micelles. water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle. examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar substances from polar compounds. hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with lipophilic, "fat-loving." however, the two terms are not synonymous. while hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions—such as the silicones and fluorocarbons. the term hydrophobe comes from the ancient greek ὑδρόφοβος, "having a horror of water", constructed from ὕδωρ, "water", and φόβος, "fear".liddell, h.g. & scott, r. (1940). a greek-english lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by sir henry stuart jones. with the assistance of. roderick mckenzie. oxford: clarendon press. ==chemical background== the hydrophobic interaction is mostly an entropic effect originating from the disruption of the highly dynamic hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water by the nonpolar solute forming a clathrate-like structure around the non-polar molecules. this structure formed is more highly ordered than free water molecules due to the water molecules arranging themselves to interact as most as possible with themselves, and thus results in a higher entropic state which causes non-polar molecules to clump tog

Henry_I_of_England

henry i (c. 1068&nbsp;– 1 december 1135), also known as henry beauclerc, was king of england from 1100 to 1135. henry was the fourth son of william the conqueror and was educated in latin and the liberal arts. on william's death in 1087, henry's older brothers william rufus and robert curthose inherited england and normandy respectively, but henry was left landless. henry purchased the county of cotentin in western normandy from robert, but william and robert deposed him in 1091. henry gradually rebuilt his power base in the cotentin and allied himself with william against robert. henry was present when william died in a hunting accident in 1100, and he seized the english throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of william's less popular policies. henry married matilda of scotland but continued to have a large number of mistresses, by whom he had many illegitimate children. robert, who invaded in 1101, disputed henry's control of england. this military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed henry as king. the peace was short-lived, and henry invaded the duchy of normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating robert at the battle of tinchebray. henry kept robert imprisoned for the rest of his life. henry's control of

History_of_medicine

this article deals with medicine as practiced by trained professionals from ancient times to the present. the ancient egyptians, ancient indians, had a system of medicine that was advanced for its time and influenced later medical traditions. the babylonians, indiansencyclopaedia of indian medicine. vol. 2. basic concepts, volume 2, p.7-9, url= and egyptians had introduced the concepts of medical diagnosis, prognosis, and medical examination. the greeks went even further, and advanced as well medical ethics. the hippocratic oath, still taken (although significantly changed from the original) by doctors up to today, was written in greece in the 5th century bce. in the medieval era, surgical practices inherited from the ancient masters were improved and then systematized in rogerius's the practice of surgery. universities began systematic training of physicians around the years 1220 in italy. during the renaissance, understanding of anatomy improved, and the microscope was invented. the germ theory of disease in the 19th century led to cures for many infectious diseases. military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery. public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the rapid growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures. advanced research centers opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals. the mid-20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics. these advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and lab technology (such as the x-ray) led to modern medicine. medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women as nurses (from the 1870s) and as physicians (especially after 1970). the 21st century is characterized by highly advanced research involving numerous fields of science. == prehistoric medicine == although there is no record to establish when plants were first used for medicinal purposes (herbalism), the use of plants as healing agents is a long-standing practice. over time through emulation of the behavior of fauna a medicinal knowledge base developed and was passed between generations. as tribal culture specialized specific castes, shamans and apothecaries performed the 'niche occupation' of healing. == antiquity == === egypt === [[file:hieroglyphic-brain.jpg|thumb|right|240px|the edwin smith surgical papyrus, writt

Holocene_extinction

the holocene extinction, sometimes called the sixth extinction, is a name proposed to describe the extinction event of species that has occurred during the present holocene epoch (since around 10,000 bce) mainly due to human activity. the large number of extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods. although 875 extinctions occurring between 1500 and 2009 have been documented by the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources, the vast majority are undocumented. according to the species-area theory and based on upper-bound estimating, the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year.s.l. pimm, g.j. russell, j.l. gittleman and t.m. brooks, the future of biodiversity, science 269: 347–350 (1995) the holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large mammals known as megafauna, starting between 9,000 and 13,000 years ago, the end of the last ice age. this may have been due to the extinction of the mammoth that had maintained grasslands that became birch forests without the mammoths.doughty, c. e., a. wolf, and c. b. field (2010), biophysical feedbacks between the pleistocene megafauna extinction and climate: the first human‐induced global warming?,geophys. res. lett., 37, l15703, the new forest and the resulting forest fires may have induced climate change. such disappearances might be the result of the proliferation of modern humans which led to climate change. these extinctions, occurring near the pleistocene–holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the quaternary extinction event. the holocene extinction continues into the 21st century. there is no general agreement on whether to consider this as merely part of the quaternary extinction event, or just a result of human caused changes. only during these

Hydrogen_atom

a hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen. the electrically neutral atom contains a single positively charged proton and a single negatively charged electron bound to the nucleus by the coulomb force. atomic hydrogen constitutes about 75% of the elemental (baryonic) mass of the universe. in everyday life on earth, isolated hydrogen atoms (usually called "atomic hydrogen" or, more precisely, "monatomic hydrogen") are extremely rare. instead, hydrogen tends to combine with other atoms in compounds, or with itself to form ordinary (diatomic) hydrogen gas, h2. "atomic hydrogen" and "hydrogen atom" in ordinary english use have overlapping, yet distinct, meanings. for example, a water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms, but does not contain atomic hydrogen (which would refer to isolated hydrogen atoms). ==production and reactivity== the h–h bond is one of the strongest bonds in chemistry, with a bond dissociation enthalpy of 435.88&nbsp;kj/mol at . as a consequence of this strong bond, h2 dissociates to only a minor extent until higher temperatures. at , the degree of dissociation is just 7.85%:greenwood, n. n.; & earnshaw, a. (1997). chemistry of the elements (2nd edn.), oxford:butterworth-heinemann. isbn 0-7506-3365-4. :h2 ⇌ 2 h hydrogen atoms are so reactive that they combine chemically with almost all elements. ==isotopes== the most abundant isotope, hydrogen-1, protium, or light hydrogen, contains no neutrons; other isotopes of hydrogen, such as deuterium or tritium, contain one or more neutrons. the formulas below are valid for all three isotopes of hydrogen, but slightly different values of the rydberg constant (correction formula given below) must be used for each hydrogen isotope. ==quantum theoretical analysis== the hydrogen atom has special significance in quantum mechanics and [[quantum field theor

HMS_Resolution

several ships of the royal navy have borne the name hms resolution. however, the first english warship to bear the name resolution was actually the first rate (built in 1610 and rebuilt in 1641), which was renamed resolution in 1650 following the inauguration of the commonwealth, and continued to bear that name until 1660, when the name prince royal was restored. the name resolution was bestowed on the first of the vessels listed below: * , a 50-gun third-rate frigate launched 1654 as tredagh; renamed resolution 1660; destroyed after grounding by a dutch fireship in the st james's day battle 4 august 1666. * , a 70-gun third-rate ship of the line launched 1667; rebuilt 1698; foundered in 1703. * , a 70-gun third rate launched 1705; run ashore to avoid capture 1707. * , a 70-gun third rate launched 1708; wrecked 1711. * , a 74-gun third rate launched 1758; run aground and lost 1759 at the battle of quiberon bay. * , a 74-gun third rate launched 1770; broken up 1813. * , the vessel of captain james cook in his explorations. * , a cutter purchased 1779; went missing in the north sea june 1797, presumed to have foundered.hepper (1994), p.84. * hms resolution, a cutter in the west indies, date of acquisition unknown and date of loss unknown. on 10 november 1800 captain peter halkett of captured the spanish sloop of war resolution in the west indies. she was armed with 18 guns and had a crew of 149 men, under the command of don francisco darrichena. halkett reported that she was the former british navy cutter resolution. resolution was in such an irreparable state that after a few days halkett destroyed her. * , a in service from 1893 to 1914. * , a in service from 1915 to 1944. * , lead ship of the ballistic missile submarines in service from 1966 to 1994. ==see also== * , a united states navy survey ship transferred to the royal new zealand navy in 1996. ==citations== ==references== * * {{cite book |last=hepper |first=david j. |year=1994 |title=british warship losses in the age of sail, 1650-1859 |publisher=jean

