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{ "text": "Celestial pole - Wikipedia Celestial pole From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The north and south celestial poles and their relation to axis of rotation , plane of orbit and axial tilt . Diagram of the path of the celestial north pole around the ecliptic north pole . The beginning of the four \" astrological ages \" of the historical period are marked with their zodiac symbols : the Age of Taurus from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age , the Age of Aries from the Middle Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity , the Age of Pisces from Late Antiquity to the present, and the Age of Aquarius beginning in the mid-3rd millennium. The north and south celestial poles are the two imaginary points in the sky where the Earth 's axis of rotation , indefinitely extended, intersects the celestial sphere . The north and south celestial poles appear permanently directly overhead to an observer at the Earth's North Pole and South Pole , respectively. As the Earth spins on its axis, the two celestial poles remain fixed in the sky, and all other points appear to rotate around them, completing one circuit per day (strictly, per sidereal day ). The celestial poles are also the poles of the celestial equatorial coordinate system , meaning they have declinations of +90 degrees and −90 degrees (for the north and south celestial poles, respectively). The celestial poles do not remain permanently fixed against the background of the stars. Because of a phenomenon known as the precession of the equinoxes , the poles trace out circles on the celestial sphere, with a period of about 25,700 years. The Earth's axis is also subject to other complex motions which cause the celestial poles to shift slightly over cycles of varying lengths; see nutation , polar motion and axial tilt . Finally, over very long periods the positions of the stars themselves change, because of the stars' proper motions . An analogous concept applies to other planets: a planet's celestial poles are the points in the sky where the projection of the planet's axis of rotation intersects the celestial sphere. These points vary because different planets' axes are oriented differently (the apparent positions of the stars also change slightly because of parallax effects). [1] Celestial bodies other than Earth also have similarly defined celestial poles. Contents [ hide ] 1 Finding the north celestial pole 2 Finding the south celestial pole 2.1 Method one: The Southern Cross 2.2 Method two: Canopus and Achernar 2.3 Method three: The Magellanic Clouds 2.4 Method four: Sirius and Canopus 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Finding the north celestial pole [ edit ] Over the course of an evening in the Northern Hemisphere , circumpolar stars appear to circle around the north celestial pole. Polaris (within 1° of the pole) is the nearly stationary bright star just to the right of the center of this star trail photo. See also: Pole star and Polar alignment The north celestial pole currently is within a degree of the bright star Polaris (named from the Latin stella polaris , meaning \"pole star\"). This makes Polaris useful for navigation in the northern hemisphere: not only is it always above the north point of the horizon, but its altitude angle is always (nearly) equal to the observer's geographic latitude . Polaris can, of course, only be seen from locations in the northern hemisphere. Polaris is near the celestial pole for only a small fraction of the 25,700-year precession cycle. It will remain a good approximation for about 1,000 years, by which time the pole will have moved to be closer to Alrai ( Gamma Cephei ). In about 5,500 years, the pole will have moved near the position of the star Alderamin (Alpha Cephei), and in 12,000 years, Vega (Alpha Lyrae) will become our north star, but it will be about six degrees from the true north celestial pole. To find Polaris, face north and locate the Big Dipper (Plough) and Little Dipper asterisms. Looking at the \"cup\" part of the Big Dipper, imagine that the two stars at the outside edge of the cup form a line pointing upward out of the cup. This line points directly at the star at the tip of the Little Dipper's handle. That star is Polaris, the North Star. [2] Finding the south celestial pole [ edit ] Play media A series of shots show the rotation of Earth's axis relative to the south celestial pole. The Magellanic Clouds and the Southern Cross are clearly visible. Near the end of the video, the Moon rises and illuminates the scene. The south celestial pole over the Very Large Telescope . [3] Locating the south celestial pole The south celestial pole is visible only from the Southern Hemisphere . It lies in the dim constellation Octans , the Octant. Sigma Octantis is identified as the south pole star, over a degree away from the pole, but with a magnitude of 5.5 it is barely visible on a clear night. Method one: The Southern Cross [ edit ] The south celestial pole can be located from the Southern Cross (Crux) and its two \"pointer\" stars α Centauri and β Centauri . Draw an imaginary line from γ Crucis to α Crucis —the two stars at the extreme ends of the long axis of the cross—and follow this line through the sky. Either go four-and-a-half times the distance of the long axis in the direction the narrow end of the cross points, or join the two pointer stars with a line, divide this line in half, then at right angles draw another imaginary line through the sky until it meets the line from the Southern Cross. This point is 5 or 6 degrees from the south celestial pole. Very few bright stars of importance lie between Crux and the pole itself, although the constellation Musca is fairly easily recognised immediately beneath Crux. Method two: Canopus and Achernar [ edit ] The second method uses Canopus (the second-brightest star in the sky) and Achernar . Make a large equilateral triangle using these stars for two of the corners. The third imaginary corner will be the south celestial pole. If Canopus has not yet risen, the second-magnitude Alpha Pavonis can also be used to form the triangle with Achernar and the pole. Method three: The Magellanic Clouds [ edit ] The third method is best for a moonless and cloudless night as it uses two faint 'clouds' in the southern sky. These are marked in astronomy books as Large and Small Magellanic Clouds . These 'clouds' are actually galaxies close to our own Milky Way . Make an equilateral triangle, the third point of which is the south celestial pole. Method four: Sirius and Canopus [ edit ] A line from Sirius , the brightest star in the sky, through Canopus, the second-brightest, continued for the same distance lands within a couple of degrees of the pole. In other words, Canopus is halfway between Sirius and the pole. See also [ edit ] Celestial sphere Celestial equator Circumpolar star Orbital pole Polaris Pole star References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Jim Kaler Professor Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois. \"Measuring the sky A quick guide to the Celestial Sphere\" . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Loyola University Chicago. \"Earth-Sky Relationships and the Celestial Sphere\" (PDF) . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Swirling Star Trails Over Yepun\" . Picture of the Week . ESO . Retrieved 11 January 2013 . External links [ edit ] [1] visual representation of finding Polaris using the Big Dipper Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celestial_pole&oldid=822311758 \" Categories : Celestial coordinate system Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from March 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Nederlands Norsk Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça Українська 中文 27 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2018, at 17:27. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Celestial pole", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Celestial_pole&oldid=822311758" }

{ "text": "Green Revolution in India - Wikipedia Green Revolution in India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Part of a series on the History of India Ancient [show] Madrasian Culture Soanian , c. 500,000 BCE Neolithic , c. 7600 – c. 3300 BCE Bhirrana 7570 - 6200 BCE Jhusi 7106 BCE Lahuradewa 7000 BCE Mehrgarh 7000 - 2600 BCE Indus Valley Civilization , c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE Post Indus Valley Period , c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE Vedic Civilization , c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE Early Vedic Period Rise of Śramaṇa movement Later Vedic Period Spread of Jainism - Parshvanatha Spread of Jainism - Mahavira Rise of Buddhism Mahajanapadas , c. 500 – c. 345 BCE Nanda Dynasty , c. 345 – c. 322 BCE Classical [show] Maurya Dynasty , c. 322 – c. 185 BCE Shunga Dynasty , c. 185 – c. 75 BCE Kanva Dynasty , c. 75 – c. 30 BCE Kushan Dynasty , c. 30 – c. 230 CE Satavahana Dynasty , c. 30 BCE – c. 220 CE Gupta Dynasty , c. 200 – c. 550 CE Early medieval [show] Chalukya Dynasty , c. 543 – c. 753 CE Harsha's Dynasty , c. 606 CE – c. 647 CE Karakota Dynasty , c. 724 – c. 760 CE Arab Invasion , c. 738 CE Tripartite Struggle , c. 760 – c. 973 CE Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty Rastrakuta Dynasty Pala Dynasty Chola Dynasty , c. 848 – c. 1251 CE 2nd Chalukya Dynasty , c. 973 – c. 1187 CE Late medieval [show] Delhi Sultanate , c. 1206 – c. 1526 CE Slave Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Pandyan Dynasty , c. 1251 – c. 1323 CE Vijayanagara , c. 1336 – c. 1646 CE Bengal Sultanate , c. 1342 – c. 1576 CE Early modern [show] Mughal Dynasty , c. 1526 – c. 1540 CE Suri Dynasty , c. 1540 – c. 1556 CE Mughal Dynasty , c. 1556 – c. 1857 CE Bengal Subah , c. 1576 – c. 1757 CE Maratha Empire , c. 1674 – c. 1818 CE Company Raj , c. 1757 – c. 1858 CE Kingdom of Mysore , c. 1760 – c. 1799 CE Sikh Empire , c. 1799 – c. 1849 CE Modern [show] The Great Rebellion , c. 1857 – c. 1858 CE British Raj , c. 1858 – c. 1947 CE Independence Movement Independent India , c. 1947 CE – present Related articles [show] Timeline of Indian History Dynasties in Indian History Economic History Demographic History Linguistic History Architectural History Art History Literary History Philosophical History History of Religion Musical History Education History Coinage History Science and Technology History List of Inventions and Discoveries Military History Naval History Wars involving India v t e The Green Revolution in India refers to a period of time when agriculture in India changed to an industrial system due to the adoption of modern methods and technology such as high yielding variety (HYV) seeds , tractors, pump sets, etc. Green revolution was started by Dr.M.S. Swaminathan. The key leadership role played by the Indian agricultural scientist Vehla Swaminathan Banda together with many others including GS Kalkat, earned him the popularly used title 'Father of Green Revolution of India'. The Green Revolution allowed developing countries, like India, to try to overcome poor agricultural productivity. Within India , this started in the early 1960s and led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab , Haryana and Uttar Pradesh during the early phase. The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat , [1] for developing rust resistant strains of wheat. [2] Contents [ hide ] 1 Practices 1.1 Wheat 1.2 Other practices 2 Problems that were addressed 2.1 Frequent famines 2.2 Lack of finance 2.3 Lack of self-sufficiency 3 Criticisms 3.1 Indian Economic Sovereignty 3.2 Environmental Damage 3.3 Increased Regional disparities 3.4 Restrictive Crop Coverage 4 Further reading 5 References Practices [ edit ] Wheat [ edit ] The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat , [1] for developing rust resistant strains of wheat. [2] The introduction of high-yielding varieties(HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India . [3] The methods adopted included the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds [4] with modern farming methods. The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilised the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation ). Other practices [ edit ] This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose . You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate . Editing help is available. (January 2018) Irrigation infrastructure Use of pesticides Use of insecticides Use of herbicides Consolidation of holdings Land reforms Improved rural infrastructure Supply of agricultural credit Use of chemical or synthetic fertilizers Use of sprinklers or drip irrigational systems Use of advanced machinery Use of vector quantity Problems that were addressed [ edit ] Frequent famines [ edit ] Famines in India were very frequent during the period 1940s to 1970s. Due to faulty distribution of food, and because farmers did not receive the true value for their labour, the majority of the population did not get enough food. [5] Malnutrition and starvation was a huge problem. [ citation needed ] Lack of finance [ edit ] Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the money lenders . They took loans from zamindars , who charged high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans ( farm labourers ). [ citation needed ] Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. Government also helped those under loans. Lack of self-sufficiency [ edit ] Due to traditional agricultural practices, low productivity, and a growing population, often food grains were imported — draining scarce foreign reserves. It was thought that with the increased production due to the Green Revolution, the government could maintain buffer stock and India could achieve self-sufficiency and self-reliability. [ citation needed ] Agriculture was basically for subsistence and, therefore, less agricultural product was offered for sale in the market. Hence, the need was felt to encourage the farmers to increase their production and offer a greater portion of their products for sale in the market. The new methods in agriculture increased the yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India's dependence on food imports. Criticisms [ edit ] Indian Economic Sovereignty [ edit ] A main criticism of the effects of the green revolution is the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. A case study is found in India, where farmers are buying Monsanto BT cotton seeds—sold on the idea that these seeds produced 'natural insecticides'. In reality, they need to still pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which might lead to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers have difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they have a bad harvest. Indian environmentalist Vandana Shiva notes that this is the \"second Green Revolution\". The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest – notably MNCs like Monsanto. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India's farmland. [6] [7] Environmental Damage [ edit ] Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides has polluted waterway, killed beneficial insects and wild life. It has caused over-use of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices have led to eventually soil degradation. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to loss of biodiversity of farmers. These problems were aggravated due to absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals. [1] Increased Regional disparities [ edit ] Green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rain fed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc. The application of the new technology in the dry-land areas is simply ruled out. The states like Punjab, Haryana, Western UP etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production. Restrictive Crop Coverage [ edit ] The new agriculture strategy involving use of HYV seeds was initially limited to wheat, maize and bajra. The other major crop i.e. rice responded much later. The progress of developing and application of HYV seeds in other crops especially commercial crops like oilseeds, jute etc. has been very slow. In fact, in certain period a decline in the output of commercial crops is witnessed because of diversion of area under commercial crop to food crop production. The basic factor for non-spread of green revolution to many crops was that in the early 1960s the severe shortage in food grains existed and imports were resorted to overcame the shortage. Government initiated green revolution to increase food grain productivity and non-food grain crops were not covered. The substantial rise in one or two food grain crop cannot make big difference in the total agricultural production. Thus new technology contributed insignificantly in raising the overall agricultural production due to limited crop coverage. So it is important that the revolutionary efforts should be made in all major rops. Further reading [ edit ] \"The Great Gene Robbery\" by Claude Alvares References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"About IARI\" . IARI . Retrieved 11 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Rust-resistant Wheat Varieties. Work at Pusa Institute\" . The Indian Express . 7 February 1950 . Retrieved 13 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The Green Revolution in India\" . U.S. Library of Congress (released in public domain ) . Library of Congress is Country Studies . Retrieved 2007-10-06 . Jump up ^ Rowlatt, Justin (2016-12-01). \"IR8: The miracle rice which saved millions of lives\" . BBC News . Retrieved 2016-12-05 . Jump up ^ Amartya Sen . 1981. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Shiva, Vandana. Seeds of Suicide . Navdanya. Jump up ^ Shiva, V. \"Seeds of Suicide\" . Counter Currents . , originally in Asian Age 5 April 2013 [ show ] v t e India topics [ show ] History Overviews Timeline Years Astronomy Economics Linguistics Maritime Mathematics Metallurgy Military Postal Science and technology Pre-colonial Stone Age Indus Valley Civilization Vedic period Mahajanapadas Mauryas Middle kingdoms Hoysala Chola Pala Kakatiya Delhi Sultanate Vijayanagara Mughals Marathas European trade Colonial Princely East India Company Plassey 1857 rebellion British Raj Railways Economy Army Zamindari Bengali renaissance Political reforms Princely states Partition of Bengal Independence movement 1943 famine World War II Partition Republic Integration Non-Aligned Movement Five-Year Plans Sino-Indian War Indo-Pakistani wars Green Revolution White Revolution Naxal Insurgency Smiling Buddha Space programme The Emergency Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) Economic liberalisation Pokhran-II [ show ] Geography Environment Biosphere reserves Climate Climatic regions Earthquakes 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Green Revolution History in ancient Tamil countries History of tea Women in agriculture Companies Bayer CropScience Limited Mahyco Pantnagar Seeds Reuters Market Light Suminter India Organics Others Tractors in India Central Institute for Cotton Research Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Green_Revolution_in_India&oldid=843598146 \" Categories : Agricultural revolutions History of agriculture in India Intensive farming Independent India Economic history of India Indira Gandhi administration History of Punjab, India (1947–present) Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from March 2018 Use Indian English from March 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Articles needing additional references from December 2014 All articles needing additional references Articles needing cleanup from January 2018 All pages needing cleanup Articles with sections that need to be turned into prose from January 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Português தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 05:38. 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{ "text": "Milgram experiment - Wikipedia Milgram experiment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For Milgram's other well-known experiment, see Small-world experiment . The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and confederate . The subject is led to believe that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level. [1] The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram . They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience . Participants were led to believe that they were assisting an unrelated experiment, in which they had to administer electric shocks to a \"learner\". These fake electric shocks gradually increased to levels that would have been fatal had they been real. [2] The experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people would fully obey the instructions, albeit reluctantly. Milgram first described his research in 1963 in an article published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology [1] and later discussed his findings in greater depth in his 1974 book, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View . [3] The experiments began in July 1961, in the basement of Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University, [4] three months after the start of the trial of German Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem . Milgram devised his psychological study to answer the popular contemporary question: \"Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders ? Could we call them all accomplices?\" [5] The experiments have been repeated many times in the following years with consistent results within differing societies, although not with the same percentages around the globe. [6] Contents [ hide ] 1 The experiment 2 Results 3 Critical reception 3.1 Ethics 3.2 Applicability to the Holocaust 3.3 Validity 4 Interpretations 4.1 Alternative interpretations 5 Replications and variations 5.1 Milgram's variations 5.2 Replications 5.3 Other variations 6 Media depictions 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links The experiment [ edit ] Milgram Experiment advertisement Three individuals took part in each session of the experiment: The \"experimenter\", who was in charge of the session. The \"teacher\", a volunteer for a single session. The \"teacher\" was led to believe that they were merely assisting, whereas they were actually the subject of the experiment. The \"learner\", an actor and a confederate of the experimenter, who pretended to be a volunteer. The subject and the actor arrived at the session together. The experimenter told them that they were taking part in \"a scientific study of memory and learning\", to see what the effect of punishment is on a subject's ability to memorize content. The subject and actor drew slips of paper to determine their roles. Unknown to the subject, both slips said \"teacher\". The actor would always claim to have drawn the slip that read learner, thus guaranteeing that the subject would always be the teacher. Next, the teacher and learner were taken into an adjacent room where the learner was strapped into what appeared to be an electric chair. The experimenter told the participants this was to ensure that the learner would not escape. [1] In one version of the experiment, the confederate was sure to mention to the participant that he had a heart condition . [1] At some point prior to the actual test, the teacher was given a sample electric shock from the electroshock generator in order to experience firsthand what the shock that the learner would supposedly receive during the experiment would feel like. The teacher and learner were then separated, so that they could communicate but not see each other. The teacher was then given a list of word pairs that he was to teach the learner. The teacher began by reading the list of word pairs to the learner. The teacher would then read the first word of each pair and read four possible answers. The learner would press a button to indicate his response. If the answer was incorrect, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage increasing in 15- volt increments for each wrong answer. If correct, the teacher would read the next word pair. [1] The subjects believed that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual shocks. In reality, there were no shocks. After the learner was separated from the teacher, the learner set up a tape recorder integrated with the electroshock generator, which played prerecorded sounds for each shock level. As the voltage of the fake shocks increased, the learner yelled and protested louder, and later banged repeatedly on the wall that separated him from the teacher. When the highest voltages were reached, the learner fell silent. [1] If at any time the teacher indicated a desire to halt the experiment, the experimenter was instructed to give specific verbal prods. The prods were, in this order: [1] Please continue . The experiment requires that you continue . It is absolutely essential that you continue . You have no other choice, you must go on. If the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods, the experiment was halted. Otherwise, it was halted after the subject had given the maximum 450-volt shock three times in succession. [1] The experimenter also had prods to use if the teacher made specific comments. If the teacher asked whether the learner might suffer permanent physical harm, the experimenter replied, \"Although the shocks may be painful, there is no permanent tissue damage, so please go on.\" If the teacher said that the learner clearly wants to stop, the experimenter replied, \"Whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has learned all the word pairs correctly, so please go on.\" [1] Results [ edit ] Before conducting the experiment, Milgram polled fourteen Yale University senior-year psychology majors to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical teachers. All of the poll respondents believed that only a very small fraction of teachers (the range was from zero to 3 out of 100, with an average of 1.2) would be prepared to inflict the maximum voltage. Milgram also informally polled his colleagues and found that they, too, believed very few subjects would progress beyond a very strong shock. [1] He also reached out to honorary Harvard University graduate Chaim Homnick, who noted that this experiment would not be concrete evidence of the Nazis' innocence, due to fact that \"poor people are more likely to cooperate.\" Milgram also polled forty psychiatrists from a medical school, and they believed that by the tenth shock, when the victim demands to be free, most subjects would stop the experiment. They predicted that by the 300-volt shock, when the victim refuses to answer, only 3.73 percent of the subjects would still continue and, they believed that \"only a little over one-tenth of one percent of the subjects would administer the highest shock on the board.\" [7] In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65 percent (26 of 40) of experiment participants administered the experiment's final massive 450-volt shock, [1] and all administered shocks of at least 300 volts. Subjects were uncomfortable doing so, and displayed varying degrees of tension and stress. These signs included sweating, trembling, stuttering, biting their lips, groaning, digging their fingernails into their skin, and some were even having nervous laughing fits or seizures. [1] Every participant paused the experiment at least once to question it. Most continued after being assured by the experimenter. Some said they would refund the money they were paid for participating. Milgram summarized the experiment in his 1974 article, \"The Perils of Obedience\", writing: The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous importance, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' [participants'] strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' [participants'] ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation. Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority. [8] The original Simulated Shock Generator and Event Recorder, or shock box , is located in the Archives of the History of American Psychology . Later, Milgram and other psychologists performed variations of the experiment throughout the world, with similar results. [9] Milgram later investigated the effect of the experiment's locale on obedience levels by holding an experiment in an unregistered, backstreet office in a bustling city, as opposed to at Yale, a respectable university. The level of obedience, \"although somewhat reduced, was not significantly lower.\" What made more of a difference was the proximity of the \"learner\" and the experimenter. There were also variations tested involving groups. Thomas Blass of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County performed a meta-analysis on the results of repeated performances of the experiment. He found that while the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages ranged from 28% to 91%, there was no significant trend over time and the average percentage for US studies (61%) was close to the one for non-US studies (66%). [2] [10] The participants who refused to administer the final shocks neither insisted that the experiment be terminated, nor left the room to check the health of the victim without requesting permission to leave, as per Milgram's notes and recollections, when fellow psychologist Philip Zimbardo asked him about that point. [11] Milgram created a documentary film titled Obedience showing the experiment and its results. He also produced a series of five social psychology films, some of which dealt with his experiments. [12] Critical reception [ edit ] Ethics [ edit ] The Milgram Shock Experiment raised questions about the research ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress and inflicted insight suffered by the participants. Some critics such as Gina Perry argued that participants were not properly debriefed. [13] In Milgram's defense, 84 percent of former participants surveyed later said they were \"glad\" or \"very glad\" to have participated; 15 percent chose neutral responses (92% of all former participants responding). [14] Many later wrote expressing thanks. Milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants. Six years later (at the height of the Vietnam War ), one of the participants in the experiment sent correspondence to Milgram, explaining why he was glad to have participated despite the stress: While I was a subject in 1964, though I believed that I was hurting someone, I was totally unaware of why I was doing so. Few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and when they are meekly submitting to authority ... To permit myself to be drafted with the understanding that I am submitting to authority's demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of myself ... I am fully prepared to go to jail if I am not granted Conscientious Objector status. Indeed, it is the only course I could take to be faithful to what I believe. My only hope is that members of my board act equally according to their conscience ... [15] [16] In his book Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View , Milgram argued that the ethical criticism provoked by his experiments was because his findings were disturbing and revealed unwelcome truths about human nature . Others have argued that the ethical debate has diverted attention from more serious problems with the experiment's methodology . Applicability to the Holocaust [ edit ] Milgram sparked direct critical response in the scientific community by claiming that \"a common psychological process is centrally involved in both [his laboratory experiments and Nazi Germany] events.\" James Waller , Chair of Holocaust and Genocide Studies at Keene State College, formerly Chair of Whitworth College Psychology Department, expressed the opinion that Milgram experiments do not correspond well to the Holocaust events: [17] The subjects of Milgram experiments, wrote James Waller ( Becoming Evil ), were assured in advance that no permanent physical damage would result from their actions. However, the Holocaust perpetrators were fully aware of their hands-on killing and maiming of the victims. The laboratory subjects themselves did not know their victims and were not motivated by racism or other biases. On the other hand, the Holocaust perpetrators displayed an intense devaluation of the victims through a lifetime of personal development. Those serving punishment at the lab were not sadists, nor hate-mongers, and often exhibited great anguish and conflict in the experiment, unlike the designers and executioners of the Final Solution (see Holocaust trials ), who had a clear \"goal\" on their hands, set beforehand. The experiment lasted for an hour, with no time for the subjects to contemplate the implications of their behavior . Meanwhile, the Holocaust lasted for years with ample time for a moral assessment of all individuals and organizations involved. [17] In the opinion of Thomas Blass—who is the author of a scholarly monograph on the experiment ( The Man Who Shocked The World ) published in 2004—the historical evidence pertaining to actions of the Holocaust perpetrators speaks louder than words: My own view is that Milgram's approach does not provide a fully adequate explanation of the Holocaust. While it may well account for the dutiful destructiveness of the dispassionate bureaucrat who may have shipped Jews to Auschwitz with the same degree of routinization as potatoes to Bremerhaven, it falls short when one tries to apply it to the more zealous, inventive, and hate-driven atrocities that also characterized the Holocaust. [18] Validity [ edit ] In 2012, Australian psychologist Gina Perry investigated Milgram's data and writings and concluded that Milgram had manipulated the results, and that there was \"troubling mismatch between (published) descriptions of the experiment and evidence of what actually transpired.\" She wrote that \"only half of the people who undertook the experiment fully believed it was real and of those, 66% disobeyed the experimenter\". [19] [20] She described her findings as \"an unexpected outcome\" that \"leaves social psychology in a difficult situation.\" [21] In the journal Jewish Currents , Joseph Dimow, a participant in the 1961 experiment at Yale University, wrote about his early withdrawal as a \"teacher\", suspicious \"that the whole experiment was designed to see if ordinary Americans would obey immoral orders, as many Germans had done during the Nazi period.\" [22] Interpretations [ edit ] Milgram elaborated two theories: The first is the theory of conformism , based on Solomon Asch conformity experiments , describing the fundamental relationship between the group of reference and the individual person. A subject who has neither ability nor expertise to make decisions, especially in a crisis, will leave decision making to the group and its hierarchy. The group is the person's behavioral model. [ citation needed ] The second is the agentic state theory , wherein, per Milgram, \"the essence of obedience consists in the fact that a person comes to view themselves as the instrument for carrying out another person's wishes, and they therefore no longer see themselves as responsible for their actions. Once this critical shift of viewpoint has occurred in the person, all of the essential features of obedience follow\". [23] Alternative interpretations [ edit ] In his book Irrational Exuberance , Yale finance professor Robert Shiller argues that other factors might be partially able to explain the Milgram Experiments: [People] have learned that when experts tell them something is all right, it probably is, even if it does not seem so. (In fact, it is worth noting that in this case the experimenter was indeed correct: it was all right to continue giving the \"shocks\"—even though most of the subjects did not suspect the reason.) [24] In a 2006 experiment, a computerized avatar was used in place of the learner receiving electrical shocks. Although the participants administering the shocks were aware that the learner was unreal, the experimenters reported that participants responded to the situation physiologically \"as if it were real\". [25] Another explanation [26] of Milgram's results invokes belief perseverance as the underlying cause. What \"people cannot be counted on is to realize that a seemingly benevolent authority is in fact malevolent, even when they are faced with overwhelming evidence which suggests that this authority is indeed malevolent. Hence, the underlying cause for the subjects' striking conduct could well be conceptual, and not the alleged 'capacity of man to abandon his humanity ... as he merges his unique personality into larger institutional structures.\"' This last explanation receives some support from a 2009 episode of the BBC science documentary series Horizon , which involved replication of the Milgram experiment. Of the twelve participants, only three refused to continue to the end of the experiment. Speaking during the episode, social psychologist Clifford Stott discussed the influence that the idealism of scientific inquiry had on the volunteers. He remarked: \"The influence is ideological. It's about what they believe science to be, that science is a positive product, it produces beneficial findings and knowledge to society that are helpful for society. So there's that sense of science is providing some kind of system for good.\" [27] Building on the importance of idealism, some recent researchers suggest the 'engaged followership ' perspective. Based on an examination of Milgram's archive, in a recent study, social psychologists Alex Haslam , Stephen Reicher and Megan Birney, at the University of Queensland , discovered that people are less likely to follow the prods of an experimental leader when the prod resembles an order. However, when the prod stresses the importance of the experiment for science (i.e. 'The experiment requires you to continue'), people are more likely to obey. [28] The researchers suggest the perspective of 'engaged followership': that people are not simply obeying the orders of a leader, but instead are willing to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and because of a lack of identification with the learner. [29] Also a neuroscientific study supports this perspective, namely watching the learner receive electric shocks, does not activate brain regions involving empathic concerns. [30] Replications and variations [ edit ] Milgram's variations [ edit ] In Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (1974), Milgram describes nineteen variations of his experiment, some of which had not been previously reported. Several experiments varied the distance between the participant (teacher) and the learner. Generally, when the participant was physically closer to the learner, the participant's compliance decreased. In the variation where the learner's physical immediacy was closest, where the participant had to hold the learner's arm onto a shock plate, 30 percent of participants completed the experiment. The participant's compliance also decreased if the experimenter was physically further away (Experiments 1–4). For example, in Experiment 2, where participants received telephonic instructions from the experimenter, compliance decreased to 21 percent. Some participants deceived the experimenter by pretending to continue the experiment. In Experiment 8, an all-female contingent was used; previously, all participants had been men. Obedience did not significantly differ, though the women communicated experiencing higher levels of stress. Experiment 10 took place in a modest office in Bridgeport , Connecticut , purporting to be the commercial entity \"Research Associates of Bridgeport\" without apparent connection to Yale University, to eliminate the university's prestige as a possible factor influencing the participants' behavior. In those conditions, obedience dropped to 47.5 percent, though the difference was not statistically significant. Milgram also combined the effect of authority with that of conformity . In those experiments, the participant was joined by one or two additional \"teachers\" (also actors, like the \"learner\"). The behavior of the participants' peers strongly affected the results. In Experiment 17, when two additional teachers refused to comply, only 4 of 40 participants continued in the experiment. In Experiment 18, the participant performed a subsidiary task (reading the questions via microphone or recording the learner's answers) with another \"teacher\" who complied fully. In that variation, 37 of 40 continued with the experiment. [31] Replications [ edit ] Play media A virtual replication of the experiment, with an avatar serving as the learner Around the time of the release of Obedience to Authority in 1973–1974, a version of the experiment was conducted at La Trobe University in Australia. As reported by Perry in her 2012 book Behind the Shock Machine , some of the participants experienced long-lasting psychological effects, possibly due to the lack of proper debriefing by the experimenter. [32] In 2002, the British artist Rod Dickinson created The Milgram Re-enactment , an exact reconstruction of parts of the original experiment, including the uniforms, lighting, and rooms used. An audience watched the four-hour performance through one-way glass windows. [33] [34] A video of this performance was first shown at the CCA Gallery in Glasgow in 2002. A partial replication of the experiment was staged by British illusionist Derren Brown and broadcast on UK's Channel 4 in The Heist (2006). [35] Another partial replication of the experiment was conducted by Jerry M. Burger in 2006 and broadcast on the Primetime series Basic Instincts . Burger noted that \"current standards for the ethical treatment of participants clearly place Milgram's studies out of bounds.\" In 2009, Burger was able to receive approval from the institutional review board by modifying several of the experimental protocols. [36] Burger found obedience rates virtually identical to those reported by Milgram found in 1961–62, even while meeting current ethical regulations of informing participants. In addition, half the replication participants were female, and their rate of obedience was virtually identical to that of the male participants. Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another participant refuse to continue. However, participants in this condition obeyed at the same rate as participants in the base condition. [37] In the 2010 French documentary Le Jeu de la Mort ( The Game of Death ), researchers recreated the Milgram experiment with an added critique of reality television by presenting the scenario as a game show pilot. Volunteers were given €40 and told they would not win any money from the game, as this was only a trial. Only 16 of 80 \"contestants\" (teachers) chose to end the game before delivering the highest-voltage punishment. [38] [39] The experiment was performed on Dateline NBC on an episode airing April 25, 2010. The Discovery Channel aired the \"How Evil are You\" segment of Curiosity on October 30, 2011. The episode was hosted by Eli Roth , who produced results similar to the original Milgram experiment, though the highest-voltage punishment used was 165 volts, rather than 450 volts. [40] Due to increasingly widespread knowledge of the experiment, recent replications of the procedure have had to ensure that participants were not previously aware of it. [ citation needed ] Other variations [ edit ] Charles Sheridan and Richard King (at the University of Missouri and the University of California, Berkeley , respectively) hypothesized that some of Milgram's subjects may have suspected that the victim was faking, so they repeated the experiment with a real victim: a \"cute, fluffy puppy\" who was given real, albeit apparently harmless, electric shocks. Their findings were dissimilar to those of Milgram: half of the male subjects and all of the females obeyed throughout. Many subjects showed high levels of distress during the experiment, and some openly wept. In addition, Sheridan and King found that the duration for which the shock button was pressed decreased as the shocks got higher, meaning that for higher shock levels, subjects were more hesitant. [41] [42] Media depictions [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Obedience is a black-and-white film of the experiment, shot by Milgram himself. It is distributed by Alexander Street Press . [43] The Tenth Level was a 1975 CBS television film about the experiment, featuring William Shatner and Ossie Davis . [10] [44] I as in Icarus is a 1979 French conspiracy thriller with Yves Montand as a lawyer investigating the assassination of the President. The movie is inspired by the Kennedy assassination and the subsequent Warren Commission investigation. Digging into the psychology of the Lee Harvey Oswald type character, the attorney finds out the \"decoy shooter\" participated in the Milgram experiment. The ongoing experiment is presented to the unsuspecting lawyer. Foolin Around is a 1980 movie starring Gary Busey and Annette O'Toole , which uses a Milgram experiment parody in a comedic scene. Vaguely referenced at the start of the 1984 film Ghostbusters , character Doctor Peter Venkman gives electric shocks to a male subject while flirting with a female subject. Prior to the shocks both subjects show increased stress, but the male subject ends the experiment early, saying it's \"Pissing me off. You can keep the five bucks.\" The track \"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\" on Peter Gabriel 's 1986 album So is a reference to Milgram's Experiment 18, in which 37 of 40 people were prepared to administer the highest level of shock. Referenced in Alan Moore 's graphic novel V for Vendetta (1988-1989) as a reason why Dr. Surridge has lost faith in humanity. Atrocity is a 2005 film re-enactment of the Milgram Experiment. [45] The Human Behavior Experiments is a 2006 documentary by Alex Gibney about major experiments in social psychology, shown along with modern incidents highlighting the principles discussed. Along with Stanley Milgram 's study in obedience, the documentary shows the diffusion of responsibility study of John Darley and Bibb Latané and the Stanford Prison Experiment of Philip Zimbardo . A 2006 Derren Brown special named The Heist repeated the Milgram experiment to test whether the participants will take part in a staged heist afterwards. [46] The 2003 Malcolm in the Middle episode \"Malcolm Films Reese\" features the main character being forced to extract personal secrets from his brother Reese while secretly filming them in a project Malcolm's teacher compares to the Milgram Experiment. Chip Kidd 's 2008 novel The Learners is about the Milgram experiment and features Stanley Milgram as a character. The Milgram Experiment is a 2009 film by the Brothers Gibbs that chronicles the story of Stanley Milgram's experiments. The 2008 Dar Williams song \"Buzzer\" is about the experiment. \"I'm feeling sorry for this guy that I pressed to shock / He gets the answers wrong I have to up the watts / And he begged me to stop but they told me to go / I pressed the buzzer.