HMS_Dunraven

{| |} hms dunraven was a q-ship of the royal navy during world war i. on 8 august 1917, 130 miles southwest of ushant in the bay of biscay, disguised as the collier boverton and commanded by gordon campbell, vc, dunraven spotted , commanded by oberleutnant zur see reinhold saltzwedel. saltzwedel believed the disguised ship was a merchant vessel. the u-boat submerged and closed with dunraven before surfacing astern at 11:43 am and opening fire at long range. dunraven made smoke and sent off a panic party (a small number of men who "abandon ship" during an attack to continue the impersonation of a merchant). shells began hitting dunraven, detonating her depth charges and setting her stern afire. her crew remained hidden letting the fires burn. then a 4&nbsp;inch (102&nbsp;mm) gun and crew were blown away revealing dunravens identity as a warship, and uc-71 submerged. a second "panic party" abandoned ship. dunraven was hit by a torpedo. a third "panic party" went over the side, leaving only two guns manned. uc-71 surfaced, shelled dunraven and again submerged. campbell replied with two torpedoes that missed, and around 3 pm, the undamaged u-boat left that area. only one of dunravens crew was killed, but the q-ship was sinking. the british destroyer picked up dunra

History_of_science_and_technology

the history of science and technology (hst) is a field of history which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world (science) and ability to manipulate it (technology) have changed over the centuries. this academic discipline also studies the cultural, economic, and political impacts of scientific innovation. histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with william whewell, as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public. in the early 1930s, after a famous paper given by the soviet historian boris hessen, was focused into looking at the ways in which scientific practices were allied with the needs and motivations of their context. after world war&nbsp;ii, extensive resources were put into teaching and researching the discipline, with the hopes that it would help the public better understand both science and technology as they came to play an exceedingly prominent role in the world. in the 1960s, especially in the wake of the work done by thomas kuhn, the discipline began to serve a very different function, and began to be used as a way to critically examine the scientific enterprise. at the present time it is often closely aligned with the field of science studies. modern engineering as it is understood today took form during the scientific revolution, though much of the mathematics and science was built on the work of the greeks, egyptians, mesopotamians, chinese, indians and muslims. see the main articles history of science and history of technology for these respective topics. == universities with hst programs == === argentina === * buenos aires institute of technology, argentina, has been offering courses on history of the technology and the science. * national technological university, argentina, has a complete history program on its offered careers. === australia === * the university of sydney offers both undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the history and philosophy of science, run by the unit for the history and philosophy of science, within the science faculty. undergraduate coursework can be completed as part of either a bachelor of science or a bachelor of arts degree. undergraduate study can be furthered by completing an additional honours year. for postgraduate study, the unit offers both coursework and research based degrees. the two course-work based postgraduate degrees are the graduate certificate in science (hps) and the graduate diploma in science

Herman_of_Alaska

saint herman of alaska (russian: Преподобный Герман Аляскинский, c. 1750s – november 15, 1836) was a russian orthodox monk and missionary to alaska, which was then part of russian america. his gentle approach and ascetic life earned him the love and respect of both the native alaskans and the russian colonists. he is considered by many orthodox christians as the patron saint of north america.walsh, p. 261. ==early life== biographers disagree about herman’s early life. his official biography, which valaam monastery published in 1867, stated that his pre-monastic name was unknown, but herman was born into a merchant’s family in serpukhov, a city in moscow governorate, and later became a novice at the trinity-st. sergius hermitage near st. petersburg before going to valaam to become a full monk.little russian philokalia, p. 21. however, modern biographer sergei korsun found this based on erroneous information provided by simeon yanovsky, a former administrator of the russian-american company (rac) in alaska, who confused herman’s biographical information with another monk, joseph (telepnev).korsun, p. x. another former rac administrator, ferdinand von wrangel, stated herman was originally from a prosperous peasant family in the voronezh governorate and serv

HOTOL

thumb|right|200px|hotol hotol, for horizontal take-off and landing, was a british design for an air-breathing space plane by rolls-royce and british aerospace. designed as a single-stage-to-orbit (ssto) reusable winged launch vehicle, it was to be fitted with a unique air-breathing engine, the rb545 or swallow, to be developed by the rolls-royce company. the engine was technically a liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen design, but dramatically reduced the amount of oxidizer needed to be carried on board by utilising atmospheric oxygen as the spacecraft climbed through the lower atmosphere. since propellant typically represents the majority of the takeoff weight of a rocket, hotol was to be considerably smaller than normal pure-rocket designs, roughly the size of a medium-haul airliner such as the mcdonnell douglas dc-9/md-80. ultimately, comparison with a rocket vehicle using similar construction techniques failed to show much advantage, and funding for the vehicle ceased. ==description== hotol would have been 63 metres long, 12.8 metres high, 7 metres in diameter and with a wingspan of 28.3 metres. the unmanned craft was intended to put a payload of around 7 to 8 tonnes in orbit, at 300&nbsp;km altitude. it was intended to take off from a runway, mounted on the back of a large rocket-boosted trolley that would help get the craft up to "working speed". the engine was intended to switch from jet propulsion to pure rocket propulsion at 26–32&nbsp;km high, by which time the craft would be travelling at mach 5 to 7. after reaching orbit, hotol was intended to re-enter the atmosphere and glide down to land on a conventional runway (approx 1,500 metres minimum). hotol was designed for automatic, unmanned flights, although later stages would reintroduce a pilot. the internal landing gear would have been too small to carry the weight of the fully fueled rocket, so emergency landings would have required the fuel to be dumped.flight international 1 march 1986 ===engine=== the rb545 was an air-breathing rocket engine. the exact details of this engine were covered by the uk's official secrets act, and there is consequently little public information about its operation, although it has apparently been declassified.dr bob parkinson discusses hotol in an oral history interview recorded for the national life stories project oral history of british science at the british library within the atmosphere, hydrogen fuel would be used in a heat exchanger to precool air entering a high overall pressure ratio turbojet-like engine cycle, before being burnt with

Hawker_Harrier

{| |} the hawker harrier was an experimental biplane torpedo bomber aircraft built by hawker aircraft to a specification issued in the 1920s for the raf. ==development== in , the british air ministry laid down specifications for a high altitude bomber to replace the hawker horsley and for a coastal torpedo bomber (specifications 23/25 and 24/25). as these specifications were similar, the air ministry announced that a single competition would be held to study aircraft submitted for both specifications. mason 1994, p.193. sydney camm of hawker aircraft designed the harrier to meet the requirements of specification 23/25, with the prototype (j8325) first flying in february , the first of the competitors to the two specifications to fly. the harrier was a two seat biplane with single bay wings powered by a geared bristol jupiter viii radial engine. it was armed with one .303&nbsp;in (7.7&nbsp;mm) vickers machine gun and one .303&nbsp;in (7.7&nbsp;mm) lewis gun carrying a maximum of 1,000&nbsp;lb (454&nbsp;kg) of bombs. lewis 1980, p.162. the prototype harrier was tested at the aeroplane and armament experimental establishment (a & aee) at martlesham heath in november 1927, where, while it met the requirements of specification 23/25 and had satisfactory handling, the geared engine meant that it was underpowered, and it had an inferior bombload to the hawker horsley, the aircraft it was meant to replace. it was therefore modified to carry a torpedo. on testing the modified aircraft, however, it was found to still be underpowered, being incapable of taking off with torpedo, gunner and a full fuel load. it was therefore not considered further, the competition ultimately being won by the vickers vildebeest. mason 1994, p.200. the prototype was used by bristol as an engine testbed, flying with the 870&nbsp;hp (649&nbsp;kw) bristol hydra and the bristol orion engines. ==specifications (harrier, as bomber)== {{aircraft specifications |plane or copter?=plane |jet or prop?=prop |ref=mason, the british bomber since 1914 |crew= two |capacity= |length main= 29 ft 7 in |length alt= 9

Hearst_Corporation

the hearst corporation is an american multinational mass media group based in the hearst tower in midtown manhattan, new york city. founded by william randolph hearst as an owner of newspapers, the company's holdings have subsequently expanded to include a highly diversified portfolio of media interests. the hearst family is involved in the ownership and management of the corporation. hearst is one of the largest diversified communications companies in the world. its major interests include 15 daily and 36 weekly newspapers and more than 300 magazines worldwide, including harper's bazaar, cosmopolitan, esquire, elle, and o, the oprah magazine; 29 television stations through hearst television, inc., which reach a combined 18% of u.s. viewers; ownership in leading cable networks, including a+e networks, and espn inc.; as well as business publishing, digital distribution, television production, newspaper features distribution, and real estate ventures. ==trustees of william randolph hearst's will== under william randolph hearst's will, a common board of thirteen trustees (its composition fixed at five family members and eight outsiders) administers the hearst foundation, the william randolph hearst foundation, and the trust that owns (and selects the 24-member board of) the hearst corporation. the foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this. as of 2014, the trustees are: ===family=== *george randolph hearst iii, grandson of hearst's eldest son, george randolph hearst, sr., and publisher of the albany times union *william randolph hearst iii, son of second son, william randolph hearst, jr., and chairman of the board of the corporation *lisa hearst hagerman, granddaughter of third

Homininae

homininae is a subfamily of hominidae that includes members of hominini, to include humans, as well as gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos and some extinct relatives. it comprises all hominids that arose after the split from orangutans (ponginae). the homininae cladogram has three main branches, which lead to gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos, and humans. there are several extant species of chimpanzees and gorillas, but only one human species remains, although traces of several hypothetical species have been found with dates as recent as 12,000 years ago (homo floresiensis, homo denisova). organisms in this class are described as hominine or hominines (not to be confused with hominin or hominini). ==history of discoveries and classification== until 1980, the family hominidae contained only humans, with the great apes in the family pongidae. later discoveries led to a revision of classification, with hominidae uniting the great apes (now in the sub-family ponginae) and humans (in the sub-family homininae). further discoveries indicated that gorillas and chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than they are to orangutans, leading to their current placement in homininae as well. the subfamily homininae can be further subdivided into three tribes, each

Haematopoiesis

thumb|400px|diagram showing the development of different blood cells from haematopoietic stem cell to mature cells haematopoiesis (from greek αἷμα, "blood" and ποιεῖν "to make"; also hematopoiesis in american english; sometimes also haemopoiesis or hemopoiesis) is the formation of blood cellular components. all cellular blood components are derived from haematopoietic stem cells. in a healthy adult person, approximately 1011–1012 new blood cells are produced daily in order to maintain steady state levels in the peripheral circulation.semester 4 medical lectures at uppsala university 2008 by leif jansson == haematopoietic stem cells (hscs) == haematopoietic stem cells (hscs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues. hscs are self-renewing cells: when they proliferate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as hscs, so the pool of stem cells does not become depleted.this phenomenon is called asymmetric division. the other daughters of hscs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells), however can commit to any of the alternative differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cells, but cannot self-renew. the pool of progenitors is heterogeneous and can be divided into two groups, long-term self-renewing hsc and only transiently self-renewing hsc, also called short-terms. this is one of the main vital processes in the body. all blood cells are divided into three lineages. * erythroid cells are the oxygen carrying red blood cells. both reticulocytes and erythrocytes are functional and are released into the blood. in fact, a reticulocyte count estimates the rate of erythropoiesis. * lymphocytes are the cornerstone of the adaptive immune system. they are derived from common lymphoid progenitors. the lymphoid lineage is prima

Helium-3

helium-3 (he-3) is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron. it is rare on earth, and it is sought for use in nuclear fusion research. the abundance of helium-3 is thought to be greater on the moon (embedded in the upper layer of regolith by the solar wind over billions of years), though still lower in quantity (28 ppm of lunar regolith is helium-4 and from one to 50 ppb is helium-3) than the solar system's gas giants (left over from the original solar nebula). the helion, the nucleus of a helium-3 atom, consists of two protons but only one neutron, in contrast with two neutrons in common helium. its hypothetical existence was first proposed in 1934 by the australian nuclear physicist mark oliphant while he was working at the university of cambridge cavendish laboratory. oliphant had performed experiments in which fast deuterons collided with deuteron targets (incidentally, the first demonstration of nuclear fusion). helium-3 was hypothesized to be a radioactive isotope until helions were also found in samples of natural helium, which is mostly helium-4, taken both from the terrestrial atmosphere and f

Hydroxyl

a hydroxyl is a chemical functional group containing an oxygen atom connected by a covalent bond to a hydrogen atom. it is sometimes called the alcohol functional group because when bonded to carbon in a molecule that otherwise contains only hydrogen and carbon the hydroxyl group defines the molecule as an alcohol, resulting in a name ending in -ol. a hydroxyl group bonded covalently to the carbon of a carbonyl group (-c=o) produces a carboxyl group (-cooh) that is the defining group of a carboxylic acid. when the -oh group participates in an ionic bond, the [oh−] anion is called the "hydroxide" ion. ==hydroxyl group== the oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group is much more electronegative than the hydrogen, so that the electric charge is closer to the oxygen atom. similar to water, compounds containing the hydroxyl group are capable of forming hydrogen bonds. primary alcohols are miscible with water. in complex compounds, the portion of the molecule containing the hydroxyl group is hydrophilic. the hydroxyl group appears throughout organic chemical structure and biochemical structure. it appears covalently bonded to carbon in sugars. the hydroxyl group appears on the second carbon of the hydroxyl amino acids serine and threonine. it appears on the phenol side chain of tyrosine. the capacity of the hydroxyl group to form hydrogen bonds imparts water solubility and internal structural stability to proteins that include these amino acids. hydroxyl groups participate in the dehydration reactions that link simple biological molecules into long chains. the joining of a fatty acid to glycerol to form a triacylglycerol removes the -oh from the carboxyl end of the fatty acid. the joining of two aldehyde sugars to form a disaccharide removes the -oh from the carboxyl group at the aldehyde end of one sugar. the creation of a peptide bond to link two amino acids to make a protein removes the -oh from the carboxyl group of one amino acid. ==hydroxyl radical== hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and undergo chemical reactions that make them short-lived. when biological systems are exposed to hydroxyl radicals, they can cause damage to cells, including those in humans, where they react with dna, lipids, and proteins. ==lunar and other extraterrestrial observations== in 2009, india's chandrayaan-1 satellite, nasa's cassini spacecraft and the deep impact probe have each dete

Hesychasm

hesychasm (, hesychasmos, from , hesychia, "stillness, rest, quiet, silence")parry (1999), p. 230 is a mystical tradition of prayer in the eastern orthodox church and eastern catholic churches of byzantine rite practised (gk: , hesychazo: "to keep stillness") by the hesychast (gr. , hesychastes). based on christ's injunction in the gospel of matthew to "when thou prayest, enter into thy closet, and when thou hast shut thy door, pray",matthew 6:6 (king james version) hesychasm in tradition has been the process of retiring inward by ceasing to register the senses, in order to achieve an experiential knowledge of god (see theoria). == meanings of the term == kallistos ware distinguishes five distinct meanings of the term "hesychasm": # "solitary life", a sense, equivalent to "eremitical life", in which the term is used since the 4th century; # "the practice of inner prayer, aiming at union with god on a level beyond images, concepts and language", a sense in which the term is found in evagrius ponticus (345-399), maximus the confessor (c. 580 - 662), and symeon the new theologian (949-1022); # "the quest for such union through the jesus prayer", the earliest reference to which is in diadochos of photiki (c. 450); # "a particular psychosomatic technique in combination with the jesus prayer", use of which technique can be traced back at least to the 13th century; # "the theology of st. gregory palamas", on which see palamism.kallistos ware, act out of stillness: the influence of fourteenth-century hesychasm on byzantine and slav civilization ed. daniel j. sahas (toronto: the hellenic canadian association of constantinople and the thessalonikean society of metro toronto, 1995), pp. 4-7. cf. daniel paul payne, "the revival of political hesychasm in greek orthodox thought: a study of the hesychast basis of the thought of john s. romanides and christos yannaras", chapter 3. ==history of the term== the origin of the term hesychasmos, and of the related terms hesychastes, hesychia and hesychazo, is not entirely certain. according to the entries in lampe's a patristic greek lexicon, the basic terms hesychia and hesychazo appear as early as the 4th century in such fathers as st john chrysostom and the cappadocians. the terms also appear in the same period in evagrius pontikos (c. 345 – 399), who although he is writing in egypt is out of the circle of the cappadocians, an