\" \"Authority\" , a 2008 episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit , features Merrit Rook, a suspect played by Robin Williams , who employs the strip search prank call scam , identifying himself as \"Detective Milgram\". He later reenacts a version of the Milgram experiment on Det. Elliot Stabler by ordering him to administer electric shocks to Det. Olivia Benson , whom Rook has bound and is thus helpless. Episode 114 of the 2009 Howie Mandel show Howie Do It repeated the experiment with a single pair of subjects using the premise of a Japanese game show. Law & Order: Criminal Intent , Season 9 Episode 6, April 5, 2010, \"Abel & Willing,\" features Dr. Abel Hazard ( Dallas Roberts ) who explains the Milgram experiment to a $5000 prostitute he hired for the evening. The original Milgrim documentary film, Obedience , is playing on the TV in the scene. The 2010 film Zenith references and dramatically depicts the Milgram experiment The 2010 video game Fallout: New Vegas featured a place called \"Vault 11,' inspired by the Milgram experiment, which demanded the residents to sacrifice one of their own once a year and told them they would be exterminated if they failed to comply. In addition, lines spoken by the vault’s computer are near-verbatim lines from the experiment urging the player’s compliance. The Discovery Channel's Curiosity TV series October 30, 2011 episode, \"How Evil Are You?\" features Eli Roth recreating the experiment asking the question, \"Fifty years later, have we changed?\" The 2012 film Compliance , written and directed by Craig Zobel, shows a group of employees assisting in the interrogation of a young counter assistant at the commands of a person who claims to be a police officer over the phone, demonstrating the willingness of subjects to follow orders from authority figures. The Fox TV series Bones featured a December 4, 2014 episode titled \"The Mutilation of the Master Manipulator,\" where the murder victim, a college psychology professor, is shown administering the Milgram experiment. Experimenter , a 2015 film about Milgram, by Michael Almereyda , was screened to favorable reactions at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival . [47] See also [ edit ] Psychology portal Authority bias Banality of evil Belief perseverance Hofling hospital experiment Human experimentation in the United States Law of Due Obedience Little Eichmanns Moral disengagement My Lai massacre Obedience (human behavior) Social influence Stanford prison experiment Superior orders The Third Wave (experiment) Notes [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Milgram, Stanley (1963). \"Behavioral Study of Obedience\" . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology . 67 (4): 371–8. doi : 10.1037/h0040525 . PMID 14049516 . as PDF. Archived April 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to: a b Blass, Thomas (1999). \"The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority\". Journal of Applied Social Psychology . 29 (5): 955–978. doi : 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00134.x . as PDF Archived March 31, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Milgram, Stanley (1974). Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View . Harpercollins. ISBN 0-06-131983-X . Jump up ^ Zimbardo, Philip. \"When Good People Do Evil\" . Yale Alumni Magazine . Yale Alumni Publications, Inc . Retrieved April 24, 2015 . Jump up ^ Search inside (2013). \"Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?\" . Google Books . Retrieved July 20, 2013 . Jump up ^ Blass, Thomas (1991). \"Understanding behavior in the Milgram obedience experiment: The role of personality, situations, and their interactions\" (PDF) . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 60 (3): 398–413. doi : 10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.398 . Archived from the original (PDF) on March 7, 2016. Jump up ^ Milgram, Stanley (1965). \"Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority\". Human Relations . 18 (1): 57–76. doi : 10.1177/001872676501800105 . Jump up ^ Milgram, Stanley (1974). \"The Perils of Obedience\" . Harper's Magazine . Archived from the original on December 16, 2010. Abridged and adapted from Obedience to Authority . Jump up ^ Milgram 1974 ^ Jump up to: a b Blass, Thomas (Mar–Apr 2002). \"The Man Who Shocked the World\" . Psychology Today . 35 (2). Jump up ^ Discovering Psychology with Philip Zimbardo Ph.D. Updated Edition, \"Power of the Situation,\" http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6059627757980071729 , reference starts at 10min 59 seconds into video. Jump up ^ Milgram films. Archived September 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine . Accessed October 4, 2006. Jump up ^ Perry, Gina. 2013. \"Deception and Illusion in Milgram’s Accounts of the Obedience Experiments.” Theoretical and Applied Ethics, University of Nebraska Press Volume 2, Number 2, Winter 2013: 82. Accessed October 25, 2016. Jump up ^ Milgram 1974 , p. 195 Jump up ^ Raiten-D'Antonio, Toni (1 September 2010). Ugly as Sin: The Truth about How We Look and Finding Freedom from Self-Hatred . HCI. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-7573-1465-0 . Jump up ^ Milgram 1974 , p. 200 ^ Jump up to: a b James Waller (February 22, 2007). \"What Can the Milgram Studies Teach Us...\" (Google Book) . Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing . Oxford University Press. pp. 111–113. ISBN 0199774854 . Retrieved June 9, 2013 . Jump up ^ Blass, Thomas (2013). \"The Roots of Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiments and Their Relevance to the Holocaust\" (PDF) . Analyse und Kritik.net. p. 51. Archived from the original (PDF file, direct download 733 KB) on 29 October 2013 . Retrieved 20 July 2013 . Jump up ^ Gina Perry (2012) Behind the Shock Machine: the untold story of the notorious Milgram psychology experiments , The New Press . ISBN 978-1921844553 . Jump up ^ Matthew Lamb: Review: The shocking truth of psychologist Stanley Milgram's create-a-Nazi experiment , The Australian , June 30, 2012 Jump up ^ NPR Staff: Author Interview with Gena Perry: Taking A Closer Look At Milgram's Shocking Obedience Study , NPR : All Things Considered, August 28, 2013 Jump up ^ Dimow, Joseph. \"Resisting Authority: A Personal Account of the Milgram Obedience Experiments\" , Jewish Currents, January 2004. Jump up ^ \"Source: A cognitive reinterpretation of Stanley Milgram's observations on obedience to authority\" . American Psychologist . 45 : 1384–1385. 1990. doi : 10.1037/0003-066x.45.12.1384 . Archived from the original on February 5, 2013. Jump up ^ Shiller, Robert (2005). Irrational Exuberance (2nd ed.). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 158. Jump up ^ Slater M, Antley A, Davison A, et al. (2006). Rustichini A, ed. \"A virtual reprise of the Stanley Milgram obedience experiments\" . PLoS ONE . 1 (1): e39. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0000039 . PMC 1762398 . PMID 17183667 . Jump up ^ Nissani, Moti. \"A cognitive reinterpretation of Stanley Milgram's observations on obedience to authority\" . American Psychologist . 45: 1384–1385. doi : 10.1037/0003-066x . [ permanent dead link ] Jump up ^ Presenter: Michael Portillo . Producer: Diene Petterle. (May 12, 2009). \"How Violent Are You?\" . Horizon . Series 45. Episode 18. BBC . BBC Two . Retrieved May 8, 2013 . Jump up ^ Haslam, S. Alexander; Reicher, Stephen D.; Birney, Megan E. (September 1, 2014). \"Nothing by Mere Authority: Evidence that in an Experimental Analogue of the Milgram Paradigm Participants are Motivated not by Orders but by Appeals to Science\" . Journal of Social Issues . 70 (3): 473–488. doi : 10.1111/josi.12072 . ISSN 1540-4560 . Jump up ^ Haslam, S Alexander; Reicher, Stephen D; Birney, Megan E (October 1, 2016). \"Questioning authority: new perspectives on Milgram's 'obedience' research and its implications for intergroup relations\" . Current Opinion in Psychology . Intergroup relations. 11 : 6–9. doi : 10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.007 . Jump up ^ Cheetham, Marcus; Pedroni, Andreas; Antley, Angus; Slater, Mel; Jäncke, Lutz; Cheetham, Marcus; Pedroni, Andreas F.; Antley, Angus; Slater, Mel (January 1, 2009). \"Virtual milgram: empathic concern or personal distress? Evidence from functional MRI and dispositional measures\" . Frontiers in Human Neuroscience . 3 : 29. doi : 10.3389/neuro.09.029.2009 . PMC 2769551 . PMID 19876407 . Jump up ^ Milgram, old answers. Accessed October 4, 2006. Archived April 30, 2009, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Elliott, Tim (April 26, 2012). \"Dark legacy left by shock tactics\" . Sydney Morning Herald . Jump up ^ History Will Repeat Itself: Strategies of Re-enactment in Contemporary (Media) Art and Performance , ed. Inke Arns, Gabriele Horn, Frankfurt: Verlag, 2007 Jump up ^ \"The Milgram Re-enactment\" . Retrieved June 10, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"The Milgram Experiment on YouTube\" . Retrieved December 21, 2008 . Jump up ^ Burger, Jerry M. (2008). \"Replicating Milgram: Would People Still Obey Today?\" (PDF) . American Psychologist . 64 : 1–11. doi : 10.1037/a0010932 . PMID 19209958 . Jump up ^ \"The Science of Evil\" . Retrieved January 4, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Fake TV Game Show 'Tortures' Man, Shocks France\" . Retrieved October 19, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Fake torture TV 'game show' reveals willingness to obey\" . March 17, 2010. Archived from the original on March 23, 2010 . Retrieved March 18, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Curiosity: How evil are you?\" . Retrieved April 17, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Sheridan & King (1972) – Obedience to authority with an authentic victim, Proceedings of the 80th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 7: 165–6\" (PDF) . Retrieved March 3, 2013 . Jump up ^ Blass 1999 , p. 968 Jump up ^ \"The Stanley Milgram Films on Social Psychology by Alexander Street Press\" . Jump up ^ The Tenth Level at the Internet Movie Database. Accessed October 4, 2006. Jump up ^ \"Atrocity\" . Archived from the original on April 27, 2007 . Retrieved March 20, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"The Heist « Derren Brown\" . Jump up ^ \" ' Experimenter': Sundance Review\" . The Hollywood Reporter. January 28, 2015 . Retrieved January 30, 2015 . References [ edit ] Blass, Thomas (2004). The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram . Basic Books . ISBN 0-7382-0399-8 . Levine, Robert V. (July–August 2004). \"Milgram's Progress\" . American Scientist . Archived from the original on February 26, 2015. Book review of The Man Who Shocked the World Miller, Arthur G. (1986). The obedience experiments: A case study of controversy in social science . New York: Praeger . Parker, Ian (Autumn 2000). \"Obedience\" . Granta (71). Archived from the original on December 7, 2008. Includes an interview with one of Milgram's volunteers, and discusses modern interest in, and scepticism about, the experiment. Tarnow, Eugen. \"Towards the Zero Accident Goal: Assisting the First Officer Monitor and Challenge Captain Errors\" . Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education and Research . 10 (1). Tumanov, Vladimir (2007). \"Stanley Milgram and Siegfried Lenz: An Analysis of Deutschstunde in the Framework of Social Psychology\" (PDF) . Neophilologus: International Journal of Modern and Mediaeval Language and Literature . 91 (1): 135–148. doi : 10.1007/s11061-005-4254-x . Archived from the original (PDF) on May 17, 2013. Wu, William (June 2003). \"Compliance: The Milgram Experiment\" . Practical Psychology . Further reading [ edit ] Perry, Gina (2013). Behind the shock machine : the untold story of the notorious Milgram psychology experiments (Rev. edition. ed.). New York [etc.]: The New Press. ISBN 1-59558-921-X . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Milgram experiment Wikimedia Commons has media related to Milgram experiment . Listen to this article ( info/dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article \" Milgram experiment \" dated 2005-04-12, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ( Audio help ) More spoken articles Stanley Milgram Redux, TBIYTB — Description of a 2007 iteration of Milgram's experiment at Yale University, published in The Yale Hippolytic , January 22, 2007. ( Internet Archive ) A Powerpoint presentation describing Milgram's experiment Synthesis of book A faithful synthesis of Obedience to Authority – Stanley Milgram Obedience To Authority — A commentary extracted from 50 Psychology Classics (2007) A personal account of a participant in the Milgram obedience experiments Summary and evaluation of the 1963 obedience experiment The Science of Evil from ABC News Primetime The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil — Video lecture of Philip Zimbardo talking about the Milgram Experiment. Zimbardo, Philip (2007). \"When Good People Do Evil\" . Yale Alumni Magazine . — Article on the 45th anniversary of the Milgram experiment. Riggenbach, Jeff (August 3, 2010). \"The Milgram Experiment\" . Mises Daily . Ludwig von Mises Institute . Milgram 1974 , Chapter 1 and 15 People 'still willing to torture' BBC Beyond the Shock Machine , a radio documentary with the people who took part in the experiment. 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{ "text": "Original sin - Wikipedia Original sin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Eternal sin . For other uses, see Original Sin (disambiguation) . Depiction of the sin of Adam and Eve by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens . Original sin , also called \" ancestral sin \", [1] is a Christian belief of the state of sin in which humanity exists since the fall of man , stemming from Adam and Eve 's rebellion in Eden , namely the sin of disobedience in consuming the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil . [2] This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a \"sin nature\", to something as drastic as total depravity or automatic guilt of all humans through collective guilt . [3] The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by Irenaeus , Bishop of Lyon in his controversy with certain dualist Gnostics . [4] Other church fathers such as Augustine also developed the doctrine, [2] seeing it as based on the New Testament teaching of Paul the Apostle ( Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:21-22 ) and the Old Testament verse of Psalms 51:5 . [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Tertullian , Cyprian , Ambrose and Ambrosiaster considered that humanity shares in Adam's sin, transmitted by human generation. Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant reformers , such as Martin Luther and John Calvin , who equated original sin with concupiscence (or \"hurtful desire\"), affirming that it persisted even after baptism and completely destroyed freedom, although Augustine said that free will was weakened but not destroyed by original sin. [2] The Jansenist movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, also maintained that original sin destroyed freedom of will . [10] Instead the Catholic Church declares \"Baptism, by imparting the life of Christ's grace, erases original sin and turns a man back towards God, but the consequences for nature, weakened and inclined to evil, persist in man and summon him to spiritual battle.\" [11] \"Weakened and diminished by Adam's fall, free will is yet not destroyed in the race\" [12] Contents 1 History of the doctrine 1.1 Apocryphal books 1.2 Augustine 1.3 Cassian 1.4 Church reaction 1.5 Protestant reformation 1.6 Council of Trent 2 Denominational views 2.1 Catholicism 2.1.1 Criticism 2.2 Eastern Orthodoxy 2.3 Classical Anglicanism 2.4 Methodism 2.5 Seventh-day Adventism 2.6 Jehovah's Witnesses 2.7 Mormonism 2.8 Swedenborgianism 2.9 Quakerism 3 In Judaism 4 In Islam 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links History of the doctrine [ edit ] Michelangelo 's painting of the sin of Adam and Eve from the Sistine Chapel ceiling The doctrine of ancestral fault ( προγονικὸν ἁμάρτημα progonikon hamartema ), i.e. the sins of the forefathers leading to punishment of their descendants, was presented as a tradition of immemorial antiquity in ancient Greek religion by Celsus in his True Doctrine , a polemic attacking Christianity.\nCelsus is quoted as attributing to \"a priest of Apollo or of Zeus\" the saying that \"the mills of the gods grind slowly, even to children's children, and to those who are born after them\". [13] The idea of divine justice taking the form of collective punishment is also ubiquitous in the Hebrew Bible . [14] St Paul's idea of redemption hinged upon the contrast between the sin of Adam and the death and resurrection of Jesus. \"Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned.\" [15] \"For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive.\" [16] Up till then the transgression in the Garden of Eden had not been given great significance. According to the Jesus scholar Geza Vermes : Paul believed that Adam's transgression in a mysterious way affected the nature of the human race. The primeval sin, a Pauline creation with no biblical or post-biblical Jewish precedent, was irreparable by ordinary human effort. [17] The formalized Christian doctrine of original sin was first developed in the 2nd century by Irenaeus , the Bishop of Lyon , in his struggle against Gnosticism . [2] Irenaeus contrasted their doctrine with the view that the Fall was a step in the wrong direction by Adam, with whom, Irenaeus believed, his descendants had some solidarity or identity. [18] However, Irenaeus did not believe that Adam's sin had tremendously grave consequences for humanity as the later tradition would hold, nor that his sin was the source of universal human sinfulness. [19] That all human beings participate in Adam's sin and share his guilt are totally foreign concepts for Irenaeus; Adam's sin belonged to Adam alone. Adam in his transgression is likened to a child who merely partook of the tree ahead of his time. [20] For Irenaeus, knowing good an evil was an integral aspect of human nature; the 'sin' of Adam was snatching at the fruit of the tree rather than waiting for it as a gift from God. [21] Other Greek Fathers would come to emphasize the cosmic dimension of the Fall, namely that since Adam human beings are born into a fallen world, but held fast to belief that man, though fallen, is free. [2] They thus did not teach that human beings are deprived of free will and involved in total depravity , which is one understanding of original sin among the leaders of the Reformation . [22] [23] During this period the doctrines of human depravity and the inherently sinful nature of human flesh were taught by Gnostics , and orthodox Christian writers took great pains to counter them. [24] [25] Christian apologists insisted that God's future judgment of humanity implied humanity must have the ability to live righteously. [26] [27] Historian Robin Lane Fox argues that the foundation of the doctrine of original sin as accepted by the Church was ultimately based on a mistranslation of Paul the Apostle 's Epistle to the Romans ( Romans 5:12–21 ) by Augustine, in his On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin\" . [28] Apocryphal books [ edit ] The original sin doctrine can be found fourth Book of Esdras , which refers Adam being responsible for the Fall of man whose offspring inherited the disease and evil. O Adam, what have you done? For though it was you who sinned, the fall was not yours alone, but ours also who are your descendants.─ 4 Esdras 7:48(118) [29] For the first Adam, burdened with an evil heart, transgressed and was overcome, as were also all who were descended from him. Thus the disease became permanent; the law was in the hearts of the people along with the evil root; but what was good departed, and the evil remained. ─ 4 Esdras 3:21-22 [30] For a grain of evil seed was sown in Adam’s heart from the beginning, and how much ungodliness it has produced until now—and will produce until the time of threshing comes! ─ 4 Esdras 4:30 [31] Augustine [ edit ] Augustine of Hippo wrote that original sin is transmitted by concupiscence and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it. [2] Augustine of Hippo (354–430) taught that Adam's sin [32] is transmitted by concupiscence , or \"hurtful desire\", [33] [34] resulting in humanity becoming a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will. [2] When Adam sinned, human nature was thenceforth transformed. Adam and Eve, via sexual reproduction, recreated human nature. Their descendants now live in sin, in the form of concupiscence, a term Augustine used in a metaphysical , not a psychological sense. [35] Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not a being but a bad quality , the privation of good or a wound. [36] He admitted that sexual concupiscence ( libido ) might have been present in the perfect human nature in paradise , and that only later it became disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin. [37] In Augustine's view (termed \"Realism\"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. Justo Gonzalez interprets Augustine's teaching that humans are utterly depraved in nature and grace is irresistible , results in conversion, and leads to perseverance . [38] Augustine articulated his explanation in reaction to Pelagianism , which insisted that humans have of themselves, without the necessary help of God's grace, the ability to lead a morally good life, and thus denied both the importance of baptism and the teaching that God is the giver of all that is good. Pelagius claimed that the influence of Adam on other humans was merely that of bad example. Augustine held that the effects of Adam's sin are transmitted to his descendants not by example but by the very fact of generation from that ancestor. A wounded nature comes to the soul and body of the new person from his/her parents, who experience libido (or concupiscence ). Augustine's view was that human procreation was the way the transmission was being effected. He did not blame, however, the sexual passion itself, but the spiritual concupiscence present in human nature, soul and body, even after baptismal regeneration. [39] Christian parents transmit their wounded nature to children, because they give them birth, not the \"re-birth\". [40] Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret St. Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption. In that view, also sexual desire itself as well as other bodily passions were consequence of the original sin, in which pure affections were wounded by vice and became disobedient to human reason and will. As long as they carry a threat to the dominion of reason over the soul they constitute moral evil, but since they do not presuppose consent, one cannot call them sins. Humanity will be liberated from passions, and pure affections will be restored only when all sin has been washed away and ended, that is in the resurrection of the dead . [41] [42] Augustine believed that unbaptized infants go to hell as a consequence of original sin. [43] [44] The Latin Church Fathers who followed Augustine adopted his position, which became a point of reference for Latin theologians in the Middle Ages. [45] In the later medieval period, some theologians continued to hold Augustine's view, others held that unbaptized infants suffered no pain at all: unaware of being deprived of the beatific vision , they enjoyed a state of natural, not supernatural happiness. Starting around 1300, unbaptized infants were often said to inhabit the \" limbo of infants \". [46] The Catechism of the Catholic Church , 1261 declares: \"As regards children who have died without Baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as she does in her funeral rites for them. Indeed, the great mercy of God who desires that all men should be saved, and Jesus' tenderness toward children which caused him to say: 'Let the children come to me, do not hinder them', [47] allow us to hope that there is a way of salvation for children who have died without Baptism. All the more urgent is the Church's call not to prevent little children coming to Christ through the gift of holy Baptism.\" But the theory of Limbo, while it \"never entered into the dogmatic definitions of the Magisterium ... remains ... a possible theological hypothesis\". [48] Cassian [ edit ] In the works of John Cassian (c. 360 – 435), Conference XIII recounts how the wise monk Chaeremon, of whom he is writing, responded to puzzlement caused by his own statement that \"man even though he strive with all his might for a good result, yet cannot become master of what is good unless he has acquired it simply by the gift of Divine bounty and not by the efforts of his own toil\" (chapter 1). In chapter 11, Cassian presents Chaeremon as speaking of the cases of Paul the persecutor and Matthew the publican as difficulties for those who say \"the beginning of free will is in our own power\", and the cases of Zaccheus and the good thief on the cross as difficulties for those who say \"the beginning of our free will is always due to the inspiration of the grace of God\", and as concluding: \"These two then; viz., the grace of God and free will seem opposed to each other, but really are in harmony, and we gather from the system of goodness that we ought to have both alike, lest if we withdraw one of them from man, we may seem to have broken the rule of the Church's faith: for when God sees us inclined to will what is good, He meets, guides, and strengthens us: for 'At the voice of thy cry, as soon as He shall hear, He will answer thee'; and: 'Call upon Me', He says, 'in the day of tribulation and I will deliver thee, and thou shalt glorify Me'. And again, if He finds that we are unwilling or have grown cold, He stirs our hearts with salutary exhortations, by which a good will is either renewed or formed in us.\" [49] Cassian did not accept the idea of total depravity , on which Martin Luther was to insist. [50] He taught that human nature is fallen or depraved, but not totally. Augustine Casiday states that, at the same time, Cassian \"baldly asserts that God's grace, not human free will, is responsible for 'everything which pertains to salvation' – even faith\". [51] Cassian pointed out that people still have moral freedom and one has the option to choose to follow God. Colm Luibhéid says that, according to Cassian, there are cases where the soul makes the first little turn, [52] but in Cassian's view, according to Casiday, any sparks of goodwill that may exist, not directly caused by God, are totally inadequate and only direct divine intervention ensures spiritual progress; [53] and Lauren Pristas says that \"for Cassian, salvation is, from beginning to end, the effect of God's grace\". [54] Church reaction [ edit ] Opposition to Augustine's ideas about original sin, which he had developed in reaction to Pelagianism , arose rapidly. [55] After a long and bitter struggle several councils, especially the Second Council of Orange in 529, confirmed the general principles of Augustine's teaching within Western Christianity. [2] However, while the western Church condemned Pelagius, it did not endorse Augustine entirely [56] and, while Augustine's authority was accepted, he was interpreted in the light of writers such as Cassian. [57] Some of the followers of Augustine identified original sin with concupiscence [58] in the psychological sense, but Saint Anselm of Canterbury challenged this identification in the 11th-century, defining original sin as \"privation of the righteousness that every man ought to possess\", thus separating it from concupiscence. In the 12th century the identification of original sin with concupiscence was supported by Peter Lombard and others, [2] but was rejected by the leading theologians in the next century, most notably by Thomas Aquinas . Aquinas distinguished the supernatural gifts of Adam before the Fall from what was merely natural, and said that it was the former that were lost, privileges that enabled man to keep his inferior powers in submission to reason and directed to his supernatural end. Even after the fall, man thus kept his natural abilities of reason, will and passions. Rigorous Augustine-inspired views persisted among the Franciscans , though the most prominent Franciscan theologians, such as Duns Scotus and William of Ockham , eliminated the element of concupiscence and identified original sin with the loss of sanctifying grace. Eastern Orthodox theology has questioned Western Christianity's ideas on original sin from the outset and does not promote the idea of inherited guilt. [59] Protestant reformation [ edit ] Martin Luther (1483–1546) asserted that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. The second article in Lutheranism 's Augsburg Confession presents its doctrine of original sin in summary form: It is also taught among us that since the fall of Adam all men who are born according to the course of nature are conceived and born in sin. That is, all men are full of evil lust and inclinations from their mothers' wombs and are unable by nature to have true fear of God and true faith in God. Moreover, this inborn sickness and hereditary sin is truly sin and condemns to the eternal wrath of God all those who are not born again through Baptism and the Holy Spirit. Rejected in this connection are the Pelagians and others who deny that original sin is sin, for they hold that natural man is made righteous by his own powers, thus disparaging the sufferings and merit of Christ. [60] Luther, however, also agreed with the Roman Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate Conception (that Mary was conceived free from original sin) by saying: [Mary] is full of grace, proclaimed to be entirely without sin. God's grace fills her with everything good and makes her devoid of all evil. God is with her, meaning that all she did or left undone is divine and the action of God in her. Moreover, God guarded and protected her from all that might be hurtful to her. [61] Protestant Reformer John Calvin (1509–1564) developed a systematic theology of Augustinian Protestantism by interpretation of Augustine of Hippo 's notion of original sin. Calvin believed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the Calvinistic doctrine of \" total depravity \") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation . Redemption by Jesus Christ is the only remedy. John Calvin defined original sin in his Institutes of the Christian Religion as follows: Original sin, therefore, seems to be a hereditary depravity and corruption of our nature, diffused into all parts of the soul, which first makes us liable to God's wrath, then also brings forth in us those works which Scripture calls \"works of the flesh\" (Gal 5:19). And that is properly what Paul often calls sin. The works that come forth from it – such as adulteries, fornications, thefts, hatreds, murders, carousings – he accordingly calls \"fruits of sin\" (Gal 5:19–21), although they are also commonly called \"sins\" in Scripture, and even by Paul himself. [62] Council of Trent [ edit ] The Council of Trent (1545–1563), while not pronouncing on points disputed among Catholic theologians, condemned the teaching that in baptism the whole of what belongs to the essence of sin is not taken away, but is only cancelled or not imputed, and declared the concupiscence that remains after baptism not truly and properly \"sin\" in the baptized, but only to be called sin in the sense that it is of sin and inclines to sin. [63] In 1567, soon after the close of the Council of Trent, Pope Pius V went beyond Trent by sanctioning Aquinas's distinction between nature and supernature in Adam's state before the Fall, condemned the identification of original sin with concupiscence, and approved the view that the unbaptized could have right use of will. [2] The Catholic Encyclopedia refers: \"Whilst original sin is effaced by baptism concupiscence still remains in the person baptized; therefore original sin and concupiscence cannot be one and the same thing, as was held by the early Protestants (see Council of Trent, Sess. V, can. v).\". [64] Denominational views [ edit ] Illuminated parchment, Spain, circa AD 950–955, depicting the Fall of Man, cause of original sin Catholicism [ edit ] The Catechism of the Catholic Church says: By his sin Adam, as the first man, lost the original holiness and justice he had received from God, not only for himself but for all humans. Adam and Eve transmitted to their descendants human nature wounded by their own first sin and hence deprived of original holiness and justice; this deprivation is called \"original sin\". As a result of original sin, human nature is weakened in its powers, subject to ignorance, suffering and the domination of death, and inclined to sin (this inclination is called \"concupiscence\"). [65] St. Anselm refers: \"the sin of Adam was one thing but the sin of children at their birth is quite another, the former was the cause, the latter is the effect\" [66] In a child original sin is distinct from the fault of Adam, it is one of its effects. The effects of Adam's sin according to the Catholic Encyclopedia are: Death and Suffering. Concupiscence or Inclination to sin. Baptism erases original sin but the inclination to sin remains. The absence of sanctifying grace in the new-born child is also an effect of the first sin, for Adam, having received holiness and justice from God, lost it not only for himself but also for us. Baptism confers original sanctifying grace, lost through the Adam's sin, thus eliminating original sin and any personal sin. [64] The Catholic Church teaches that every human person born on this earth is made in the image of God. [67] [68] Within man \"is both the powerful surge toward the good because we are made in the image of God, and the darker impulses toward evil because of the effects of Original Sin\". [69] Furthermore, it explicitly denies that we inherit guilt from anyone, maintaining that instead we inherit our fallen nature. In this it differs from the Calvinist/Protestant position that each person actually inherits Adam's guilt, and teaches instead that \"original sin does not have the character of a personal fault in any of Adam's descendants ... but the consequences for nature, weakened and inclined to evil, persist in man\". [70] \"In other words, human beings do not bear any 'original guilt' from Adam and Eve's particular sin.\" [71] The Church has always held baptism to be for the remission of sins including the original sin, and, as mentioned in Catechism of the Catholic Church , 403 , infants too have traditionally been baptized, though not guilty of any actual personal sin. The sin that through baptism is remitted for them could only be original sin. Baptism confers original sanctifying grace which erases original sin and any actual personal sin. The first comprehensive theological explanation of this practice of baptizing infants, guilty of no actual personal sin, was given by Saint Augustine of Hippo , not all of whose ideas on original sin have been adopted by the Catholic Church. Indeed, the Church has condemned the interpretation of some of his ideas by certain leaders of the Protestant Reformation . The Catechism of the Catholic Church explains that in \"yielding to the tempter, Adam and Eve committed a personal sin , but this sin affected the human nature that they would then transmit in a fallen state ... original sin is called \"sin\" only in an analogical sense: it is a sin \"contracted\" and not \"committed\"—a state and not an act\" ( Catechism of the Catholic Church , 404). This \"state of deprivation of the original holiness and justice ... transmitted to the descendants of Adam along with human nature\" ( Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church , 76) involves no personal responsibility or personal guilt on their part (cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church , 405). Personal responsibility and guilt were Adam's, who because of his sin, was unable to pass on to his descendants a human nature with the holiness with which it would otherwise have been endowed, in this way implicating them in his sin. The doctrine of original sin thus does not impute the sin of the father to his children, but merely states that they inherit from him a \"human nature deprived of original holiness and justice\", which is \"transmitted by propagation to all mankind\". [72] In the theology of the Catholic Church , original sin is the absence of original holiness and justice into which humans are born, distinct from the actual sins that a person commits. The absence of sanctifying grace or holiness in the new-born child is an effect of the first sin, for Adam, having received holiness and justice from God, lost it not only for himself but also for us. [64] This teaching explicitly states that \"original sin does not have the character of a personal fault in any of Adam's descendants\". [70] In other words, human beings do not bear any \"original guilt\" from Adam's particular sin, which is his alone. The prevailing view, also held in Eastern Orthodoxy, is that human beings bear no guilt for the sin of Adam. The Catholic Church teaches: \"By our first parents' sin, the devil has acquired a certain domination over man, even though man remains free .\" [73] The Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of Mary is that Mary was conceived free from original sin: \"the most Blessed Virgin Mary was, from the first moment of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of almighty God and by virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, Savior of the human race, preserved immune from all stain of original sin\". [74] The doctrine sees her as an exception to the general rule that human beings are not immune from the reality of original sin. Criticism [ edit ] Soon after the Second Vatican Council , biblical theologian Herbert Haag raised the question: Is original sin in Scripture? [75] According to his exegesis, Genesis 2:25 would indicate that Adam and Eve were created from the beginning naked of the divine grace , an originary grace that, then, they would never have had and even less would have lost due to the subsequent events narrated. On the other hand, while supporting a continuity in the Bible about the absence of preternatural gifts ( Latin : dona praeternaturalia ) [76] with regard to the ophitic event , Haag never makes any reference to the discontinuity of the loss of access to the tree of life . Eastern Orthodoxy [ edit ] The Eastern Orthodox version of original sin is the view that sin originates with the Devil, \"for the devil sinneth from the beginning (1 John iii. 8)\". [77] They acknowledge that the introduction of ancestral sin [78] [ better source needed ] into the human race affected the subsequent environment for humanity (see also traducianism ). However, they never accepted Augustine of Hippo's notions of original sin and hereditary guilt. [79] [ better source needed ] Orthodox Churches accept the teachings of John Cassian , as do Catholic Churches eastern and western, [50] in rejecting the doctrine of total depravity, by teaching that human nature is \"fallen\", that is, depraved, but not totally. Augustine Casiday states that Cassian \"baldly asserts that God's grace, not human free will, is responsible for 'everything which pertains to salvation' – even faith\". [51] Cassian points out that people still have moral freedom and one has the option to choose to follow God. Colm Luibhéid says that, according to Cassian, there are cases where the soul makes the first little turn, [52] while Augustine Casiday says that, in Cassian's view, any sparks of goodwill that may exist, not directly caused by God, are totally inadequate and only direct divine intervention ensures spiritual progress. [53] and Lauren Pristas says that \"for Cassian, salvation is, from beginning to end, the effect of God's grace\". [54] Eastern Orthodoxy accepts the doctrine of ancestral sin: \"Original sin is hereditary. It did not remain only Adam and Eve's. As life passes from them to all of their descendants, so does original sin.\" [80] \"As from an infected source there naturally flows an infected stream, so from a father infected with sin, and consequently mortal, there naturally proceeds a posterity infected like him with sin, and like him mortal.\" [81] The Orthodox Church in America makes clear the distinction between \"fallen nature\" and \"fallen man\" and this is affirmed in the early teaching of the Church whose role it is to act as the catalyst that leads to true or inner redemption. Every human person born on this earth bears the image of God undistorted within themselves. [82] In the Orthodox Christian understanding, they explicitly deny that humanity inherited guilt from anyone. Rather, they maintain that we inherit our fallen nature. While humanity does bear the consequences of the original, or first, sin, humanity does not bear the personal guilt associated with this sin. Adam and Eve are guilty of their willful action; we bear the consequences, chief of which is death.\" [83] The view of the Eastern Orthodox Church varies on whether Mary is free of all actual sin or concupiscence . Some Patristic sources imply that she was cleansed from sin at the Annunciation , while the liturgical references are unanimous that she is all-holy from the time of her conception. [84] [85] Classical Anglicanism [ edit ] The original formularies of the Church of England also continue in the Reformation understanding of original sin. In the Thirty-Nine Articles , Article IX \"Of Original or Birth-sin\" states: Original Sin standeth not in the following of Adam, (as the Pelagians do vainly talk); but it is the fault and corruption of the Nature of every man, that naturally is ingendered of the offspring of Adam; whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil, so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the spirit; and therefore in every person born into this world, it deserveth God's wrath and damnation. And this infection of nature doth remain, yea in them that are regenerated; whereby the lust of the flesh, called in the Greek, Φρονεμα σαρκος, which some do expound the wisdom, some sensuality, some the affection, some the desire, of the flesh, is not subject to the Law of God. And although there is no condemnation for them that believe and are baptized, yet the Apostle doth confess, that concupiscence and lust hath of itself the nature of sin. [86] However, more recent doctrinal statements (e.g. the 1938 report Doctrine in the Church of England ) permit a greater variety of understandings of this doctrine. The 1938 report summarizes: Man is by nature capable of communion with God, and only through such communion can he become what he was created to be. \"Original sin\" stands for the fact that from a time apparently prior to any responsible act of choice man is lacking in this communion, and if left to his own resources and to the influence of his natural environment cannot attain to his destiny as a child of God. [87] Methodism [ edit ] The Methodist Church upholds Article VII in the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church : Original sin standeth not in the following of Adam (as the Pelagians do vainly talk), but it is the corruption of the nature of every man, that naturally is engendered of the offspring of Adam, whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, and of his own nature inclined to evil, and that continually. [88] Seventh-day Adventism [ edit ] Seventh-day Adventists believe that humans are inherently sinful due to the fall of Adam, [89] but they do not totally accept the Augustinian / Calvinistic understanding of original sin, taught in terms of original guilt, but hold more to what could be termed the \" total depravity \" tradition. [90] Seventh-day Adventists have historically preached a doctrine of inherited weakness, but not a doctrine of inherited guilt. [91] According to Augustine and Calvin, humanity inherits not only Adam's depraved nature but also the actual guilt of his transgression, and Adventists look more toward the Wesleyan model. [92] In part, the Adventist position on original sin reads: The nature of the penalty for original sin, i.e., Adam's sin, is to be seen as literal, physical, temporal, or actual death – the opposite of life, i.e., the cessation of being. By no stretch of the scriptural facts can death be spiritualised as depravity. God did not punish Adam by making him a sinner. That was Adam’s own doing. All die the first death because of Adam’s sin regardless of their moral character – children included. [92] Early Adventists Pioneers (such as George Storrs and Uriah Smith ) tended to de-emphasise the morally corrupt nature inherited from Adam, while stressing the importance of actual, personal sins committed by the individual. They thought of the \"sinful nature\" in terms of physical mortality rather than moral depravity. [92] Traditionally, Adventists look at sin in terms of willful transgressions, and that Christ triumphed over sin. Though believing in the concept of inherited sin from Adam, there is no dogmatic Adventist position on original sin. Jehovah's Witnesses [ edit ] According to the theology of the Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses , all humans are born sinners, because of inheriting sin, corruption, and death from Adam. They teach that Adam was originally created perfect and sinless, but with free will; that the Devil , who was originally a perfect angel , but later developed feelings of pride and self-importance, seduced Eve , and then through her, persuaded Adam to disobey God, and to obey the Devil instead, rebelling against God's sovereignty, thereby making themselves sinners, and because of that, transmitting a sinful nature to all of their future offspring. [93] [94] Instead of destroying the Devil right away, as well as destroying the disobedient couple, God decided to test the loyalty of the rest of humankind, and to prove that man cannot be independent of God successfully, that man is lost without God's laws and standards, and can never bring peace to the earth, and that Satan was a deceiver, murderer, and liar. [95] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that all men possess \"inherited sin\" from the \"one man\" Adam and they teach that verses such as Romans 5:12-22, Psalm 51:5, Job 14:4, and 1st Corinthians 15:22 show that man is born corrupt, and dies because of inherited sin and imperfection, that inherited sin is the reason and cause for sickness and suffering, made worse by the Devil's wicked influence. They believe Jesus is the \" second Adam \", being the sinless Son of God and the Messiah , and that he came to undo Adamic sin; and that salvation and everlasting life can only be obtained through faith and obedience to the second Adam. [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] They believe that \"sin\" is \"missing the mark\" of God's standard of perfection, and that everyone is born a sinner, due to being the offspring of sinner Adam. [99] Mormonism [ edit ] The Book of Mormon , a text sacred to Mormonism , explains that the opportunity to live here in a world where we can learn good and bad is a gift from God, and not a punishment for Adam's and Eve's choice. [100] As Mormon founder Joseph Smith taught, humans had an essentially godlike nature, and were not only holy in a premortal state, but had the potential to progress eternally to become like God. [101] He wrote as one of his church's Articles of Faith , \"We believe that men will be punished for their own sins, and not for Adam’s transgression.