Hypnosis

hypnosis is a state of consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness characterized by an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion."new definition: hypnosis". division 30 of the american psychological association there are two broad groups of theories as to what is occurring during hypnosis. altered state theories see hypnosis as an altered state of mind or trance, marked by a level of awareness different from the ordinary conscious state.encyclopaedia britannica, 2004: "a special psychological state with certain physiological attributes, resembling sleep only superficially and marked by a functioning of the individual at a level of awareness other than the ordinary conscious state". in contrast, non-state theories see hypnosis as a form of imaginative role-enactment. during hypnosis a person is said to have heightened focus and concentration with the ability to concentrate intensely on a specific thought or memory, while blocking out sources of distraction.{{cite web |last=segi |first=s. |year=2012 |title=hypnosis for pain management, anxiety and behavioral disorders |publisher=factiva |accessdate=december 7, 2012 |url=http://bf4dv7zn3u.search.serialssolutions.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3aofi%2fenc%3autf-8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=hypnosis&rft.jtitle=the+clinical+advisor+%3a+for+nurse+practitioners&rft.au=sherril+sego&rft.date=2012-03-01&rft.pub=haymarket+media%2c+inc&rft.issn=1524-7317&rf

Hedwig_of_Silesia

saint hedwig of silesia (), also saint hedwig of andechs (, ) (1174 – 15 october 1243), a member of the bavarian comital house of andechs, was duchess of silesia from 1201 and of greater poland from 1231 as well as high duchess consort of poland from 1232 until 1238. she was canonized by the catholic church in 1267. ==life== the daughter of count berthold iv of andechs and his second wife agnes of wettin, she was born at andechs castle in the duchy of bavaria. her elder sister agnes married king philip ii of france (annulled in 1200) and her sister gertrude (killed in 1213) king andrew ii of hungary, while the youngest matilda (mechtild) became abbess at the benedictine abbey of kitzingen in franconia, where hedwig also received her education. through her sister gertrude, she was the aunt of saint elizabeth of hungary. ===duchess consort=== at the age of twelve, hedwig married [[henry i th

Harold_Alexander,_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis

field marshal harold rupert leofric george alexander, 1st earl alexander of tunis pc pc(can) (10 december 1891 – 16 june 1969) was a british military commander and field marshal who served with distinction in both world wars and, afterwards, as governor-general of canada, the [[list of govern

Harry_Kroto

sir harold (harry) walter kroto, frs (born harold walter krotoschiner; 7 october 1939), is an english chemist. he shared the 1996 nobel prize in chemistry with robert curl and richard smalley. kroto is the francis eppes professor of chemistry at the florida state university, which he joined in 2004. prior to that, he spent a large part of his career at the university of sussex, where he now holds an emeritus professorship. ==early years== kroto was born in wisbech, cambridgeshire, england, to edith and heinz krotoschiner,harold walter kroto biography – life, family, parents, name, wife, school, mother, young, born, college, time, year, studied chemistry in college. notablebiographies.com. retrieved on 25 december 2011. with his name being of silesian origin. his father's family came from bojanowo, poland, and his mother's from berlin, germany. both his parents were born in berlin and came to great britain in the 1930s as refugees from the nazis because his father was jewish. he was raised in bolton, lancashire, england, and attended bolton school, where he was a contemporary of the highly acclaimed actor ian mckellen. in 1955, the family name was shortened to kroto. as a child, he became fascinated by a meccano set. kroto credits meccan

Music_of_India

the music of india includes multiple varieties of folk music, pop, and indian classical music. india's classical music tradition, including hindustani music and carnatic, has a history spanning millennia and developed over several eras. music in india began as an integral part of socio-religious life. ==classical music== the two main traditions of classical music are carnatic music, found predominantly in the peninsular regions, and hindustani music, found in the northern, eastern and central regions. the basic concepts of this music includes shruti (microtones), swara (notes), alankar (ornamentations), raga (melodies improvised from basic grammars), and tala (rhythmic patterns used in percussion). its tonal system divides the octave into 22 segments called shrutis, not all equal but each roughly equal to one quarter of a whole tone of western music. ===hindustani music=== the hindustani music tradition diverged from carnatic music around the 13th - 14th centuries ad . the practice of singing based on notes was popular even from the vedic times where the hymns in sama veda, an ancient religious text, were sung as samagana and not chanted. developing a strong and diverse tradition over several centuries, it has contemporary traditions established primarily in india but also in pakistan and bangladesh. in contrast to carnatic music, the other main indian classical music tradition originating from the south, hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient hindu musical traditions, historical vedic philosophy and native indian sounds but also enriched by the persian performance practices of the mughals. classical genres are dhrupad, dhamar, khyal, tarana and sadra, and there are also several semi-classical forms. ===carnatic music=== the present form of carnatic music is based on historical developments that can be traced to the 15th - 16th centuries ad and thereafter. it is said to have originated in the south indian state of karnataka. like hindustani music, carnatic music is melodic, with improvised variations, but tends to have more fixed compositions. it consists of a composition with improvised embellishments added to the piece in the forms of raga alapana, kalpanaswaram, neraval and, in the case of more advanced students, ragam tanam pallavi (raga, tala, pallavi). the main emphasis is on the vocals as most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as gāyaki

Industry

industry is the production of a good or service within an economy.industry | define industry at dictionary.com manufacturing industry became a key sector of production and labour in european and north american countries during the industrial revolution, upsetting previous mercantile and feudal economies. this occurred through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the production of steel and coal. following the industrial revolution, perhaps a third of the world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries. many developed countries and many developing/semi-developed countries (people's republic of china, india etc.) depend significantly on manufacturing industry. industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence. == classification of industry == industries can be classified in a variety of ways. at the top level, industry is often classified into sectors: primary or extractive, secondary or manufacturing, and tertiary or services. some authors add quaternary (knowledge) or even quinary (culture and research) sectors. over time, the fraction of a society's industry within each sector changes. they are- {| class="wikitable" |- !sector !definition |- |primary |this involves the extraction of resources directly from the earth; this includes farming, mining and logging. they do not process the products at all. they send it off to factories to make a profit. |- |secondary |this group is involved in the processing products from primary industries. this includes all factories&mdash;those that refine metals, produce furniture, or pack farm products such as meat. |- |tertiary |this group is involved in the delivery and sale of goods. they include truck drivers and retail workers, for example. |- |quaternary |this group is involved in the research of science and technology and other high level tasks. they include scientists, doctors, and lawyers. |- |quinary sector |some consider there to be a branch of the quaternary sector called the quinary sector, which includes the highest levels of decision making in a society or economy. this sector would include the top executives or officials in such fields as government, science, universities, nonprofit, healthcare, culture, and the media. |} there are many other different kinds of ind

Imaginary_number

{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |- | (repeats the patternfrom blue area) |- | |- | |- | |- |style="background:#cedff2;" | |- |style="background:#cedff2;" | |- |style="background:#cedff2;" | |- |style="background:#cedff2;" | |- | |- | |- | |- |(see modulus) |} an imaginary number is a number that can be written as a real number multiplied by the imaginary unit ,j is often used in engineering which is defined by its property ., chapter 2, p 38 the square of an imaginary number is . for example, is an imaginary number, and its square is . except for 0 (which is both real and imaginaryextract of page 11.2), imaginary numbers produce negative real numbers when squared. an imaginary number can be added to a real number to form a complex number of the form , where the real numbers and are called, respectively, the real part and the imaginary part of the complex number.both the real part and the imaginary part are defined as real numbers. imaginary numbers can therefore be thought of as complex numbers whose real part is zero. the name "imaginary number" was coined in the 17th century as a derogatory term, as such numbers were regarded by some as fictitious or useless. the term "imaginary number" now means simply a complex number with a real part equal to , that is, a number of the form . ==history== right|thumb|an illustration of the complex plane. the imaginary numbers are on the vertical coordinate axis. although greek mathematician and engineer heron of alexandria is noted as the first to have conceived these numbers