\" [102] Later Mormons took this creed as a rejection of the doctrine of original sin and any notion of inherited sinfulness. [101] Thus, while modern Mormons will agree that the fall of Adam brought consequences to the world, including the possibility of sin, they generally reject the idea that any culpability is automatically transmitted to Adam and Eve's offspring. [103] Children under the age of eight are regarded as free of all sin and therefore do not require baptism. [104] Children who die prior to age eight are believed to be saved in the highest degree of heaven . [105] Swedenborgianism [ edit ] In Swedenborgianism , exegesis of the first 11 chapters of Genesis from The First Church , has a view that Adam is not an individual person. Rather, he is a symbolic representation of the \"Most Ancient Church\", having a more direct contact with heaven than all other successive churches. [106] [107] Swedenborg's view of original sin is referred to as hereditary evil , which passes from generation to generation. [108] It cannot be completely abolished by an individual man, but can be tempered when someone reforms their own life, [109] and are thus held accountable only for their own sins. [110] Quakerism [ edit ] Most Quakers (also known as the Religious Society of Friends), including the founder of Quakerism, George Fox , believe in the doctrine of Inward light , a doctrine which states that there is \"that of God in everyone\". [111] This has led to a common belief among many liberal and universalist Quakers affiliated with the Friends General Conference and Britain Yearly Meeting , based on the ideas of Quaker Rufus Jones among others, that rather than being burdened by original sin, human beings are inherently good, and the doctrine of universal reconciliation , that is, that all people will eventually be saved and reconciled with God. However, this rejection of the doctrine of original sin or the necessity of salvation is not something that most conservative or evangelical Quakers affiliated with Friends United Meeting or Evangelical Friends Church International tend to agree with. Although the more conservative and evangelical Quakers also believe in the doctrine of inward light, they interpret it in a manner consistent with the doctrine of original sin, namely, that people may or may not listen to the voice of God within them and be saved, and people who do not listen will not be saved. In Judaism [ edit ] The doctrine of \"inherited sin\" is not found in most of mainstream Judaism . Although some in Orthodox Judaism place blame on Adam for overall corruption of the world, and though there were some Jewish teachers in Babylon [112] who believed that mortality was a punishment brought upon humanity on account of Adam's sin, that is not the dominant view in most of Judaism today. Modern Judaism generally teaches that humans are born sin-free and untainted, and choose to sin later and bring suffering to themselves. [113] Jewish theologians are divided in regard to the cause of what is called \"original sin\". Others teach that it was due to Adam's yielding to temptation in eating of the forbidden fruit and has been inherited by his descendants; the majority of chazalic opinions, however, do not hold Adam responsible for the sins of humanity, [114] teaching that, in Genesis 8:21 and 6:5-8, God recognized that Adam did not willfully sin. However, Adam is recognized by some [112] as having brought death into the world by his disobedience. Because of his sin, his descendants will live a mortal life, which will end in death of their bodies. [115] According to book Legends of the Jews , in Judgement Day , Adam will disavow any complaints of all men who accuse him as the cause of death of every human on earth. Instead, Adam will reproach their mortality because of their sins. [116] In Islam [ edit ] The concept of inherited sin does not exist in Islam . [117] Islam teaches that Adam and Eve sinned, but then sought forgiveness and thus were forgiven by God . [118] The Qur'an says that after Adam and Eve sinned, they were sent down to the earth for a temporary life as a consequence. In their earthly life, they received words from God, through which God granted them repentance. But Satan caused them to slip out of it and removed them from that [condition] in which they had been. And We said, \"Go down, [all of you], as enemies to one another, and you will have upon the earth a place of settlement and provision for a time.\" Then Adam received from his Lord [some] words, and He accepted his repentance. Indeed, it is He who is the Accepting of repentance, the Merciful. — Surat al-Baqara :36–37 They said: \"Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves souls. If You forgive us not and bestow not upon us Your mercy, we shall certainly be of the losers. — Surat al-Aʻrāf :23 Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, so he went astray. Then his Lord chose him, and turned to him with forgiveness, and gave him guidance. — Surat Ṭā Hāʼ :121–122 The Qur'an further says about individual responsibility: That no burdened person (with sins) shall bear the burden (sins) of another. And that man can have nothing but what he does (of good and bad). And that his deeds will be seen, Then he will be recompensed with a full and the best [fair] recompense. — Surat an-Najm :38–41 See also [ edit ] Christianity portal Religion portal Actual sin Ancestral sin Christian views on sin Deadly sin Divine grace Fall of man Hamartiology Immaculate Conception Incurvatus in se Internal sin Justification (theology) Mortal sin Pandora's box Prevenient grace Problem of evil Sin The Antichrist (book) Theodicy and the Bible § The Fall and freedom of the will Venial sin Yetzer hara References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Examples: Alexander Golitzin, On the Mystical Life by Saint Symeon (St Vladimir's Seminary Press 1995 ISBN 978-0-88141-144-7 ), p.119 Adam L. Tate, Conservatism and Southern Intellectuals, 1789–1861 (University of Missouri Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-8262-1567-3 ), p. 190 Marcelle Bartolo-Abel, God's Gift to Humanity (Apostolate–The Divine Heart 2011 ISBN 978-0-9833480-1-6 ), p. 32 Ann Hassan, Annotations to Geoffrey Hill's Speech! Speech! (Punctum Books 2012 ISBN 978-1-4681-2984-7 , p. 62 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j ODCC 2005 , p. Original sin. Jump up ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions . Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5 . Jump up ^ \"In the person of the first Adam we offend God, disobeying His precept\" (Haeres., V, xvi, 3). Jump up ^ Peter Nathan. \"The Original View of Original Sin\" . Vision.org . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Original Sin Explained and Defended: Reply to an Assemblies of God Pastor\" . Philvaz.com . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Preamble and Articles of Faith Archived 20 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine . - V. Sin, Original and Personal - Church of the Nazarene. Retrieved 13 October 2013. Jump up ^ Are Babies Born with Sin? Archived 21 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine . - Topical Bible Studies. Retrieved 13 October 2013. Jump up ^ Original Sin - Psalm 51:5 - Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 13 October 2013. Jump up ^ \"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jansenius and Jansenism\" . Newadvent.org . 1 October 1910 . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Catechism Catholic Church 405 Jump up ^ Council of Trent (Sess. VI, cap. i and v) Jump up ^ Ὀψὲ, φησι, θεῶν ἀλέουσι μύλοι, και Ἐς παίδων παῖδας τοί κεν μετόπισθη γένωνται. Gagné, Renaud (2013). Ancestral Fault in Ancient Greece . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-107-03980-3 . Jump up ^ Ten Plagues of Egypt , destruction of Shechem , etc. and most notably the punishments inflicted on the Israelites for lapsing from Yahwism ; explicitly in Isaiah 14:21, Exodus 20:5, Exodus 34:6-7, Jeremiah 32:18. Krašovec, Jože, Reward, punishment, and forgiveness: the thinking and beliefs of ancient Israel in the light of Greek and modern views , BRILL, 1999, p 113. Jump up ^ Rom. 5:12 Jump up ^ 1 Cor. 15:22 Jump up ^ Vermes, Geza (2012). Christian Beginnings from Nazareth to Nicea . Allen Lane, Penguin Books. p. 100. Jump up ^ J. N. D. Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1978) p. 171, referred to in Daniel L. Akin, A Theology for the Church , p. 433 Jump up ^ Tatha Wiley, \"Original Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary Meanings (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2002), 40–42. Jump up ^ Peter C. Bouteneff, \"Beginnings\" (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008), 79. Jump up ^ Irenaeus, \"Against Heresies\", IV.39. Accessed at http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103439.htm Jump up ^ A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 255, 258. ISBN 978-1-4563-8980-2 Jump up ^ H. E. W. Turner, The Patristic Doctrine of the Redemption: A Study of the Development of Doctrine During the First Five Centuries (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2004) p. 71 Jump up ^ Bernhard Lohse, A Short History of Christian Doctrine (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press, 1966), p. 104 Jump up ^ A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), p. 258. ISBN 978-1-4563-8980-2 Jump up ^ Arthur C. McGiffert , A History of Christian Thought: Volume 1, Early and Eastern (New York; London: C. Scribner's sons, 1932), p. 101 Jump up ^ A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 258–259. ISBN 978-1-4563-8980-2 Jump up ^ Fox, Robin Lane (2006). The Unauthorized Version: Truth and Fiction in the Bible . London: Penguin. ISBN 9780141022963 . Jump up ^ Bible Gateway passage: 2 Esdras 7 - New Revised Standard Version . Retrieved 24 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Bible Gateway passage: 2 Esdras 3 - New Revised Standard Version . Retrieved 24 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Bible Gateway passage: 2 Esdras 4 - New Revised Standard Version . Retrieved 24 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Augustine taught that Adam's sin was both an act of foolishness ( insipientia ) and of pride and disobedience to God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth. Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum : Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit ( Contra Julianum , V, 4.18; PL 44, 795). This particular sin would not have taken place if Satan had not sown into their senses \"the root of evil\" ( radix Mali ): Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus ( Contra Julianum , I, 9.42; PL 44, 670) Jump up ^ \"Original Sin\" . Biblical Apologetic Studies . Retrieved 17 May 2014. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) taught that Adam's sin is transmitted by concupiscence, or \"hurtful desire\", sexual desire and all sensual feelings resulting in humanity becoming a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will. Jump up ^ William Nicholson. A Plain But Full Exposition of the Catechism of the Church of England , page 118. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Jump up ^ Thomas Aquinas explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the libido ( concupiscence ), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a libido actualis , i.e. sexual lust, but libido habitualis , i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature: Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis (STh Iª–IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3). Jump up ^ Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor . ( De nuptiis et concupiscentia , I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. Contra Julianum , VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; Contra Secundinum Manichaeum , 15; PL 42, 590. Jump up ^ Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum : Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine – ut non vos de illa nimium contristemus – non qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus , II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf. Schmitt, É. (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale . Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 104. Jump up ^ Justo L. Gonzalez (1970–1975). A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation) . Abingdon Press. Jump up ^ Sexual desire is, according to bishop of Hippo, only one – though the strongest – of many physical realisations of that spiritual libido: Cum igitur sint multarum libidines rerum, tamen, cum libido dicitur neque cuius rei libido sit additur, non fere assolet animo occurrere nisi illa, qua obscenae partes corporis excitantur. Haec autem sibi non solum totum corpus nec solum extrinsecus, verum etiam intrinsecus vindicat totumque commovet hominem animi simul affectu cum carnis appetitu coniuncto atque permixto, ut ea voluptas sequatur, qua maior in corporis voluptatibus nulla est; ita ut momento ipso temporis, quo ad eius pervenitur extremum, paene omnis acies et quasi vigilia cogitationis obruatur . (De civitate Dei, XIV, 16; CCL 48, 438–439 [1–10]). See also: Schmitt, É. (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale . Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 97. . See also Augustine's: De continentia , 8.21; PL 40, 363; Contra Iulianum VI, 19.60; PL 44, 859; ibid. IV, 14.65, z.2, s. 62; PL 44, 770; De Trinitate , XII, 9. 14; CCL 50, 368 [verse: IX 1–8]; De Genesi contra Manicheos , II, 9.12, s. 60 ; CSEL 91, 133 [v. 31–35]). Jump up ^ Regeneratus quippe non regenerat filios carnis, sed generat; ac per hoc in eos non quod regeneratus, sed quod generatus est, trajicit . ( De gratia Christi et de peccato originali , II, 40.45; CSEL 42, 202[23–25]; PL 44, 407. Jump up ^ Cf. De civitate Dei , ch. IX and XIV; On the Gospel of John , LX (Christ's feelings at the death of Lazarus, Jn 11) Jump up ^ J. Brachtendorf (1997). \"Cicero and Augustine on the Passions\": 307. hdl : 2042/23075 . Jump up ^ \" Infernum \", literally \"underworld\", later identified as limbo . Jump up ^ \"Past Roman Catholic statements about Limbo and the destination of unbaptised infants who die?\" . Religioustolerance.org . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Study by International Theological Commission (19 January 2007), The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptized , 19–21 Jump up ^ Study by International Theological Commission (19 January 2007), The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptized , 22–25 Jump up ^ Mark 10:14 ; cf. 1 Tim 2:4 Jump up ^ Study by International Theological Commission (19 January 2007), The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptized , secondary preliminary paragraph; cf. paragraph 41. Jump up ^ Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XI/John Cassian/Conferences of John Cassian, Part II/Conference XIII/Chapter 11 s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XI/John Cassian/Conferences of John Cassian, Part II/Conference XIII/Chapter 11 ^ Jump up to: a b Geoffrey Rudolph Elton, Reformation Europe (Wiley-Blackwell 1999 ISBN 978-0-631-21384-0 ), p. 136 ^ Jump up to: a b Augustine Casiday, Tradition and Theology in St John Cassian (Oxford University Press 2007 ISBN 0-19-929718-5 ), p. 103 ^ Jump up to: a b John Cassian. Conferences . Books.google.com . p. 27 . Retrieved 2017-01-24 . ^ Jump up to: a b STUDIA HISTORIAE ECCLESIASTICAE May/Mei 2009 Volume XXXV No/Nr 1 ^ Jump up to: a b Lauren Pristas, The Theological Anthropology of John Cassian Jump up ^ A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 284–285. ISBN 978-1-4563-8980-2 Jump up ^ Edwin Zackrison, In the Loins of Adam (iUniverse 2004 ISBN 9780595307166 ), p. 73 Jump up ^ Justo L. González, A History of Christian Thought (Abingdon Press 2010 ISBN 9781426721915 ), vol. 2, p. 58 Jump up ^ In Catholic theology, the meaning of the word \"concupiscence\" is the movement of the sensitive appetite contrary to the operation of the human reason. The apostle St Paul identifies it with the rebellion of the \"flesh\" against the \"spirit\". \"Concupiscence stems from the disobedience of the first sin. It unsettles man's moral faculties and, without being in itself an offence, inclines man to commit sins\" ( Catechism of the Catholic Church , n. 2515 ). Jump up ^ McGuckin, John Anthony , ed. (2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444392548 . Retrieved 2018-06-11 . The doctrine of original sin originates largely from St. Augustine and certain other writers of the patristic Latin West, such as Tertullian. From the outset it has been questioned by exponents of Orthodox theology. [...] Orthodox writers [...] have resisted strongly the conceptions of inherited guilt that are often central to western expositions of original sin. Jump up ^ Theodore G. Tappert, The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church , (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 29. Jump up ^ Luther's Works, American edition, vol. 43, p. 40, ed. H. Lehmann, Fortress, 1968 Jump up ^ John Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian Religion , II.1.8, LCC, 2 vols., trans. Ford Lewis Battles, ed. John T. McNeill (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), 251 (page 217 of CCEL edition). Cf. Institutes of the Christian Religion at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library Jump up ^ \"Paul III Council of Trent-5\" . Ewtn.com . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Original Sin\" . www.newadvent.org . Retrieved 1 January 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText\" . Vatican.va . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ De conceptu virginali, xxvi Jump up ^ \"Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText\" . Vatican.va . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Man, The Image of God Paperback - Christoph Cardinal Schoenborn : Ignatius Press\" . Ignatius.com . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Morality\" . Usccb.org . 14 August 2015 . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Catechism of the Catholic Church, 405 Jump up ^ [1] [ dead link ] Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 404 Jump up ^ Item 407 in section 1.2.1.7. Emphasis added. Jump up ^ Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus (1854) quoted in Catechism of the Catholic Church , 491 [2] Jump up ^ Haag, Herbert (1969). Is original sin in Scripture? . New York: Sheed and Ward . German or. ed.: 1966 . Jump up ^ (in German) Haag, Herbert (1966). pp. 9, 49ff. Jump up ^ Catechism of St. Philaret , questions 157 Jump up ^ The term \"ancestral sin\" is also used, as in Greek προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία (e.g. Πόλεμος και φτώχεια – η ορθόδοξη άποψη, Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Η νηστεία της Σαρακοστής , Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού – του Γεωργίου Φλωρόφσκυ ) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g., Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά – Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ. Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156–161, Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα Archived 27 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine .) Jump up ^ [3] Jump up ^ Stavros Moschos. \"Original Sin And Its Consequences\" . Biserica.org . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church , 168 Jump up ^ \"Do Not Resent, Do Not React, Keep Inner Stillness | Glory to God for All Things\" . Fatherstephen.wordpress.com . 4 January 2010 . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Fr. John Matusiak, http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=4&SID=3 Jump up ^ Mother Mary and Ware, Kallistos , \"The Festal Menaion\", p. 47. St. Tikhon's Seminary Press, 1998. Jump up ^ Laurent Cleenewerck, His Broken Body (Euclid University Press 2007 ISBN 978-0-61518361-9 ), p. 410 Jump up ^ \"The Thirty-Nine Articles\" . Anglicans Online. 1 December 2015 . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Doctrine in the Church of England , 1938, London: SPCK; p. 64 Jump up ^ The United Methodist Church: The Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church – Article V—Of the Sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation Archived 10 July 2012 at Archive.is Jump up ^ The SDA Bible Commentary, vol.5, p.1131. Jump up ^ Woodrow W. Whidden. \"Adventist Theology: The Wesleyan Connection\" (PDF) . Bibelschule.info . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ E. G. White, Signs of the Times , 29 August 1892 ^ Jump up to: a b c Gerhard Pfandl. \"Some thoughts on Original Sin\" (PDF) . Biblical Research Institute ^ Jump up to: a b Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom . Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 144–145. ^ Jump up to: a b What Does the Bible Really Teach? . Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 2005. p. 32. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Watchtower 1973, page 724\" – \"Declaration and resolution\", The Watchtower , 1 December 1973, page 724. Jump up ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed . University of Toronto Press. pp. 26–29. ISBN 9780802079732 . Jump up ^ \"Angels—How They Affect Us\". The Watchtower : 7. 15 January 2006. Jump up ^ ADAM – jw.org. Retrieved 10 January 2013. Jump up ^ Adam’s Sin – The Time for True Submission to God – jw.org. Retrieved 10 January 2013. Jump up ^ Book of Mormon, 2 Nephi 2:11–25. ^ Jump up to: a b Alexander, p. 64. Jump up ^ Articles of Faith 1:2 Jump up ^ Merrill, Byron R. (1992). \"Original sin\" . In Ludlow, Daniel H . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York: Macmillan Publishing . pp. 1052–1053. ISBN 0-02-879602-0 . OCLC 24502140 . Jump up ^ Moroni 8 ; \"Chapter 20: Baptism\" , Gospel Principles , (Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 2011) pp. 114–19. Jump up ^ Doctrine and Covenants 137:10 . Jump up ^ Swedenborg & 1749–56 , p. 410. Jump up ^ Emanuel Swedenborg. Arcana Coelestia, Vol. 1 of 8 . Books.google.com . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Swedenborg & 1749–56 , p. 96, n. 313: \"But as to hereditary evil, the case is this. Everyone who commits actual sin thereby induces on himself a nature, and the evil from it is implanted in his children, and becomes hereditary. It thus descends from every parent, from the father, grandfather, great-grandfather, and their ancestors in succession, and is thus multiplied and augmented in each descending posterity, remaining with each person, and being increased in each by his actual sins, and never being dissipated so as to become harmless except in those who are being regenerated by the Lord. Every attentive observer may see evidence of this truth in the fact that the evil inclinations of parents remain visibly in their children, so that one family, and even an entire race, may be thereby distinguished from every other.\". Jump up ^ Swedenborg & 1749-56 , p. 229, n.719: \"There are evils in man which must be dispersed while he is being regenerated, that is, which must be loosened and attempered by goods; for no actual and hereditary evil in man can be so dispersed as to be abolished. It still remains implanted; and can only be so far loosened and attempered by goods from the Lord that it does not injure, and does not appear, which is an arcanum hitherto unknown. Actual evils are those which are loosened and attempered, and not hereditary evils; which also is a thing unknown.\". Jump up ^ Swedenborg & 1749-56 , p. 336, n.966: \"It is to be observed that in the other life no one undergoes any punishment and torture on account of his hereditary evil, but only on account of the actual evils which he himself has committed.\". Jump up ^ John L. Nickals, ed. (1975). Journal of George Fox . Religious Society of Friends. p. 774. light of Christ, xl, xliii, xliv, 12, 14, 16, 29, 33–5, 60, 64, 76, 80, 88, 92, 115, 117, 135, 143–4, 150, 155, 173, 174–6, 188, 191, 205, 225–6, 234–7, 245, 274–5, 283–4, 294–6, 303–5, 309, 312, 317-335, 339–40, 347–8, 361, 471–2, 496–7, 575, 642 ^ Jump up to: a b Babylonian Talmud. Tractate Shabbat 55b. Jump up ^ Kolatch, Alfred J. (1989). The Jewish Book of Why/The Second Jewish Book of Why . New York: Jonathan David Publishers – via \"Judaism's Rejection Of Original Sin\" . Jewish Virtual Library . American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. . While there were some Jewish teachers in Talmudic times who believed that death was a punishment brought upon humanity on account of Adam's sin, the dominant view was that man sins because he is not a perfect being, and not, as Christianity teaches, because he is inherently sinful. Jump up ^ SIN: – Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12 July 2013. Jump up ^ Shaul Magid (2008). From Metaphysics to Midrash: Myth, History, and the Interpretation of Scripture in Lurianic Kabbala . Indiana University Press. p. 238 . Retrieved 9 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Vol I : The Death of Eve . Translated by Henrietta Szold. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. This is the writing God will bring out on the judgment day, and to each will be made known his deeds. As soon as life is extinct in a man, he is presented to Adam, whom be accuses of having caused his death. But Adam repudiates the charge: \"I committed but one trespass. Is there any among you, and be he the most pious, who has not been guilty of more than one?\" Jump up ^ \"Islamic beliefs about human nature\" . ReligionFacts. 20 November 2016 . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ John L. Esposito (2004). The Oxford dictionary of Islam . Oxford University Press . p. 295 Bibliography [ edit ] Brachtendorf, J. (1997). \"Cicero and Augustine on the Passions\" (PDF) . Revue des Etudes Augustiniennes . Paris: Institut d'études augustiniennes. 43 : 289–308. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-21. Catechism, U.S. Catholic Church (2003). Catechism of the Catholic Church : with modifications from the Editio Typica (2nd ed.). New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-50819-3 . Kelly, J.N.D. (2000). Early Christian doctrines (5th rev. ed.). London: Continuum . ISBN 978-0-8264-5252-8 . Cross, Frank Leslie ; Livingstone, Elizabeth A., eds. (2005). \"Original sin\". The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd rev. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3 . Swedenborg, Emanuel (1749–56). Arcana Coelestia, Vol. 1 of 8 . John F. Potts (trans.) (2008 Reprint ed.). Forgotten Books. ISBN 978-1-60620-107-7 . Trapè, Agostino (1987). S. Agostino, introduzione alla dottrina della grazia . Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4. I - Natura e Grazia. Roma: Nuova Biblioteca agostiniana. p. 422. ISBN 88-311-3402-7 . Turner, H.E.W. The patristic doctrine of redemption : a study of the development of doctrine during the first five centuries / by H.E.W. Turner. (2004 Reprint ed.). Eugene, Or.: Wipf & Stock Publishers . ISBN 978-1-59244-930-9 . Wallace, A.J.; R. D. Rusk (2010). Moral transformation : the original Christian paradigm of salvation . New Zealand: Bridgehead Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4563-8980-2 . Woo, B. Hoon (2014). \"Is God the Author of Sin?—Jonathan Edwards's Theodicy\" . Puritan Reformed Journal . 6 (1): 98–123. External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Original sin Article \"Original Sin\" in Catholic Encyclopedia The Book of Concord The Defense of the Augsburg Confession , Article II: Of Original Sin; from an early Protestant perspective, part of the Augsburg Confession . Original Sin According To St. Paul by John S. Romanides Ancestral Versus Original Sin by Father Antony Hughes, St. Mary Antiochian Orthodox Church, Cambridge, Massachusetts Original Sin by Michael Bremmer Catholic Church Council of Trent (June 17, 1546). \"Canones et Decreta Dogmatica Concilii Tridentini: Fifth Session, Decree concerning Original Sin\" . at www.ccel.org . Retrieved 1 November 2013 . show v t e Seven virtues in Christian ethics Four cardinal virtues Prudence ( Prudentia ) Justice ( Iustitia ) Fortitude ( Fortitudo ) Temperance ( Temperantia ) Sources: Plato Republic , Book IV Cicero Ambrose Augustine of Hippo Thomas Aquinas Three theological virtues Faith ( Fides ) Hope ( Spes ) Love ( Caritas ) Sources: Paul the Apostle 1 Corinthians 13 Seven deadly sins Lust ( Luxuria ) Gluttony ( Gula ) Greed ( Avaritia ) Sloth ( Acedia ) Wrath ( Ira ) Envy ( Invidia ) Pride ( Superbia ) Source: Prudentius , Psychomachia People: Evagrius Ponticus John Cassian Pope Gregory I Dante Alighieri Peter Binsfeld Related concepts Ten Commandments Great Commandment Eschatology Sin Original sin Old Covenant Hamartiology Christian ethics Christian philosophy Christianity portal Philosophy portal show v t e Hamartiology Adam Good and evil The Fall Original sin Christian views on sin Imputation of sin Other views on sin Logical order of God's decrees Theodicy Total depravity See also Apologetics Soteriology Demonology show v t e Adam and Eve Source Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis Adam Eve Offspring Cain and Abel Aclima Seth Awan Azura Television \" Probe 7, Over and Out \" (1963) Film Mama's Affair (1921) Good Morning, Eve! (1934) The Broken Jug (1937) The Original Sin (1948) The Private Lives of Adam and Eve (1960) El pecado de Adán y Eva (1969) La Biblia en pasta (1984) The Annunciation (1984) Adipapam (1988) Adam (1992) Man's Best Friend (1998) Babs (2000) The Last Eve (2005) Year One (2009) The Tragedy of Man (2011) Adam and Dog (2011) Tropico (2013) Plays Le Jeu d'Adam (12th century) The Broken Jug (1808) The Tragedy of Man (1861) The Creation of the World and Other Business (1972) Musicals The Apple Tree (1966) Dude (1972) Up from Paradise (1973) Children of Eden (1991) Compositions The Creation (1798) structure La mort d'Adam (1809) Ève (1875) Genesis Suite (1945) Lilith (2001) Literature Apocalypse of Adam Book of Moses Book of Abraham Books of Adam Book of the Penitence of Adam Cave of Treasures \" El y Ella \" Genesis A and Genesis B Harrowing of Hell Life of Adam and Eve Testament of Adam Testimony of Truth (3rd century) Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (6th century) \" Old Saxon Genesis \" (9th century) \" Adam lay ybounden \" (15th century) Paradise Lost (1667) Le Dernier Homme (1805) Extracts from Adam's Diary (1904) Eve's Diary (1905) The Book of Genesis (2009) Art Bernward Doors (1015) Tapestry of Creation (11th century) Expulsion from the Garden of Eden (1425) Vienna Diptych (15th century) The Last Judgment (1482) The Garden of Earthly Delights (1504) Adam and Eve (1507) Paradise and Hell (1510) The Creation of Adam (1512) The Haywain Triptych (1516) Eve, the Serpent and Death (1510s or 1520s) Adam and Eve (1528) The Fall of Man (1550) Maps of ancient Israel The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (1617) The Fall of Man (1628) The Four Seasons (1660s) The Koren Picture-Bible (1692–1696) The First Mourning (1888) Eve (1931) Adam and Eve (1932) The Serpent Chooses Adam and Eve (1958) Songs \" Dese Bones G'wine Rise Again \" \" Adam-ondi-Ahman \" (1835) \" Forbidden Fruit \" (1915) \" The Garden of Eden \" (1956) \" Let's Give Adam and Eve Another Chance \" (1970) \" Man Gave Names to All the Animals \" (1979) Albums The Cainian Chronicle (1996) Visions of Eden (2006) Other cultures Adam–God doctrine Adam and Eve (LDS Church) Adam in Islam Adam in rabbinic literature Al-A'raf Book of Moses Endowment Manu (Hinduism) Mashya and Mashyana Serpent seed Tree of Jiva and Atman Tree of life (Quran) Our Lady of Endor Coven Geography Adam-ondi-Ahman Tomb of Eve Biology Mitochondrial Eve Y-chromosomal Adam The Real Eve Story within a story Doraemon: Nobita's Diary of the Creation of the World Island of Love The Visitors Games Demon: The Fallen (2002) Related theology Fall of man Original sin Garden of Eden Tree of the knowledge of good and evil Serpents in the Bible Forbidden fruit Apple Fig leaf Figs in the Bible Adam's ale Adamic language Rosh Hashanah Camael Shamsiel Tree of life Allegorical interpretations of Genesis Other Pre-Adamite Generations of Adam Cave of the Patriarchs \" In-A-Gadda-Da-Leela \" \" Simpsons Bible Stories \" Second Time Lucky Adam and Eve cylinder seal Timeline of Genesis patriarchs Genealogies of Genesis Carnal knowledge Legend of the Rood Ystorya Adaf Snakes for the Divine Ransom theory of atonement Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Original_sin&oldid=854135765 \" Categories : Systematic theology Christian hamartiology Christian anthropology Adam and Eve Christian terminology Sin Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2017 Articles with German-language external links Webarchive template archiveis links Articles with inconsistent citation formats Use dmy dates from August 2017 Use dmy dates from July 2012 Articles containing Latin-language text All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create 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Tiếng Việt 中文 45 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 August 2018, at 05:55 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Grey Beard - Wikipedia Grey Beard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Grey Beard Southern Cheyenne leader Personal details Died 1875 Fort Marion , Florida Cause of death Shot and killed trying to escape Children Prairie Chief Grey Beard (died 1875) was a Southern Cheyenne medicine man and chief . Among the Native American leaders and civilians rounded up at the end of the Red River War to be transported as a prisoner of war to Fort Marion in Florida, he is one of two who died during the incarceration. Frank Baldwin 's charge on Grey Beard's Band, McClellan's Creek , TX, Nov. 8, 1874 He was a leader of the Hotamitaneo (\"Dog soldier\") society of young warriors. [1] He was involved in a skirmish with Edwin Vose Sumner 's troops at the Kansas River in 1857, and gained recognition among whites in 1867 for battling soldiers under Winfield Scott Hancock and George Armstrong Custer in an attempt to prevent the building of the Kansas Pacific Railroad across tribal lands. [1] He refused to sign the failed Medicine Lodge Treaty , and continued fighting until 1871, when his people settled on a reservation in Indian Territory . [1] In what is known as the Red River War, he and other chiefs began raiding settlements again in 1874 out of frustration with poaching of buffaloes. [1] After participating in the Second Battle of Adobe Walls , Grey Beard and his followers went into hiding in what is now the Oklahoma Panhandle . [1] In late 1874, Grey Beard's band, numbering approximately 500 warriors and family, [1] received two daughters who had been abducted from a family of settlers by Chief Medicine Water, husband of Mochi , on their way to Colorado. [2] The girls were freed after a military surprise attack on his camp on November 8, 1874, near present-day McClellan Creek National Grassland , [3] after which his band scattered across the plains and was pursued for two days across 96 miles by 120 soldiers from the United States Cavalry before escaping. [4] [5] [6] [7] Facing starvation, he surrendered to the Darlington Agency within a few months. Because he was one of the ringleaders of the insurrection, Grey Beard was chosen to be among the Native Americans to be taken to Fort Marion , the old Spanish fort near Saint Augustine, Florida . Convinced that he and fellow prisoners were going to be killed by the Americans, he asked his captor, Captain Richard Henry Pratt , to write a letter conveying to his people that they should settle peacefully and cooperate with the United States government. [8] He unsuccessfully attempted suicide by hanging himself during the train convoy. Later, he was shot and killed trying to escape. [9] Grey Beard was survived by at least one son, Prairie Chief, and through him, descendants presently living. [10] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f H. Allen Anderson. \"Grey Beard\" . Handbook of Texas Online. Jump up ^ \"Rescue of the German Sisters from Grey Beard of the Cheyenne\" . Winners of the West. 1936-11-11. Jump up ^ \"Gray County Creeks, Lakes, and Rivers\" . Handbook of Texas Online. Jump up ^ Deadly Days in Kansas By Wayne C. Lee p. 59-61 Jump up ^ New York Times, Feb. 27, 1875; Surrender of an Indian Tribe:.. Jump up ^ H. Allen Anderson. \"Pratt, Richard Henry\" . Handbook of Texas Online. Jump up ^ Garland R. Lively (2009). \"General Phillip Sheridan's Southern Plains Campaign of 1874 - 1875\" . Jump up ^ R. H. Pratt (1875). \"Words from \"Grey Beard\" \"Minimic\" & co. to their people the Cheyennes (letter)\" . Jump up ^ Hilton Crowe (December 1940). \"Indian Prisoner-Students at Fort Marion: The Founding of Carlisle Was Dreamed in St. Augustine\" . the Regional Review (United States National Park Service). Jump up ^ \"Prairie Chief\" . John Sipes Cheyenne Family Files . 2004. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grey_Beard&oldid=802933147 \" Categories : Native American leaders Native Americans imprisoned at Fort Marion Gray County, Texas Cheyenne people 1875 deaths Healers Hidden categories: Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Frysk Edit links This page was last edited on 29 September 2017, at 11:43. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Grey Beard", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Grey_Beard&oldid=802933147" }

{ "text": "City upon a Hill - Wikipedia City upon a Hill From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the religious music albums, see City on a Hill (series) . \" A City upon a Hill \" is a phrase from the parable of Salt and Light in Jesus 's Sermon on the Mount . In Matthew 5:14 , he tells his listeners, \"You are the light of the world. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hidden.\" It has become popular with United States politicians. Contents [ hide ] 1 \"A Model of Christian Charity\" 2 Use in United States politics 3 Use in Australian politics 4 See also 5 References \"A Model of Christian Charity\" [ edit ] The phrase entered the American lexicon early in its colonial history through the 1630 sermon \" A Model of Christian Charity \" preached by Puritan John Winthrop while still aboard the ship Arbella . Winthrop admonished the future Massachusetts Bay colonists that their new community would be \"as a city upon a hill\", watched by the world—which became the ideal that the New England colonists placed upon their hilly capital city of Boston . [1] The Puritans' community in New England would set an example of communal charity, affection, and unity to the world or, if the Puritans failed to uphold their covenant of God, \"we shall be made a story and a by-word through the world\" of God's judgment. Winthrop's sermon is often cited as an early example of American exceptionalism . Use in United States politics [ edit ] In the twentieth century, the image was used a number of times in United States politics. On 9 January 1961, President-Elect John F. Kennedy returned the phrase to prominence during an address delivered to the General Court of Massachusetts : [2] ... I have been guided by the standard John Winthrop set before his shipmates on the flagship Arbella three hundred and thirty-one years ago, as they, too, faced the task of building a new government on a perilous frontier. \"We must always consider\", he said, \"that we shall be as a city upon a hill—the eyes of all people are upon us\". Today the eyes of all people are truly upon us—and our governments, in every branch, at every level, national, state and local, must be as a city upon a hill—constructed and inhabited by men aware of their great trust and their great responsibilities. For we are setting out upon a voyage in 1961 no less hazardous than that undertaken by the Arbella in 1630. We are committing ourselves to tasks of statecraft no less awesome than that of governing the Massachusetts Bay Colony, beset as it was then by terror without and disorder within. History will not judge our endeavors—and a government cannot be selected—merely on the basis of color or creed or even party affiliation. Neither will competence and loyalty and stature, while essential to the utmost, suffice in times such as these. For of those to whom much is given, much is required ... [3] President Ronald Reagan referred to the same event and image on the eve of his election in 1980: I have quoted John Winthrop's words more than once on the campaign trail this year—for I believe that Americans in 1980 are every bit as committed to that vision of a shining \"city on a hill,\" as were those long ago settlers ... These visitors to that city on the Potomac do not come as white or black, red or yellow; they are not Jews or Christians; conservatives or liberals; or Democrats or Republicans. They are Americans awed by what has gone before, proud of what for them is still… a shining city on a hill. [4] and in his January 11, 1989, farewell speech to the nation: I've spoken of the shining city all my political life, but I don't know if I ever quite communicated what I saw when I said it. But in my mind it was a tall, proud city built on rocks stronger than oceans, wind-swept, God-blessed, and teeming with people of all kinds living in harmony and peace; a city with free ports that hummed with commerce and creativity. And if there had to be city walls, the walls had doors and the doors were open to anyone with the will and the heart to get here. That's how I saw it, and see it still. [5] Gary Bauer used the same image during the contest for the Republican nomination in 1999, and presented himself as a Reagan admirer. [6] He used the phrase three times during his stump speech , borrowing them from Reagan, according to The New York Times . [7] President Reagan's adopted son Michael Reagan wrote a book entitled The City on a Hill: Fulfilling Ronald Reagan's Vision for America (1997). In 2000, George W. Bush 's speechwriter Marc A. Thiessen contended in a Weekly Standard article that there are two competing visions of internationalism in the 21st century: the \"'global multilateralism' of the Clinton-Gore Democrats\" vs. the \"' American exceptionalism ' of the Reagan-Bush Republicans\". [8] In 2004, President George W. Bush said: Like generations before us, we have a calling from beyond the stars to stand for freedom. This is the everlasting dream of America... [9] U.S. Senator Barack Obama also made reference to the topic in his commencement address on June 2, 2006 at the University of Massachusetts Boston : [10] It was right here, in the waters around us, where the American experiment began. As the earliest settlers arrived on the shores of Boston and Salem and Plymouth, they dreamed of building a City upon a Hill. And the world watched, waiting to see if this improbable idea called America would succeed. More than half of you represent the very first member of your family to ever attend college. In the most diverse university in all of New England, I look out at a sea of faces that are African-American and Hispanic-American and Asian-American and Arab-American. I see students that have come here from over 100 different countries, believing like those first settlers that they too could find a home in this City on a Hill—that they too could find success in this unlikeliest of places. In 2016, 2012 Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney incorporated the idiom into a condemnation of Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign : His domestic policies would lead to recession; his foreign policies would make America and the world less safe. He has neither the temperament nor the judgment to be president, and his personal qualities would mean that America would cease to be a shining city on a hill. [11] During the 2016 presidential race, Texas Senator Ted Cruz used the phrase during his speech announcing the suspension of his campaign. [12] President Barack Obama also alluded to President Ronald Reagan 's use of the phrase during his speech at the Democratic National Convention the same year, as he proposed a vision of America in contrast to that of Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump . [13] In 2017, former FBI Director James Comey used the phrase in testimony before the Senate Intelligence Committee . [14] Use in Australian politics [ edit ] In Australian politics, the similar phrase \" the light on the hill \" was famously used in a 1949 conference speech by then Prime Minister Ben Chifley , and as a consequence this phrase is used to describe the objective of the Australian Labor Party . It has often been referenced by both journalists and political leaders in that context since this time. See also [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: City upon a Hill American civil religion American exceptionalism Empire of Liberty Manifest destiny Speeches and debates of Ronald Reagan References [ edit ] Jump up ^ A Model of Christian Charity —Governor John Winthrop (1630 on board the Arbella ) Jump up ^ \"The President-Elect: City Upon a Hill\" . Time . 1961-01-20. ISSN 0040-781X . Retrieved 2015-09-16 . Jump up ^ \"Address of President-Elect John F. Kennedy Delivered to a Joint Convention of the General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts\" . Jump up ^ \"Election Eve Address \"A Vision for America \" \" . The American Presidency Project . UC Santa Barbara . Retrieved November 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Farewell Address to the Nation\" . reaganlibrary.archives.gov . Jump up ^ Crabtree, Susan (8 November 1999). \"The long shot Gary Bauer talks about why he's running for president\" . Salon.com . Retrieved 17 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Bruni, Frank (17 August 1999). \"Gary Bauer, No. 4 in Iowa Poll, Casts Himself as Heir to Reagan\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 17 May 2011 . Jump up ^ \"The Candidates' Foreign Policies\" . 12 June 2000. Jump up ^ \"George W. Bush: Remarks Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Republican National Convention in New York City\" . www.presidency.ucsb.edu . Jump up ^ \"Obama Speech - University of Massachusetts at Boston Commencement Address\" . obamaspeeches.com . Jump up ^ \"Romney: Trump playing Americans for suckers\" . YouTube.com. March 3, 2016 . Retrieved March 17, 2016 . Jump up ^ Beckwith, Ryan Teague (3 May 2016). \"Read Ted Cruz's Speech on Dropping Out of the Presidential Race\" . Time . Retrieved 2017-03-20 . Jump up ^ \"Full text: President Obama's DNC speech\" . POLITICO . 27 July 2016 . Retrieved 2017-03-20 . Jump up ^ \"Full Transcript and Video: James Comey's Testimony on Capitol Hill\" . The New York Times . 8 June 2017 . Retrieved 20 June 2017 . Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=City_upon_a_Hill&oldid=819955814 \" Categories : 17th-century neologisms 1989 speeches English phrases Biblical phrases Christian terminology Quotations American political philosophy Speeches by Ronald Reagan American exceptionalism Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Simple English 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2018, at 06:42. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "City upon a Hill", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=City_upon_a_Hill&oldid=819955814" }

{ "text": "Cheese in the Trap (TV series) - Wikipedia Cheese in the Trap (TV series) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Cheese in the Trap Promotional poster featuring Hong Seol and Yoo Jung Genre Romance Drama Based on Cheese in the Trap by Soonkki Written by Kim Nam-hee Go Sun-hee Directed by Lee Yoon-jung Starring Park Hae-jin Kim Go-eun Seo Kang-joon Lee Sung-kyung Country of origin South Korea Original language(s) Korean No. of episodes 16 Production Executive producer(s) Park Ho-sik Kang Hoon Kim Won-ju Yang Hwan-chul Producer(s) Kim Keo-hong Jung Se-ryung Production company(s) Eight Works Kross Pictures, Inc. PGood Media Release Original network tvN Original release 4 January ( 2016-01-04 ) – 1 March 2016 ( 2016-03-01 ) Chronology Preceded by Bubble Gum Followed by Pied Piper External links Website program .interest .me /tvn /tvncheese / Cheese in the Trap ( Hangul : 치즈인더트랩 ) is a South Korean television series starring Park Hae-jin , Kim Go-eun , Seo Kang-joon and Lee Sung-kyung . It aired on the cable network tvN on Mondays and Tuesdays for 16 episodes between 4 January–1 March 2016. [1] The series is based on the webtoon of the same name , serialized on Naver from 2010–2016, although it featured an original ending since the webtoon had not been completed at the time of filming. Contents [ hide ] 1 Synopsis 2 Cast 2.1 Main 2.2 Supporting 2.2.1 Hong family 2.2.2 Yeon-yi university 2.2.3 Others 3 Production 4 Original soundtrack 5 Reception 6 Ratings 7 Awards and nominations 8 International broadcast 9 Film 10 References 11 External links Synopsis [ edit ] The drama focuses on the life and relationships of a group of university students, particularly the difficult relationship between Hong Seol ( Kim Go-eun ) and her sunbae, or her senior, Yoo Jung ( Park Hae-jin ). Jung is the rich heir to Taerang Group and seemingly has the perfect life, but also displays psychopathic tendencies, which cause Seol to take time off school to get away from him. When she returns through a scholarship that was intended for Jung, he is unexpectedly nice to her and asks her on a date. They begin an awkward relationship which is further complicated by the arrival of Baek In-ho and his sister In-ha, childhood friends of Jung who were both adopted into his family after running away from their abusive aunt as children. In-ha is in love with Jung, but he dismisses her feelings. She leads an extravagant lifestyle funded by other men's money, and often behaves antagonistically. In-ho moves into the area while he is being pursued by gangsters, but strikes up a friendship with Seol and begins to work at her parents' restaurant. As well as managing her conflicted feelings towards Jung and In-ho, Seol tries to cope with everyday struggles in her school and work life, such as unwanted advances and classmates that make her do their work for them. She is helped by her two best friends Jang Bo-ra ( Park Min-ji ) and Kwon Eun-taek ( Nam Joo-hyuk ), who begin to date each other. Meanwhile, she also tries to find out the reason why Jung and In-ho hate each other. It is revealed later that Jung looked on as In-ho damaged his hand in a fight that ruined his dreams of becoming a concert pianist. In the end, In-ho gets back on track with piano lessons, having been helped by Seol. The drama escalates towards the end of the series, when In-ha physically attacks Seol and pushes her into the street. Seol is then run over and hospitalised, and In-ha is put in a mental institution. Jung, realising that Seol has been suffering during their relationship, breaks up with her. After giving In-ho a piano score that he had intended to give him years ago, before they had fallen out, and settling In-ho's debts with the gang, Jung leaves the country for three years. Three years later, Seol is working at the company job that she wanted, and has realised that she still has to deal with the everyday problems of her school life, only in a different setting. Her friend Bo-ra now owns a clothing store and is still with Eun-taek, who is a model. In-ha has been released from the mental hospital and changed her ways, falling in love with a humble, nerdy character. While the absent Jung has not responded to Seol's emails to him, the open ending reveals one of her email's statuses changing to \"read\". Cast [ edit ] Main [ edit ] Yoo Jung ( Park Hae-jin [2] [3] ), Seol's senior. He is intelligent and successful, but secretly harbors a dark side to his personality. He is sometimes cold or manipulative, and has trouble forming relationships with others because of his uncertainty that they are not using him for his money. However, he is attracted to Seol. Hong Seol ( Kim Go-eun [4] [5] ), a hardworking college student who struggles to figure out Yoo Jung's true intentions, but sees an innocent side in him against the advice of his childhood friend Baek In-ho. Baek In-ho ( Seo Kang-joon [6] [7] ), is a talented pianist who is adopted into Jung's wealthy family by his father. He and his sister come from a difficult background, but he is good-natured and finds it easy to get along with Seol, later developing feelings for her. He and Jung were friends as children, although they later develop a bitter rivalry as he believes that Jung was responsible for instigating a fight that damaged his hand, ending his dreams of becoming a concert pianist. Baek In-ha ( Lee Sung-kyung [8] ), In-ho's melodramatic and materialistic older sister. She was also adopted into Jung's family as a child, and is in love with Jung, although he does not reciprocate her feelings. Supporting [ edit ] Hong family [ edit ] Hong Joon ( Kim Hee-chan ), Seol's younger brother who returns to Korea from the United States. Hong Jin-tak ( Ahn Gil-kang ), Seol's father. Kim Young-hee (Yoon Bok-in), Seol's mother. Yeon-yi university [ edit ] Jang Bo-ra ( Park Min-ji ), Seol's supportive best friend. Kwon Eun-taek ( Nam Joo-hyuk [9] ), Seol and Bo-ra's loyal friend, who is in love with Bo-ra. Oh Young-gon ( Ji Yoon-ho ), a delinquent who is obsessed with Seol. Son Min-soo (Yoon Ji-won), a shy classmate who gains confidence by assuming Seol's identity. Kim Sang-cheol (Moon Ji-yoon), a lazy senior in Seol's class. Lee Da-young (Kim Hye-ji), a girl in Seol's class who dates Young-gon. Nam Joo-yeon (Cha Joo-young), a girl who is obsessed with Jung at the beginning of the series. Kang Ah-young (Yoon Ye-joo), Seol's junior and Joon's love interest. Ha Jae-woo (Oh Hee-joon) Kim Kyung-hwan (Go Hyun) Min Do-hyun (Shin Joo-hwan) Heo Yoon-sub (Lee Woo-dong), Seol's boss at her university admin job. Professor Kang ( Hwang Seok-jeong ) Professor Han (Kim Jin-keun) Others [ edit ] Yoo Young-soo ( Son Byong-ho ), Jung's father. Kong Joo-yong ( Kim Ki-bang [10] ), Seol's neighbour and Yoon-sub's boyfriend. Production [ edit ] The role of Hong Seol was initially offered to Bae Suzy , [11] but due to protest from fans of the original webtoon, [12] she declined the offer. [13] Shooting began in September 2015, [14] and wrapped up filming in January 2016. [15] Original soundtrack [ edit ] The soundtrack of \"Cheese in the Trap\" was released in six parts. [ show ] Cheese in the Trap OST Part. 1 No. Title Artist Length 1. \"어쩌면 좋아\" (\"Maybe\") Cosmos Hippie (우주히피) 3:40 2. \"치즈인더트랩\" (\"Cheese In The Trap\") Twenty Years Old (스무살) 3:54 3. \"Golden Coconut Club\" (Sentimental Scenery Mix) Tearliner 4. \"우리 소곤소곤\" (Sentimental Scenery Mix) Tearliner [ show ] Cheese in the Trap OST Part. 2 No. Title Artist Length 1. \"I Am Love\" Tearliner ft. Yozoh (요조) 2:41 2. \"Einfühlung\" Tearliner 2:44 3. \"고양이와 낮잠\" (\"Taking A Nap With A Cat\") Tearliner 1:08 4. \"따뜻한 겨울라떼\" (\"Warm Winter Latte\") Tearliner 2:58 5. \"오늘도 맑음\" (\"Today Also Sunny\") Tearliner 1:24 [ show ] Cheese in the Trap OST Part. 3 No. Title Artist Length 1. \"Such\" Kang Hyun Min ft. Jo Hyun Ah of Urban Zakapa 4.22 2. \"말 없는 슬픔\" (\"Silent Sorrow\") 사람또사람 (People And People) 3.46 3. \"사랑과 연애 어디쯤\" (\"Somewhere Between Love And Romance\") Tearliner 2.05 4. \"이 길 지나 너\" (\"Passing This Road, To You\") Tearliner 1.28 5. \"삼각김밥 사용법\" (\"How To Use A Triangle Kimbab\") Tearliner 1.48 [ show ] Cheese in the Trap OST Part. 4 No. Title Artist Length 1. \"너와 나의 시간은\" (\"Our Time\") Vanilla Acoustic 3.30 2. \"너를 채운다. 너를 지운다.\" (\"Fill You. Erase You.\") Tearliner ft. 5urprise 3.22 3. \"슈가파우더가 내리면\" (\"Sugar Powder Is Falling\") Tearliner 1.26 4. \"오늘도 지각\" (\"Today Is Late Too\") 우지해 (Woo Ji Hye) 1.20 5. \"그 남자의 꿈\" (\"That Man's Dream\") Tearliner 3.11 [ show ] Cheese in the Trap OST Part. 5 No. Title Artist Length 1. \"Go (Korean ver.)\" 솔튼페이퍼 (SALTNPAPER) 3.11 2. \"그냥 좋은데\" (\"I Like You\") 테테 (Tété) 3.46 3. \"Go (English ver.)\" 솔튼페이퍼 (SALTNPAPER) 3.11 4. \"The End is Near\" Tearliner 2.53 5. \"방황하는 파도\" (Wandering Wave) Tearliner 2.18 6. \"First Kiss\" 센티멘탈 시너리 (Sentimental Scenery) 2.22 [ show ] Cheese in the Trap OST Part. 6 No. Title Artist Length 1. \"조금만 더\" (\"A Little Bit More\") 스웨덴세탁소 (Sweden Laundry) 2.53 2. \"사랑인가 봐요\" (\"Maybe It's Love\") Monkeyz 3.43 3. \"장화 속 무당벌레\" (\"Lady Bug In Boots\") Tearliner 2.20 4. \"밤의 편의점\" (\"Convenience Store At Night\") Tearliner 1.37 Reception [ edit ] Cheese in the Trap was a success in both South Korea and China. [16] [17] [18] It was sold to China for $125,000 per episode, becoming the most expensive cable series. [19] It won praise for its realistic depiction of the life of university students, but was criticized for diverging from the source webtoon by placing undue focus on the second male lead [20] [21] and including an original ending \"that was rushed and left many viewers baffled\". [22] Ratings [ edit ] In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings. Episode Original broadcast date Average audience share AGB Nielsen [23] TNmS Ratings [24] 1 4 January 2016 3.6% 2.6% 2 5 January 2016 4.8% 2.9% 3 11 January 2016 5.2% 5.8% 4 12 January 2016 5.7% 5.8% 5 18 January 2016 6.5% 6.2% 6 19 January 2016 6.3% 6.6% 7 25 January 2016 6.0% 7.0% 8 26 January 2016 6.8% 7.1% 9 1 February 2016 7.1% 7.2% 10 2 February 2016 6.6% 7.6% 11 15 February 2016 5.6% 7.3% 12 16 February 2016 5.8% 7.2% 13 22 February 2016 6.2% 6.9% 14 23 February 2016 6.5% 7.2% 15 29 February 2016 5.9% 6.4% 16 1 March 2016 6.9% 7.5% Average 6.0% 6.3% Note: This drama airs on a cable channel/pay TV which normally has a relatively smaller audience compared to free-to-air TV/public broadcasters ( KBS , SBS , MBC & EBS ). Awards and nominations [ edit ] Year Award Category Recipient Result 2016 Korean Cable TV Awards 2016 Best Actor [25] Park Hae-jin Won 52nd Baeksang Arts Awards Best New Actress (Television) Kim Go-eun Won Most Popular Actor (Television) Park Hae-jin Nominated Most Popular Actor (Television) Seo Kang-joon Nominated Most Popular Actress (Television) Kim Go-eun Nominated Most Popular Actress (Television) Lee Sung-kyung Nominated 5th APAN Star Awards Excellence Award, Actor in a Miniseries Park Hae-jin Nominated Best New Actress Kim Go-eun Nominated 9th Korea Drama Awards Excellence Award, Actor Park Hae-jin Nominated Best New Actress Kim Go-eun Nominated tvN10 Awards Made in tvN, Actor in Drama Seo Kang-joon Nominated 1st Asia Artist Awards Best Artist Award, Actor Park Hae-jin Won Best Entertainer Award, Actor Seo Kang-joon Won International broadcast [ edit ] Singapore – VV Drama Malaysia – 8TV (Malaysia) Thailand – True4U Philippines – GMA Network Southeast Asia – tvN Film [ edit ] See also: Cheese in the Trap (film) As of August 2016, the series is in the process of being adapted into a film version, starring Park Hae-jin opposite a new lead actress. [26] The Korean-Chinese production team are holding open casting auditions for the female lead in advance of shooting, which is scheduled to commence in early 2017. [27] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"‘Cheese in the Trap’ to start Monday night\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ Hong, Grace Danbi (20 May 2015). \"Park Hae Jin Cast as Lead for Drama Cheese in the Trap \" . enewsWorld . Retrieved 3 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Ghim, Sora (20 May 2015). \"Park Hae Jin Joins Cheese in the Trap \" . BNTNews . Retrieved 3 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Ko, Ji-seon (28 July 2015). \"Kim Go-eun to star in Cheese in the Trap \" . K-pop Herald . Retrieved 3 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Jin, Min-ji (29 July 2015). \"Kim confirmed for Cheese \" . Korea JoongAng Daily . Retrieved 4 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Park Hae-jin, Seo Kang-joon also to star in 'Cheese ' \" . The Korea Times . Jump up ^ \"Seo Kang-joon and Lee Sung-kyung become siblings\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ \"Lee Sung Kyung Joins ′Cheese in the Trap′\" . enewsWorld . 2 September 2015. Jump up ^ Lee, Hye-won (3 August 2015). \"Nam Joo-hyuk to appear in Cheese in the Trap \" . K-pop Herald . Retrieved 5 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Kim Ki-bang to play homosexual character in ‘Cheese in the Trap’\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ \"Suzy considered for the lead role in ‘Cheese In The Trap’\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ \"‘Cheese in the Trap’ fans think Suzy is a misfit\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ \"Suzy turns down offer for ‘Cheese in the Trap’\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ \" ' Cheese in the Trap’ reveals first teaser image\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ \" ' Cheese in the Trap’ wraps up filming\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ Herald, The Korea. \"TV series 'Cheese in the Trap' sets sights on new record\" . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ \" ' Cheese in the Trap' attracts 1.9 billion views on Weibo\" . The Korea Herald . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ Baek, Byung-yeul. \"Webtoons emerge as source for dramas, films\" . The Korea Times . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ \"‘Cheese in the Trap’ sold to China for record $2m\" . Kpop Herald . Jump up ^ Kwon, Ji-youn. \"Park Hae-jin disappears from 'Cheese in the Trap ' \" . The Korea Times . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ Woo, Jae-yeon. \"(Yonhap Interview) 'Cheese in the Trap' actor dismisses rumors of interfering with script\" . Yonhap News Agency . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ Jung, Eun-jin. \"[Herald Review] 'Cheese in the Trap' caught in deluge of complaints\" . The Korea Herald . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ \"AGB Daily Ratings: this links to current day-select the date from drop down menu\" . AGB Nielsen Media Research (in Korean). Archived from the original on 26 December 2013 . Retrieved 5 January 2016 . Jump up ^ \"TNmS Daily Ratings: this links to current day-select the date from drop down menu\" . TNmS Ratings (in Korean). Archived from the original on 28 November 2013 . Retrieved 5 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Park, So-jung. \"Actor Park Hae-jin named best actor at cable awards\" . Yonhap News Agency . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ Kim, Ji-young. \"Kim Go-eun not offered role in 'Cheese in the Trap' movie\" . Kpop Herald . The Korea Herald . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . Jump up ^ Lee, Jin-a (2016-07-22). \" ' Cheese in the Trap' seeks actress for lead role\" . The Korea Times . Retrieved 2016-07-25 . External links [ edit ] Official website (in Korean) Cheese in the Trap on Facebook (in Korean) Cheese in the Trap at HanCinema Cheese in the Trap on IMDb Official Webtoon [ show ] v t e Monday-Tuesday Drama 2010–2014 I Need Romance Birdie Buddy Flower Boy Ramen Shop Shut Up Flower Boy Band The Wedding Scheme I Love Lee Tae-ri Reply 1997 Basketball Flower Boys Next Door Nine: Nine Time Travels Dating Agency: Cyrano Who Are You? I Need Romance 3 Witch's Romance High School King of Savvy My Secret Hotel Liar Game Valid Love 2015–2017 Hogu's Love Let's Eat 2 Hidden Identity Bubble Gum Cheese in the Trap Pied Piper Another Miss Oh Hey Ghost, Let's Fight Drinking Solo Ugly Miss Young-Ae (season 15) Introverted Boss The Liar and His Lover Circle The Bride of Habaek Argon Because This is My First Life Ugly Miss Young-Ae (season 16) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cheese_in_the_Trap_(TV_series)&oldid=807810937 \" Categories : 2016 South Korean television series debuts 2010s South Korean television series Television programs based on South Korean webcomics Korean-language television programs South Korean romance television series South Korean drama television series TVN (South Korea) television dramas Television series set in universities and colleges 2016 South Korean television series endings South Korean teen dramas Hidden categories: CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) Use dmy dates from April 2016 Articles containing Korean-language text Track listings with input errors Articles with Korean-language external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Español 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 October 2017, at 06:59. 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{ "text": "Child development stages - Wikipedia Child development stages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search See also: Parenting and Family Part of a series on Human growth and development Stages Human embryogenesis Fetus Infant Toddler Early childhood Child Preadolescence Adolescence Adult Middle age Old age Biological milestones Fertilization Childbirth Walking Language acquisition Puberty Menopause Ageing Death Development and psychology Pre- and perinatal Infant and child Adolescent Youth Young adult Adult Maturity Developmental stage theories Attachment Ecological Psychosocial Psychosexual development Moral Cognitive Cultural-historical Evolutionary Human body portal v t e [ hide ] This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2009) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The treatment in the \"Language\" sections in this article deals specifically with a child's acquisition of the English language and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject . Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page . (August 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Child development stages are the theoretical milestones of child development , some of which are asserted in nativist theories. This article discusses the most widely accepted developmental stages. There exists a wide variation in terms of what is considered \"normal,\" caused by variation in genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural, nutritional, educational, and environmental factors. Many children reach some or most of these milestones at different times from the norm. Holistic development sees the child in the round, as a whole person - physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially, morally, culturally and spiritually. Learning about child development involves studying patterns of growth and development, from which guidelines for 'normal' development are drawn up. Developmental norms are sometimes called milestones - they define the recognised pattern of development that children are expected to follow. Each child develops in a unique way; however, using norms helps in understanding these general patterns of development while recognising the wide variation between individuals. This page talks mostly about the linguistic development of a child. One way to identify pervasive developmental disorders is if infants fail to meet the development milestones in time or at all. [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Table of milestones 2 Physical specifications [4] 3 Milestones by age 3.1 1–4 months 3.2 4–8 months [10] 3.3 8–12 months 3.4 Toddlers (12–24 months) 3.5 Two-year-old [13] 3.6 Three-year-old [16] [17] 3.7 Four-year-old [18] 3.8 Five-year-old 3.9 Six-year-old 3.10 Seven year old 3.11 Eight year old 3.12 Nine year old 3.13 Ten year old 3.14 Eleven year old 3.15 Twelve year old 3.16 Thirteen year olds 3.17 Fourteen year olds 3.18 Fifteen year olds 3.19 Sixteen year olds 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Table of milestones [ edit ] Developmental Milestones [2] [3] Age Motor Speech Vision and hearing Social 1–1.5 months When held upright, holds head erect and steady Cooes and babbles at parents and people they know Focuses on parents. Loves looking at new faces Starts to smile at parents Startled by sudden noises 1.6–2 months When prone, lifts self by arms; rolls from side to back. Vocalizes Cooes (makes vowel-like noises) or babbles. Focuses on objects as well as adults Loves looking at new faces Smiles at parent Starting to smile [5] 2.1–4.5 months Rolls from tummy to side Rests on elbows, lifts head 90 degrees Sits propped up with hands, head steady for short time Changes sounds while verbalizing, \"eee-ahhh\" Verbalizes to engage someone in interaction Blows bubbles, plays with tongue Deep belly laughs Hand regard: following the hand with the eyes [6] Color vision adult-like. Serves to practice emerging visual skills. [7] Also observed in blind children. [6] 3 months Prone: head held up for prolonged periods No grasp reflex Makes vowel noises Follows dangling toy from side to side Turns head around to sound. Follows adults' gaze ( joint attention ) Sensitivity to binocular cues emerges. Squeals with delight appropriately Discriminates smile. Smiles often Laughs at simple things. Reaches out for objects. 5 months Holds head steady Goes for objects and gets them Objects taken to mouth Enjoys vocal play Noticing colors Adjusts hand shape to shape of toy before picking up 6 months Transfers objects from one hand to the other Pulls self up to sit and sits erect with supports Rolls over prone to supine Palmar grasp of cube hand to hand eye coordination [5] Double syllable sounds such as 'mumum' and 'dada' babbles (consonant-vowel combinations) Localises sound 45 cm lateral to either ear Visual acuity adult-like (20/20) Sensitivity to pictorial depth cues (those used by artists to indicate depth) emerges May show Stranger anxiety 9–10 months Wiggles and crawls Sits unsupported Picks up objects with pincer grasp Babbles tunefully Looks for toys dropped Apprehensive about strangers 1 year Stands holding furniture Stands alone for a second or two, then collapses with a bump Babbles 2 or 3 words repeatedly Drops toys, and watches where they go Cooperates with dressing Waves goodbye Understands simple commands 18 months Can walk alone Picks up toy without falling over Gets up/down stairs holding onto rail Begins to jump with both feet. Can build a tower of 3 or 4 cubes and throw a ball 'Jargon'. Many intelligible words Be able to recognise their favourite songs, and will try to join in. Demands constant mothering Drinks from a cup with both hands Feeds self with a spoon Most children with autism are diagnosed at this age. 2 years Able to run Walks up and down stairs 2 feet per step Builds tower of 6 cubes Joins 2–3 words in sentences Parallel play Dry by day 3 years Goes up stairs 1-foot per step and downstairs 2 feet per step Copies circle , imitates hand motions and draws man on request Builds tower of 9 cubes Constantly asks questions Speaks in sentences Cooperative play Undresses with assistance Imaginary companions 4 years Goes down stairs one foot per step Skips on one foot Imitates gate with cubes Copies a cross Questioning at its height Many infantile substitutions in speech Dresses and undresses with assistance Attends to own toilet needs 5 years Skips on both feet and hops. Draws a stick figure and copies a hexagonal based pyramid using graphing paper Gives age Fluent speech with few infantile substitutions in speech Dresses and undresses alone 6 years Copies a diamond Knows right from left and number of fingers Fluent speech Physical specifications [4] [ edit ] Age Average length/height (cm) Length growth Average weight Weight gain Respiration rate (per minute) Normal body temperature Heart rate (pulse) (per minute) Visual acuity ( Snellen chart ) 1–4 months 50–70 cm (20–28 in) 2.5 cm (0.98 in) per month 4–8 kg (8.8–17.6 lb) 100–200 g per week 30 to 40 35.7–37.5 °C 4–8 months 70–75 cm (28–30 in) 1.3 cm (0.51 in) per month Doubling birth weight 500 g per month 25 to 50 Body temperature Heart rate 8–12 months Approx. 1.5 times birth length by first birthday 9.6 kg (21 lb) Nearly triple the birth weight by first birthday 500 g per month 20 to 45 Body temperature Heart rate 20/100 12–24 months 80–90 cm (31–35 in) 5–8 cm (2.0–3.1 in) per year 9–13 kg (20–29 lb) 130–250 g per month 22 to 40 Body temperature 80 to 110 20/60 2 years 85–95 cm (33–37 in) 7–13 cm (2.8–5.1 in) per year 12–15 kg (26–33 lb) about 4 times birth weight 1 kg per year 20 to 35 Body temperature Heart rate Milestones by age [ edit ] 1–4 months [ edit ] Physical Head and chest circumference are nearly equal to the part of the abdomen. Head circumference increases approximately 2 cm per month until two months, then increases 1.5 cm per month until four months. Increases are an important indication of continued brain growth. Continues to breathe using abdominal muscles. Posterior fontanelle . Anterior fontanelle . Skin remains sensitive and easily irritated. Legs may appear slightly bowed. Cries with tears. Gums are red. Eyes begin moving together in unison ( binocular vision ). Responds to and thrives on warm, sensitive physical contact and care. [8] Expresses discomfort, hunger or thirst. Has very poor vision. The infant has trouble focusing on objects and could barely make out images with its eyes. Motor development [9] Rooting and sucking reflexes are well developed. Swallowing reflex and tongue movements are immature; inability to move food to the back of the mouth. Grasp reflex . Landau reflex appears near the middle of this period; when baby is held in a prone (face down) position, the head is held upright and legs are fully extended. Grasps with entire hand; strength insufficient to hold items. Holds hands in an open or semi-open position. Movements are large and jerky. Raises head and upper body on arms when in a prone position. Turns head side to side when in a supine (face up) position; cannot hold head up and line with the body. Upper body parts are more active: clasps hands above face, waves arms about, reaches for objects. According to Sigmund Freud , the infant is in the oral fixation stage. The oral fixation stage is when the infant begins to root and suck. 4–8 months [10] [ edit ] Physical Head and chest circumferences are basically equal. Head circumference increases approximately 1 cm per month until six to seven months, then 0.5 cm per month; head circumference should continue to increase steadily, indicating healthy, ongoing brain growth. Posterior fontanelle closing or fully closed. Anterior fontanelle. Breathing is abdominal; respiration rate depending on activity; rate and patterns vary from infant to infant. Teeth may begin to appear, with upper and lower incisors coming in first. Gums may become red and swollen, accompanied by increased drooling, chewing, biting, and mouthing of objects. Legs may appear bowed ; bowing gradually disappears as infant grows older. Fat rolls (\"Baby Fat\") appear on thighs, upper arms, and neck. True eye colour is established. Motor development Reflexive behaviors are changing: Blinking reflex is well established Sucking reflex becomes voluntary Moro reflex disappears When lowered suddenly, infant throws out arms as a protective measure. Swallowing reflex appears and allows infant to move solid foods from front of mouth to the back for swallowing. Picks up objects using finger and thumb (pincer grip). Reaches for objects with both arms simultaneously; later reaches with one hand or the other. Transfers objects from one hand to the other; grasps object using entire hand ( palmar grasp ). Handles, shakes, and pounds objects; puts everything in mouth. Able to hold bottle. Sits alone without support, holding head erect, back straightened, and arms propped forward for support Pulls self into a crawling position by raising up on arms and drawing knees up beneath the body; rocks back and forth, but generally does not move forward. Lifts head when placed on back. Can roll over from back or stomach position. May accidentally begin scooting backwards when placed on stomach; soon will begin to crawl forward. Looks for fallen objects by 7 months Plays ‘ peek-a-boo ’ games Cannot understand \"no\" or \"danger\" 8–12 months [ edit ] Physical Respiration rates vary with activity Environmental conditions, weather, activity, and clothing still affect variations in body temperature. Head and chest circumference remain equal. Anterior fontanelle begins to close. Continues to use abdominal muscles for breathing. More teeth appear, often in the order of two lower incisors then two upper incisors followed by four more incisors and two lower molars but some babies may still be waiting for their first. Arm and hands are more developed than feet and legs (cephalocaudal development); hands appear large in proportion to other body parts. Legs may continue to appear bowed. \"Baby Fat\" continues to appear on thighs, upper arms and neck. Feet appear flat as arch has not yet fully developed. Both eyes work in unison (true binocular coordination). Can see distant objects (4 to 6 m or 13 to 20 ft away) and points at them. Motor development Reaches with one hand leading to grasp an offered object or toy. Manipulates objects, transferring them from one hand to the other. Explores new objects by poking with one finger. Uses deliberate pincer grasp to pick up small objects, toys, and finger foods. Stacks objects; also places objects inside one another. Releases objects or toys by dropping or throwing; cannot intentionally put an object down. Beginning to pull self to a standing position. Beginning to stand alone, leaning on furniture for support; moves around obstacles by side-stepping. Has good balance when sitting; can shift positions without falling. Creeps on hands and knees; crawls up and down stairs. Walks with adult support, holding onto adult's hand; may begin to walk alone. Watches people, objects, and activities in the immediate environment. Responds to hearing tests (voice localization); however, loses interest quickly and, therefore, may be difficult to test formally. Reaches for toys that are out of reach but visible Recognizes objects in reverse Drops thing intentionally and repeats and watches object Imitates activities like playing a drum Begins to develop expressive rather than receptive language - child actually responding to what is said to them instead of only receiving and watching the interaction. [11] Toddlers (12–24 months) [ edit ] Physical Weight is now approximately 3 times the child's birth weight. Respiration rate varies with emotional state and activity. Rate of growth slows. Head size increases slowly; grows approximately 1.3 cm every six months; anterior fontanelle is nearly closed at eighteen months as bones of the skull thicken. Anterior fontanelle closing or fully closed, usually at the middle of this year. Chest circumference is larger than head circumference. Legs may still appear bowed. Toddler will begin to lose the \"Baby Fat\" once he/she begins walking. Body shape changes; takes on more adult-like appearance; still appears top-heavy; abdomen protrudes, back is swayed. Motor development Crawls skillfully and quickly. Stands alone with feet spread apart, legs stiffened, and arms extended for support. Gets to feet unaided. Most children walk unassisted near the end of this period; falls often; not always able to maneuver around obstacles, such as furniture or toys. Uses furniture to lower self to floor; collapses backwards into a sitting position or falls forward on hands and then sits. Enjoys pushing or pulling toys while walking. Repeatedly picks up objects and throws them; direction becomes more deliberate. Attempts to run; has difficulty stopping and usually just drops to the floor. Crawls up stairs on all fours; goes down stairs in same position. Sits in a small chair. Carries toys from place to place. Enjoys crayons and markers for scribbling; uses whole-arm movement. Helps feed self; enjoys holding spoon (often upside down) and drinking from a glass or cup; not always accurate in getting utensils into mouth; frequent spills should be expected. Helps turn pages in book. Stacks two to six objects per day. Cognitive development Enjoys object-hiding activities. Early in this period, the child always searches in the same location for a hidden object (if the child has watched the hiding of an object). Later, the child will search in several locations. Passes toy to other hand when offered a second object (referred to as \"crossing the midline\" – an important neurological development). Manages three to four objects by setting an object aside (on lap or floor) when presented with a new toy . Puts toys in mouth less often. Enjoys looking at picture books . Demonstrates understanding of functional relationships (objects that belong together): Puts spoon in bowl and then uses spoon as if eating; places teacup on saucer and sips from cup; tries to make doll stand up. Shows or offers toy to another person to look at. Names many everyday objects. Shows increasing understanding of spatial and form discrimination: puts all pegs in a pegboard ; places three geometric shapes in large formboard or puzzle . Places several small items (blocks, clothespins, cereal pieces) in a container or bottle and then dumps them out. Tries to make mechanical objects work after watching someone else do so. Responds with some facial movement, but cannot truly imitate facial expression . Most children with autism are diagnosed at this age. English language Produces considerable \"jargon\": puts words and sounds together into speech-like ( inflected ) patterns. Holophrastic speech: uses one word to convey an entire thought; meaning depends on the inflection (\"me\" may be used to request more cookies or a desire to feed self). Later; produces two-word phrases to express a complete thought ( telegraphic speech ): \"More cookie,\" \"Daddy bye-bye.\" Follows simple directions, \"Give Daddy the cup.\" When asked, will point to familiar persons, animals, and toys. Identifies three body parts if someone names them: \"Show me your nose (toe, ear).\" Indicates a few desired objects and activities by name: \"Bye-bye,\" \"cookie\"; verbal request is often accompanied by an insistent gesture. Responds to simple questions with \"yes\" or \"no\" and appropriate head movement. Speech is 25 to 50 percent intelligible during this period. Locates familiar objects on request (if child knows location of objects). Acquires and uses five to fifty words; typically these are words that refer to animals, food, and toys. Uses gestures, such as pointing or pulling, to direct adult attention. Enjoys rhymes and songs; tries to join in. Seems aware of reciprocal (back and forth) aspects of conversational exchanges; some turn-taking in other kinds of vocal exchanges, such as making and imitating sounds. Social [12] Less wary of strangers. Helps pick up and put away toys. Plays alone. Enjoys being held and read to. Often imitates adult actions in play. Enjoys adult attention; likes to know that an adult is near; gives hugs and kisses. Recognizes self in mirror. Enjoys the companionship of other children, but does not play cooperatively. Begins to assert independence; often refuses to cooperate with daily routines that once were enjoyable; resists getting dressed, putting on shoes, eating, taking a bath; wants to try doing things without help. May have a tantrum when things go wrong or if overly tired or frustrated. Exceedingly curious about people and surroundings; needs to be watched carefully to prevent them from getting into unsafe situations. Two-year-old [13] [ edit ] Physical Posture is more erect; abdomen still large and protruding, back swayed, because abdominal muscles are not yet fully developed. Respirations are slow and regular Body temperature continues to fluctuate with activity, emotional state, and environment. Brain reaches about 80 percent of its adult size. 16 baby teeth almost finished growing out Motor development Can walk around obstacles and walk more erectly. Squats for long periods while playing. Climbs stairs unassisted (but not with alternating feet). Balances on one foot (for a few moments), jumps up and down, but may fall. Often achieves toilet training during this year (depending on child's physical and neurological development) although accidents should still be expected; the child will indicate readiness for toilet training. Throws large ball underhand without losing balance. Holds small cup or tumbler in one hand. Unbuttons large buttons; unzips large zippers. Opens doors by turning doorknobs. Grasps large crayon with fist; scribbles. Climbs up on chair, turns, and sits down. Stacks four to six objects on top of one another. Uses feet to propel wheeled riding toys. Cognitive Eye–hand movements better coordinated; can put objects together, take them apart; fit large pegs into pegboard. Begins to use objects for purposes other than intended (may push a block around as a boat). Does simple classification tasks based on single dimension (separates toy dinosaurs from toy cars). Seems fascinated by, or engrossed in, figuring out situations: where the tennis ball rolled, where the dog went, what caused a particular noise. Attends to self-selected activities for longer periods of time. Discovering cause and effect: squeezing the cat makes them scratch. Knows where familiar persons should be; notes their absence; finds a hidden object by looking in last hiding place first. (This is what Piaget termed object permanence , which usually occurs during the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's childhood theory of cognitive development ) Names familiar objects. Recognizes, expresses, and locates pain. Expected to use \" magical thinking \". Tells about objects and events not immediately present (this is both a cognitive and linguistic advance). Expresses more curiosity about the world. English language Enjoys participating while being read to. Realizes language is effective for getting desired responses. Uses fifty to three-hundred words; vocabulary continuously increasing. Has broken the linguistic code; in other words, much of a two-year-old's talk has meaning to them. Receptive language is more developed than expressive language; most two-year-olds understand significantly more than they can talk about. Utters three- and four-word statements; uses conventional word order to form more complete sentences. Refers to self as \"me\" or sometimes \"I\" rather than by name: \"Me go bye-bye\"; has no trouble verbalizing \"mine.\" Expresses negative statements by tacking on a negative word such as \"no\" or \"not\": \"Not more milk.\" Uses some plurals. Some stammerings and other dysfluencies are common. Speech is as much as 65 to 70 percent intelligible. Is able to verbalize needs. Asks a lot of questions. May use some pronouns. Social and emotional Shows signs of empathy and caring: comforts another child if hurt or frightened; appears to sometimes be overly affectionate in offering hugs and kisses to children Continues to use physical aggression if frustrated or angry (for some children, this is more exaggerated than for others); Physical aggression usually lessens as verbal skills improve. Temper tantrums likely to peak during this year; extremely difficult to reason with during a tantrum. Impatient; finds it difficult to wait or take turns. Enjoys \"helping\" with household chores; imitates everyday activities: may try to toilet train a stuffed animal, feed a doll. \"Bossy\" with parents and caregivers; orders them around, makes demands, expects immediate compliance from adults. Watches and imitates the play of other children, but seldom interacts directly; plays near others, often choosing similar toys and activities ( parallel play ); [14] solitary play is often simple and repetitive. [15] Offers toys to other children, but is usually possessive of playthings; still tends to hoard toys. Making choices is difficult; wants it both ways. Often defiant; shouting \"no\" becomes automatic. Ritualistic; wants everything \"just so\"; routines carried out exactly as before; belongings placed \"where they belong.\" Three-year-old [16] [17] [ edit ] Physical Growth is steady though slower than in first two years. Adult height can be predicted from measurements of height at three years of age; males are approximately 53% of their adult height and females, 57%. Legs grow faster than arms. Circumference of head and chest is equal; head size is in better proportion to the body. \" Baby fat \" disappears as neck appears. Posture is more erect; abdomen no longer protrudes. Slightly knock-kneed . Can jump from low step Can stand up and walk around on tiptoes \"Baby\" teeth stage over. Needs to consume approximately 6,300 kJ (1,500 calories) daily. Motor development Walks up and down stairs unassisted, using alternating feet; may jump from bottom step, landing on both feet. Can momentarily balance on one foot. Can kick big ball-shaped objects. Needs minimal assistance eating. Jumps on the spot. Pedals a small tricycle. Throws a ball overhand; aim and distance are limited. Catches a large bounced ball with both arms extended. Enjoys swinging on a swing. Shows improved control of crayons or markers; uses vertical, horizontal and circular strokes. Holds crayon or marker between first two fingers and thumb (tripod grasp), not in a fist as earlier. Can turn pages of a book one at a time Enjoys building with blocks. Builds a tower of eight or more blocks. Enjoys playing with clay; pounds, rolls, and squeezes it. May begin to show hand dominance. Carries a container of liquid, such as a cup of milk or bowl of water, without much spilling; pours liquid from pitcher into another container. Manipulates large buttons and zippers on clothing. Washes and dries hands; brushes own teeth, but not thoroughly. Usually achieves complete bladder control during this time. Cognitive development Listens attentively to age-appropriate stories. Makes relevant comments during stories, especially those that relate to home and family events. Likes to look at books and may pretend to \"read\" to others or explain pictures. Enjoys stories with riddles, guessing, and \"suspense.\" Speech is understandable most of the time. Produces expanded noun phrases : \"big, brown dog.\" Produces verbs with \"ing\" endings; uses \"-s\" to indicate more than one; often puts \"-s\" on already pluralized forms: geeses, mices. Indicates negatives by inserting \"no\" or \"not\" before a simple noun or verb phrase: \"Not baby.\" Answers \"What are you doing?\", \"What is this?\", and \"Where?\" questions dealing with familiar objects and events. Four-year-old [18] [ edit ] Physical development Head circumference is usually not measured after age three. Requires approximately 1,700 calories daily. Hearing acuity can be assessed by child's correct usage of sounds and language, and also by the child's appropriate responses to questions and instructions. Motor development Walks a straight line (tape or chalk line on the floor). Hops on one foot. Pedals and steers a wheeled toy with confidence; turns corners, avoids obstacles and oncoming \"traffic.\" Climbs ladders, trees, playground equipment. Jumps over objects 12 to 15 cm (5 to 6 in) high; lands with both feet together. Runs, starts, stops, and moves around obstacles with ease. Throws a ball overhand; distance and aim improving. Builds a tower with ten or more blocks. Forms shapes and objects out of clay: cookies, snakes, simple animals. Reproduces some shapes and letters. Holds a crayon or marker using a tripod grasp. Paints and draws with purpose; may have an idea in mind, but often has problems implementing it so calls the creation something else. Becomes more accurate at hitting nails and pegs with hammer. Threads small wooden beads on a string. Can run in a circle Can jump Cognitive Can recognize that certain words sound similar Names eighteen to twenty uppercase letters. Writes several letters and sometimes their name. A few children are beginning to read simple books, such as alphabet books with only a few words per page and many pictures. Likes stories about how things grow and how things operate. Delights in wordplay , creating silly Language. Understands the concepts of \"tallest,\" \"biggest,\" \"same,\" and \"more\"; selects the picture that has the \"most houses\" or the \"biggest dogs.\" Rote counts to 20 or more. Understands the sequence of daily events: \"When we get up in the morning, we get dressed, have breakfast, brush our teeth, and go to school.\" When looking at pictures, can recognize and identify missing puzzle parts (of person, car, animal). Very good storytellers. Counts 1 to 7 objects out loud, but not always in order Follows two to three step directions given individually or in a group May put the \"ed\" on the end of words such as \"I goed outside and I played.\" English language Uses the prepositions \"on,\" \"in,\" and \"under.\" Uses possessives consistently: \"hers,\" \"theirs,\" \"baby's.\" Answers \"Whose?\", \"Who?\", \"Why?\", and \"How many?\" Produces elaborate sentence structures: \"The cat ran under the house before I could see what color it was.\" Speech is almost entirely intelligible. Begins to use the past tense of verbs correctly: \"Mommy closed the door,\" \"Daddy went to work.\" Refers to activities, events, objects, and people that are not present. Changes tone of voice and sentence structure to adapt to listener's level of understanding: To baby brother, \"Milk gone?\" To Mother, \"Did the baby drink all of his milk?\" States first and last name, gender, siblings' names, and sometimes own telephone number. Answers appropriately when asked what to do if tired, cold, or hungry. Recites and sings simple songs like mangoes and rhymes . Social development Outgoing; friendly; overly enthusiastic at times. Moods change rapidly and unpredictably; laughing one minute, crying the next; may throw tantrum over minor frustrations (a block structure that will not balance); sulk over being left out. Imaginary playmates or companions are common; holds conversations and shares strong emotions with this invisible friend . Boasts, exaggerates, and \"bends\" the truth with made-up stories or claims of boldness; tests the limits with \"bathroom\" talk. Cooperates with others; participates in group activities. Shows pride in accomplishments; seeks frequent adult approval. Often appears selfish; not always able to take turns or to understand taking turns under some conditions; tattles on other children. Insists on trying to do things independently, but may get so frustrated as to verge on tantrums when problems arise: paint that drips, paper airplane that will not fold right. Enjoys role-playing and make-believe activities. Relies (most of the time) on verbal rather than physical aggression; may yell angrily rather than hit to make a point; threatens: \"You can't come to my birthday party.