Intension

in linguistics, logic, philosophy, and other fields, an intension is any property or quality connoted by a word, phrase, or another symbol. in the case of a word, the word's definition often implies an intension. the term may also refer to all such intensions collectively, although the term comprehension is technically more correct for this. the meaning of a word can be thought of as the bond between the idea the word means and the physical form of the word. swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure (1857–1913) contrasts three concepts: # the signifier – the "sound image" or the string of letters on a page that one recognizes as the form of a sign # the signified – the meaning, the concept or idea that a sign expresses or evokes # the referent – the actual thing or set of things a sign refers to. see dyadic signs and reference (semantics). intension is analogous to the signified in the saussurean system, extension to the referent. without intension of some sort, words have no meaning. in philosophical arguments about dualism versus monism, it is noted that thoughts have intensionality and physical objects do not (s. e. palmer, 1999), but rather have extension in space and time. note: intension and intensionality (the state of having intension) should not be confused with intention and intentionality, which are pronounced the same and occasionally arise in the same philosophical context. where this happens, the letter s or t is sometimes italicized to emphasize the distinction. == intensional statement == an intensional statement-form is a statement-form with at least one instance such that substituting co-extensive expressions into it does not always preserve logical value. an intensional statement is a statement that is an instance of an intensional statement-form. here co-extensive expressions are expressions with the same extension. (a statement-form is simply a form obtained by putting blanks into a sentence where one or more expressions with extensions occur—for instance, "the quick brown ___ jumped over the lazy ___'s back." an instance of the form is a statement obtained by filling the blanks in.) that is, a statement-form is intensional if it has, as one of its instances, a statement for which there are two co-extensive expressions (in the relevant language) such that one of them occurs in the statement, and if the other one is put in its place (uniformly, so that it replaces the former expression wherever it o

Island

an island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, cays or keys. an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, or a holm. a grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, e.g. the philippines. an island may be described as such despite the presence of an artificial land bridge, for example singapore and its causeway, or the various dutch delta islands, such as ijsselmonde. some places may even retain "island" in their names for historical reasons after being connected to a larger landmass by a wide land bridge, such as coney island or coronado island. conversely, when a piece of land is separated from the mainland by a man-made canal, for example the peloponnese by the corinth canal, it is generally not considered an island. there are two main types of islands: continental islands and oceanic islands. there are also artificial islands. ==etymology== the word island comes from middle english iland, from old english igland (from ig, similarly meaning 'island' when used independently, and -land carrying its contemporary meaning; cf. dutch eiland ("island"), german eiland ("small island")). however, the spelling of the word was modified in the 15th century due to an incorrect association with the etymologically unrelated

Transport_in_India

transport in the republic of india is an important part of india's economy. since the economic liberalisation of the 1990s, infrastructure development has progressed rapidly, and today there is a variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. however, india's relatively low gnp per capita has meant that access to transport has not been uniform. in the interim, public transport remains the primary mode of transport for most of the population, and india's public transport systems are among the most heavily used in the world. india's rail network is the 4th longest and the most heavily used system in the world, transporting 8,224 million passengers and over 969 million&nbsp;tonnes of freight annually, as of 2012. motor vehicle penetration is low by international standards, with only 10.3 million cars on the nation's roads. in addition, only around 10% of indian households own a motorcycle. despite this, the number of deaths caused by traffic is amongst the highest in the world and is still increasingnumber of fatalities listed in washington post article is 196 000 which is higher than the figures of previous years, which was 142 485[http://www.dw.de/dw/artic

Intel

intel corporation is an american multinational corporation headquartered in santa clara, california. intel is one of the world's largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers, based on revenue. it is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. intel corporation, founded on july 18, 1968, is a portmanteau of integrated electronics (the

Immanuel_Kant

immanuel kant (;"kant". random house webster's unabridged dictionary. ; 22 april 1724&nbsp;– 12 february 1804) was a german philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. he argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality

Foreign_relations_of_Indonesia

since independence, indonesian foreign relations have adhered to a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. indonesian foreign policy under the "new order" government of president suharto moved away from the stridently anti-western, anti-american posturing that characterized the latter part of the sukarno era. following suharto's ouster in 1998, indonesia's government has preserved the broad outlines of suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented successive presidents from traveling abroad and indonesia's participation in many international fora. the invasion of east timor by indonesia in december 1975 and its annexation in 1976 and the referendum on independence of east timor from indonesia in august 1999 strained indonesia's relations with the international community. as one of the founding members of association of southeast asian nations (asean), established in 1967, and also as the largest nation in southeast asia, indonesia has put asean as the cornerstone of its foreign policy and outlook. after the transformation from suharto's regime to a relatively open and democratic nation in the 2010s, indonesia today exercises its influence to promote cooperation, development, democracy, security, peace and stability in the region through its leadership in asean. indonesia managed to play a role as a peacemaker in the cambodia-thailand conflict over the preah vihear temple. indonesia and other asean member countries collectively have also played a role in encouraging the government of myanmar to open up its political system and introduce other reforms more quickly. ==significant international memberships== ===asean=== a cornerstone of indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the association of southeast asian nations (asean), of which it was a founding member in 1967 with thailand, malaysia, singapore, and the philippines. since then, brunei, vietnam, laos, burma, and cambodia also have joined asean. while organized to promote common economic, social, and cultural goals, asean acquired a security dimension after vietnam's invasion of cambodia in 1979; this aspect of asean expanded with the establishment of the asean regional forum in 1994, which comprises 22

Politics_of_Iraq

the politics of iraq takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic. it is a multi-party system whereby the executive power is exercised by the prime minister of the council of ministers as the head of government, as well as the president of iraq, and legislative power is vested in the council of representatives and the federation council. the current prime minister of iraq is nouri al-maliki, who holds most of the executive authority and appointed the council of ministers, which acts as a cabinet and/or government. on 14 august 2014 al-maliki announced he was stepping down as prime minister of iraq to allow his opponent haider al-abadi to take his place. ==history== before the fall of saddam hussein in 2003, the ba'ath party officially ruled. iraq was occupied by foreign troops beginning with the 2003 invasion of iraq, with military forces coming primarily from the united states and the united kingdom. most foreign militaries operated under the umbrella of the multinational force in iraq (the mnf–i), authorized under united nations security council resolution 1546, 1637, 1723, and 1790 until december 31, 2008. on january 1, 2009 the u.s.–iraq status of forces agreement entered into force. the occupation yielded to a transitional administrative law, which was replaced by the constitution of iraq following approval in a referendum held on october 15, 2005. a permanent 275-member council of representatives was elected in the december 2005 iraqi legislative elections, initiating the formation of the government of iraq, 2006-2010. the last elections were the january 2010 iraqi legislative elections. ==government== ===federal government=== the federal government of iraq is defined under the current constitution as an islamic,constitution of iraq, section 1, article 2 democratic, [[feder

Transport_in_Ireland

most of the transport system in ireland is in public hands, either side of the irish border. the irish road network has evolved separately in the two jurisdictions ireland is divided up into, while the irish rail network was mostly created prior to the partition of ireland. in the republic of ireland, the minister for transport, acting through the department of transport, is responsible for the state's road network, rail network, public transport, airports and several other areas. although some sections of road have been built using private or public-private funds, and are operated as toll roads, they are owned by the government of ireland. the rail network is also state-owned and operated, while the government currently still owns the main airports. public transport is mainly in the hands of a statutory corporation, córas iompair Éireann (ciÉ), and its subsidiaries, bus Átha cliath (dublin bus), bus Éireann (irish bus), and iarnród Éireann (irish rail). on 1 november 2005, the irish government published the transport 21 plan which includes €18bn for improved roads and €16bn for improved rail, including the western railway corridor and the dublin metro. in northern ireland, the road network and railways are in state ownership. the department for regional development is responsible for these and other areas (such as water services). two of the three main airports in northern ireland are privately operated and owned. the exception is city of derry airport, which is owned and funded by derry city council. a statutory corporation, the northern ireland transport holding company (which trades as translink) operates public transport services through its three subsidiaries – ni railways company limited, ulsterbus limited, and citybus limited (now branded as metro). ==railways== ;total ireland's rail network|thumb|right : broad gauge : (1998); electrified; double track; some additions and removals since 1997 : standard gauge : (2004) (luas tramway); electrified; double track; additional track under construction : [[narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge]