\" Name-calling and taunting are often used as ways of excluding other children. Can be bossy at times, telling their parents to stop talking, or telling their friends to \"Come here right now.\" Establishes close relationships with playmates; beginning to have \"best\" friends. Five-year-old [ edit ] Physical Head size is approximately that of an adult's. May begin to lose \"baby\" (deciduous) teeth. Body is adult-like in proportion. Requires approximately 7,500 J (1,800 calories) daily Visual tracking and binocular vision are well developed. Motor development Walks backwards, toe to heel. Walks unassisted up and down stairs, alternating feet. May learn to turn somersaults (should be taught the right way in order to avoid injury). Can touch toes without flexing knees. Walks a balance beam. Learns to skip using alternative feet. Catches a ball thrown from 1 m (3.3 ft) away. Rides a tricycle or wheeled toy with speed and skillful steering; some children learning to ride bicycles, usually with training wheels . Jumps or hops forward ten times in a row without falling. Balances on either foot with good control for ten seconds. Builds three-dimensional structures with small cubes by copying from a picture or model. Reproduces many shapes and letters: square, triangle, A, I, O, U, C, H, L, T. Demonstrates fair control of pencil or marker; may begin to color within the lines. Cuts on the line with scissors (not perfectly). Hand dominance is fairly well established Often has an imaginary friend Cognitive Forms rectangle from two triangular cuts. Builds steps with set of small blocks. Understands concept of same shape, same size. Sorts objects on the basis of two dimensions, such as color and form. Sorts a variety of objects so that all things in the group have a single common feature (classification skill: all are food items or boats or animals). Understands the concepts of smallest and shortest; places objects in order from shortest to tallest, smallest to largest. Identifies objects with specified serial position: first, second, last. Rote counts to 20 and above; many children count to 100. Recognizes numerals from 1 to 10. Understands the concepts of less than: \"Which bowl has less water?\" Understands the terms dark, light, and early: \"I got up early, before anyone else. It was still dark.\" Relates clock time to daily schedule: \"Time to turn on TV when the little hand points to 5.\" Some children can tell time on the hour: five o'clock, two o'clock. Knows what a calendar is for. Recognizes and identifies coins ; beginning to count and save money. Many children know the alphabet and names of upper- and lowercase letters. Understands the concept of half; can say how many pieces an object has when it's been cut in half. Asks innumerable questions: Why? What? Where? When? How? Who? Eager to learn new things. Curious and inquisitive. English language development Vocabulary of 1,500 words plus. Tells a familiar story while looking at pictures in a book. Defines simple words by function: a ball is to bounce; a bed is to sleep in. Identifies and names four to eight colours. Recognizes the humor in simple jokes ; makes up jokes and riddles . Produces sentences with five to seven words; much longer sentences are not unusual. States the name of own city or town, birthday , and parents' names. Answers telephone appropriately; calls person to phone or takes a brief message Speech is almost entirely grammatically correct. Uses \"would\" and \"could\" appropriately. Uses past tense of irregular verbs consistently: \"went,\" \"caught,\" \"swam.\" Uses past-tense inflection (-ed) appropriately to mark regular verbs: \"jumped,\" \"rained,\" \"washed.\" Social development Enjoys and often has one or two focus friendships. Plays cooperatively (can lapse), is generous, takes turns, shares toys. Participates in group play and shared activities with other children; suggests imaginative and elaborate play ideas. Shows affection and caring towards others especially those \"below\" them or in pain Generally subservient to parent or caregiver requests. Needs comfort and reassurance from adults but is less open to comfort. Has better self-control over swings of emotions. Likes entertaining people and making them laugh. Enjoys conversing with other children and adults. Boasts about accomplishments. Often has an imaginary friend Six-year-old [ edit ] Physical Weight gains reflect significant increases in muscle mass. Heart rate and respiratory rates are close to adults. Body may appear lanky as through period of rapid growth. Baby teeth beginning to be replaced by permanent ones, starting with the two lower front teeth 20/20 eyesight; if below 20/40 should see a professional. The most common vision problem during middle childhood is myopia , or nearsightedness. (Berk, 2007). Uses 6,700 J to 7,100 J (1,600 to 1,700 calories) a day. Motor development Gains greater control over large and fine motor skills; movements are more precise and deliberate, though some clumsiness persists. Enjoys vigorous running, jumping, climbing, and throwing etc. Has trouble staying still. Span of attention increases; works at tasks for longer periods of time. Can concentrate effort but not always consistently. Understands time (today, tomorrow, yesterday) and simple motion (some things go faster than others). Recognizes seasons and major activities done at certain times. Has fun with problem solving and sorting activities like stacking, puzzles, and mazes Enjoys the challenge of puzzles, counting and sorting activities, paper-and-pencil mazes, and games that involve matching letters and words with pictures. Recognizes some words by sight; attempts to sound out words In some cases the child may be reading well. Functioning which facilitates learning to ride a bicycle, swim, swing a bat, or kick a ball. Enjoys making things. Reverses or confuses certain letters: b/d, p/g, g/q, t/f. Able to trace objects. Folds and cuts paper into simple shapes. Can tie laces, string (like shoes). English language Can identify right and left hands fairly consistently. Holds onto positive beliefs involving the unexplainable (magic or fantasy) Arrives at some understanding about death and dying; expresses fear that parents may die. Talks a lot. Loves telling jokes and riddles; often, the humor is far from subtle. Experiments with slang and profanity and finds it funny. Enthusiastic and inquisitive about surroundings and everyday events. Able to carry on adult-like conversations; asks many questions. Learns 5 to 10 words a day; vocabulary of 10,000–14,000. Uses appropriate verb tenses, word order, and sentence structure. Social and emotional Uses language rather than tantrums or physical aggression to express displeasure: \"That's mine! Give it back, you dummy.\" Talks self through steps required in simple problem-solving situations (though the \"logic\" may be unclear to adults). Has mood swings towards primary caregiver depending on the day Friendship with parent is less depended on but still needs closeness and nurturing. Anxious to please; needs and seeks adult approval, reassurance, and praise; may complain excessively about minor hurts to gain more attention. Often can't view the world from another’s point of view Self-perceived failure can make the child easily disappointed and frustrated. Can't handle things not going their own way Does not understand ethical behavior or moral standards especially when doing things that have not been given rules Understands when he or she has been thought to be \"bad\"; values are based on others' enforced values. May be increasingly fearful of the unknown like things in the dark, noises, and animals. Seven year old [ edit ] Motor development Well-developed hand-eye coordination Good sense of balance Capable of basic gymnastics moves such as somersaults Able to ride a balance bicycle [19] Increased ability at problem solving and reasoning Can feel shame and guilt English language Vocabulary now numbers at least a few thousand words Capable of telling time Begins to understand how words form sounds Social and emotional Highly self-critical and eager to please Can understand right and wrong Complains a lot and has strong emotional swings Occasionally has meltdowns over minor frustrations, mainly for attention Ability at dealing with mistakes and failure improves Eight year old [ edit ] Motor development Has good finger control Increased physical strength and endurance Almost able to converse at an adult level Wants to understand how and why things work Clear, logical thinking skills Exhibits a clear preference for certain subjects and activities English skills Enjoys reading a lot Can start to understand how opposites work Social and emotional Starts to develop a close circle of same-gender friends Becomes more susceptible to peer pressure Enjoys group activities Prone to mood swings and melodramatics Extremely impatient and may have a hard time waiting for special events such as Christmas Nine year old [ edit ] Motor skills Quite good at handling tools Manual dexterity and hand-eye coordination are well-developed Capable of drawing in detail May persist with a particular physical activity to the point of exhaustion English skills Good at memorizing and recalling information, but typically does not show a deep understanding of it Capable of concentrating and resuming a task after an interruption Eager to learn skills Starts to understand right vs wrong in place of good vs bad Social skills Often displays an intense revulsion of the opposite gender Will use physical complaints as a means of getting out of undesired tasks Generally dependable and can be trusted with basic responsibilities Prone to wide mood swings Ten year old [ edit ] Motor skills Capable of demanding motor/endurance tasks like bicycling and team sports Girls may begin breast development and exhibit a change in facial shape English skills Still does not display a deep understanding of subjects Does not yet fully understand right from wrong Not yet good at organizing or planning things in a practical way Social skills Some interest in the opposite gender Not as moody as 7-9 year olds; overall disposition tends to be cheerful and fun-oriented Friendships are highly important, friends are almost exclusively same gender Can have a short temper, but has learned to adjust anger levels according to the appropriateness of the situation Gets along well with parents, eager to please Has fewer fears than he/she did at younger ages Eleven year old [ edit ] Motor skills Extremely jumpy and has a hard time sitting still No obvious signs of puberty in boys yet, girls typically begin growth of pubic hair . Breast development not significant yet, but is of great interest. Rapid height gains Better ability at making decisions Begins to understand that not everyone holds the same beliefs English skills Able to use logic and debate others quite well School reports may combine visual, oral, and written material Social and emotional development Often critical of others, stubborn, and egotistical Tends to display anger physically by hitting people/objects, throwing things, or slamming doors Still no interest in the opposite sex Friends are important, but with more arguments than before May be worrisome and afraid of things Twelve year old [ edit ] Motor skills Typically a substantial appetite Girls are developing breasts, filled-out pubic hair, underarm hair , and may begin menstruation Changes in boys less dramatic, but enlargement of the penis and testicles typically begins along with growth of fine pubic hair and frequent, random erections English skills Capable of categorizing information to make better sense of it Reads adult books and magazines on subjects of interest Capable of proofreading homework for spelling, grammar, and logic Social skills Overall disposition is pleasant and upbeat Can become extremely excited over subjects of interest or accomplishments Strongly prone to peer pressure and following trends More stable friendships with less melodramatics than at 11 May begin to be interested in the opposite sex, particularly girls Thirteen year olds [ edit ] Moody and uncomfortable with themselves and their surroundings Likes to be alone and values privacy May believe the world is out to get them Insecure about their bodies May not get along well with adults Fourteen year olds [ edit ] Generally pleasant, sunny disposition May show interest in the opposite sex Often a high interest in extracurricular activities May want to please and be popular Has a large circle of both gender friends Fifteen year olds [ edit ] Typically quarrelsome and unwilling to share their problems with others May want to be independent and free of their family Typically gets along better with siblings than parents Friendships are highly important Romantic interests are common Sixteen year olds [ edit ] Good overall relationship with family Begins to see parents as human beings instead of authority figures Friendships highly important, may have a wide circle of both gender friends Love interests can be intense See also [ edit ] Attachment in children Attachment theory Behavioral cusp Child development Developmental differences in solitary facial expressions Early childhood Early childhood education Infant vision Sign language in infants and toddlers The Connected Baby (documentary film) References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Developmental Milestones by Age\" . Autism Speaks . Autism Speaks . Retrieved 15 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Seminars in child and adolescent psychiatry (second edition). Ed. Simon G. Gowers. Royal College of Psychiatrists (2005) ISBN 1-904671-13-6 Jump up ^ Berk, Laura E. (2012). Infants and children: Prenatal through middle childhood . Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0205011098 . ^ Jump up to: a b Overview of motor, speech, vision and hearing development . Kids Count (blog), 2012, accessed 25 March 2014 ^ Jump up to: a b http://www.nhs.uk/Tools/Pages/birthtofive.aspx#close ^ Jump up to: a b Jim McMorran; Damian Crowther; Stew McMorran; Steve Youngmin; Ian Wacogne; Jon Pleat; Clive Prince. \" Hand regard – General Practice Notebook \" . Gpnotebook.co.uk . Retrieved 2013-04-28 . Jump up ^ Early Development . Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired, tsbvi.edu Jump up ^ http://www.foundationyears.org.uk/files/2012/03/Development-Matters-FINAL-PRINT-AMENDED.pdf Jump up ^ NHS (2013). Birth-to-five development timeline . Last accessed 24.03.2014. Jump up ^ The Early Years Foundation Stage . (2012). Child Development Overview. Available: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/eyfs_cards_0001207.pdf . Last accessed 31.03.2014. Jump up ^ Baby Milestones Slideshow: Your Child's First Year of Development at webMD. Retrieved May 2013 Jump up ^ Trawick-Smith, J (2013) Early childhood development: a multicultural perspective . (6th Edition) USA: Pearson. Jump up ^ Harding, J. (2013) Child development: an illustrated handbook . Oxon: Hodder Education. Jump up ^ Parten, M. (1932). \" Social participation among pre-school children \". The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology . 27 (3): 243. doi : 10.1037/h0074524 . Jump up ^ Ruben, K. H., Fein, G. G., & Vandenberg, B. (1983). \"Play\", pp. 693–744 in E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology : Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed.). New York: Wiley, ISBN 0471090654 . Jump up ^ Hobart, C. Frankel, J. and Walker, M. (2009). A practical guide to child observation and assessment . (4th Edition.) Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes Publishers Jump up ^ Child development . Early Years Matters, Bury, UK (last accessed 12 March) Jump up ^ Sharman, C. Cross, W. and Vennis, D. (2004) Observing children: a practical guide . London: Continuum. Jump up ^ James, Stark (September 2017). \"Toddler can ride Balance Bike\" . Wishing Clover . Further reading [ edit ] Segal, Marilyn (1998). Your Child At Play: Three to Five Years . New York: Newmarket Press. p. 292. ISBN 1-55704-337-X . Doherty, J. and Hughes, M. (2009) Child development theory and practice 0-11 . Essex: Pearson. Chapter 6 and 7. External links [ edit ] CDC's \"Learn the Signs. Act Early” campaign – Information for parents on early childhood development and developmental disabilities Developmental Milestones , National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, NICHCY YourChild: Developmental Milestones , University of Michigan Health System [ show ] v t e Human biological and psychological development Before birth Embryo Fetus After birth Infant Toddler Early childhood Childhood Child Preadolescence Adolescence Adulthood Middle age Old age Definitions Minor Age of majority Events and phases Gestational age Prenatal development Birth Child development stages Cognitive development of infants Human development Adult development Puberty Ageing Senescence Death Developmental psychology Antenatal Positive youth development Young adult Positive adult development Maturity Theorists and theories Freud (1856–1939) ( Psychosexual development ) Piaget (1896–1980) ( Theory of cognitive development ) Vygotsky (1896–1934) ( Cultural-historical psychology ) Erikson (1902–1994) ( Psychosocial development ) Bowlby (1907–1990) ( Attachment theory ) Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) ( Ecological systems theory ) Kohlberg (1927–1987) ( Stages of moral development ) Commons (b. 1939), Fischer (b. 1943), Kegan (b. 1946), Demetriou (b. 1950), and others ( Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development ) Evolutionary developmental psychology [ show ] v t e Attachment theory Theory Affectional bond Attachment in adults Attachment in children Attachment disorder Attachment and Health Attachment measures Attachment theory Fathers as attachment figures Human bonding Maternal deprivation Object relations theory Reactive attachment disorder Notable theorists Mary Ainsworth William E. Blatz John Bowlby Erik Erikson Sigmund Freud Harry Harlow Jerome Kagan Melanie Klein Konrad Lorenz Mary Main René Spitz Nikolaas Tinbergen Controversy Attachment parenting Attachment therapy Candace Newmaker Clinical applications Attachment-based therapy (children) Attachment-based psychotherapy Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Child_development_stages&oldid=800433217 \" Categories : Child development Childhood Medical lists Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2015 Articles needing additional references from November 2009 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Simple English Tiếng Việt Walon Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2017, at 14:30. 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{ "text": "Founding Fathers of the United States - Wikipedia Founding Fathers of the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Declaration of Independence , a painting by John Trumbull depicting the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Congress on June 28, 1776 [1] Signature page of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 that was negotiated on behalf of the Patriots by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay The Founding Fathers of the United States were individuals from the Thirteen Colonies in North America who led the American Revolution against the Kingdom of Great Britain and contributed to the establishment of the United States of America . [2] Historian Richard B. Morris in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Alexander Hamilton , John Jay , Thomas Jefferson , James Madison , and George Washington . [3] [4] Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence . Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of The Federalist Papers , advocating ratification of the Constitution . The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) were heavily relied upon when creating language for the US Constitution. [5] Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783) that would end the American Revolutionary War . [6] Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention . Washington, Jay and Franklin are considered the Founding Fathers of U.S. Intelligence by the CIA . [7] All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States, with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison serving as President. Jay was the nation's first Chief Justice. Four of these seven – Washington, Jay, Hamilton and Madison – were not signers of the Declaration of Independence. [8] The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the embossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. [9] It is not to be confused with the term Framers; the Framers are defined by the National Archives as those 55 individuals who were appointed to be delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention and took part in drafting the proposed Constitution of the United States. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution. [10] [11] Two further groupings of Founding Fathers include: 1) those who signed the Continental Association , a trade ban and one of the colonists' first collective volleys protesting British control and the Intolerable Acts in 1774 [12] or 2) those who signed the Articles of Confederation , the first U.S. constitutional document. [13] The phrase \"Founding Fathers\" is a twentieth-century appellation, coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916. Prior to, and during the 19th century, they were referred to as simply the \"Fathers\". The term has been used to describe the founders and first settlers of the original royal colonies. [14] [15] Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Interesting facts and commonalities 2.1 Education 2.1.1 Colonial Colleges attended 2.1.2 Advanced degrees and apprenticeships 2.1.2.1 Doctors of Medicine 2.1.2.2 Theology 2.1.2.3 Legal apprenticeships 2.1.3 Self-taught or little formal education 2.2 Demographics 2.3 Occupations 2.4 Finances 2.5 Prior Political Experience 2.6 Religion 2.7 Ownership of slaves and position on slavery 2.8 Attendance at conventions 2.9 Spouses and children 2.10 Charters of freedom and historical documents of the United States 2.11 Post-constitution life 2.12 Youth and longevity 2.13 Founders who were not signatories or delegates 3 Legacy 3.1 Institutions formed by Founders 3.2 Scholarship on the Founders 3.2.1 Living historians whose focus is the Founding Fathers 3.2.2 Noted collections of the Founding Fathers 3.3 In stage and film 3.4 Children's books 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Background [ edit ] The Albany Congress of 1754 was a conference attended by seven colonies, which presaged later efforts at cooperation. The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 included representatives from nine colonies. The First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774, consisting of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies (excluding Georgia ) that became the United States of America. Among them was George Washington , who would soon be drawn out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . Also in attendance was Patrick Henry , and John Adams , who like all delegates were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New York's John Jay . This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, established the Continental Association to administer boycott actions against Britain. When the Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, it essentially reconstituted the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second. [16] New arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses . Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. [17] The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence . Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution. [18] The newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament . The U.S. adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government with a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation , which met from 1781 to 1789. [19] Later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. [20] Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset for some including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton was to create a new frame of government rather than amending the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution . Interesting facts and commonalities [ edit ] Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States , by Howard Chandler Christy George Washington served as President of the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Benjamin Franklin , an early advocate of colonial unity, was a foundational figure in defining the U.S. ethos and exemplified the emerging nation's ideals. Alexander Hamilton wrote the Federalist papers with Jay and Madison. John Jay was President of the Continental Congress from 1778-1779 and negotiated the Treaty of Paris with Adams and Franklin. James Madison , called the \"Father of the Constitution\" by his contemporaries Peyton Randolph , as President of the Continental Congress, presided over creation of the Continental Association. Richard Henry Lee , who introduced the Lee Resolution in the Second Continental Congress calling for the colonies' independence from Great Britain A Committee of Five , composed of John Adams , Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and Robert Livingston , drafted and presented to the Continental Congress what became known as the U.S. Declaration of Independence of July 4, 1776. John Hancock , President of the Continental Congress, renowned for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence John Dickinson authored the first draft of the Articles of Confederation in 1776 while serving in the Continental Congress as a delegate from Pennsylvania, and signed them late the following year, after being elected to Congress as a delegate from Delaware. Henry Laurens was President of the Continental Congress when the Articles were passed on November 15, 1777. Roger Sherman , the only person who signed all four U.S. historical documents The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century U.S. leadership. Almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs. Virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution ; at least 29 had served in the Continental Army , most of them in positions of command. Scholars have examined the collective biography of them as well as the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution. [21] Education [ edit ] Many of the Founding Fathers attended or held degrees from the colonial colleges , most notably Columbia known at the time as \"King's College\", Princeton originally known as \"The College of New Jersey\", Harvard College , the College of William and Mary , Yale College and University of Pennsylvania . Some had previously been home schooled or obtained early instruction from private tutors or academies. [22] Others had studied abroad. Ironically, Benjamin Franklin who had little formal education himself would ultimately establish the College of Philadelphia based on European models (1740); \"Penn\" would have the first medical school (1765) in the thirteen colonies where another Founder, Benjamin Rush would eventually teach. With a limited number of professional schools established in the U.S., Founders also sought advanced degrees from traditional institutions in England and Scotland such as the University of Edinburgh and University of St. Andrews . Colonial Colleges attended [ edit ] College of William and Mary: Thomas Jefferson [23] Harvard College : John Adams, John Hancock and William Williams King's College (now Columbia ): John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, Gouverneur Morris, Robert R. Livingston and Egbert Benson . [24] College of New Jersey (now Princeton ): James Madison, Gunning Bedford Jr. , Aaron Burr , Benjamin Rush and William Paterson College of Philadelphia later merged into the University of Pennsylvania : Hugh Williamson Yale College: Oliver Wolcott James Wilson attended University of St. Andrews and Edinburgh though he never received a degree. Advanced degrees and apprenticeships [ edit ] Doctors of Medicine [ edit ] University of Edinburgh: Rush [25] University of Utrecht, Netherlands: Williamson Theology [ edit ] University of Edinburgh: Witherspoon (attended, no degree) University of St. Andrews: Witherspoon (honorary doctorate) Legal apprenticeships [ edit ] Several like John Jay, James Wilson, John Williams and George Wythe [26] were trained as lawyers through apprenticeships in the colonies while a few trained at the Inns of Court in London. Self-taught or little formal education [ edit ] Franklin, Washington, John Williams and Henry Wisner had little formal education and were largely self-taught or learned through apprenticeship . Demographics [ edit ] Some of the Founding Fathers were natives of the Thirteen Colonies . Massachusetts: Adams New York: Jay Pennsylvania: Franklin, Morris Virginia: Washington, Madison At least nine were immigrants England : Robert Morris Ireland : Butler, Fitzsimons, McHenry, and Paterson West Indies : Hamilton Scotland Wilson and Witherspoon Many of them had moved from one state to another. Eighteen had already lived, studied or worked in more than one state or colony: Baldwin, Bassett, Bedford, Davie, Dickinson, Few, Franklin, Ingersoll, Hamilton, Livingston, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mercer, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, Read, Sherman, and Williamson. Several others had studied or traveled abroad. Occupations [ edit ] The Founding Fathers practiced a wide range of high and middle-status occupations , and many pursued more than one career simultaneously. They did not differ dramatically from the Loyalists , except they were generally younger and less senior in their professions. [27] As many as thirty-five including Adams, Hamilton and Jay were trained as lawyers though not all of them practiced law. Some had also been local judges. [28] Washington trained as a land surveyor before he became commander of a small militia At the time of the convention, 13 men were merchants: Blount, Broom, Clymer, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Shields, Gilman, Gorham, Langdon, Robert Morris, Pierce, Sherman, and Wilson. Broom and Few were small farmers. Three had retired from active economic endeavors: Franklin, McHenry, and Mifflin. Franklin and Williamson were scientists, in addition to their other activities. McClurg, McHenry, Rush, and Williamson were physicians Johnson and Witherspoon were college presidents. Finances [ edit ] Historian Caroline Robbins in 1977 examined the status of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence and concluded: There were indeed disparities of wealth, earned or inherited: some Signers were rich, others had about enough to enable them to attend Congress....The majority of revolutionaries were from moderately well-to-do or average income brackets. Twice as many Loyalists belonged to the wealthiest echelon. But some Signers were rich; few, indigent.... The Signers were elected not for wealth or rank so much as because of the evidence they had already evinced of willingness for public service. [29] A few of them were wealthy or had financial resources that ranged from good to excellent, but there are other founders who were less than wealthy. On the whole they were less wealthy than the Loyalists. [30] Seven were major land speculators: Blount, Dayton, Fitzsimmons, Gorham, Robert Morris, Washington, and Wilson. Eleven speculated in securities on a large scale: Bedford, Blair, Clymer, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Franklin, King, Langdon, Robert Morris, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and Sherman. Many derived income from plantations or large farms which they owned or managed, which relied upon the labor of enslaved men and women particularly in the southern colonies: Bassett, Blair, Blount, Davie, [31] Johnson, Butler, Carroll, Jefferson, Jenifer, Madison, Mason, Charles Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , Rutledge, Spaight, and Washington. Eight of the men received a substantial part of their income from public office: Baldwin, Blair, Brearly, Gilman, Livingston, Madison, and Rutledge. Prior Political Experience [ edit ] Several of the Founding Fathers had extensive national, state, local and foreign political experience prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. Some had been diplomats. Several had been members of the Continental Congress or elected President of that body. Benjamin Franklin began his political career as a city councilman and then Justice of the Peace in Philadelphia. He was next elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly and was sent by them to London as a colonial agent which helped hone his diplomatic skills. Jefferson , Adams , Jay and Franklin all acquired significant political experience as ministers to countries in Europe. John Adams and John Jay drafted the Constitutions of their respective states, Massachusetts and New York, and successfully navigated them through to adoption. Jay, Thomas Mifflin and Nathaniel Gorham had served as President of the Continental Congress . Gouverneur Morris had been a member of the New York Provincial Congress . John Dickinson , Franklin, Langdon, and Rutledge had been governors or presidents of their states. Robert Morris had been a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly and President of Pennsylvania's Committee of Safety (American Revolution) . He was also a member of the Committee of Secret Correspondence . Roger Sherman had served in the Connecticut House of Representatives . Elbridge Gerry was a member of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress . Carroll served in the Maryland Senate . Wythe 's first exposure to politics was as a member of Virginia's House of Burgesses . Read 's entry into the political arena was as a commissioner of the town of Charlestown, Maryland. Clymer was a member of the Philadelphia Committee of Safety and the Continental Congress. Wilson 's time as a member of the Continental Congress in 1776 was his introduction to colonial politics. Nearly all of the 55 Constitutional Convention delegates had some experience in colonial and state government, and the majority had held county and local offices. [32] . Those who lacked national congressional experience were Bassett , Blair , Brearly , Broom , Davie , Dayton , Alexander Martin , Luther Martin , Mason , McClurg , Paterson , Charles Pinckney , Strong , and Yates . Religion [ edit ] Franklin T. Lambert (2003) has examined the religious affiliations and beliefs of some of the Founders. Of the 55 delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, 28 were Anglicans (in the Church of England ; or Episcopalian , after the American Revolutionary War was won), 21 were Protestants , and two were Roman Catholics (D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons). [33] Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were Presbyterians , seven were Congregationalists , two were Lutherans , two were Dutch Reformed , and two were Methodists . [33] A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical Christians such as Thomas Jefferson, [34] [35] [36] who constructed the Jefferson Bible , and Benjamin Franklin. [37] Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid \" theistic rationalism \". [38] The Faiths of the Founding Fathers is a book that discusses the religion held by the founding fathers, written in 2006 by historian of U.S. religion David L. Holmes . Ownership of slaves and position on slavery [ edit ] Portrait of George Washington and his valet slave William Lee See also: George Washington and slavery and Thomas Jefferson and slavery One of the greatest contradictions of the Founding Fathers was their disunity with regard to slavery at a time that they were seeking liberty for themselves. This hypocrisy was as evident in the North as it was in the South for many wealthy Northerners owned domestic slaves. In her study of Thomas Jefferson , historian Annette Gordon-Reed emphasizes this irony, \"Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for freedom, \" [39] In addition to Jefferson, George Washington , John Jay and many other of the Founding Fathers practiced slavery but were also conflicted by the institution which many saw as immoral and politically divisive. [40] Franklin though he was a key founder of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society [41] originally owned slaves whom he later manumitted . John Jay would try unsuccessfully to abolish slavery as early as 1777 in the State of New York but was overruled. [42] He nonetheless founded the New York Manumission Society in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the African Free School in New York City, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. It was not until Jay was governor of New York in 1798, that he signed into law a gradual abolition law; fully ending slavery as of 1827. He freed his own slaves in 1798. Alexander Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences in life left him very familiar with slavery and its effect on slaves and on slaveholders, [43] although he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife's family, the Schuylers . [44] John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Paine never owned slaves [45] Slaves and slavery are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that \"three fifths of all other Persons\" are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3 , slaves are referred to as \"persons held in service or labor\". [41] [46] The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery during and after the American Revolution. [46] In 1782 Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed. [47] As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia. [47] Thomas Jefferson, in 1784, proposed to ban slavery in all the Western Territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. [46] Partially following Jefferson's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 , for lands north of the Ohio River . [46] The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina , by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a Federally-enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. [48] However, the domestic slave trade was allowed, for expansion, or for diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory . [49] Attendance at conventions [ edit ] In the winter and spring of 1786–1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates; for example, Patrick Henry of Virginia thought that state politics were far more interesting and important than national politics, though during the ratification controversy of 1787–1788 he claimed, \"I smelled a rat.\" Rhode Island did not send delegates because of its politicians' suspicions of the Convention delegates' motivations. As the colony was founded by Roger Williams as a sanctuary for Baptists , Rhode Island's absence at the Convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time. [50] Spouses and children [ edit ] Most of the Founding Fathers married and had children. Many of their spouses, like Eliza Schuyler Hamilton , Martha Washington , Abigail Adams , Sarah Livingston Jay, Dolley Madison , Mary White Morris and Catherine Alexander Duer were strong women and made significant contributions of their own to the fight for liberty. [51] Sherman fathered the largest family: 15 children by two wives. At least nine (Bassett, Brearly, Johnson, Mason, Paterson, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Sherman, Wilson, and Wythe) married more than once. Four (Baldwin, Gilman, Jenifer, and Alexander Martin) were lifelong bachelors . Many of the delegates also had children conceived illegitimately . [52] George Washington, \"The Father of our Country,\" [53] had no biological descendants. Charters of freedom and historical documents of the United States [ edit ] The National Archives and Records Administration also known as NARA, defines U.S. Founding Documents, or Charters of Freedom , as the Declaration of Independence (1776), The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791). These original instruments which represent the philosophy of the United States are housed in Washington, D.C. in the NARA Rotunda. [54] The Library of Congress further identifies the Articles of Confederation, also preserved at NARA, as a primary U.S. document. [55] The Articles of Confederation served as the first constitution of the United States until its replacement by the present Constitution on March 4, 1789. Signatories of the Continental Association (CA), Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and the United States Constitution (USC)): Name Province/state CA (1774) DI (1776) AC (1777) USC (1787) Andrew Adams Connecticut Yes John Adams Massachusetts Yes Yes Samuel Adams Massachusetts Yes Yes Yes Thomas Adams Virginia Yes John Alsop New York Yes Abraham Baldwin Georgia Yes John Banister Virginia Yes Josiah Bartlett New Hampshire Yes Yes Richard Bassett Delaware Yes Gunning Bedford Jr. Delaware Yes Edward Biddle Pennsylvania Yes John Blair Virginia Yes Richard Bland Virginia Yes William Blount North Carolina Yes Simon Boerum New York Yes Carter Braxton Virginia Yes David Brearley New Jersey Yes Jacob Broom Delaware Yes Pierce Butler South Carolina Yes Charles Carroll of Carrollton Maryland Yes Daniel Carroll Maryland Yes Yes Richard Caswell North Carolina Yes Samuel Chase Maryland Yes Yes Abraham Clark New Jersey Yes William Clingan Pennsylvania Yes George Clymer Pennsylvania Yes Yes John Collins Rhode Island Yes Stephen Crane New Jersey Yes Thomas Cushing Massachusetts Yes Francis Dana Massachusetts Yes Jonathan Dayton New Jersey Yes Silas Deane Connecticut Yes John De Hart New Jersey Yes John Dickinson Delaware Yes Yes Pennsylvania Yes William Henry Drayton South Carolina Yes James Duane New York Yes Yes William Duer New York Yes Eliphalet Dyer Connecticut Yes William Ellery Rhode Island Yes Yes William Few Georgia Yes Thomas Fitzsimons Pennsylvania Yes William Floyd New York Yes Yes Nathaniel Folsom New Hampshire Yes Benjamin Franklin Pennsylvania Yes Yes Christopher Gadsden South Carolina Yes Joseph Galloway Pennsylvania Yes Elbridge Gerry Massachusetts Yes Yes Nicholas Gilman New Hampshire Yes Nathaniel Gorham Massachusetts Yes Button Gwinnett Georgia Yes Lyman Hall Georgia Yes Alexander Hamilton New York Yes John Hancock Massachusetts Yes Yes John Hanson Maryland Yes Cornelius Harnett North Carolina Yes Benjamin Harrison Virginia Yes Yes John Hart New Jersey Yes John Harvie Virginia Yes Patrick Henry Virginia Yes Joseph Hewes North Carolina Yes Yes Thomas Heyward Jr. South Carolina Yes Yes Samuel Holten Massachusetts Yes William Hooper North Carolina Yes Yes Stephen Hopkins Rhode Island Yes Yes Francis Hopkinson New Jersey Yes Titus Hosmer Connecticut Yes Charles Humphreys Pennsylvania Yes Samuel Huntington Connecticut Yes Yes Richard Hutson South Carolina Yes Jared Ingersoll Pennsylvania Yes William Jackson South Carolina Yes John Jay New York Yes Thomas Jefferson Virginia Yes Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer Maryland Yes Thomas Johnson Maryland Yes William Samuel Johnson Connecticut Yes Rufus King Massachusetts Yes James Kinsey New Jersey Yes John Langdon New Hampshire Yes Edward Langworthy Georgia Yes Henry Laurens South Carolina Yes Francis Lightfoot Lee Virginia Yes Yes Richard Henry Lee Virginia Yes Yes Yes Francis Lewis New York Yes Yes Philip Livingston New York Yes Yes William Livingston New Jersey Yes Yes James Lovell Massachusetts Yes Isaac Low New York Yes Thomas Lynch South Carolina Yes Thomas Lynch Jr. South Carolina Yes James Madison Virginia Yes Henry Marchant Rhode Island Yes John Mathews South Carolina Yes James McHenry Maryland Yes Thomas McKean Delaware Yes Yes Yes Arthur Middleton South Carolina Yes Henry Middleton South Carolina Yes Thomas Mifflin Pennsylvania Yes Yes Gouverneur Morris New York Yes Pennsylvania Yes Lewis Morris New York Yes Robert Morris Pennsylvania Yes Yes Yes John Morton Pennsylvania Yes Yes Thomas Nelson Jr. Virginia Yes William Paca Maryland Yes Yes Robert Treat Paine Massachusetts Yes Yes William Paterson New Jersey Yes Edmund Pendleton Virginia Yes John Penn North Carolina Yes Yes Charles Pinckney South Carolina Yes Charles Cotesworth Pinckney South Carolina Yes Peyton Randolph Virginia Yes George Read Delaware Yes Yes Yes Joseph Reed Pennsylvania Yes Daniel Roberdeau Pennsylvania Yes Caesar Rodney Delaware Yes Yes George Ross Pennsylvania Yes Yes Benjamin Rush Pennsylvania Yes Edward Rutledge South Carolina Yes Yes John Rutledge South Carolina Yes Yes Nathaniel Scudder New Jersey Yes Roger Sherman Connecticut Yes Yes Yes Yes James Smith Pennsylvania Yes Jonathan Bayard Smith Pennsylvania Yes Richard Smith New Jersey Yes Richard Dobbs Spaight North Carolina Yes Richard Stockton New Jersey Yes Thomas Stone Maryland Yes John Sullivan New Hampshire Yes George Taylor Pennsylvania Yes Edward Telfair Georgia Yes Matthew Thornton New Hampshire Yes Matthew Tilghman Maryland Yes Nicholas Van Dyke Delaware Yes George Walton Georgia Yes John Walton Georgia Yes Samuel Ward Rhode Island Yes George Washington Virginia Yes Yes John Wentworth Jr. New Hampshire Yes William Whipple New Hampshire Yes John Williams North Carolina Yes William Williams Connecticut Yes Hugh Williamson North Carolina Yes James Wilson Pennsylvania Yes Yes Henry Wisner New York Yes John Witherspoon New Jersey Yes Yes Oliver Wolcott Connecticut Yes Yes George Wythe Virginia Yes Post-constitution life [ edit ] Subsequent events in the lives of the Founding Fathers after the adoption of the Constitution were characterized by success or failure, reflecting the abilities of these men as well as the vagaries of fate. [56] Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison served in highest U.S. office of President. Jay would be appointed as Chief Justice of the United States and later elected to two terms as Governor of New York. Seven (Fitzsimons, Gorham, Luther Martin, Mifflin, Robert Morris, Pierce, and Wilson) suffered serious financial reversals that left them in or near bankruptcy. Robert Morris spent three of the last years of his life imprisoned following bad land deals. [51] Two, Blount and Dayton, were involved in possibly treasonous activities. Yet, as they had done before the convention, most of the group continued to render public service, particularly to the new government they had helped to create. Youth and longevity [ edit ] Death age of the Founding Fathers Many of the Founding Fathers were under 40 years old at the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776: James Armistead Lafayette was 15, Marquis de Lafayette was 18, Alexander Hamilton was 19, Aaron Burr was 20, Gouverneur Morris and Betsy Ross were 24. The oldest were Benjamin Franklin, 70, and Samuel Whittemore , 81. [57] Secretary Charles Thomson lived to the age of 94. Johnson died at 92. John Adams lived to the age of 90. A few – Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, Madison, Hugh Williamson , and George Wythe – lived into their eighties. Approximately 16 died in their seventies, 21 in their sixties, 8 in their fifties, and 5 in their forties. Three ( Alexander Hamilton , Richard Dobbs Spaight and Button Gwinnett ) were killed in duels . Friends and political adversaries John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on the same day – July 4, 1826. [58] The last remaining founders, also called the \" Last of the Romans \", lived well into the nineteenth century. [59] Founders who were not signatories or delegates [ edit ] The following men and women are also recognized by many as having been founders of the United States based upon their significant contributions to the formation of American nation and democracy. Abigail Adams , advisor, First Lady and mother of a president [60] Ethan Allen , military and political leader in Vermont [61] Richard Allen , African-American bishop [62] John Bartram , botanist, horticulturist and explorer [63] Egbert Benson , politician from New York [64] Elias Boudinot , New Jersey delegate to Continental Congress [65] Aaron Burr , Vice President under Jefferson [66] George Rogers Clark , army general [67] George Clinton , New York governor and Vice President of the U.S [68] Tench Coxe , economist in the Continental Congress [69] William Richardson Davie , delegate to the Constitutional Convention (leaving before he could sign it), and Governor of North Carolina . Albert Gallatin , politician and Treasury Secretary [70] Horatio Gates , army general [67] Nathanael Greene , army general [67] Nathan Hale , captured U.S. soldier executed in 1776 [60] Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton , wife of Alexander Hamilton [71] [72] James Iredell , advocate for Constitution, judge [68] John Paul Jones , navy captain [67] Henry Knox , army general, Secretary of War [68] Tadeusz Kościuszko , Polish army general [70] Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette , French army general [70] Henry Lee III , army officer and Virginia governor [67] Robert R. Livingston , diplomat and jurist [60] William Maclay , Pennsylvania politician and U.S. Senator [68] Dolley Madison , spouse of President James Madison [60] John Marshall , fourth Chief Justice of the United States [60] George Mason , revolutionary writer, co-father of the Bill of Rights [73] Philip Mazzei , Italian physician, merchant and author [74] James Monroe , fifth President of the United States [75] Daniel Morgan , military hero and Virginia Congressman [67] James Otis Jr. , Massachusetts lawyer and politician [76] Thomas Paine , author of Common Sense [77] [78] Andrew Pickens , army general and South Carolina congressman [67] Timothy Pickering , U.S. Secretary of State from Massachusetts [79] Israel Putnam , army general [80] Edmund Randolph , first United States Attorney General , second Secretary of State [81] Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau , French army general [70] Haym Solomon , financier and spy for Continental Army [82] Thomas Sumter , SC military hero and congressman [67] Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , Prussian officer [70] Joseph Warren , doctor, revolutionary leader [80] Mercy Otis Warren , political writer [68] Anthony Wayne , army general and politician [67] Noah Webster , writer, lexicographer , educator [83] Thomas Willing , banker [84] Paine Wingate , oldest survivor, Continental Congress [85] [86] Legacy [ edit ] Institutions formed by Founders [ edit ] Several Founding Fathers were instrumental in establishing schools and societal institutions that still exist today: Benjamin Franklin founded the University of Pennsylvania, while Jefferson founded the University of Virginia . Benjamin Rush founded Dickinson College and Franklin College, (today Franklin and Marshall ) as well as the College of Physicians of Philadelphia , the oldest medical society in America. Alexander Hamilton founded the New York Post , as well as the United States Coast Guard . Henry Knox [87] helped found the Society of the Cincinnati in 1783; the society was predicated on service as an officer in the Revolutionary War and heredity. Members included Washington, Hamilton and Burr. Other Founders like Sam Adams, John Adams, Franklin and Jay criticized the formation of what they considered to be an elitist body and threat to the Constitution. Franklin would later accept an honorary membership though Jay declined. [88] Scholarship on the Founders [ edit ] Articles and books by twenty-first century historians combined with the digitization of primary sources like handwritten letters continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers. Living historians whose focus is the Founding Fathers [ edit ] Ron Chernow won the Pulitzer Prize for his biography of George Washington. His bestselling book about Alexander Hamilton inspired the blockbuster musical of the same name . Joseph J. Ellis - According to Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says \"the founders\", or \"the fathers\", comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s – men like Andrew Jackson , Henry Clay , Daniel Webster , and John C. Calhoun – \"the founders\" represented a heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison. \"We can win no laurels in a war for independence,\" Webster acknowledged in 1825. \"Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us ... [as] the founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation.\" [89] Joanne B. Freeman Freeman's area of expertise is the life and legacy of Alexander Hamilton as well as political culture of the revolutionary and early national eras. [90] [91] [92] Freeman has documented the often opposing visions of the Founding Fathers as they tried to build a new framework for governance, \"Regional distrust, personal animosity, accusation, suspicion, implication, and denouncement—this was the tenor of national politics from the outset.” [93] Annette Gordon-Reed is an American historian and Harvard Law School professor. She is noted for changing scholarship on Thomas Jefferson regarding his relationship with Sally Hemings and her children. She has studied the challenges facing the Founding Fathers particularly as it relates to their position and actions on slavery. She points out \"the central dilemma at the heart of American democracy: the desire to create a society based on liberty and equality\" that yet does not extend those privileges to all.\" [39] Jack N. Rakove - Thomas Jefferson Peter S. Onuf - Thomas Jefferson Noted collections of the Founding Fathers [ edit ] Adams Papers Editorial Project Founders Online Founders Online is a searchable database of over 178,000 documents authored by or addressed to George Washington, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams (and family), Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton The Selected Papers of John Jay at Columbia University The Papers of Thomas Jefferson at Princeton University The Papers of James Madison at University of Virginia The Washington Papers at University of Virginia The Franklin Papers at Yale University In stage and film [ edit ] The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the Tony Award winning musical 1776 , a stage production about the debates over, and eventual adoption of, the Declaration of Independence ; the popular performance was later turned into the 1972 film More recently, several of the Founding Fathers - Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Laurens and Burr - were reimagined in Hamilton , an acclaimed production about the life of Alexander Hamilton , with music, lyrics and book by Lin-Manuel Miranda .The show was inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow . The rap musical won 11 Tony Awards. [94] Children's books [ edit ] In their 2015 children's book, The Founding Fathers author Jonah Winter and illustrator Barry Blitt categorized 14 leading patriots into two teams based on their contributions to the formation of America - the Varsity Squad (Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, John Adams, Madison, Jay, and Hamilton) and the Junior Varsity Squad (Sam Adams, Hancock, Henry, Morris, Marshall, Rush, and Paine). [95] See also [ edit ] United States portal List of national founders (worldwide) History of the United States Constitution Rights of Englishmen Patriot (American Revolution) Sons of Liberty Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"American Revolution: Key to Declaration of Independence\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mellinkoff, David. Mellinkoff's Dictionary of American Legal Usage (West Publishing, 1992) Jump up ^ Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). Jump up ^ Kettler, Sarah. \"The Founding Fathers: Who Were They Really?\" . Biography . Retrieved April 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"About America, The Constitution of the United States\" (PDF) . World Book . Retrieved September 17, 2017 . Jump up ^ PBS NewsHour. \"Forgotten Founding Father\" . Jump up ^ Rose, P.K. \"The Founding Fathers of American Intelligence\" . Retrieved April 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Did any of our \"Founding Fathers\" NOT sign the Declaration of Independence?\" . Harvard University: Declaration Resources Project . Retrieved April 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Signers of the Declaration\" . National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior . Retrieved April 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ National Archives. \"Meet the Framers of the Constitution\" . Jump up ^ US Constitution Online. \"The Framers\" . Jump up ^ Carl G. Karsch. \"The First Continental Congress: A Dangerous Journey Begins\" . Carpenter's Hall. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012 . Retrieved April 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Stanfield, Jack. America's Founding Fathers: Who Are They? Thumbnail Sketches of 164 Patriots (Universal-Publishers, 2001). Jump up ^ Parham, C. P. \"From Great Wilderness to Seaway Towns: A Comparative History of Cornwall, Ontario, and Massena, New York, 1784-2001\" . SUNY Press, 2012 (chapter 1, page 7) . Retrieved 20 November 2017 . The founding fathers of Cornwall and .... Jump up ^ Jill Lepore, The Whites of Their Eyes: The Tea Party’s Revolution and the Battle American History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 16. Jump up ^ Burnett, Continental Congress , 64–67. Jump up ^ Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill , 189. Jump up ^ \"Signers of the Declaration\" . National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. p. Biography #54 . Retrieved April 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Confederation Congress\" . Ohio Historical Society . Retrieved October 23, 2010 . Jump up ^ Calvin C. Jillson (2009). American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-203-88702-8 . Jump up ^ See Brown (19764); Martin (19739); \"Data on the Framers of the Constitution,\" at [1] Jump up ^ Brown (1976); Harris (1969) Jump up ^ \"The Alma Maters of Our Founding Fathers\" . Retrieved April 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"A Brief History of Columbia\" . Columbia University. 2011 . Retrieved 2011-04-14 . Jump up ^ \"Benjamin Rush (1746 - 1813) access-date=April 9, 2017\" . Penn University Archives and Records Center. Jump up ^ \"George Wythe\" . Colonial Williamsburg . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Greene (1973) Jump up ^ Brown (1976) Jump up ^ Caroline Robbins, \"Decision in '76: Reflections on the 56 Signers\" Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Vol. 89 (1977), pp. 72-87 online quoting page 83. Jump up ^ Greene (1973). Jump up ^ William R. Davie, Blackwell P. Robinson. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1957. Jump up ^ Martin (1973); Greene (1973) ^ Jump up to: a b Lambert, Franklin T. (2003). The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (published 2006). ISBN 978-0691126029 . Jump up ^ Letter to Alexander von Humboldt, December 6, 1813 \"History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government,\" Jump up ^ Letter to Horatio G. Spafford, March 17, 1814 \"In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own.\" Jump up ^ The Religion of Thomas Jefferson Archived November 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved July 9, 2011 Jump up ^ Quoted in The New England Currant (July 23, 1722), \"Silence Dogood, No. 9; Corruptio optimi est pessima .\" \"And it is a sad Observation, that when the People too late see their Error, yet the Clergy still persist in their Encomiums on the Hypocrite; and when he happens to die for the Good of his Country, without leaving behind him the Memory of one good Action, he shall be sure to have his Funeral Sermon stuff'd with Pious Expressions which he dropt at such a Time, and at such a Place, and on such an Occasion; than which nothing can be more prejudicial to the Interest of Religion, nor indeed to the Memory of the Person deceas'd. The Reason of this Blindness in the Clergy is, because they are honourably supported (as they ought to be) by their People, and see nor feel nothing of the Oppression which is obvious and burdensome to every one else.\" Jump up ^ Frazer, Gregg L. (2012). The Religious Beliefs of America's Founders: Reason, Revelation, and Revolution . University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700620214 . ^ Jump up to: a b Annette Gordon-Reed, Engaging Jefferson: Blacks and the Founding Father , The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Jan., 2000), pp. 171-182 Jump up ^ \"The Founders and Slavery: John Jay Saves the Day\" . The Economist . Retrieved April 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Wright, William D. (2002). Critical Reflections on Black History . West Port , Connecticut : Praeger Publishers. p. 125. Jump up ^ The Selected Papers of John Jay, Columbia University, http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/inside/dev/jay/JaySlavery.html Jump up ^ Horton, James O. (2004). \"Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation\" . New York Journal of American History . New York Historical Society (3) . Retrieved October 29, 2016 . Jump up ^ Magness, Phillip. \"Alexander Hamilton's Exaggerated Abolitionism\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Freehling, William W. (February 1972). \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\". The American Historical Review . 77 (1): 87. doi : 10.2307/1856595 . JSTOR 1856595 . ^ Jump up to: a b The Cambridge History of Law in America . 2008. p. 278. Jump up ^ Freehling, William W. (February 1972). \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\". The American Historical Review . 77 (1): 88. doi : 10.2307/1856595 . JSTOR 1856595 . Jump up ^ Freehling, William W. (February 1972). \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\". The American Historical Review . 77 (1): 85. doi : 10.2307/1856595 . JSTOR 1856595 . Jump up ^ See the discussion of the Convention in Clinton L. Rossiter, 1787: The Grand Convention (New York: Macmillan, 1966; reprint ed., with new foreword by Richard B. Morris, New York: W. W. Norton, 1987). ^ Jump up to: a b Griswold, Rufus (1855), The Republican Court, or, American Society in the Days of Washington , D. Appleton & Co. Jump up ^ Staar (January 2009). \"Our Founding Fathers\" . Huffington Post . Retrieved 22 February 2012 . Jump up ^ George Washington's Mount Vernon. \"Father of His Country\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ National Archives. \"America's Founding Documents\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Articles of Confederation\" . Library of Congress . Retrieved April 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Martin (1973) Jump up ^ Andrlik, Todd. \"How Old Were the Leaders of the American Revolution on July 4, 1776?\" . Jump up ^ History. \"Thomas Jefferson and John Adams Die\" . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Fox-Genovese; Eugene D. Genovese (2005). The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders' Worldview . Cambridge University Press. p. 278. ISBN 9780521850650 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Encyclopædia Britannica. Founding fathers: the essential guide to the men who made America (John Wiley and Sons, 2007). Jump up ^ McWilliams, J. (1976). \"The Faces of Ethan Allen: 1760-1860\". The New England Quarterly . 49 (2): 257–282. doi : 10.2307/364502 . JSTOR 364502 . Jump up ^ Newman, Richard. Freedom's Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers (NYU Press, 2009). Jump up ^ Jane Goodall (27 August 2013). Seeds of Hope: Wisdom and Wonder from the World of Plants. Grand Central Publishing. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-1-4555-1321-5 . Jump up ^ Ballenas, Carl. Images of America: Jamaica (Arcadia Publishing, 2011). Jump up ^ Holmes, David. The Faiths of the Founding Fathers . (Oxford University Press US, 2006). Jump up ^ Wood, Gordon S. Revolutionary Characters, What Made the Founding Fathers Different . (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 225–242. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Buchanan, John. \"Founding Fighters: The Battlefield Leaders Who Made American Independence (review)\". The Journal of Military History (Volume 71, Number 2, April 2007), pp. 522–524. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e R. B. Bernstein, The Founding Fathers Reconsidered (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). Jump up ^ Stephen Yafa (2006). Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber . Penguin. p. 75. ISBN 9780143037224 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dungan, Nicholas. Gallatin: America's Swiss Founding Father (NYU Press 2010). Jump up ^ Roberts, Cokie. \" Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation \". Harper Perennial, 2005 Jump up ^ Roberts, Cokie. \" Ladies of Liberty: The Women Who Shaped Our Nation \". Harper, 2008 Jump up ^ Broadwater, Jeff (2006). George Mason, Forgotten Founder . Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3053-6 . OCLC 67239589 . Jump up ^ LaGumina, Salvatore. The Italian American experience: an encyclopedia , page 361 (Taylor & Francis, 2000). Jump up ^ Unger, Harlow (2009). James Monroe: The Last Founding Father . New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81808-6 . Jump up ^ Kann, Mark E. (1999). The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy . ABC-CLIO. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-275-96112-1 . Jump up ^ \"Founding Father Thomas Paine: He Genuinely Abhorred Slavery\". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (48): 45. 2005. doi : 10.2307/25073236 (inactive 2017-01-15). Jump up ^ David Braff, \"Forgotten Founding Father: The Impact of Thomas Paine,\" in Joyce Chumbley. ed., Thomas Paine: In Search of the Common Good (2009) pp. 39–43 Jump up ^ Burstein, Andrew. \"Politics and Personalities: Garry Wills takes a new look at a forgotten founder, slavery and the shaping of America\", Chicago Tribune (November 09, 2003): \"Forgotten founders such as Pickering and Morris made as many waves as those whose faces stare out from our currency.\" ^ Jump up to: a b Rafael, Ray. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Founding Fathers: And the Birth of Our Nation (Penguin, 2011). Jump up ^ \"Founding Fathers: Virginia\" . FindLaw Constitutional Law Center. 2008 . Retrieved 2008-11-14 . Jump up ^ Schwartz, Laurens R. Jews and the American Revolution: Haym Solomon and Others, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 1987. Jump up ^ Kendall, Joshua. The Forgotten Founding Father: Noah Webster's Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture (Penguin 2011). Jump up ^ Wright, R. E. (1996). \"Thomas Willing (1731-1821): Philadelphia Financier and Forgotten Founding Father\". Pennsylvania History . 63 (4): 525–560. doi : 10.2307/27773931 (inactive 2017-01-15). JSTOR 27773931 . Jump up ^ \"A Patriot of Early New England\", New York Times (December 20, 1931). This book review referred to Wingate as one of the \"Fathers\" of the United States, per the book title. Jump up ^ The New Yorker , Volume I, page 398 (September 10, 1836): \"'The Last of the Romans' — This was said of Madison at the time of his decease, but there is one other person who seems to have some claims to this honorable distinction. Paine Wingate of Stratham, N.H. still survives.\" Jump up ^ \"THE FOUNDING OF THE SOCIETY, 1783–1784\" . Society of the Cincinnati . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"History:The Society of the Cincinnati in the State of Connecticut\" . Jump up ^ Joseph J. Ellis; Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams. (2001) p. 214. Jump up ^ Jennifer Schuessler. \" Up From the Family Basement, a Little-Seen Hamilton Trove \" . The New York Times. Jump up ^ Joanne B. Freeman. \" The Long History of Political Idiocy \" . The New York Times. Jump up ^ Joanne B. Freeman. \" How Hamilton Uses History: What Lin-Manuel Miranda Included in His Portrait of a Heroic, Complicated Founding Father—and What He Left Out \" . Slate . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Chris Bray. \" Tip and Gip Sip and Quip-The politics of never \" . The Baffler . Retrieved April 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Robert Viagas. \"Hamilton Tops Tony Awards With 11 Wins\" . Playbill . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Winter, Jonah and Blitt, Barry, The Founding Fathers!Those Horse-Ridin', Fiddle-Playin', Book-Readin', Gun-Totin' Gentlemen Who Started America Simon and Schuster, New York (2015) References [ edit ] American National Biography Online , (2000). Bernard Bailyn, To Begin the World Anew Knopf, 2003. Richard B. Bernstein, Are We to Be a Nation? The Making of the Constitution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987. R. B. Bernstein, The Founding Fathers Reconsidered (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). Richard D. Brown. \"The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View,\" William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul. 1976), pp. 465–480 online at JSTOR . Henry Steele Commager, \"Leadership in Eighteenth-Century America and Today,\" Daedalus 90 (Fall 1961): 650–673, reprinted in Henry Steele Commager, Freedom and Order (New York: George Braziller, 1966). Joseph J. Ellis. Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History. Joseph J. Ellis. The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution, 1783-1789 (New York: First Vintage Books Edition, May 2016). Joanne B. Freeman, Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001. Steven K. Green, Inventing a Christian America: The Myth of the Religious Founding. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2015. Jack P. Greene. \"The Social Origins of the American Revolution: An Evaluation and an Interpretation,\" Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1973), pp. 1–22 online in JSTOR . P.M.G. Harris, \"The Social Origins of American Leaders: The Demographic Foundations, \" Perspectives in American History 3 (1969): 159–364. Mark E. Kann; The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy (New York: Frederick Praeger, 1999). Adrienne Koch; Power, Morals, and the Founding Fathers: Essays in the Interpretation of the American Enlightenment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1961). K. M. Kostyal. Founding Fathers: The Fight for Freedom and the Birth of American Liberty (2014) Franklin T. Lambert, The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. (Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press, 2003). James Kirby Martin, Men in Rebellion: Higher Governmental Leaders and the coming of the American Revolution, (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1973; reprint, New York: Free Press, 1976). Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). Robert Previdi; \"Vindicating the Founders: Race, Sex, Class, and Justice in the Origins of America,\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999 Rakove, Jack. Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2010) 487 pages; scholarly study focuses on how the Founders moved from private lives to public action, beginning in the 1770s Cokie Roberts. Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation. New York: William Morrow, 2005. Gordon S. Wood. Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (New York: Penguin Press, 2006) External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Founding Fathers of the United States . Founders Online: Correspondence and Other Writings of Six Major Shapers of the United States Debunks – along with other fact finding sites – the Internet Myth of \"What Happened to The Signers of the Declaration of Independence\" (retrieved 01-30-15) \"What Would the Founding Fathers Do Today?\" at the Wayback Machine (archived January 14, 2007) \"Founding Father Quotes, Biographies, and Writings\" [ show ] Founding Fathers and their related articles [ show ] v t e John Adams 2nd President of the United States, 1797–1801 1st Vice President of the United States, 1789–1797 U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom, 1785–1788 U.S. Ambassador to the Netherlands, 1782–1788 Delegate, Second Continental Congress, 1775–1778 Delegate, First Continental Congress, 1774 Founding of the United States Braintree Instructions (1765) Boston Massacre defense Continental Association Novanglus; A History of the Dispute with America, From Its Origin in 1754 to the Present Time (1775) Thoughts on Government (1776) Declaration of Independence May 15 preamble Committee of Five Model Treaty Treaty of Amity and Commerce Treaty of Alliance Board of War Chairman of the Marine Committee, 1775-1779 Continental Navy Staten Island Peace Conference Conference House Constitution of Massachusetts (1780) Treaty of Paris, 1783 Presidency Inauguration Quasi War with France XYZ Affair Commerce Protection Act United States Marine Corps Convention of 1800 Alien and Sedition Acts Naturalization Act of 1798 Navy Department Library Treaty of Tellico Treaty of Tripoli Midnight Judges Act Marbury v. Madison State of the Union Address (1797 1798 1799 1800) Cabinet Federal judiciary appointments Other writings Massachusetts Historical Society holdings Adams Papers Editorial Project Life and homes Early life and education Adams National Historical Park John Adams Birthplace Family home and John Quincy Adams birthplace Peacefield Presidential Library Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University Presidents House, Philadelphia Co-founder and second president, American Academy of Arts and Sciences United First Parish Church and gravesite Elections United States presidential election 1788–1789 1792 1796 1800 Legacy Adams House at Harvard University John Adams Building U.S. Postage stamps Adams Memorial Popular culture Profiles in Courage (1964 series) American Primitive (1969 play) 1776 (1969 musical 1972 film) The Adams Chronicles (1976 miniseries) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2001 book 2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Related \"Adams and Liberty\" campaign song Adams' personal library American Enlightenment Congress Hall Federalist Party Federalist Era First Party System republicanism American Philosophical Society Gazette of the United States The American Museum American Revolution patriots Family Abigail Adams wife Quincy family Abigail Adams Smith (daughter) John Quincy Adams son presidency Charles Adams (son) Thomas Boylston Adams (son) George W. Adams (grandson) Charles Adams Sr. (grandson) John Adams II (grandson) John Q. Adams (great-grandson) Henry Adams (great-grandson) Brooks Adams (great-grandson) John Adams Sr. (father) Susanna Boylston (mother) Elihu Adams (brother) Samuel Adams (second cousin) Louisa Adams daughter-in-law First Lady ← George Washington Thomas Jefferson → Category [ show ] v t e Samuel Adams 4th Governor of Massachusetts, 1794—1797 Second Continental Congress, 1775—1781 First Continental Congress, 1774 Clerk of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, 1766—1774 United States founding events The Independent Advertiser Boston Caucus 1764 Sugar Act response protests 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter Probable author, 1768–1769 \"Journal of Occurrences\" Arranged Christopher Seider funeral, 1770 Co-author, 1772 Boston Pamphlet Boston Committee of Correspondence, 1772 Hutchinson Letters Affair Co-inspired and publicized, Boston Tea Party Signed, 1774 Continental Association Massachusetts Provincial Congress Co-author, 1776 Letter to the inhabitants of Canada Signed, United States Declaration of Independence Signed, Articles of Confederation 1788 Massachusetts Compromise Life Early life Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University Sons of Liberty 1789 U.S. House election 1796 presidential election Samuel Adams and Paul Revere time capsule Granary Burying Ground Related American republicanism Boston Gazette American Revolution patriots Founding Father Faneuil Hall Old South Meeting House Legacy Samuel Adams (Whitney) Adams, Massachusetts Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Family John Adams (second cousin) [ show ] v t e John Dickinson 5th President of Pennsylvania, 1782–1785 5th President of Delaware, 1781–1783 Second Continental Congress, 1775–1776, 1779–1781 First Continental Congress, 1774 Stamp Act Congress, 1765 Founding of the United States Declaration of Rights and Grievances (1765) Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767, 1768) \"The Liberty Song\" (1768 United we stand, divided we fall) Petition to the King (1774) Signee, Continental Association (1774) Pennsylvania Committee of Correspondence (1774–1776) Letter to the inhabitants of the Province of Quebec (1774) Olive Branch Petition (1775) Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms ( co-wrote , 1775) Committee of Secret Correspondence (1775–1776) Model Treaty committee (1776) Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union (1776) President, Annapolis Convention (1786) Delegate, Constitutional Convention (1787) Other events Brigadier General, Pennsylvania militia Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 Delaware Constitution of 1792 Life and homes Mary Norris Dickinson (wife) Philemon Dickinson (brother) Early life Poplar Hall home Fair Hill estate Friends Burial Ground Legacy Dickinson College Dickinson School of Law, Pennsylvania State University John Dickinson High School 1776 (1969 musical, 1972 film) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Related Claymont Stone School American Revolution patriots [ show ] v t e Benjamin Franklin January 6, 1706 – April 17, 1790 President of Pennsylvania (1785–1788) , Ambassador to France (1779–1785) Second Continental Congress (1775–1776) Founding of the United States Join, or Die (1754 political cartoon) Albany Plan of Union Albany Congress Hutchinson Letters Affair Committee of Secret Correspondence Committee of Five Declaration of Independence Model Treaty Franco-American alliance Treaty of Amity and Commerce Treaty of Alliance Staten Island Peace Conference Treaty of Paris, 1783 Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly Postmaster General Founding Fathers Inventions, other events Franklin's electrostatic machine Bifocals Franklin stove Glass armonica Gulf Stream exploration, naming, and chart Lightning rod Kite experiment Pay it forward Associators 111th Infantry Regiment Junto club American Philosophical Society Library Company of Philadelphia Pennsylvania Hospital Academy and College of Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Contributionship Union Fire Company Early American currency Fugio Cent United States Postal Service President, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Master, Les Neuf Sœurs Other social contributions and studies Gravesite Writings Silence Dogood letters (1722) A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725) The Busy-Body letters (1729) Pennsylvania Gazette (1729–1790) Poor Richard's Almanack (1732–1758) The Drinker's Dictionary (1737) \"Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress\" (1745) \"The Speech of Polly Baker\" (1747) Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc. (1751) Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1751) Birch letters (1755) The Way to Wealth (1758) Pennsylvania Chronicle (1767) Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One (1773) Proposed alliance with the Iroquois (1775) A Letter To A Royal Academy (1781) Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America (1784) The Morals of Chess (1786) An Address to the Public (1789) A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789) The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1771–90, pub. 1791) Bagatelles and Satires (pub. 1845) Franklin as a journalist Legacy Franklin Court Benjamin Franklin House Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology Benjamin Franklin National Memorial Franklin Institute Benjamin Franklin Medal Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington Benjamin Franklin statue, Washington D.C. In popular culture Ben and Me (1953 short) Ben Franklin in Paris (1964 musical play) 1776 (1969 musical 1972 film ) Benjamin Franklin (1974 miniseries) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) Benjamin Franklin (2002 documentary series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Sons of Ben (supporters group for the Philadelphia Union soccer club Refunding Certificate Franklin half dollar One-hundred dollar bill Washington-Franklin stamps other stamps Cities, counties, schools named for Franklin Franklin Field State of Franklin Ships named USS Franklin Ben Franklin effect Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment The New-England Courant The American Museum magazine American Revolution patriots Syng inkstand Family Deborah Read (wife) Sarah Franklin Bache (daughter) Francis Franklin (son) William Franklin (son) Richard Bache Jr. (grandson) Benjamin F. Bache (grandson) Louis F. Bache (grandson) William Franklin (grandson) Andrew Harwood (great-grandson) Alexander Bache (great-grandson) Josiah Franklin (father) Jane Mecom (sister) James Franklin (brother) Mary Morrell Folger (grandmother) Peter Folger (grandfather) Richard Bache (son-in-law) Ann Smith Franklin (sister-in-law) [ show ] v t e Alexander Hamilton Senior Officer of the United States Army, 1799–1800 1st Secretary of the Treasury, 1789–1795 Delegate, Congress of the Confederation, 1782–1783, 1788–1789 United States founding events A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress (1774) The Farmer Refuted (1775) Delegate, 1786 Annapolis Convention Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention Initiated, main author, The Federalist Papers written by Hamilton Founding Father Secretary of the Treasury First Bank of the United States Revenue Marine (United States Coast Guard) United States Customs Service Hamiltonian economic program Residence Act Compromise of 1790 \"First Report on the Public Credit\", 1790 Funding Act of 1790 \"Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports\", 1790 \"Second Report on Public Credit\", a.k.a. \"Report on a National Bank\", 1790 \"Report On Manufactures\", 1791 Tariff of 1790 Tariff of 1792 Coinage Act of 1792 United States Mint Whiskey Rebellion Jay Treaty Military career New York Provincial Company of Artillery In the Revolutionary War Battles: Harlem Heights White Plains Trenton General Washington's Aide-de-Camp Princeton Brandywine Germantown Monmouth Siege of Yorktown Other events Burr–Hamilton duel Founder, Federalist Party Federalist Era Founder, Bank of New York Bank of North America Advisor, George Washington's Farewell Address President-General of the Society of the Cincinnati Founder, New-York Evening Post Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal Rutgers v. 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(1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment American Philosophical Society Liberty Hall (New Jersey) New York Manumission Society African Free School \"American System\" economic plan American School American Revolution patriots Family Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton wife Schuyler family Philip Hamilton (oldest son) Angelica Hamilton (daughter) Alexander Hamilton Jr. (son) James Alexander Hamilton (son) John Church Hamilton (son) William S. Hamilton (son) Eliza Hamilton Holly (daughter) Philip Hamilton (youngest son) Schuyler Hamilton (grandson) Alexander Hamilton Jr. (grandson) Allan McLane Hamilton (grandson) Robert Ray Hamilton (great-grandson) [ show ] v t e John Hancock 1st and 3rd Governor of Massachusetts, 1780–1785, 1787–1793 President, 2nd Continential Congress, 1775–1777 Boston Board of Selectmen, 1766–1775 United States Founding events HMS Liberty confiscation Sons of Liberty Co-inspired, Boston Tea Party 1774 Massacre Day speech President, Massachusetts Provincial Congress Chairman, Massachusetts Committee of Safety Presided over, signed, United States Declaration of Independence signing Dunlap broadside Signed, Articles of Confederation Life Early life Hancock-Clarke House Hancock Manor Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University Boston Cadets Co-founder, American Academy of Arts and Sciences United States presidential election, 1788–89 Granary Burying Ground Related American Revolution patriots Founding Father Syng inkstand Legacy USS Hancock , 1775 USS Hancock , 1776 Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) John Hancock Center John Hancock Tower Family Dorothy Quincy (wife) John Hancock Jr. (father) Thomas Hancock (uncle) John Hancock, Sr. (grandfather) Edmund Quincy (father-in-law) [ show ] v t e Thomas Jefferson 3rd President of the United States (1801–1809) 2nd U.S. Vice President (1797–1801) 1st U.S. Secretary of State (1790–1793) U.S. Minister to France (1785–1789) 2nd Governor of Virginia (1779–1781) Delegate, Second Continental Congress (1775–1776) Founding documents of the United States A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774) Initial draft, Olive Branch Petition (1775) Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775) 1776 Declaration of Independence Committee of Five authored physical history \"All men are created equal\" \"Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness\" \"Consent of the governed\" 1786 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom freedom of religion French Revolution Co-author, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) Presidency Inaugural Address (1801 1805) Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves Louisiana Purchase Lewis and Clark Expedition Corps of Discovery timeline Empire of Liberty Red River Expedition Pike Expedition Cumberland Road Embargo Act of 1807 Chesapeake–Leopard Affair Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 First Barbary War Native American policy Marbury v. Madison West Point Military Academy State of the Union Addresses (texts 1801 1802 1805) Cabinet Federal judicial appointments Other noted accomplishments Early life and career Founder, University of Virginia history Land Ordinance of 1784 Northwest Ordinance 1787 Anti-Administration party Democratic-Republican Party Jeffersonian democracy First Party System republicanism Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measure of the United States (1790) Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions A Manual of Parliamentary Practice (1801) Jeffersonian architecture Barboursville Farmington Monticello gardens Poplar Forest University of Virginia The Rotunda The Lawn Virginia State Capitol White House Colonnades Other writings Notes on the State of Virginia (1785) 1787 European journey memorandums Indian removal letters Jefferson Bible (1895) Jefferson manuscript collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment American Philosophical Society American Revolution patriots Member, Virginia Committee of Correspondence Committee of the States Founding Fathers of the United States Franco-American alliance Jefferson and education Religious views Jefferson and slavery Jefferson and the Library of Congress Jefferson disk Jefferson Pier Pet mockingbird National Gazette Residence Act Compromise of 1790 Sally Hemings Jefferson–Hemings controversy Betty Hemings Separation of church and state Swivel chair The American Museum magazine Virginia dynasty Elections United States Presidential election 1796 1800 1804 Legacy Bibliography Jefferson Memorial Mount Rushmore Birthday Thomas Jefferson Building Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression Jefferson Lecture Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Thomas Jefferson Star for Foreign Service Jefferson Lab Monticello Association Jefferson City, Missouri Jefferson College Thomas Jefferson School of Law Thomas Jefferson University Washington and Jefferson National Forests Other placenames Currency depictions Jefferson nickel Two-dollar bill U.S. postage stamps Popular culture Ben and Me (1953 short) 1776 ( 1969 musical 1972 film ) Jefferson in Paris (1995 film) Thomas Jefferson (1997 film) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Jefferson's Garden (2015 play) Hamilton (2015 musical) Jefferson–Eppes Trophy Wine bottles controversy Family Peter Jefferson (father) Jane Randolph Jefferson (mother) Lucy Jefferson Lewis (sister) Randolph Jefferson (brother) Isham Randolph (grandfather) William Randolph (great-grandfather) Martha Jefferson (wife) Martha Jefferson Randolph (daughter) Mary Jefferson Eppes (daughter) Harriet Hemings (daughter) Madison Hemings (son) Eston Hemings (son) Thomas J. Randolph (grandson) Francis Eppes (grandson) George W. Randolph (grandson) John Wayles Jefferson (grandson) Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. (son-in-law) John Wayles Eppes (son-in-law) John Wayles (father-in-law) Dabney Carr (brother-in-law) Dabney Carr (nephew) ← John Adams James Madison → Category [ show ] v t e James Madison 4th President of the United States (1809–1817) 5th U.S. Secretary of State (1801–1809) United States House of Representatives (1789–1797) Congress of the Confederation (1781–1783) Virginia House of Delegates (1776–1779, 1784–1786) \"Father of the Constitution\" Co-wrote, 1776 Virginia Constitution 1786 Annapolis Convention 1787 Constitutional Convention Virginia Plan Constitution of the United States Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 The Federalist Papers written by Madison No. 10 No. 51 Virginia Ratifying Convention United States Bill of Rights 27th amendment Constitution drafting and ratification timeline Founding Fathers Presidency First inauguration Second inauguration Tecumseh's War Battle of Tippecanoe War of 1812 origins Burning of Washington The Octagon House Treaty of Ghent Seven Buildings residence results Second Barbary War Era of Good Feelings Second Bank of the United States State of the Union Address (1810 1814 1815 1816) Cabinet Federal judiciary appointments Other noted accomplisments Co-founder, American Whig Society Supervised the Louisiana Purchase Anti-Administration party Residence Act Compromise of 1790 Democratic-Republican Party First Party System republicanism Library of Congress Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Report of 1800 Other writings The Papers of James Madison Life Early life and career Belle Grove Plantation, birthplace Montpelier Elections U.S. House of Representatives election, 1789 1790 1792 1794 U.S. presidential election, 1808 1812 Legacy and popular culture James Madison Memorial Building James Madison University James Madison College Madison, Wisconsin Madison Square Madison River Madison Street U.S. postage stamps James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation James Madison Freedom of Information Award James Madison Award James Madison Institute A More Perfect Union (1989 film) Liberty's Kids (2002 miniseries) Hamilton (2015 musical) Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment Marbury v. Madison National Gazette Paul Jennings Madisonian Model American Philosophical Society The American Museum magazine Virginia dynasty Family Dolley Madison (wife) John Payne Todd (stepson) James Madison, Sr. (father) Nelly Conway Madison (mother) William Madison (brother) Ambrose Madison (paternal grandfather) James Madison (cousin) George Madison (paternal second-cousin) Thomas Madison (paternal second-cousin) John Madison (great-grandfather) Lucy Washington (sister-in-law) ← Thomas Jefferson James Monroe → Category [ show ] v t e George Mason United States Founding events Drafted, 1769 Virginia Association resolutions Primary author, 1774 Fairfax Resolves Primary author, 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights \" All men are created equal \" Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness Freedom of the press Freedom of religion Consent of the governed Baseless search and seizure Cruel and unusual punishments Speedy trial 1776 Virginia Constitution 1785 Mount Vernon Conference 1787 Constitutional Convention Virginia Ratifying Convention Co-father, United States Bill of Rights history Founding Father Writings inspired 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France) 1789 United States Bill of Rights Life Chopawamsic plantation Gunston Hall On slavery Ohio Company Legacy George Mason Memorial George Mason University George Mason Stadium George Mason Memorial Bridge George Mason High School 18-cent postage stamp Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment American Revolution patriots Wilson v. Mason Hollin Hall Woodbridge plantation Mason's Island Family George Mason V (son) William Mason (son) Thomson Mason (son) John Mason (son) Thomas Mason (son) George Mason III (father) Thomson Mason (brother) George Mason II (grandfather) [ show ] v t e Robert Morris United States Senator, Pennsylvania, 1789–1795 Superintendent of Finance of the United States, 1781–1784 Second Continental Congress, 1775–1778 United States Founding events Financier of the American Revolution Signed, Declaration of Independence Signed, Articles of Confederation Signed, United States Constitution 1776 Model Treaty Committee of Secret Correspondence, Second Continental Congress Chairman, Pennsylvania Committee of Safety U.S. Superintendent of Finance Agent of the Marine Bank of North America Philadelphia as U.S. capital city, 1790–1800 Residence Act President's House Other events Willing, Morris & Co. (Slavery) Use of the dollar sign Newburgh Conspiracy Empress of China merchant ship Old China Trade Phelps and Gorham Purchase Life Early life Summerseat home 1788 U.S. Senate election Panic of 1796–97 Christ Church, Philadelphia, burial