Geography_of_Italy

thumb|italy viewed from space italy is located in southern europe and comprises the long, boot-shaped italian peninsula, the southern side of alps, the large plain of po valley and some islands including sicily and sardinia. corsica, although belonging to the italian geographical region, has been a part of france since 1769. its total area is , of which is land and . it lies between latitudes 35° and 48° n, and longitudes 6° and 19° e. italy borders with switzerland (), france (), austria () and slovenia (). san marino () and vatican city () are enclaves. including islands, italy has a coastline of on the adriatic sea, ionian sea, tyrrhenian sea, ligurian sea, sea of sardinia and strait of sicily. ==mountains and plains== thumb|topographic map of italy almost 40% of the italian territory is mountainous, with the alps as the northern boundary and the apennine mountains forming the backbone of the peninsula and extending for . in between the two lies a large plain in the valley of the po, the largest river in italy, which flows eastward from the cottian alps to the adriatic. the po valley is the largest plain in italy, with , and it represents over 70% of the total plain area in the country. the alpine mountain range is linked with the apennines with the colle di cadibona pass in the ligurian alps. worldwide-known mountains in italy are matterhorn (cervino), monte rosa, gran paradiso in the west alps, and bernina, stelvio and dolomites along the eastern side of the alps. the highest peak in italy is mont blanc, at above sea level. ===volcanoes=== many elements of the italian territory are of volcanic origin. most of the small islands and archipelagos in the south, like capraia, ponza, ischia, eolie, ustica and pantelleria are volcanic islands

Italian_Armed_Forces

the italian armed forces (italian: forze armate italiane) encompass the italian army, the italian navy and the italian air force. a fourth branch of the armed forces, known as the carabinieri, take on the role as the nation's military and territorial police force. the president of the italian republic heads the armed forces as the president of the supreme council of defence. as of 2012, the total number of active military personnel is 179,155 (army, navy and air force). in addition, t

BitchX

bitchx is a free irc client ("if you're already using linux, then you have your choice of several (irc) clients. bitchx is a popular one.") and has been considered to be the most popular ircii-based irc client. the initial implementation, written by "trench" and "happycrappy", was a script for the ircii chat client. it was converted to a program in its own right by panasync (colten edwards). bitchx 1.1 final was released in 2004. it is written in c, and is a console application. gtk+ toolkit support has been dropped. it works on all unix-like operating systems, and is distributed under a bsd license. it is originally based on ircii-epic and eventually it was merged into the epic irc client. it supports ipv6, multiple servers and ssl and utf-8 partially. bitchx has frequently been noted to be a popular irc client for unix-like systems.review:bitchx (amiga), ircreviews.org, retrieved 2009-09-29 ("bitchx is favoured by many more experienced irc users")a day in the life of #apache, osdir.com (march 25, 2005), retrieved 2009-09-29 ("

Isle_of_Man

{{infobox country | conventional_long_name = isle of man | native_name = | common_name = isle of man | linking_name = the isle of man | image_flag = flag of the isle of mann.svg | image_coat = coat of arms of the isle of man.svg | national_motto = | englishmotto = "whithersoever you throw it, it will stand" | national_anthem = "o land of our birth" | royal_anthem = "god save the queen" | image_map = the isle of man.svg | map_caption = | languages_type = official languagescia – the world factbook | official_languages = english, manx | demonym = manx | capital = douglas&nbsp; | latd=54 |latm=09 |latns=n |longd=4 |longm=29 |longew=w | largest_settlement = capital | largest_settlement_type = largest settlement | status = crown&nbsp;dependency | government_type = parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy with non-partisan democracy | leader_title1 = lord&nbsp;of&nbsp;mann | leader_name1 = elizabeth&nbsp;ii | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = adam&nbsp;wood | leader_title3 = chief&nbsp;minister | leader_name3 = allan&nbsp;bell | legislature = tynwald | upper_house = legislative&nbsp;council | lower_house = house&nbsp;of&nbsp;keys | area_rank = 196th | area_magnitude = 1&nbsp;e8 | area_km2 = 572 | area_sq_mi = 221 | percent_water = 0 | population_census = 84,497 | population_estimate_rank = 202nd | population_census_year = 2011 | population_density_km2 = 148 | population_density_sq_mi = 362.4 | population_density_rank = 77th | gdp_ppp = $2.113 billion | gdp_ppp_rank = 162nd | gdp_ppp_year = 2010 | gdp_ppp_per_capita = $53,800 | gdp_ppp_per_capita_rank = 11th/12th | established_event = lordship&nbsp;of&nbsp;mann revested in british&nbsp;crown | established_date = 1765 | gini_year = | gini_change = | gini = 41 | gini_ref = | gini_rank = | hdi_year = 2010 | hdi_change = | hdi = 0.849 | hdi_ref = {{cite web

IEEE_802.11

ieee 802.11 is a set of media access control (mac) and physical layer (phy) specifications for implementing wireless local area network (wlan) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6, 5 and 60&nbsp;ghz frequency bands. they are created and maintained by the ieee lan/man standards committee (ieee 802). the base version of the standard was released in 1997 and has had subsequent amendments. the standard and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the wi-fi brand. while each amendment is officially revoked when it is incorporated in the latest version of the standard, the corporate world tends to market to the revisions because they concisely denote capabilities of their products. as a result, in the market place, each revision tends to become its own standard. ==general description== the 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11ac. other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service amendments and extensions or corrections to the previous specifications. 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 ghz ism band, operating in the united states under part 15 of the u.s. federal communications commission rules and regulations. because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones and bluetooth devices. 802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum (dsss) and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (ofdm) signaling methods, respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 ghz u-nii band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping channels rather than the 2.4&nbsp;ghz ism frequency band, where adjacent channels overlap - see list of wlan channels. better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending on the environment. the segment of the radio frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. in the us, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in part 15 of the fcc rules and regulations. frequencies used by channels one through six of 802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4&nbsp;ghz amateur radio band. licensed amateur radio operators may operate 8

IKEA

ikea (; ) is a multinational group of companies that designs and sells ready-to-assemble furniture (such as beds, chairs and desks), appliances and home accessories. as of january 2008, it is the world's largest furniture retailer. founded in sweden in 1943 by then-17-year-old ingvar kamprad, who was listed as one of the world's richest people in 2013, the company's name is an acronym that consists of the initials of ingvar kamprad, elmtaryd (the farm where he grew up), and agunnaryd (his hometown in småland, south sweden)."ingvar kamprad and ikea". harvard business school publishing, boston, ma, 02163. 1996 the company is known for its modern architectural designs for various types of appliances and furniture, and its interior design work is often associated with an eco-friendly simplicity. in addition, the firm

Geography_of_the_Isle_of_Man

the isle of man is an island in the irish sea, between great britain and ireland in western europe, with a population of over 75,000. it is a british crown dependency. it has a small islet, the calf of man, to its south. it is located at . ==dimensions== thumb|left|satellite image area: total: 572&nbsp;km² land: 572&nbsp;km² water: 0&nbsp;km² this makes it: *slightly more than three times the size of washington, dc *slightly more than one third the size of hertfordshire *slightly smaller than saint lucia. ==coast== the isle of man has a coastline of 160&nbsp;km, and claims 12 nm of territorial waters, but only holds exclusive fishing rights in the first 3 miles. raad ny foillan long distance footpath runs 95 miles around the manx coast. ==climate== the isle of man enjoys a temperate climate, with cool summers and mild winters. average rainfall is high compared to the majority of the british isles, due to its location to the western side of great britain and sufficient distance from ireland for moisture to be accumulated by the prevailing south-westerly winds. average rainfall is highest at snaefell, where it is around a year. at lower levels it can fall to around a year. temperatures remain fairly cool, with the recorded maximum being at ronaldsway. == terrain == the island's terrain is varied. there are two mountainous areas divided by a central valley which runs between [[douglas, isle of man|dougl