site Legacy Robert Morris University, Pennsylvania Robert Morris University, Illinois Robert Morris statue, Philadelphia Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington Heald Square Monument , Chicago Mount Morris, New York village dam Morrisville, Pennsylvania Related Founding Fathers Thomas Willing USS Alfred Family Thomas Morris (son) Bishop William White (brother-in-law) [ show ] v t e Thomas Paine Writings Common Sense (January 1776) The American Crisis (December 1776) Rights of Man (March 1791, February 1792) The Age of Reason (1794, 1795, 1807) Agrarian Justice (1797) Life 1792 Rights of Man trial Wearmouth Bridge Thomas Paine Cottage Legacy Thomas Paine National Historical Association Thomas Paine Monument, New Rochelle, New York Institute of Thomas Paine Studies In Lambeth Liberty! A New World: A Life of Thomas Paine Related Headstrong Club [ show ] v t e George Washington 1st President of the United States , 1789–1797 Senior Officer of the Army, 1798–1799 Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army , 1775–1783 Second Continental Congress, 1775 First Continental Congress, 1774 Military career Revolutionary War Military career French and Indian War Jumonville Glen Battle of Fort Necessity Forbes Expedition Washington and the American Revolution Commander-in-chief, Continental Army Aides-de-Camp Washington's headquarters Boston campaign Siege of Boston New York and New Jersey campaign Delaware River crossing Battle of Trenton Philadelphia campaign Battle of Brandywine Battle of Germantown Battle of White Marsh Valley Forge Battle of Monmouth Battles of Saratoga Sullivan Expedition Yorktown campaign Siege of Yorktown Culper spy ring Newburgh Conspiracy Newburgh letter Resignation as commander-in-chief Badge of Military Merit Purple Heart Washington Before Boston Medal Horses: Nelson and Blueskin Other U.S. founding events 1769 Virginia Association Continental Association 1774 Fairfax Resolves Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture 1785 Mount Vernon Conference Chairman, 1787 Constitutional Convention Presidency United States presidential election, 1788–89 1792 First inauguration inaugural bible Second inauguration Title of \"Mr. President\" Cabinet of the United States Secretary of State Attorney General Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of War Judiciary Act of 1789 Nonintercourse Act Whiskey Rebellion Militia Acts of 1792 Coinage Act of 1792 United States Mint Proclamation of Neutrality Neutrality Act of 1794 Jay Treaty Pinckney's Treaty Slave Trade Act of 1794 Residence Act Thanksgiving Proclamation Farewell Address State of the Union Address 1790 1791 1792 1793 1796 Cabinet Federal judicial appointments Views and public image Presidential library The Washington Papers Religious views Washington and slavery Town Destroyer Legacy Life and homes Early life Birthplace Ferry Farm boyhood home Mount Vernon Gristmill Woodlawn Plantation Samuel Osgood House, First Presidential Mansion Alexander Macomb House, Second Presidential Mansion President's House, Philadelphia Germantown White House Custis estate Potomac Company James River and Kanawha Canal Mountain Road Lottery Congressional Gold Medal Thanks of Congress President-General of the Society of the Cincinnati Washington College Washington and Lee University Electoral history of George Washington Memorials and depictions Washington, D.C. Washington state Washington Monument Mount Rushmore Washington's Birthday Purple Heart The Apotheosis of Washington George Washington (Houdon) George Washington (Ceracchi) George Washington (Trumbull) Washington Crossing the Delaware General George Washington at Trenton Washington at Verplanck's Point General George Washington Resigning His Commission Unfinished portrait Lansdowne portrait The Washington Family portrait Washington at Princeton painting Point of View sculpture George Washington University Washington University Washington Masonic National Memorial George Washington Memorial Parkway George Washington Bridge Washington and Jefferson National Forests Washington Monument, Baltimore Washington, D.C. statue List of memorials U.S. Postage stamps Washington-Franklin Issues 1932 bicentennial Currency Washington quarter Washington dollar Silver bullion coins Cultural depictions George Washington (1984 miniseries 1986 sequel) Related Bibliography Founding Fathers of the United States Republicanism Federalist Party Federalist Era Virginia dynasty Coat of arms Cherry-tree anecdote River Farm Washington's Crossing 1751 Barbados trip Category Syng inkstand General of the Armies American Philosophical Society American Revolution patriots Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Ancestry and family Martha Washington (wife) John Parke Custis (stepson) George Washington Parke Custis (step-grandson, adopted son) Eleanor Parke Custis (step-granddaughter, adopted daughter) Augustine Washington (father) Mary Ball (mother) Lawrence Washington (half-brother) Augustine Washington Jr. (half-brother) Betty Washington Lewis (sister) Samuel Washington (brother) John A. Washington (brother) Charles Washington (brother) Lawrence Washington (grandfather) John Washington (great-grandfather) Bushrod Washington (nephew) John Adams → Category [ show ] v t e Historical documents of the United States [ show ] Constitution Preamble & Articles Preamble I II III IV V VI VII Amendments Ratified 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Pending Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin ( State Domestic Institutions ) Child Labor Unsuccessful Equal Rights District of Columbia Voting Rights See also List of Constitutional Amendments Bill of Rights (Amendments 1–10) Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13–15) Amendment proposals in Congress Conventions to propose amendments State ratifying conventions Formation History Articles of Confederation Mount Vernon Conference Annapolis Convention Philadelphia Convention Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan Connecticut Compromise Three-Fifths Compromise Committee of Detail Signing Independence Hall Syng inkstand The Federalist Papers Anti-Federalist Papers Massachusetts Compromise Virginia Ratifying Convention Hillsborough Convention Drafting and ratification timeline Clauses Appointments Appropriations Assistance of Counsel Bill of credit Case or Controversy Citizenship Commerce Compact Compulsory Process Confrontation Contract Copyright and Patent Double Jeopardy Due Process Equal Protection Establishment Exceptions Excessive Bail Ex post facto Extradition Free Exercise Free Speech Fugitive Slave Full Faith and Credit General Welfare Guarantee Impeachment Import-Export Ineligibility (Emolument) Militia Natural-born citizen Necessary and Proper New States No Religious Test Oath or Affirmation Origination Petition Postal Presentment Privileges and Immunities Privileges or Immunities Recommendation Self-Incrimination Speech or Debate Speedy Trial State of the Union Supremacy Suspension Take Care Takings Taxing and Spending Territorial Title of Nobility Treaty 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Jenifer Daniel Carroll Virginia John Blair James Madison North Carolina William Blount Richard Dobbs Spaight Hugh Williamson South Carolina John Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler Georgia William Few Abraham Baldwin Convention Secretary William Jackson Display and legacy National Archives Charters of Freedom Rotunda Independence Mall Constitution Day Constitution Gardens National Constitution Center Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting) A More Perfect Union (film) Worldwide influence [ show ] Declaration of Independence Primary author Thomas Jefferson Signatories President of Congress John Hancock (Massachusetts) New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett William Whipple Matthew Thornton Massachusetts Samuel Adams John Adams Robert Treat Paine Elbridge Gerry Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins William Ellery Connecticut Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington William Williams Oliver Wolcott New York William Floyd Philip Livingston Francis Lewis Lewis Morris New Jersey Richard Stockton John Witherspoon Francis Hopkinson John Hart Abraham Clark Pennsylvania Robert Morris Benjamin Rush Benjamin Franklin John Morton George Clymer James Smith George Taylor James Wilson George Ross Delaware George Read Caesar Rodney Thomas McKean Maryland Samuel Chase William Paca Thomas Stone Charles Carroll of Carrollton Virginia George Wythe Richard Henry Lee Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Harrison Thomas Nelson Jr. Francis Lightfoot Lee Carter Braxton North Carolina William Hooper Joseph Hewes John Penn South Carolina Edward Rutledge Thomas Heyward Jr. Thomas Lynch Jr. Arthur Middleton Georgia Button Gwinett Lyman Hall George Walton See also Virginia Declaration of Rights Lee Resolution Committee of Five Document's history signing portrait Second Continental Congress \" All men are created equal \" \" Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness \" \" Consent of the governed \" Independence Hall Syng inkstand American Revolution [ show ] Articles of Confederation Signatories Primary drafter John Dickinson New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett John Wentworth Jr. Massachusetts John Hancock Samuel Adams Elbridge Gerry Francis Dana James Lovell Samuel Holten Rhode Island William Ellery Henry Marchant John Collins Connecticut Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington Oliver Wolcott Titus Hosmer Andrew Adams New York James Duane Francis Lewis William Duer Gouverneur Morris New Jersey John Witherspoon Nathaniel Scudder Pennsylvania Robert Morris Daniel Roberdeau Jonathan Bayard Smith William Clingan Joseph Reed Delaware Thomas McKean John Dickinson Nicholas Van Dyke Maryland John Hanson Daniel Carroll Virginia Richard Henry Lee John Banister Thomas Adams John Harvie Francis Lightfoot Lee North Carolina John Penn Cornelius Harnett John Williams South Carolina Henry Laurens William Henry Drayton John Mathews Richard Hutson Thomas Heyward Jr. Georgia John Walton Edward Telfair Edward Langworthy See also Continental Congress Congress of the Confederation American Revolution Perpetual Union [ show ] Continental Association Signatories President of Congress Peyton Randolph New Hampshire John Sullivan Nathaniel Folsom Massachusetts Bay Thomas Cushing Samuel Adams John Adams Robert Treat Paine Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Connecticut Eliphalet Dyer Roger Sherman Silas Deane New York Isaac Low John Alsop John Jay James Duane Philip Livingston William Floyd Henry Wisner Simon Boerum New Jersey James Kinsey William Livingston Stephen Crane Richard Smith John De Hart Pennsylvania Joseph Galloway John Dickinson Charles Humphreys Thomas Mifflin Edward Biddle John Morton George Ross The Lower Counties Caesar Rodney Thomas McKean George Read Maryland Matthew Tilghman Thomas Johnson, Junr William Paca Samuel Chase Virginia Richard Henry Lee George Washington Patrick Henry, Junr Richard Bland Benjamin Harrison Edmund Pendleton North Carolina William Hooper Joseph Hewes Richard Caswell South Carolina Henry Middleton Thomas Lynch Christopher 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{ "text": "Princess Leia - Wikipedia Princess Leia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Princess Leia Star Wars character Promotional photo of Fisher as Princess Leia for the original 1977 Star Wars film First appearance Star Wars (1977) Created by George Lucas Portrayed by Carrie Fisher ( Episodes IV – VIII , Holiday Special ) Aidan Barton (infant, Episode III ) Ingvild Deila ( Rogue One ; motion capture) Voiced by Carrie Fisher ( Holiday Special animated sequence, Super Star Wars: Return of the Jedi , Robot Chicken: Star Wars Episode II , Lego: Episode VII , Rogue One ; archival audio) Other: [show] Ann Sachs ( radio dramatizations ) Lisa Fuson ( Shadows of the Empire , Star Wars: Masters of Teräs Käsi , Star Wars: Rebellion , Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds and Lego Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Out ) Patricia Parris (Read-along storybook CDs) Grey DeLisle ( Star Wars: Force Commander ) Joyce Kurtz ( Star Wars: Rogue Squadron III: Rebel Strike and Star Wars: Battlefront II ) Catherine Taber ( Star Wars: The Force Unleashed , Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II and Star Wars: Detours ) Heather Doerksen ( Lego Star Wars: The Yoda Chronicles and Lego Star Wars: Droid Tales ) April Winchell ( Phineas and Ferb: Star Wars ) Anna Graves ( Disney Infinity 3.0 ) Julie Dolan ( Star Wars: Uprising , Star Wars Rebels , Lego Star Wars: The Freemaker Adventures , Disney Infinity 3.0 ) [1] Misty Lee ( Star Wars Battlefront and Star Wars Battlefront II ) [2] Shelby Young ( Star Wars Forces of Destiny ) Information Aliases Boushh ( Return of the Jedi ) Gender Female Occupation Supreme commander of the Resistance Republic Senator of Alderaan (formerly) Imperial Senate Ambassador (formerly) Princess of Alderaan Legends : Chief of State of the New Republic Jedi Knight Affiliation Imperial Senate Rebel Alliance New Republic Resistance Legends : Galactic Alliance Jedi Council Jedi Coalition Title General Family Anakin Skywalker (biological father) Padmé Amidala (biological mother) Luke Skywalker (twin brother) Bail Organa (adoptive father) Breha Organa (adoptive mother) Spouse(s) Han Solo Children Kylo Ren (Ben Solo) Legends : Jaina Solo Jacen Solo Anakin Solo Relatives Shmi Skywalker (paternal grandmother) Legends : Mara Jade (sister-in-law) Ben Skywalker (nephew) Allana Solo (granddaughter) Winter Celchu (adoptive sister) Homeworld Alderaan (homeworld) Polis Massa (birthplace) Princess Leia Organa of Alderaan (also Senator Leia Organa or General Leia Organa ) is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise , portrayed in films by Carrie Fisher . Introduced in the original Star Wars film in 1977, Leia is princess of the planet Alderaan , a member of the Imperial Senate and an agent of the Rebel Alliance . She thwarts the sinister Sith Lord Darth Vader and helps bring about the destruction of the Empire's cataclysmic superweapon, the Death Star . In The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Leia commands a Rebel base and evades Vader as she falls in love with the smuggler, Han Solo . In Return of the Jedi (1983), Leia leads the operation to rescue Han from the crime lord Jabba the Hutt , and is revealed to be Vader's daughter and the twin sister of Luke Skywalker . The prequel film Revenge of the Sith (2005) establishes that the twins' mother is Senator (and former queen) Padmé Amidala of Naboo , who dies after childbirth. Leia is adopted by Senator Bail and Queen Breha Organa of Alderaan. In The Force Awakens (2015) and The Last Jedi (2017), Leia is the founder and General of the Resistance against the First Order . She and Han have a son named Ben, who adopted the name Kylo Ren after turning to the dark side of the Force . In the original Star Wars expanded universe (1977–2014) of novels, comics and video games, which are set in an alternate continuity , Leia continues her adventures with Han and Luke after Return of the Jedi , fighting Imperial resurgences and new threats to the galaxy. She becomes the Chief of State of the New Republic and a Jedi Master , and is the mother to three children by Han: Jaina , Jacen and Anakin Solo . One of the more popular Star Wars characters, Leia has been called a 1980s icon , a feminist hero and model for other adventure heroines. She has appeared in many derivative works and merchandising, and has been referenced or parodied in several TV shows and films. Her \" cinnamon buns \" hairstyle from Star Wars (1977) and metal bikini from Return of the Jedi have become cultural icons. Contents [ hide ] 1 Creation and casting 2 Character 3 Appearances 3.1 Feature films 3.1.1 Star Wars 3.1.2 The Empire Strikes Back 3.1.3 Return of the Jedi 3.1.4 Revenge of the Sith 3.1.5 The Force Awakens 3.1.6 The Last Jedi 3.1.7 Episode IX 3.2 Anthology films 3.2.1 Rogue One: A Star Wars Story 3.3 Novels 3.4 Comics 3.5 Television 3.5.1 Star Wars Holiday Special 3.5.2 Star Wars Rebels 3.5.3 Star Wars: Forces of Destiny 3.6 Legends works 3.6.1 Novels 3.6.1.1 Post- Return of the Jedi 3.6.1.2 Works set between films 3.6.1.3 New Jedi Order 3.6.1.4 Legacy of the Force 3.6.2 Comics 3.6.2.1 Dark Empire 4 Cultural impact 4.1 \"Cinnamon buns\" hairstyle 4.2 Feminist analysis 4.2.1 Metal bikini 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Creation and casting [ edit ] Leia was created by Star Wars creator George Lucas . In 1999, Lucas explained his early development of Leia, Luke and Obi-Wan Kenobi : The first [version] talked about a princess and an old general. The second version involved a father, his son, and his daughter; the daughter was the heroine of the film. Now the daughter has become Luke, Mark Hamill 's character. There was also the story of two brothers where I transformed one of them into a sister. The older brother was imprisoned, and the young sister had to rescue him and bring him back to their dad. [3] Film historian Laurent Bouzereau notes in his 1997 book Star Wars: The Annotated Screenplays that in the rough draft of Star Wars , Leia is the spoiled teenage daughter of King Kayos and Queen Breha of Aquilae, with two brothers, Biggs and Windy; Biggs returned to the fourth draft as a childhood friend of Luke. [4] According to Skywalking: The Life and Films of George Lucas (1999), Luke Skywalker was originally Luke Starkiller and Leia was \"the daughter of Owen Lars and his wife Beru and seems to be Luke's cousin–together they visit the grave of his mother, who perished with his father on a planet destroyed by the Death Star .\" [5] J. W. Rinzler explains in The Making of Star Wars: The Definitive Story Behind the Original Film (2007) that a later story synopsis establishes Leia as \"Leia Antilles\", the daughter of Bail Antilles from the peaceful world of Organa Major. In the fourth draft it was established that \"Leia Organa\" came instead from Alderaan. [6] Fisher was 19 when she was cast as Princess Leia, [7] with actresses including Amy Irving , Cindy Williams and Jodie Foster also up for the role. [8] [9] In 2014, InkTank reported that the extended list of \"more than two dozen actresses\" who had auditioned for Leia included Glenn Close , Farrah Fawcett , Jessica Lange , Sissy Spacek , Sigourney Weaver , Cybill Shepherd , Jane Seymour , Anjelica Huston , Kim Basinger , Kathleen Turner , Geena Davis and Meryl Streep . [10] [11] [12] Asked about Streep in 2015, Fisher said, \"I've never heard that one. But Jodie Foster was up for it... that one I knew the most. Amy Irving and Jodie. And I got it.\" [13] The second draft of the Return of the Jedi screenplay contained dialogue in which Obi-Wan tells Luke he has a twin sister. She and their mother were \"sent to the protection of friends in a distant system. The mother died shortly thereafter, and Luke's sister was adopted by Ben's friends, the governor of Alderaan and his wife.\" [14] Fisher explained in 1983: \"Leia's real father left her mother when she was pregnant, so her mother married this King Organa. I was adopted and grew up set apart from other people because I was a princess.\" [15] Composer John Williams created a musical leitmotif for Leia which recurs throughout the Star Wars saga. \"Princess Leia's Theme\" was recorded as a concert suite (4:18 length) for the score of the 1977 film . Character [ edit ] Anthony Breznican of Entertainment Weekly describes Leia as a \"diplomat, spy, warrior, undercover agent\". [16] Mark Edlitz calls her \"a smart, feisty, brave diplomat and warrior\" in The Huffington Post . [17] Fisher told Rolling Stone in 1983: There are a lot of people who don't like my character in these movies; they think I'm some kind of space bitch. She has no friends, no family; her planet was blown up in seconds ... so all she has is a cause. From the first film [ Star Wars ], she was just a soldier, front line and center. The only way they knew to make the character strong was to make her angry. In Return of the Jedi , she gets to be more feminine, more supportive, more affectionate. [15] She said in 2014: I would rather have played Han Solo. When I first read the script I thought that's the part to be, always wry and sardonic. He's always that. I feel like a lot of the time Leia's either worried or pissed or, thank God, sort of snarky. But I'm much more worried and pissed than Han Solo ever was, and those aren't fun things to play ... I had a lot of fun killing Jabba the Hutt . They asked me on the day if I wanted to have a stunt double kill Jabba. No! That's the best time I ever had as an actor. And the only reason to go into acting is if you can kill a giant monster. [7] Appearances [ edit ] Feature films [ edit ] Star Wars [ edit ] Introduced in the original 1977 film Star Wars , Princess Leia Organa of Alderaan is a member of the Imperial Senate . She is captured by Darth Vader on board the ship Tantive IV , where she is acting as a spy for the Rebel Alliance . Leia has secretly hidden the plans for the Death Star , the Empire's moon-sized battle station, inside the astromech droid R2-D2 and has sent it to find one of the last remaining Jedi , Obi-Wan Kenobi , on the nearby planet of Tatooine . Vader arrests Leia and has her tortured, but she resists revealing anything. Death Star commander Grand Moff Tarkin threatens to destroy her home planet Alderaan with the Death Star unless she reveals the location of the hidden Rebel base. She provides the location of an old, abandoned base, but Tarkin orders Alderaan to be destroyed anyway. Leia is rescued by Obi-Wan, Luke Skywalker , Han Solo , the Wookiee Chewbacca and the two droids R2-D2 and C-3PO , and they escape aboard Han's ship, the Millennium Falcon . After analyzing the Death Star's plans, the Rebels find a tiny weakness in the battle station, which Luke uses to destroy it in his X-wing fighter . The battle won, Leia bestows medals on its heroes at the hidden Rebel base on Yavin 4 . Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post writes of Leia in the film: Leia’s nerves as a revolutionary are clear from the moment she arrives on screen ... She takes shots at the Storm Troopers boarding her ship, gets stunned with a blaster in her hand, then has the audacity to try to make Darth Vader feel ashamed of himself ... She has enough energy left over after a nasty session of torture to insult Grand Moff Tarkin. And while she grieves when her home planet, Alderaan, is destroyed by the Death Star, Leia’s not paralyzed: when her unexpected rescuers show up, she’s ready to go, and to gripe about their operational sloppiness. [18] Rosenberg also notes that, though Han is almost immediately attracted to Leia, they conflict because she insists on asserting command and he automatically resists, even as she proves herself to be worthy of it. [18] And despite her initial disdain for the smuggler, whom she sees as selfish, Leia later acknowledges \"I knew there was more to you than money\" when Han comes through for the Rebellion. [18] Fisher told Rolling Stone in 1980 that in the original script, when Luke and Han come to rescue a captured Leia, \"I was hanging upside down with yellow eyes, like in The Exorcist ... Some form of radar torture was done to me and I was in a beam, bruised and beaten up, suspended in midair. The reason it was cut from the film was because I was unconscious and the Wookiee would have had to carry me for, like, the next fifteen minutes.\" [19] The Empire Strikes Back [ edit ] In The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Leia is at the Rebel base on Hoth . She leads its evacuation during an Imperial attack, and then flees with Han, Chewbacca and C-3PO on Han's ship, the Millennium Falcon . They dodge pursuing Imperial TIE fighters by flying into an asteroid field when the Falcon 's hyperdrive breaks down, with Leia piloting the ship at one point. Romance blossoms between Leia and Han during their flight from the Empire; while hiding in the stomach of a space slug, they finally share a kiss. With his ship needing repairs, Han seeks out his old friend Lando Calrissian in Cloud City , the floating city over Bespin . Though he welcomes them graciously, Lando soon turns them over to a newly arrived Darth Vader, who hopes to use them as bait to capture Luke. Leia confesses her love for Han as he is frozen in carbonite and then handed over to bounty hunter Boba Fett , who is charged with bringing him to gangster Jabba the Hutt . Lando helps Leia, Chewbacca and the two droids escape. Leia senses that Luke is in trouble, and goes back to save him after he is nearly killed during a lightsaber duel with Vader. Rosenberg notes: Yes, it’s slightly ridiculous ... that [Han] tries to pry a confession of affection out of her on Hoth, as Leia is trying to manage an evacuation with just an ion cannon for defense. But Han’s not wrong that if Leia doesn't figure out that she’s a person with needs, she's going to burn out ... In a way, it’s an early confession of love: Han’s anxious about the bounty hunters who are still pursuing him ... But he would stay and give his love and support to Leia if she could just acknowledge that she needs him. [18] Return of the Jedi [ edit ] In Return of the Jedi (1983), Leia infiltrates Jabba's palace on Tatooine disguised as the Ubese bounty hunter Boushh, and brings a captive Chewbacca with her as part of the ruse. She frees Han from the carbonite, but they are recaptured by Jabba. Leia is now chained to Jabba as his slave, outfitted in a metal bikini . After Luke arrives and kills Jabba's Rancor , Jabba sentences Luke, Han and Chewbacca to be fed to the Sarlacc . Lando (disguised as a guard) helps them overpower their captors, and Leia seizes the moment to strangle Jabba with her chain. Luke and Leia swing to safety, blowing up Jabba's barge behind them. Later, the heroes go to the forest moon of Endor to prepare for a battle with the Empire. There, Luke reveals to Leia that she is his twin sister and that Vader is their father. Leia joins Han in leading the Rebels in battle with Imperial troops as the Rebel Fleet attacks the second Death Star. Leia is slightly injured, but the Rebels, with help from the Ewoks , defeat the forces of the Empire. Fisher told Rolling Stone in 1983, \"In Return of the Jedi , [Leia] gets to be more feminine, more supportive, more affectionate. But let's not forget that these movies are basically boys' fantasies. So the other way they made her more female in this one was to have her take off her clothes.\" [15] Rosenberg writes of Han and Leia: And we know those two crazy kids are locked for life in Return of the Jedi when it turns out that Han has accepted a Generalship in the Rebellion, keeping it a secret from Leia. In A New Hope , Leia was grumbling about the quality of Han as a rescuer ... But when she finds out what Han’s done, accepting a rank he once found insulting and a mission she knows to be dangerous, Leia is the first person to volunteer to join his strike team. In Star Wars , that’s what love looks like: trusting your partner’s commitment to the cause and respecting his strategic and technical judgement. [18] In the film, Leia says that she has vague memories of her real mother, who she describes as \"kind... but sad\". Bouzereau quoted Lucas in 1997: The part that I never really developed is the death of Luke and Leia's mother. I had a backstory for her in earlier drafts, but it basically didn't survive. When I got to Jedi , I wanted one of the kids to have some kind of memory of her because she will be a key figure in the new episodes I'm writing. But I really debated whether or not Leia should remember her. [20] Revenge of the Sith [ edit ] In the prequel film Revenge of the Sith (2005), Padmé Amidala is pregnant with Anakin Skywalker's twins near the end of the Clone Wars . After Anakin turns to the dark side of the Force and becomes Darth Vader, Padmé gives birth to Luke and Leia on Polis Massa and then dies. Leia is adopted by Senator Bail Organa and his wife Queen Breha of Alderaan. Film critic Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote, \"As we watch Anakin nearly melt in the lava, only to be put together, Frankenstein style, in a lab while Lucas intercuts scenes of Padme giving birth to the twins Luke and Leia, a link to genuine feeling is established at last.\" [21] The Force Awakens [ edit ] Carrie Fisher reprised the role of Leia in Star Wars: The Force Awakens in 2015. In March 2013, Fisher confirmed that she would reprise her role as Leia in Star Wars: The Force Awakens . [22] Set 30 years after Return of the Jedi , The Force Awakens reintroduces a Leia who is \"a little more battle weary, a little more broken hearted\". [16] In November 2015, director J.J. Abrams said of Leia, \"She’s referred to as General but ... there's a moment in the movie where a character sort of slips and calls her 'Princess.'\" [23] Commenting on the story he added, \"The stakes are pretty high in the story for her, so there’s not much goofing around where Leia’s concerned.\" [23] Asked how Leia is handling things in the film, Fisher said, \"Not easily ... [she is] solitary. Under a lot of pressure. Committed as ever to her cause, but I would imagine feeling somewhat defeated, tired, and pissed.\" [23] In the film, Leia is the leader of the Resistance, a group formed by the New Republic to fight a proxy war with the First Order and trying to find Luke, who disappeared years earlier. When her forces foil a First Order attack searching for the Resistance astromech droid BB-8 , Leia is reunited with Han, who has helped the renegade stormtrooper Finn and orphaned scavenger Rey bring the droid this far. Han and Leia have been estranged for many years; their marriage fell apart after their son, Ben, fell to the dark side and became the First Order commander Kylo Ren . Leia believes Ben can still be brought back to the light side. Han volunteers for a mission to infiltrate the First Order's Starkiller Base to disable its defensive shields. Confronting Ren, Han tries to convince his son to leave the First Order, but Ren instead impales his father on his lightsaber . [24] Leia senses Han's death through the Force , and later shares a moment of grief with Rey, who had thought of Han as a mentor. Leia sees Rey, Chewbacca, and R2-D2 off when they depart to locate Luke, saying, \"may the Force be with you\". Asked why Leia is not shown to be a Jedi in The Force Awakens (as she is in the Star Wars expanded universe works), Abrams told IGN , \"It was a great question, and one that we talked about quite a bit, even with Carrie [Fisher]. Why did she not take advantage of this natural Force strength that this character had. And one of the answers was that it was simply a choice that she made, that her decision to run the Rebellion, and ultimately this Resistance, and consider herself a General, as opposed to a Jedi. It was simply a choice that she took\". He also added, \"I would like to think that there really isn't much of a ticking clock, and it's never too late ... clearly we've seen, and we do again, that she still is Force strong. And it's something that I think is an intrinsic piece of her character. [25] Fisher was nominated for a 2016 Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal. [26] The Last Jedi [ edit ] In December 2015, producer Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that Fisher would reprise the role of Leia in the next installment, then known as Star Wars: Episode VIII , [27] but later named Star Wars: The Last Jedi . [28] Fisher died on December 27, 2016, after going into cardiac arrest. It was confirmed that she had completed filming her role in the film shortly before her death. [29] In the film, Leia is among those on the bridge of her flagship, the Raddus , who are expelled into space when the ship is attacked by the First Order. Leia uses the Force to pull herself back to the ship. After recovering, she shoots and stuns Poe Dameron , who has mutinied against her successor, Vice Admiral Holdo . From his solitude on Ahch-To , Luke projects himself through the Force to the Resistance stronghold on Crait and reunites with Leia, apologizing for what happened to Ben. Leia replies that she knows her son is gone. While Luke distracts Kylo and his attacking First Order troops, Leia is among the remaining Resistance forces who escape from Crait in the Millennium Falcon . Episode IX [ edit ] Following Fisher's death, Variety reported that she was slated to appear in Star Wars: Episode IX and speculated that Lucasfilm would need to find a way to address her death and what would become of her character. Filming is expected to begin in 2018. [30] [31] [32] Lucasfilm announced in January 2017 that they had \"no plans to digitally recreate Carrie Fisher's performance as Princess or General Leia Organa\". [33] In April 2017, Fisher's family granted Disney and Lucasfilm the rights to use recent footage of the late actress in Episode IX . [34] However, Kennedy subsequently said that Fisher would not appear in the film. [35] [36] Anthology films [ edit ] Rogue One: A Star Wars Story [ edit ] Leia makes a brief appearance in the final scene of the 2016 film Rogue One , receiving the plans for the Death Star as a lead-up to the beginning of A New Hope . Since this movie takes place prior to the original Star Wars trilogy, a very young Leia was required. [37] To achieve that effect, a computer-generated image of a young Carrie Fisher was superimposed over Norwegian actress Ingvild Deila 's face; archival audio of Fisher saying \"Hope\" was used to voice the character. [37] [38] [39] Novels [ edit ] Leia makes her first literary appearance in Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker , the novelization of the original 1977 film Star Wars , which was released six months before the film in November 1976. Credited to Lucas but ghostwritten by Alan Dean Foster , the novel was based on Lucas' screenplay. [40] Leia later appeared in the novelizations The Empire Strikes Back (1980) by Donald F. Glut and Return of the Jedi (1983) by James Kahn . She is also a point of view character in the 2015 novelization of The Force Awakens by Foster. [41] Foster's 1978 novel Splinter of the Mind's Eye was commissioned by Lucas as the basis for a potential low-budget sequel to Star Wars should the film prove unsuccessful. [42] In the story, Luke and Leia seek a crystal on a swampy planet and eventually face Vader in combat. Leia also appears in the Journey to Star Wars: The Force Awakens line of novels and comic books, introduced in conjunction with The Force Awakens to connect the film with previous installments. [43] She is the lead character in the young adult novel Moving Target: A Princess Leia Adventure (2015) by Cecil Castellucci and Jason Fry, which is set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi , [44] [45] and Claudia Gray 's novels Star Wars: Bloodline (2016) [46] [47] and Leia: Princess of Alderaan (2017). The former is set six years before The Force Awakens , while the latter features a 16-year-old Leia before the events of A New Hope . Comics [ edit ] Leia is the lead character in the five-part comic limited series Star Wars: Princess Leia (2015), set between Episode IV: A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back . She is featured prominently in the four-part comic limited series Star Wars: Shattered Empire (2015), set immediately after Return of the Jedi . [48] In Princess Leia #2 and Shattered Empire , Leia is seen using her Force sensitivities to sense the past, [49] [50] and in Star Wars #12, she uses a lightsaber as a weapon for the first time canonically. [51] Princess Leia reveals Leia to have had royal training in martial arts and explores her reaction to the destruction of Alderaan, while Shattered Empire also portrays her as a skilled pilot who undertakes a dangerous mission alongside Poe Dameron 's mother. [49] [50] Television [ edit ] Star Wars Holiday Special [ edit ] Leia appears briefly in the 1978 Star Wars Holiday Special TV film as a leader and administrator of the new Rebel Alliance base. She and C-3PO contact Chewbacca's wife Mallatobuck for assistance in finding Chewbacca and Han. Leia also appears in the cartoon segment at a different Rebel Base, located in an asteroid field, and at the Life Day ceremony at the end of the film. [52] Fisher also appeared in and hosted the November 18, 1978 episode of Saturday Night Live that aired one day after the holiday special. [53] The Summer 1983 issue of Rolling Stone magazine poked fun at this appearance. [54] [55] Star Wars Rebels [ edit ] A teenage version of Princess Leia, voiced by Julie Dolan, appears in a 2016 episode of the animated series Star Wars Rebels , which is set between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope . [56] In the episode, Leia is sent on a secret mission to assist the titular rebels. [56] Executive producer Dave Filoni said of the appearance: We thought we had an opportunity to show her learning to be a leader, experimenting with the personality that becomes the stronger more resolute character you see in A New Hope . One of the complex challenges of depicting Leia in Rebels is that we have to remind the audience that at this point she is part of the Empire. She doesn't believe in the Empire, but she is acting the part, almost a double agent. [56] Star Wars: Forces of Destiny [ edit ] Leia appears in the animated series Star Wars: Forces of Destiny , voiced by Shelby Young . [57] Legends works [ edit ] Main article: Star Wars expanded universe The original three Star Wars films have spawned a large franchise of works that include novels, comic books, video games and animated television series. Leia appears in much of this material. In April 2014 (with the sequel film The Force Awakens in production), Lucasfilm separated the Star Wars expanded universe (rebranded as Star Wars Legends ) from official Star Wars canon . [58] Novels [ edit ] The 1991 New York Times bestselling novel Heir to the Empire by Timothy Zahn began what would become a large collection of works set before, between and especially after the original films. [59] Post- Return of the Jedi [ edit ] The bestselling Thrawn trilogy (1991–93) by Timothy Zahn begins five years after the events of Return of the Jedi . [59] In Heir to the Empire (1991), Leia is married to Han and three months pregnant with twins. Noghri commandos repeatedly attempt to kidnap her as part of Grand Admiral Thrawn 's plan to restore the Empire and crush the New Republic. [60] In Dark Force Rising (1992), Leia realizes that Darth Vader and the Empire deceived the Noghri to secure their allegiance, and by revealing the truth she turns the alien race to the side of the New Republic. [61] In The Last Command (1993), Leia gives birth to the twins Jaina and Jacen on Coruscant during Thrawn's siege. [62] Leia, now the Chief of State of the New Republic, is a minor character in the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994) by Kevin J. Anderson , set after the Thrawn trilogy. Next in the timeline is the Callista trilogy: Children of the Jedi (1995) by Barbara Hambly , Darksaber (1995) by Anderson and Planet of Twilight (1997) by Hambly. In The Crystal Star (1994) by Vonda McIntyre , young Jacen, Jaina and their three-year-old brother Anakin are kidnapped in a plot to restore the Empire, but are rescued by Leia and Chewbacca. Leia struggles with the responsibilities of her position in The Black Fleet Crisis trilogy (1996) by Michael P. Kube-McDowell . In The New Rebellion (1996) by Kristine Kathryn Rusch , she avoids an assassination attempt and then aids in the defeat of the Dark Jedi Kueller, whom she shoots to death. The Corellian trilogy (1995) by Roger MacBride Allen finds Han and Leia swept up in a civil war while visiting his homeworld of Corellia with their children. In the two Hand of Thrawn novels by Timothy Zahn (1997's Specter of the Past and 1998's Vision of the Future ), Leia tries to hold the New Republic together as Moff Disra conspires for its volatile factions to destroy each other. Leia appears periodically in the Young Jedi Knights series (1995–98) by Kevin J. Anderson and Rebecca Moesta . The 14-volume young adult fiction series covers the Jedi training of Jacen and Jaina. [63] [64] [65] [66] In The Truce at Bakura (1993) by Kathy Tyers , set one day after the ending of Return of the Jedi , Leia establishes New Alderaan, a sanctuary for the destroyed planet's surviving inhabitants. The spirit of Anakin Skywalker appears to Leia and pleads for her forgiveness, but she angrily banishes him. The six-volume Jedi Prince series (1992–93) by Paul Davids and Hollace Davids, later contradicted by other novels, is set within a year after Return of the Jedi . In The Glove of Darth Vader (1992), the self-proclaimed son of the defeated Emperor Palpatine , Trioculus , seeks the titular glove to cement himself as the new Emperor. Entranced by Leia's beauty in The Lost City of the Jedi (1992), Trioculus vows to make her his queen. He captures her in Zorba the Hutt's Revenge (1992), but Jabba the Hutt's vengeful father, Zorba , offers to trade his own prisoner Ken —Palpatine's real grandson whom Trioculus has been seeking—for Leia, his son's killer. But Leia and Ken are rescued and Trioculus is frozen in carbonate by Zorba. Mission from Mount Yoda (1993) finds Ken's father Triclops alive and willing to join the Rebels against the Empire. Leia, now engaged to Han, is captured by Zorba in Queen of the Empire (1993). Trioculus is revived and seizes Leia before Zorba can kill her. Leia is rescued and replaced with a lookalike droid decoy, which kills Trioculus. In Prophets of the Dark Side (1993), Leia looks forward to her wedding to Han and has a vision of their two children. Matthew Stover 's 2008 standalone novel Luke Skywalker and the Shadows of Mindor picks up the story soon after, as Luke, Leia and the Rebels fight the Sith Lord Shadowspawn. In The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994) by Dave Wolverton , set immediately before the Thrawn trilogy, Leia is presented with an advantageous political marriage to Prince Isolder of the planet Hapes. A jealous Han abducts Leia and takes her to the planet Dathomir; Luke and Isolder follow, and there they all find the hidden forces of the Imperial warlord Zsinj. [67] Defeating him, Han and Leia marry. [68] The 2003 novels A Forest Apart and Tatooine Ghost by Troy Denning are set immediately after The Courtship of Princess Leia . The newly married Leia fears that any children she has may succumb to the dark side like her father. During an adventure on Tatooine in Tatooine Ghost , she discovers the diary of her grandmother Shmi Skywalker and meets some of young Anakin's childhood friends. When she learns of Anakin's childhood as a slave and the traumatic death of his mother, Leia learns to forgive her father. Works set between films [ edit ] In Shadows of the Empire (1996) by Steve Perry , the only Star Wars novel set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi , Leia is searching for Boba Fett to find a captive Han. She is bewitched by the crime lord Prince Xizor using pheromones, but Chewbacca helps her elude the seduction. [69] Allegiance (2007) and Choices of One (2011) by Timothy Zahn are set between Star Wars: A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back , and feature Leia and her cohorts seeking new allies for their Rebellion against the Empire. Razor's Edge (2013) by Martha Wells and Honor Among Thieves (2014) by James S. A. Corey take place in the same time period and also chronicle the adventures of Leia and Han. New Jedi Order [ edit ] In the New Jedi Order series (1999–2003), Leia resigns as Chief of State, and on the heels of her warnings before the Senate, the alien Yuuzhan Vong invade the galaxy. They destroy system after system and defeat both the Jedi and the New Republic forces in countless battles. Chewbacca dies in Vector Prime (1999) by R.A. Salvatore , which sends Han into a deep depression that causes a rift between him and Leia. They reunite after Leia is gravely wounded at the Battle of Duro in Kathy Tyers' Balance Point (2000). She is targeted by a deadly Voxyn slayer in Troy Dennings' Star By Star (2001), and though she manages to evade death, her son Anakin is later killed during a mission to prevent more Voxyn from being cloned. The Vong are finally defeated in The Unifying Force (2003) by James Luceno . In Denning's The Dark Nest trilogy (2005), Leia, Han and several Jedi become involved in an escalating border dispute between the Chiss and the insidious insectoid Killiks, and Leia makes a bitter enemy in the Twi'lek warrior Alema Rar . In The Joiner King (2005), Leia asks Saba Sebatyne to train her as a Jedi Knight. R2-D2 malfunctions in The Unseen Queen (2005) and shows Luke a holoclip of his father Anakin and a pregnant woman, whom Luke learns is his and Leia's biological mother, Padmé Amidala. Anakin and Padmé are discussing a dream of Anakin's in which Padmé dies in childbirth; later, Luke and Leia watch a clip in which Padmé is talking to Obi-Wan Kenobi about Anakin. Tenel Ka , Queen Mother of the Hapes Consortium, has a daughter, Allana , secretly fathered by Jacen. In The Swarm War (2005), Luke and Leia view holoclips of their mother's death, and Leia is promoted to Jedi Knight. Legacy of the Force [ edit ] The bestselling Legacy of the Force series (2006–08) chronicles the crossover of Han and Leia's son Jacen to the dark side of the Force while the Jedi, Solos and Skywalkers fight against his growing power. [63] [64] [65] [66] In Betrayal (2006) by Aaron Allston , Jacen turns to the dark side, believing that it is the only way to save the galaxy from the chaos brewing among the member systems of the Galactic Alliance . Jacen realizes in Bloodlines (2006) by Karen Traviss that the Sith discipline will require him to kill one of his loved ones, which he decides is an acceptable sacrifice to save the galaxy. In Troy Denning's Tempest (2006), Han and Leia thwart the assassination of Tenel Ka and Allana, but become caught up in a Corellian conspiracy. They are almost killed when the Millennium Falcon is attacked by a Star Destroyer controlled by an increasingly powerful Jacen—who knows that his parents are on board. With Han injured, Leia and Lando further investigate the Corellians in Aaron Allston's Exile (2007), but Alema reappears to exact her vengeance on Leia. Sacrifice (2007) by Karen Traviss finds Leia and Han on the run, hunted by Jacen as traitors to the Galactic Alliance. He kills Luke's wife Mara Jade as his final sacrifice to become Darth Caedus, the new ruler of the Sith. In Inferno (2007) by Troy Denning, Han and Leia are faced with the reality that their son, now Joint Chief of State, is the enemy. Leia attempts unsuccessfully to manipulate Jacen in Aaron Allston's Fury (2007) so that the Jedi can both thwart him and neutralize Alema. Finally, in Invincible (2008) by Troy Denning, Jaina kills Jacen in lightsaber duel. At Tenel Ka's request, Leia and Han adopt Allana, disguised with the name \"Amelia\" to protect her from any future vengeance against Cadeus or the Hapes Consortium. Multiple novels in the series made the New York Times Best Seller list . [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] The nine-volume Fate of the Jedi series (2009–12) by Aaron Allston, Troy Denning and Christie Golden finds Han and Leia become caught up in the intensifying conflict between the Galactic Alliance and the Jedi. In the wake of Darth Cadeus' death, the now-peaceful Galactic Alliance harbors a growing mistrust toward the Jedi, and the situation is worsened by a Force-induced psychosis that begins afflicting individual Jedi, sending them on violent rampages. In Millennium Falcon (2008) by James Luceno, set between Legacy of the Force and Fate of the Jedi , a mysterious device hidden inside the eponymous spacecraft sends Han, Leia and Allana on an adventure to investigate the ship's past before it came into Han's possession. Troy Denning's Crucible (2013), set after Fate of the Jedi and the last novel to date in the Star Wars Legends chronology, reunites Leia, Han and Luke with Lando as they aid him to thwart a vast criminal enterprise threatening his asteroid mineral refinery in the Chilean Rift nebula . Comics [ edit ] Dark Empire [ edit ] During the events of the comic series Dark Empire (1991–92), Palpatine has been resurrected in a young clone body and seduces Luke to the dark side of the Force as part of his plan to restore the Empire. A captive Leia, resisting Palpatine's attempts to turn her as well, escapes with an artifact he needs to secure his power, the Jedi Holocron . Luke pursues her, and Leia manages to turn him back. Brother and sister then fight Palpatine with the light side of the Force, turning his own Force-generated storm against him and destroying Palpatine and his Star Destroyer . In Dark Empire II (1994–95), Leia gives birth to a third child by Han, whom she names Anakin . Palpatine is reborn in an inferior, rapidly deteriorating clone body in Empire's End (1995), and seeks to possess the body of the infant Anakin. Cultural impact [ edit ] Princess Leia cosplay ( Star Wars Celebration in Anaheim, California , April 2015) Princess Leia has been called a 1980s icon, [75] a feminist hero [76] and \"an exemplary personification of female empowerment\". [17] In 2008, Leia was selected by Empire magazine as the 89th greatest film character of all time, [77] and IGN listed her as their 8th top Star Wars hero. [78] UGO Networks listed Leia as one of their best heroes of all time in 2010. [79] The character has been referenced or parodied in several TV shows and films, [80] and celebrated in cosplay . [81] Fisher appeared in the Leia metal bikini on the cover of the Summer 1983 issue of Rolling Stone , [54] [55] and a painting of Leia and other characters surrounding Lucas appeared on the cover of the May 25, 1983 issue of Time announcing Return of the Jedi . [82] [83] In 2013, cartoonist Jeffrey Brown published the bestselling Star Wars: Vader's Little Princess , a comic strip-style book featuring Darth Vader and a young Leia in humorous father-daughter situations. [84] [85] [86] Princess Leia appears on a 2007 US postage stamp [87] [88] and a 2015 UK stamp. [89] [90] [91] Leia has also been used in a wide range of Star Wars merchandise, [92] including statuettes, action figures and other toys, household items and clothing, [93] office supplies, food products, [94] and bubble bath and shampoo in Leia-shaped bottles with her head as the cap. [95] [96] [97] In her one-woman show Wishful Drinking , Fisher called the Princess Leia Pez dispenser one of the \"merchandising horrors\" of the series. [98] In a 2011 interview, Fisher said: I signed away my likeness for free. In those days, there was no such thing as a “likeness\" ... There was no merchandising tied to movies. No one could have known the extent of the franchise. Not that I don’t think I’m cute or anything, but when I looked in the mirror, I didn’t think I was signing away anything of value. Lately I feel like I’m Minnie Mouse —the identity of Princess Leia so eclipses any other identity that I’ve ever had. [92] After the 2012 acquisition of LucasFilm by the Walt Disney Company, the Disney Store stated in May 2014 that the company had \"no plans for Leia products\". [99] After public criticism, Disney told Time in June 2014 that it would be releasing several Leia products. [99] Funko has since produced several versions of Leia (at least one for each film) in their POP! line of 4.5 inch vinyl figures in the Japanese super deformed style. Hasbro is set to release an action figure of Leia as she appears in the Star Wars Rebels animated series. [100] \"Cinnamon buns\" hairstyle [ edit ] Hopi girl with \"squash blossom\" hairdo ( Edward S. Curtis , 1922) Lady of Elche Leia's unique hairdo in 1977's A New Hope has come to be known as the \" doughnut \" or \" cinnamon buns \" hairstyle, [101] and is iconic of the character and series. [80] A February 1978 cover story for the British teen magazine Jackie included step-by-step instructions on how to replicate Leia's hair buns. [102] [103] In the 1978 short film parody Hardware Wars , Princess Anne-Droid has actual cinnamon buns on the side of her head. [104] Miss Piggy of The Muppet Show copied the hairdo in a Star Wars -themed episode of the series in February 1980. [105] In the 1987 Mel Brooks comedy film Spaceballs , Princess Vespa ( Daphne Zuniga ) appears to have the hairstyle, which is soon revealed to in fact be a large pair of headphones. [80] In the parody film Thumb Wars , the role of Leia was filled by a character named Princess Bunhead, who has two cinnamon rolls for hair. In 2015, Fisher's daughter Billie Lourd 's character in the horror-comedy TV series Scream Queens , a rich and disaffected sorority girl known as Chanel No. 3, wears earmuffs in every scene as an homage to Fisher's iconic Leia hairstyle. [106] [107] Lourd also has a cameo in The Force Awakens (2015) in which she wears Leia's distinctive hair buns. [108] [109] [110] Asked about his inspiration for the hairstyle, George Lucas told Time in 2008, \"In the 1977 film, I was working very hard to create something different that wasn't fashion, so I went with a kind of Southwestern Pancho Villa woman revolutionary look, which is what that is. The buns are basically from turn-of-the-century Mexico.