International_Olympiad_in_Informatics

thumb|right|the logo of the international olympiad in informatics the international olympiad in informatics (ioi) is an annual competitive programming competition for secondary school students. the first ioi was held in 1989 in pravetz, bulgaria. the contest consists of two days computer programming, solving problems of an algorithmic nature. to deal with problems involving very large amounts of data, it is necessary to have not only programmers, "but also creative coders, who can dream up what it is that the programmers need to tell the computer to do ... the hard part isn't the programming, but the mathematics underneath it." students at the ioi compete on an individual basis, with up to four students competing from each participating country (with 81 countries in 2012). students in the national teams are selected through national computing contests, such as the australian informatics olympiad, british informatics olympiad, and bundeswettbewerb informatik (germany). the international olympiad in informatics is one of the most prestigious computer science competitions in the world. unesco and ifip are patrons. == competition structure and participation == thumb|right|ioi 2009's banner above the competition room on each of the two competition days, the students are typically given three problems which they have to solve in five hours. each student works on his/her own, with only a computer and no other help allowed, specifically no communication with other contestants, books etc. usually to solve a task the contestant has to write a computer program (in c, c++ or pascal, and occasionally fortran and php, c++11 is supported starting from ioi 2014, while java is planned to be added in ioi 2015http://www.ioinformatics.org/index.shtml) and submit it before the five hour competition time ends. the program is graded by being run with secret test data. from ioi 2010, tasks are divided into subtasks with graduated difficulty, and points are awarded only when all tests for a particular subtask yield correct results, within specific time and memory limits. in some cases, the contestant's program has to interact with a secret computer library, which allows problems where the input is not fixed, but depends on the program's actions – for example in game problems. another type of problem has known inputs which are publicly available already during the five hours of the contest. for these, the contestants have to submit an output file instead of a program, and it is up to them whether they obtain th

Infocom

infocom was a software company, based in cambridge, massachusetts, that produced numerous works of interactive fiction. they also produced one notable business application, a relational database called cornerstone. infocom was founded on june 22, 1979 by mit staff and students led by dave lebling, marc blank, albert vezza, and joel berez and lasted as an independent company until 1986 when it was bought by activision. activision finally shut down the infocom division in 1989, although they released some titles in the 1990s under the infocom zork brand. activision abandoned the infocom trademark in 2002. the name was later registered by oliver klaeffling of germany in 2007, which itself was abandoned the following year. the infocom trademark is currently held by pete hottelet's omni consumer products, who registered the name around the same time as klaeffling in 2007.that "new" "official" infocom web site ==overview== infocom games are text adventures where users direct the action by entering short strings of words to give commands when prompted. generally the program will respond by describing the results of the action, often the contents of a room if the player has moved within the virtual world. the user reads this information, decides what to do, and enters another short series of words. examples include "go west" or "take flashlight". infocom games were written using a roughly lisp-like programming language called zil (zork implementation language or zork interactive language—it was referred to as both) that compiled into a byte code able to run on a standardized [[virtual machine]

Interquartile_range

in descriptive statistics, the interquartile range (iqr), also called the midspread or middle fifty, is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to the difference between the upper and lower quartiles, iqr = q3&nbsp;−&nbsp; q1. in other words, the iqr is the 1st quartile subtracted from the 3rd quartile; these quartiles can be clearly seen on a box plot on the data. it is a trimmed estimator, defined as the 25% trimmed mid-range, and is the most significant basic robust measure of scale. ==use== unlike (total) range, the interquartile range has a breakdown point of 25%, and is thus often preferred to the total range. the iqr is used to build box plots, simple graphical representations of a probability distribution. for a symmetric distribution (where the median equals the midhinge, the average of the first and third quartiles), half the iqr equals the median absolute deviation (mad). the median is the corresponding measure of central tendency. identification of outliers (see below). ==examples== ===data set in a table=== :{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! width="40px"| i ! width="40px" |x[i] ! quartile |- | 1|| 102 || |- | 2|| 104 || |- | 3|| 105|| q1 |- | 4|| 107 || |- | 5|| 108|| |- | 6|| 109|| q2 (median) |- | 7|| 110 || |- | 8|| 112 || |- | 9|| 115|| q3 |- | 10|| 116 || |- | 11|| 118 || |- |} for the data in this table the interquartile range is iqr&nbsp;=&nbsp;115&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;105 = 10. ===data set in a plain-text box plot=== +-----+-+ o * |-------| | |---| +-----+-+ +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ number line 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 for the data set in this box plot: * lower (first) quartile q1 = 7 * median (second quartile) q2 = 8.5 * upper (third) quartile q3 = 9 * interquartile range, iqr = q3&nbsp;−&nbsp; q1 = 2 ==interquartile range of distributions== the interquartile range of a continuous distribution can be calculated by integrating the probability density function (which yields the cumulative distribution function — any other means of calculating the cdf will also work). the lower quartile, q1, is a number such that integral of the pdf from -∞ to q1 equals 0.25, while the upper quartile, q3, is such a number that the integral from -∞ to q3 equals 0.75; in terms of the cdf, the quartiles can be defined as follows: :q_1 = \text{cdf}^{-1}(0.25) , :q_3 = \text{cdf}^{-1}(0.75) , where cdf−1 is the quantile function. the interquartile range and median of some c

Public_international_law

public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states; analogous entities, such as the holy see; and intergovernmental organizations. to a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond domestic legal interpretation and enforcement. public international law has increased in use and importance vastly over the twentieth century, due to the increase in global trade, environmental deterioration on a worldwide scale, awareness of human rights violations, rapid and vast increases in international transportation and a boom in global communications. the field of study combines two main branches: the law of nations (jus gentium) and international agreements and conventions (jus inter gentes). public international law is usually distinguished from "private international law", which concerns the resolution of conflict of laws. in its most general sense, international law "consists of rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of states and of intergovernmental organizations and with their relations inter se, as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical."columbia law school, mckeever, 2003 &mdash; definition of international law ==history== beginning with the peace of westphalia in 1648, the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of the sovereign "nation-state", which consisted of a nation controlled by a centralized system of government. the concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity. until the mid-19th century, relations between nation-states were dictated by treaty, agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state, unenforceable except by force, and not binding except as matters of honor and faithfulness. but treaties alone became increasingly toothless and wars became increasingly destructive, most markedly towards civilians, and civilized peoples decried their horrors, leading to calls for regulation of the acts of states, especially in times of war. perhaps the first instrument of modern public international law was the lieber code, passed in 1863 by the congress of the united states, to govern the conduct of us forces during the united states civil war and considered to be the first written recitation of the rules and articles of war, adhered to by all civilized nations, the precursor of public internationa

Interior_Gateway_Routing_Protocol

interior gateway routing protocol (igrp) is a distance vector interior routing protocol (igp) developed by cisco. it is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system. igrp is a proprietary protocol. igrp was created in part to overcome the limitations of rip (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. igrp supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, mtu, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. by default, the igrp composite metric is a sum of the segment delays and the lowest segment bandwidth. the maximum configurable hop count of igrp-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default).cisco systems configuring igrp igrp uses port number 9 for communication. igrp is considered a classful routing protocol. because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all subnetwork addresses within the same class a, class b, or class c network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. this contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of ip address space. ==advancement== in order to address the issues of address space and other factors, cisco created eigrp (enhanced interior gateway routing protocol). eigrp adds support for vlsm (variable length subnet mask) and adds the diffusing update algorithm (dual) in order to improve routing and provide a loopless environment. eigrp has completely replaced igrp, making igrp an obsolete routing protocol. in cisco ios versions 12.3 and greater, igrp is completely unsupported. in the new cisco ccna curriculum (version 4), igrp is mentioned only briefly, as an "obsolete protocol". ==references== ==external links== * cisco - an introduction to igrp

International_Hydrographic_Organization

the international hydrographic organization (iho) is an inter-governmental organisation representing the hydrographic community. the principal role of the iho is to ensure that the world’s seas, oceans and national waters are properly surveyed and charted. it does this through the setting of international standards, the co-ordination of the endeavours of national hydrographic offices, and through its capacity building programme. the iho enjoys observer status at the united nations where it is the recognised competent authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting. when referring to hydrography and nautical charting in conventions and similar instruments, it is the iho standards and specifications that are normally used. ==history== the iho was established in 1921 as the international hydrographic bureau (ihb). the present name was adopted in 1970 as part of a new international convention on the iho adopted by the then member nations. the former name international hydrographic bureau was retained to describe the iho secretariat comprising three elected directors and a small staff at the organization's headquarters in monaco. during the 19th century, many maritime nations established hydrographic offices to provide means for improving the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigational services. there were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. in 1889, an international marine conference was held at washington, d.c., and it was proposed to establish a "permanent international commission." similar proposals were made at the sessions of the international congress of navigation held at st. petersburg in 1908 and again in 1912. in 1919 the hydrographers of great britain and france cooperated in taking the necessary steps to convene an international conference of hydrographers. london was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on 24 july 1919, the first international conference opened, attended by the hydrographers of 24 nations. the object of the conference was "to consider the advisability of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in preparation, construction,

Intermediate_value_theorem

in mathematical analysis, the intermediate value theorem states that if a continuous function f with an interval [a, b] as its domain takes values f(a) and f(b) at each end of the interval, then it also takes any value between f(a) and f(b) at some point within the interval. this has two important specializations: if a continuous function has values of opposite sign inside an interval, then it has a root in that interval (bolzano's theorem). and, the image of a continuous function over an interval is itself an interval. ==motivation== thumb|280px|the intermediate value theorem this captures an intuitive property of continuous functions: given f continuous on [1, 2] with the known values f(1) = 3 and f(2) = 5. then the graph of y = f(x) must pass through the horizontal line y = 4 while x moves from 1 to 2. it represents the idea that the graph of a continuous function on a closed interval can be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper. ==theorem== the intermediate value theorem states the following: consider an interval i = [a, b] in the real numbers ℝ and a continuous function f : i → ℝ. then, *version&nbsp;i. if u is a number between f(a) and f(b), :: &nbsp;), :then there is a c ∈ (a, b) such that f(c) = u. *version&nbsp;ii. the image set f(i) is also an interval, and either it contains [f(a), f(b)], or it contains [f(b), f(a)]; that is, :: &nbsp; (or&nbsp; &nbsp;). remark: version ii states that the set of function values has no gap. for any two function values c<d, even if they are outside the interval between f(a) and f(b), all points in the interval [c, d] are also function values, :: [c, d] &sube; f(i). a subset of the real numbers with no internal gap is an interval. version i is obviously contained in version ii. ==relation to completeness== the theorem depends on, and is equivalent to, the completeness of the real numbers. the intermediate value theorem does not apply to the rational numbers ℚ because gaps exists between rational numbers; irrational numbers fill those gaps. for example, the function for x ∈ ℚ satisfies f(0) = &minus;2 and f(2) = 2. however there is no rational number x such that f(x) = 0, because √2 is an

Inductor

thumbnail|axial lead inductors (100 µh) an inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists changes in electric current passing through it. it consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. when a current flows through it, energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. when the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which opposes the change in current that created it. an inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current, which has units of henries (h). inductors have values that typically range from 1 µh (10−6h) to 1 h. many inductors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the inductance. along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electric circuits. inductors are widely used in alternating current (ac) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. they are used to block the flow of ac current while allowing dc to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are called chokes. they are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and tv receivers. ==overview== inductance (l) results from the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor; the electric current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux. mathematically speaking, inductance is determined by how much magnetic flux φ through the circuit is created by a given current i{{cite book | last = wadhwa | first = c. l. | title = electrical power systems | publisher = new age international | date = 2005 | location = | pages = 18 | url = http://

Inverse_function

thumb|right|a function and its inverse . because maps to 3, the inverse maps 3 back to . in mathematics, an inverse function is a function that "reverses" another function: if the function applied to an input gives a result of , then applying its inverse function to gives the result , and vice versa. i.e., if and only if . a function that has an inverse is said to be invertible. when it exists, the inverse function is uniquely determined by and is denoted by , read f inverse. superscripted "" does not, in general, refer to numerical exponentiation. in some situations, for instance when is an invertible real-valued function of a real variable, the relationship between and can be written more compactly, in this case, , meaning composed with , in either order, is the identity function on r. ==definitions== thumb|right|240px|if maps to , then maps back to . let be a function whose domain is the set , and whose image (range) is the set . then is invertible if there exists a function with domain and image , with the property: :f(x) = y\,\,\leftrightarrow\,\,g(y) = x. if is invertible, the function is unique; in other words, there is exactly one function satisfying this property (no more, no less). that function is then called the inverse of , and usually denoted as . stated otherwise, a function is invertible if and only if its inverse relation is a function on the range , in which case the inverse relation is the inverse function. not all functions have an inverse. for this rule to be applicable, each element must correspond to no more than one ; a function with this property is called one-to-one or an injection. if and are functions on and respectively, then both are bijection

List_of_Italian_dishes

this is a list of italian dishes and foods. italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century bc. italian cuisine has its origins in etruscan, ancient greek, and ancient roman cuisines. significant changes occurred with the discovery of the new world and the introduction of potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century.del conte, 11-21. italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is known to be one of the most popular in the world, with influences abroad. pizza and spaghetti, both associated with the neapolitan traditions of cookery, are especially popular abroad, but the varying geographical conditions of the twenty regions of italy, together with the strength of local traditions, afford a wide range of dishes. ==dishes and recipes== ===antipasti (meaning: before the meal)=== * bruschetta – an antipasto from italy consisting of grilled bread rubbed with garlic and topped with tomatoes, olive oil, salt and pepper * bresaola * crostini – means "little toast" in italian language * capicollo * culatello * curried braised rabbit stew * [[insal

Ionic_bonding

ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. these ions represent atoms that have lost one or more electrons (known as cations) and atoms that have gained one or more electrons (known as an anions). in the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complex nature, e.g. molecular ions like nh4+ or so42- . in simpler words, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal in order for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell. it is important to recognize that clean ionic bonding &ndash; in which one atom "steals" an electron from another &ndash; cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. thus, the term "ionic bonding" is given when the ionic character is greater than the covalent character&mdash;that is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be more polar (ionic) than in covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but typically not as a solid. there are exceptions to this rule, such as rubidium silver iodide, where the silver ion can be quite mobile. ionic compounds generally have a high melting point, depending on the charge of the ions they consist of. the higher the charges the stronger the cohesive forces and the higher the melting point. they also tend to be soluble in water. here, the opposite trend roughly holds: the weaker the cohesive forces, the greater the solubility. ==formation== ionic bonding can result from a redox reaction when atoms of an element (usually metal), whose ionization energy is low, release some of their electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. in doing so, cations are formed. the atom of another element (usually nonmetal), whose electron affinity is positive, then accepts the electron(s), again to attain a stable electron configuration, and after accepting electron(s) the atom becomes an anion. typically, the stable electron configuration is one of the noble gases for elements in the s-block and the p-block, and particular stable electron configurations for d-block and f-block elements. the electrostatic

International_Tropical_Timber_Agreement,_1983

the international tropical timber agreement (itta, 1983) is an agreement to provide an effective framework for cooperation between tropical timber producers and consumers and to encourage the development of national policies aimed at sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources. the international tropical timber organization was established under this agreement. opened for signature - november 18, 1983 entered into force - april 1, 1985; this agreement expired when the international tropical timber agreement, 1994, went into force. ==parties== fifty eight parties signed up to the agreement: australia, austria, belgium, bolivia, brazil, burma, cameroon, canada, people's republic of china, colombia, democratic republic of the congo, republic of the congo, côte d'ivoire, denmark, ecuador, egypt, european union, fiji, finland, france, gabon, germany, ghana, greece, guyana, honduras, india, indonesia, ireland, italy, japan, south korea, liberia, luxembourg, malaysia, nepal, netherlands, new zealand, norway, panama, papua new guinea, peru, philippines, portugal, russia, spain, sweden, switzerland, thailand, togo, trinidad and tobago, united kingdom, united states, venezuela ==references== == external links == * international tropical timber organization

Ithaca_Hours

the ithaca hour is a local currency used in ithaca, new york and is the oldest and largest local currency system in the united states that is still operating. it has inspired other similar systems in madison, wisconsin; corvallis, oregon; and a proposed system in the lehigh valley, pennsylvania. one ithaca hour is valued at us$10 and is generally recommended to be used as payment for one hour's work, although the rate is negotiable. ==the currency== ithaca hours are not backed by national currency and cannot be freely converted to national currency, although some businesses may agree to buy them. hours are printed on high-quality paper and use faint graphics that would be difficult to reproduce, and each bill is stamped with a serial number, in order to discourage counterfeiting.{{cite web|author=by:m. tye wolfe 10/02/2002 |url=http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=5571232&brd=1395&pag=461&dept_id=216620&rfi=6 |title=m. tye wolf, "making money - the brand new one-tenth ithaca hour bill hits the streets&qu