\" [111] However, in 2015 Linda Rodriguez McRobbie of Mental Floss recounted research suggesting that while female Mexican revolutionaries of that time did not have such elaborate hairstyles, young marriageable Hopi women did, and their \"squash blossom whorls\" superficially resemble Leia's hair buns. [112] [113] [114] [115] McRobbie also relates Michael Heilemann's theory that Leia's hairstyle was likely also inspired by that of two earlier characters: Queen Fria in the 1939 Flash Gordon comic strip \"The Ice Kingdom of Mongo\", and scientist Barnes Wallis ’ wife Molly (played by Ursula Jeans ) in the 1955 war film The Dam Busters . [112] [113] Lucas was influenced by the Flash Gordon serials, and the Battle of Yavin in Star Wars is an homage to the penultimate bombing sequence in The Dam Busters . [116] [117] Comparisons have also been made to the 4th century BC Iberian sculpture Lady of Elche , [112] [113] [118] as well as the 1920s \"earphones\" hairstyle. [112] [119] Feminist analysis [ edit ] Protest sign from the Amsterdam Women's March in 2017 reading \"A Woman's Place is in the Resistance\" over a photograph of Princess Leia. Leia has been the subject of feminist analysis. Mark Edlitz wrote for The Huffington Post in 2010 that \"Leia is an exemplary personification of female empowerment.\" [17] David Bushman, television curator at the Paley Center for Media , said in 2012, \"From the male perspective ... Princess Leia was a very creditable character for her time—not perfect, but certainly defiant, assertive, and strong.\" [75] Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post wrote in 2015, \"Leia wasn't just the first great heroine of science fiction and fantasy to capture my imagination. She was one of the first characters I encountered whose power came from her political conviction and acumen.\" [18] In her 2007 article \"Feminism and the Force: Empowerment and Disillusionment in a Galaxy Far, Far Away\", Diana Dominguez cited Leia as a welcome change from the previous portrayals of women in film and TV. [101] She wrote: Here was a woman who could play like and with the boys, but who didn't have to become one of the boys and who could, if and when she wanted to, show she liked the boys, a woman who is outspoken, unashamed, and, most importantly, unpunished for being so. She isn't a flirty sex-pot, tossing her hair around seductively to distract the enemy ... She doesn't play the role of \"Maternal caretaker\", although she does display caring and compassion, or \"the sweet innocent damsel\" who stands passively by while the men do all the work, but does step aside to let them do what they're good at when it is wise to do so ... Leia is a hero without losing her gendered status; she does not have to play the cute, helpless sex kitten or become sexless and androgynous to get what she wants. She can be strong, sassy, outspoken, bossy, and bitchy, and still be respected and seen as feminine. [101] [120] Rosenberg writes that, though at first Luke is an apolitical innocent in search of adventure and Han is a detached opportunist in search of money, both are \"influenced by Leia’s passion [and] take their places as full participants in the Rebellion\". [18] She notes, \"Everyone else eventually comes around to Leia’s view of the world.\" [18] Leia herself, singularly dedicated to her political movement against the Empire, \"finds a partner in Han, acknowledging that personal happiness can help her sustain her commitment to building a better galactic order\". [18] Rosenberg cites \"Leia's willingness to see the best in him, and Han's desire to live up to her belief in him\" as a foundation of their relationship, also pointing out his attempts to make her recognize that she has needs like anyone else and should acknowledge that she needs him. [18] In their 2012 essay \"Lightsabers, Political Arenas, and Marriages\", Ray Merlock and Kathy Merlock Jackson cite Leia as the successor of earlier science fiction heroines Wilma Deering of Buck Rogers and Dale Arden of Flash Gordon , and the embodiment of \"a new stage in the ongoing presentation of the fairy-tale princess in jeopardy\". Writing that \"after Leia, no longer would princesses be passive and salvaged simply with a kiss,\" they note the reflection of the character in later Disney Princess animated films and in woman warriors such as Ellen Ripley from the Alien franchise and Xena of the adventure TV series Xena: Warrior Princess . [101] A. O. Scott of The New York Times described Leia as \"a foremother of Hermione Granger and Katniss Everdeen and of countless latter-day Disney princesses. She also foretold the recent, somewhat belated feminist turn in the Star Wars cycle itself\". [121] Fisher herself described Leia as a \"huge\" feminist icon, dismissing the suggestion that the character was ever a \" damsel in distress \". Fisher said of Leia, \"She bossed them around. I don't know what your idea of distress is, but that wasn't it! And I wasn't some babe running through the galaxy with my tits bouncing around. So I wasn't threatening to women\", [122] adding \"I like Princess Leia. I like how she was feisty. I like how she killed Jabba the Hutt\". [121] Metal bikini [ edit ] Main article: Princess Leia's bikini Actress Olivia Munn cosplaying in the iconic Princess Leia \"metal bikini\" slave outfit from Return of the Jedi Leia's slave costume when she is held captive by Jabba the Hutt at the beginning of Return of the Jedi —made of brass and dubbed Leia's \"Metal Bikini\" or \"Gold Bikini\"—immediately made the character (and Fisher) a \"generational sex symbol \" celebrated by pin-up posters, [75] [123] and later merchandising and cosplay . [76] [93] [94] [124] The outfit has gained a cult following of its own. [124] Rosenberg noted that \"the costume has become culturally iconic in a way that has slipped loose from the context of the scenes in which Leia wore it and the things she does after she is forced into the outfit.\" [76] Philip Chien of the website Wired wrote in 2006, \"There's no doubt that the sight of Carrie Fisher in the gold sci-fi swimsuit was burned into the sweaty subconscious of a generation of fanboys hitting puberty in the spring of 1983.\" [125] Acknowledging the opinion of some that the \"Slave Leia\" iconography tarnishes the character's position as \"feminist hero\", [76] Rosenberg argues: Leia may be captive in these scenes, but she’s not exactly a compliant fantasy. Instead, she’s biding her time for the moment when she can put that fury into action, carrying out a carefully laid plan to rescue her lover. And when that moment comes, the bikini doesn’t condemn Leia to passivity. She rises, and uses the very chains that bind her to strangle the creature who tried to take away her power by turning her into a sex object. [76] Science fiction filmmaker Letia Clouston concurs, saying \"Sci-fi has had a long history of strong female characters. Yes, Princess Leia was in a gold bikini, but she was also the one who single-handedly killed Jabba. When you take into account movies and TV shows like Terminator , Aliens , Battlestar Galactica , and even video games like Metroid , you can see sci-fi has consistently promoted the strength of women more than any other genre.\" [75] Family tree [ edit ] Main articles: Skywalker family and Solo family [ hide ] v t e Skywalker family tree Aika Lars [a] Cliegg Lars [b] Shmi Skywalker [c] Jobal Naberrie [d] Ruwee Naberrie [d] Beru Whitesun [e] Owen Lars [f] Anakin Skywalker [g] [h] Padmé Amidala [i] Bail Organa [j] [k] Breha Organa [l] Luke Skywalker [m] [n] Leia Organa [o] Han Solo [p] Ben Solo [p] [q] References: Jump up ^ Hidalgo, Pablo (2016). Star Wars Character Encyclopedia: Updated and Expanded . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Cliegg Lars\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Shmi Skywalker Lars\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Attack of the Clones (2002) and Revenge of the Sith (2005) Jump up ^ \"Databank: Beru Lars\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Owen Lars\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Anakin Skywalker\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Darth Vader\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Padmé Amidala\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ Adopted father of Leia Organa, as established in Revenge of the Sith (2005). Jump up ^ \"Databank: Bail Organa\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3, 2015 . Jump up ^ Adopted mother of Leia Organa, as established in Revenge of the Sith (2005). Jump up ^ \"Databank: Luke Skywalker\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ In the alternate Star Wars expanded universe ( Legends ) , Luke is married to Mara Jade and has a son, Ben Skywalker . Jump up ^ \"Databank: Princess Leia Organa\" . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b The Force Awakens . 2015. Jump up ^ In the alternate Star Wars expanded universe ( Legends ) continuity, Han and Leia have three children: Jaina , Jacen and Anakin Solo . See also [ edit ] Comics portal Fictional characters portal Film in the United States portal Star Wars portal Television in the United States portal 1970s portal List of Kenner Star Wars action figures Solo family References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Chatting With Julie Dolan - The New Voice Of Princess Leia!\" . disneyinfinitycodes.com . April 13, 2016 . Retrieved May 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mitch Dyer [@MitchyD] (November 18, 2017). \"I'm trying to avoid spoilers, but @misty_lee's Leia was such an important role when we see the Rebellion and she absolutely nailed it. She captures the empathy and heart of the character beautifully\" (Tweet) . Retrieved December 9, 2017 – via Twitter . Jump up ^ Clouzot, Claire (1999). \"The Morning of the Magician: George Lucas and Star Wars \". In Kline, Sally. The George Lucas Interviews . 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Retrieved October 8, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Merlock, Ray; Merlock Jackson, Kathy (2012). \"Lightsabers, Political Arenas, and Marriages for Princess Leia and Queen Amidala\". In Brode, Douglas; Deyneka, Leah. Sex, Politics, and Religion in Star Wars: An Anthology . The Scarecrow Press . pp. 77–87. ISBN 978-0-8108-8514-1 . Jump up ^ \"Checklist: 10 Strange Star Wars Magazine Covers ( Jackie )\" . StarWars.com. November 26, 2007. Archived from the original on November 29, 2007 . Retrieved December 16, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"February 4, 1978 cover\" . Jackie . Retrieved December 16, 2015 . Jump up ^ Calhoun, Bob (May 21, 2002). \" Hardware Wars : The movie, the legend, the household appliances\" . Salon . Retrieved January 4, 2016 . Jump up ^ \" The Muppet Show Season 4 – Episode 17: Mark Hamill\" . SideReel . Retrieved December 16, 2015 . Jump up ^ Bui, Hoai-Tran (September 25, 2015). \"The royal reason for Scream Queens earmuffs\" . USA Today . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jump up ^ Wieselman, Jarett (September 25, 2015). \"Princess Leia's Daughter Is Reprising That Iconic Star Wars Look\" . BuzzFeed . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jump up ^ Tauber, Chris (December 9, 2015). \"First Look: See Carrie Fisher's Daughter in Star Wars: The Force Awakens – with Princess Leia's Hairdo!\" . People . Retrieved December 22, 2015 . Jump up ^ McDonagh, Ross (December 10, 2015). \"FIRST LOOK: Carrie Fisher's daughter Billie Lourd's character in The Force Awakens revealed... with a VERY Princess Leia hairdo\" . Daily Mail . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . Jump up ^ Breznican, Anthony (December 18, 2015). \" Star Wars: The Force Awakens : A collection of cameos and Easter eggs: Friend of the General\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved December 18, 2015 . Jump up ^ Cagle, Jess (2002). \"So, What's the Deal with Leia's Hair?\" . Time . Archived from the original on February 28, 2010 . Retrieved November 29, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Rodriguez McRobbie, Linda (April 22, 2015). \"A Brief History of Princess Leia's Buns\" . Mental Floss . Retrieved November 28, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Heilemann, Michael. \"Princess Hair (with photos)\" . Kitbashed . Retrieved December 1, 2015 . Jump up ^ Curtis, Edward S. \"A Hopiland Beauty (1906)\" . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved December 1, 2015 . Jump up ^ Vroman, A. C. \"Hopi Maiden (1901)\" . UCR/California Museum of Photography . Retrieved December 1, 2015 . Jump up ^ Serafino, Jason (October 1, 2015). \"The Films That Inspired The Star Wars Saga\" . Tech Times . Retrieved December 2, 2015 . Jump up ^ Robey, Tim (November 24, 2015). \"10 films that influenced Star Wars \" . The Telegraph . Retrieved December 2, 2015 . Jump up ^ Whittaker, Andrew (2008). Speak the Culture: Spain . Thorogood Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-85418-605-8 . Jump up ^ \"Women's 1920s Hairstyles: An Overview\" . Hair and Makeup Artist Handbook . April 24, 2013 . Retrieved December 1, 2015 . Jump up ^ Dominguez, Diana (2007). \"Feminism and the Force: Empowerment and Disillusionment in a Galaxy Far, Far Away\". In Silvio, Carl; Vinci, Tony. Culture, Identities and Technology in the Star Wars Films: Essays on the Two Trilogies . Jefferson, North Carolina : McFarland . pp. 109–133. ^ Jump up to: a b Scott, A. O. (December 28, 2016). \"A Princess, a Rebel and a Brave Comic Voice\" . The New York Times . p. A17. Jump up ^ Hiatt, Brian (December 2, 2015). \" Star Wars Strikes Back: Behind the Scenes of the Biggest Movie of the Year\" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved December 16, 2015 . Jump up ^ Merlock; Merlock Jackson (2012). \"Lightsabers, Political Arenas, and Marriages\". Sex, Politics, and Religion in Star Wars . p. 79. ^ Jump up to: a b Townsend, Allie (July 5, 2011). \"Princess Leia's Gold Bikini in Return of the Jedi \" . Time . Retrieved August 15, 2013 . Jump up ^ Chien, Philip (July 11, 2006). \"The Cult of Leia's Metal Bikini\" . Wired . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . 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{ "text": "Chandrayaan-1 - Wikipedia Chandrayaan-1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Chandrayaan-1 Mission type Lunar orbiter Operator Indian Space Research Organisation COSPAR ID 2008-052A SATCAT no. 33405 Website www .isro .gov .in /Spacecraft /chandrayaan-1 Mission duration Planned: 2 years Final: 10 months, 6 days Spacecraft properties Launch mass 1,380 kg (3,040 lb) Start of mission Launch date 22 October 2008, 00:52 ( 2008-10-22UTC00:52 ) UTC Rocket PSLV-XL C11 [1] Launch site Satish Dhawan Second Pad Contractor ISRO End of mission Last contact 28 August 2009, 20:00 ( 2009-08-28UTC21 ) UTC Orbital parameters Reference system Selenocentric Semi-major axis 1,758 kilometers (1,092 mi) Eccentricity 0.0 Periselene 200 km (120 mi) Aposelene 200 km (120 mi) Epoch 19 May 2009 Lunar orbiter Orbital insertion 8 November 2008 Orbits 3,400 at EOM [2] Indian Lunar Exploration Program Chandrayaan-2 → Chandrayaan-1 ( Sanskrit: [ t͡ʃʌnd̪ɾʌːjaːn] ; lit: Moon vehicle [3] [4] pronunciation ( help · info ) ) was India's first lunar probe . It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor . India launched the spacecraft using a PSLV-XL rocket, serial number C11, [1] [5] on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre , about 80 km (50 mi) north of Chennai . [6] Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced the project on course in his Independence Day speech on 15 August 2003. The mission was a major boost to India's space program, [7] as India researched and developed its own technology in order to explore the Moon. [8] The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. [9] On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the Chandrayaan orbiter at 14:36 UTC and struck the south pole in a controlled manner, making India the fourth country to place its flag on the Moon. [10] The probe hit near the crater Shackleton at 15:01 UTC, ejecting sub-surface soil that could be analysed for the presence of lunar water ice. [11] [12] The estimated cost for the project was ₹ 386 crore (US$56 million). [13] The remote sensing lunar satellite had a mass of 1,380 kg (3,040 lb) at launch and 675 kg (1,488 lb) in lunar orbit. [14] It carried high resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared , and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. Over a two-year period, it was intended to survey the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and three-dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest as they might contain ice. [15] The lunar mission carried five ISRO payloads and six payloads from other space agencies including NASA , ESA , and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency , which were carried free of cost. [16] Among its many achievements, the greatest achievement was the discovery of the widespread presence of water molecules in the lunar soil. [17] [18] After almost a year, the orbiter started suffering from several technical issues including failure of the star sensors and poor thermal shielding; Chandrayaan stopped sending radio signals about 20:00 UTC on 28 August 2009, shortly after which the ISRO officially declared the mission over. Chandrayaan operated for 312 days as opposed to the intended two years but the mission achieved 95% of its planned objectives. [2] [19] [20] [21] On 2 July 2016, NASA used ground-based radar systems to relocate Chandrayaan-1 in its lunar orbit, more than seven years after it shut down. [22] [23] Repeated observations over the next three months allowed a precise determination of its orbit which varies between 150 and 270 km (93 and 168 mi) in altitude every two years. [24] Contents 1 History 2 Objectives 3 Specifications 4 Specific areas of study 5 Payload 5.1 Indian instruments 5.2 Instruments from other countries 6 Mission timeline 6.1 Earth orbit burns 6.2 Lunar orbit insertion 6.3 Impact of the MIP on the lunar surface 6.4 Rise of spacecraft's temperature 6.5 Mapping of minerals 6.6 Mapping of Apollo landing sites 6.7 Image acquisition 6.8 Detection of X-Ray signals 6.9 Full Earth image 6.10 Orbit raised to 200 km 6.11 Attitude sensor failure 6.12 Radar scans 7 End of the mission 8 Analysis of collected data 8.1 Lunar water discovery 8.2 Lunar water production 8.3 Lunar caves 8.4 Tectonism 9 Awards for Chandrayaan-1 10 Team 11 Public release of data 12 Chandrayaan-2 13 Lunar outpost 14 See also 15 References 16 External links History [ edit ] Prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced the Chandrayaan project on course in his Independence Day speech on 15 August 2003. The mission was a major boost to India's space program. [7] The idea of an Indian scientific mission to the Moon was first mooted in 1999 during a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences. The Astronautical Society of India carried forward the idea in 2000. Soon after, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) set up the National Lunar Mission Task Force which concluded that ISRO has the technical expertise to carry out an Indian mission to the Moon. In April 2003 over 100 eminent Indian scientists in the fields of planetary and space sciences, Earth sciences , physics, chemistry, astronomy, astrophysics and engineering and communication sciences discussed and approved the Task Force recommendation to launch an Indian probe to the Moon. Six months later, in November, the Indian government gave the nod for the mission. [25] [26] Objectives [ edit ] The mission had the following stated scientific objectives: [27] to design, develop, launch and orbit a spacecraft around the Moon using an Indian-made launch-vehicle to conduct scientific experiments using instruments on the spacecraft which would yield data: for the preparation of a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution of 5–10 m or 16–33 ft) of both the near and far sides of the Moon for chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface at high spatial resolution, mapping particularly the chemical elements magnesium , aluminium, silicon , calcium , iron, titanium , radon , uranium , and thorium to increase scientific knowledge to test the impact of a sub-satellite (Moon Impact Probe – MIP) on the surface of the Moon as a fore-runner for future soft-landing missions Specifications [ edit ] Diagram of the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft Mass 1,380 kg (3,042 lb) at launch, 675 kg (1,488 lb) at lunar orbit, [28] and 523 kg (1,153 lb) after releasing the impactor. Dimensions Cuboid in shape of approximately 1.5 m (4.9 ft) Communications X band , 0.7 m (2.3 ft) diameter dual gimballed parabolic antenna for payload data transmission. The Telemetry, Tracking & Command (TTC) communication operates in S band frequency. Power The spacecraft was mainly powered by its solar array , which included one solar panel covering a total area of 2.15 × 1.8 m (7.1 × 5.9 ft) generating 750 W of peak power, which was stored in a 36 A·h lithium-ion battery for use during eclipses. [29] Propulsion The spacecraft used a bipropellant integrated propulsion system to reach lunar orbit as well as orbit and altitude maintenance while orbiting the Moon. The power plant consisted of one 440 N engine and eight 22 N thrusters. Fuel and oxidiser were stored in two tanks of 390 litres (100 US gal) each. [28] [29] Navigation and control The craft was 3-axis stabilised with two star sensors , gyros and four reaction wheels . The craft carried dual redundant bus management units for attitude control, sensor processing, antenna orientation, etc. [28] [29] Specific areas of study [ edit ] High-resolution mineralogical and chemical imaging of the permanently shadowed north- and south-polar regions Searching for surface or sub-surface lunar water -ice, especially at the lunar poles Identification of chemicals in lunar highland rocks Chemical stratigraphy of the lunar crust by remote sensing of the central uplands of large lunar craters, and of the South Pole Aitken Region (SPAR), an expected site of interior material Mapping the height variation of features of the lunar surface Observation of X-ray spectrum greater than 10 keV and stereographic coverage of most of the Moon's surface with 5 m (16 ft) resolution Providing new insights in understanding the Moon's origin and evolution [30] Payload [ edit ] The scientific payload had a mass of 90 kg (198 lb) and contained five Indian instruments and six instruments from other countries. Indian instruments [ edit ] TMC or the Terrain Mapping Camera is a CMOS camera with 5 m (16 ft) resolution and a 40 km (25 mi) swath in the panchromatic band and was used to produce a high-resolution map of the Moon. [31] The aim of this instrument was to completely map the topography of the Moon. The camera works in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum and captures black and white stereo images. When used in conjunction with data from Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI), it can help in better understanding of the lunar gravitational field as well. TMC was built by the ISRO's Space Applications Centre (SAC) at Ahmedabad. [32] The TMC was tested on 29 October 2008 through a set of commands issued from ISTRAC. [33] HySI or Hyper Spectral Imager is a CMOS camera, performed mineralogical mapping in the 400–900 nm band with a spectral resolution of 15 nm and a spatial resolution of 80 m (260 ft). LLRI or Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument determines the height of the surface topography by sending pulses of infrared laser light towards the lunar surface and detecting the reflected portion of that light. It operated continuously and collected 10 measurements per second on both the day and night sides of the Moon. LLRI was developed by Laboratory for Electro Optics Systems of ISRO, Bangalore. [34] It was tested on 16 November 2008. [34] [35] HEX is a High Energy aj/gamma x-ray spectrometer for 30–200 keV measurements with ground resolution of 40 km (25 mi), the HEX measured U , Th , 210 Pb , 222 Rn degassing, and other radioactive elements. MIP or the Moon Impact Probe developed by the ISRO, is an impact probe which consisted of a C-band Radar altimeter for measurement of altitude of the probe, a video imaging system for acquiring images of the lunar surface and a mass spectrometer for measuring the constituents of the lunar atmosphere. [36] It was ejected at 14:30 UTC on 14 November 2008. As planned, the Moon Impact Probe impacted the lunar south pole at 15:01 UTC on 14 November 2008. It carried with it a picture of the Indian flag. India is now the fourth nation to place a flag on the Moon after the Soviet Union, United States and Japan. Instruments from other countries [ edit ] Moon Mineralogy Mapper left SIR-2 Logo C1XS or X-ray fluorescence spectrometer covering 1–10 keV, mapped the abundance of Mg , Al , Si , Ca , Ti , and Fe at the surface with a ground resolution of 25 km (16 mi), and monitored solar flux . [37] This payload results from collaboration between Rutherford Appleton laboratory, U.K, ESA and ISRO. It was activated on 23 November 2008. [38] SARA , the Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyser from the ESA mapped mineral composition using low energy neutral atoms emitted from the surface. [39] [40] M 3 , the Moon Mineralogy Mapper from Brown University and JPL (funded by NASA ) is an imaging spectrometer designed to map the surface mineral composition. It was activated on 17 December 2008. [41] SIR-2 , a near infrared spectrometer from ESA, built at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research , Polish Academy of Science and University of Bergen , also mapped the mineral composition using an infrared grating spectrometer . The instrument is similar to that of the Smart-1 SIR. [42] [43] It was activated on 19 November 2008 and scientific observations were started on 20 November 2008. [38] Mini-SAR , designed, built and tested for NASA by a large team that includes the Naval Air Warfare Center, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory , Sandia National Laboratories , Raytheon and Northrop Grumman , with outer support from ISRO. Mini-SAR is the active Synthetic Aperture Radar system to search for lunar polar ice, water-ice. The instrument transmitted right polarised radiation with a frequency of 2.5 GHz and monitored scattered left and right polarised radiation. The Fresnel reflectivity and the circular polarisation ratio (CPR) are the key parameters deduced from these measurements. Ice shows the Coherent Backscatter Opposition Effect which results in an enhancement of reflections and CPR, so that water content of the Moon's polar regions can be estimated. [44] [45] [46] RADOM-7 , Radiation Dose Monitor Experiment from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences maps the radiation environment around the Moon. [47] It was tested on 16 November 2008. [34] [35] Mission timeline [ edit ] Chandrayaan-1 was launched on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre using the ISRO's 44.4-metre (146 ft) tall, four-stage PSLV launch vehicle. Chandrayaan-1 was sent to the Moon in a series of orbit-increasing manoeuvres around the Earth over a period of 21 days as opposed to launching the craft on a direct trajectory to the Moon. [48] At launch the spacecraft was inserted into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with an apogee of 22,860 km (14,200 mi) and a perigee of 255 km (158 mi). The apogee was increased with a series of five orbit burns conducted over a period of 13 days after launch. [48] For the duration of the mission, ISRO's telemetry, tracking and command network ( ISTRAC ) at Peenya in Bangalore , tracked and controlled Chandrayaan-1. [49] Scientists from India, Europe, and the U.S. conducted a high-level review of Chandrayaan-1 on 29 January 2009 after the spacecraft completed its first 100 days in space. [50] Earth orbit burns [ edit ] Earth orbit burns Date (UTC) Burn time (minutes) Resulting apogee 22 October Launch 18.2 in four stages 22,860 km 23 October 18 37,900 km 25 October 16 74,715 km 26 October 9.5 164,600 km 29 October 3 267,000 km 4 November 2.5 380,000 km First orbit burn The first orbit-raising manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was performed at 03:30 UTC on 23 October 2008 when the spacecraft's 440 Newton liquid engine was fired for about 18 minutes by commanding the spacecraft from Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC) at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) at Peenya, Bangalore. With this Chandrayaan-1's apogee was raised to 37,900 km (23,500 mi), and its perigee to 305 km (190 mi). In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft took about 11 hours to go around the Earth once. [51] Second orbit burn The second orbit-raising manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was carried out on 25 October 2008 at 00:18 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about 16 minutes, raising its apogee to 74,715 km (46,426 mi), and its perigee to 336 km (209 mi), thus completing 20 percent of its journey. In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft took about twenty-five and a half hours to go round the Earth once. This is the first time an Indian spacecraft has gone beyond the 36,000 km (22,000 mi) high geostationary orbit and reached an altitude more than twice that height. [52] Third orbit burn The third orbit raising manoeuvre was initiated on 26 October 2008 at 01:38 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about nine and a half minutes. With this its apogee was raised to 164,600 km (102,300 mi), and the perigee to 348 km (216 mi). In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 took about 73 hours to go around the Earth once. [53] Fourth orbit burn The fourth orbit-raising manoeuvre took place on 29 October 2008 at 02:08 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about three minutes, raising its apogee to 267,000 km (166,000 mi) and the perigee to 465 km (289 mi). This extended its orbit to a distance more than half the way to the Moon. In this orbit, the spacecraft took about six days to go around the Earth once. [54] Final orbit burn The fifth and final orbit raising manoeuvre was carried out on 3 November 2008 at 23:26 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about two and a half minutes resulting in Chandrayaan-1 entering the Lunar Transfer Trajectory with an apogee of about 380,000 km (240,000 mi). [55] Lunar orbit insertion [ edit ] Lunar orbit insertion Date (UTC) Burn time (seconds) Resulting periselene Resulting aposelene 8 November 817 504 km 7,502 km 9 November 57 200 km 7,502 km 10 November 866 187 km 255 km 11 November 31 101 km 255 km 12 November Final orbit 100 km 100 km Chandrayaan-1 completed the lunar orbit insertion operation on 8 November 2008 at 11:21 UTC. This manoeuvre involved firing of the liquid engine for 817 seconds (about thirteen and half minutes) when the spacecraft passed within 500 km (310 mi) from the Moon. The satellite was placed in an elliptical orbit that passed over the polar regions of the Moon, with 7,502 km (4,662 mi) aposelene and 504 km (313 mi) periselene . The orbital period was estimated to be around 11 hours. With the successful completion of this operation, India became the sixth nation to put a vehicle in lunar orbit. [9] First orbit reduction First Lunar Orbit Reduction Manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 was carried out on 9 November 2008 at 14:33 UTC. During this, the engine of the spacecraft was fired for about 57 seconds. This reduced the periselene to 200 km (124 mi) while aposelene remained unchanged at 7,502 km. In this elliptical orbit, Chandrayaan-1 took about ten and a half hours to circle the Moon once. [56] Second orbit reduction This manoeuvre was carried out on 10 November 2008 at 16:28 UTC, resulting in steep decrease in Chandrayaan-1's aposelene to 255 km (158 mi) and its periselene to 187 km (116 mi), During this manoeuvre, the engine was fired for about 866 seconds (about fourteen and a half minutes). Chandrayaan-1 took two hours and 16 minutes to go around the Moon once in this orbit. [57] Third orbit reduction Third Lunar Orbit Reduction was carried out by firing the onboard engine for 31 seconds on 11 November 2008 at 13:00 UTC. This reduced the periselene to 101 km (63 mi), while the aposelene remained constant at 255 km. In this orbit Chandrayaan-1 took two hours and 9 minutes to go around the Moon once. [58] Final orbit Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was placed into a mission-specific lunar polar orbit of 100 km (62 mi) above the lunar surface on 12 November 2008. [59] [60] In the final orbit reduction manoeuvre, Chandrayaan-1's aposelene and periselene were both reduced to 100 km. [60] In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 takes about two hours to go around the Moon once. Two of the 11 payloads—the Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) and the Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM)—were switched on. The TMC acquired images of both the Earth and the Moon. [60] Impact of the MIP on the lunar surface [ edit ] The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) crash- landed on the lunar surface on 14 November 2008, 15:01 UTC near the crater Shackleton at the south pole. [59] The MIP was one of eleven scientific instruments (payloads) on board Chandrayaan-1. [61] The MIP separated from Chandrayaan at 100 km from lunar surface and began its nosedive at 14:36 UTC. going into free fall for thirty minutes. [59] As it fell, it kept sending information back to the mother satellite which, in turn, beamed the information back to Earth. The altimeter then also began recording measurements to prepare for a rover to land on the lunar surface during a second Moon mission. [62] Following the deployment of the MIP, the other scientific instruments were turned on, starting the next phase of the mission. [61] After scientific analyses of the received data from the MIP, the Indian Space Research Organisation confirmed the presence of water in the lunar soil and published the finding in a press conference addressed by its then Chairman G. Madhavan Nair . Rise of spacecraft's temperature [ edit ] ISRO had reported on 25 November 2008 that Chandrayaan-1's temperature had risen above normal to 50 °C (122 °F), [63] scientists said that it was caused by higher than normal temperatures in lunar orbit. [63] The temperature was brought down by about 10 °C (18 °F) by rotating the spacecraft about 20 degrees and switching off some of the instruments. [63] Subsequently, ISRO reported on 27 November 2008 that the spacecraft was operating under normal temperature conditions. [64] In subsequent reports ISRO says, since the spacecraft was still recording higher than normal temperatures, it would be running only one instrument at a time until January 2009 when lunar orbital temperature conditions are said to stabilize. [65] The spacecraft was experiencing high temperature because of radiation from the Sun and infrared radiation reflected by the Moon. [66] Mapping of minerals [ edit ] The mineral content on the lunar surface was mapped with the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M 3 ), a NASA instrument on board the orbiter. The presence of iron was reiterated and changes in rock and mineral composition have been identified. The Oriental Basin region of the Moon was mapped, and it indicates abundance of iron-bearing minerals such as pyroxene . [67] In 2018 it was announced that M 3 infrared data had been re-analyzed to confirm the existence of water across wide expanses of the Moon's polar regions. [68] Mapping of Apollo landing sites [ edit ] ISRO announced in January 2009 the completion of the mapping of the Apollo Moon missions landing sites by the orbiter, using multiple payloads. Six of the sites have been mapped including landing sites of Apollo 15 and Apollo 17 . [69] Image acquisition [ edit ] The craft completed 3,000 orbits acquiring 70,000 images of the lunar surface, [70] [71] [72] which many in ISRO believe is quite a record compared to the lunar flights of other nations. ISRO officials estimated that if more than 40,000 images have been transmitted by Chandrayaan's cameras in 75 days, it worked out to nearly 535 images being sent daily. They were first transmitted to Indian Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore, from where they were flashed to ISRO's Telemetry Tracking And Command Network (ISTRAC) at Bangalore. Some of these images have a resolution of down to 5 metres (16 ft), providing a sharp and clear picture of the Moon's surface, while many images sent by some of the other missions had only a 100-metre resolution. [73] On 26 November, the indigenous Terrain Mapping Camera, which was first activated on 29 October 2008, acquired images of peaks and craters. This came as a surprise to ISRO officials because the Moon consists mostly of craters. [74] Detection of X-Ray signals [ edit ] The X-ray signatures of aluminium, magnesium and silicon were picked up by the C1XS X-ray camera. The signals were picked up during a solar flare that caused an X-ray fluorescence phenomenon. The flare that caused the fluorescence was within the lowest C1XS sensitivity range. [75] [76] [77] Full Earth image [ edit ] On 25 March 2009 Chandrayaan beamed back its first images of the Earth in its entirety. These images were taken with the TMC. Previous imaging was done on only one part of the Earth. The new images show Asia, parts of Africa and Australia with India being in the center. [78] [79] Orbit raised to 200 km [ edit ] After the completion of all the major mission objectives, the orbit of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft, which had been at a height of 100 km (62 mi) from the lunar surface since November 2008, was raised to 200 km (124 mi). The orbit raising manoeuvres were carried out between 03:30 and 04:30 UTC on 19 May 2009. The spacecraft in this higher altitude enabled further studies on orbit perturbations, gravitational field variation of the Moon and also enabled imaging lunar surface with a wider swath. [80] It was later revealed that the true reason for the orbit change was that it was an attempt to keep the temperature of the probe down. [81] It was \"...assumed that the temperature [of the spacecraft subsystems] at 100 km above the Moon's surface would be around 75 degrees Celsius. However, it was more than 75 degrees and problems started to surface. We had to raise the orbit to 200 km.\" [82] Attitude sensor failure [ edit ] The star sensors, a device used for pointing attitude determination (orientation), failed in orbit after nine months of operation. Afterward, the orientation of Chandrayaan was determined using a back-up procedure using a two-axis Sun sensor and taking a bearing from an Earth station. This was used to update three axis gyroscopes which enabled spacecraft operations. [70] [71] [72] The second failure, detected on 16 May, was attributed to excessive radiation from the Sun. [83] Radar scans [ edit ] On 21 August 2009 Chandrayaan-1 along with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter attempted to perform a bistatic radar experiment using their Mini-SAR radars to detect the presence of water ice on the lunar surface . [84] [85] The attempt was a failure; it turned out the Chandrayaan-1 radar was not pointed at the Moon during the experiment. [86] The Mini-SAR has imaged many of the permanently shadowed regions that exist at both poles of the Moon. [87] On March 2010, it was reported that the Mini-SAR on board the Chandrayaan-1 had discovered more than 40 permanently darkened craters near the Moon's north pole which are hypothesized to contain an estimated 600 million metric tonnes of water-ice. [87] [88] The radar's high CPR is not uniquely diagnostic of either roughness or ice; the science team must take into account the environment of the occurrences of high CPR signal to interpret its cause. The ice must be relatively pure and at least a couple of meters thick to give this signature. [87] The estimated amount of water ice potentially present is comparable to the quantity estimated from the previous mission of Lunar Prospector 's neutron data. [87] Although the results are consistent with recent findings of other NASA instruments onboard Chandrayaan-1 (the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (MP3) discovered water molecules in the Moon's polar regions, while water vapour was detected by NASA's Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite , or LCROSS [87] ) this observation is not consistent with the presence of thick deposits of nearly pure water ice within a few meters of the lunar surface, but it does not rule out the presence of small (<∼10 cm), discrete pieces of ice mixed in with the regolith. [89] End of the mission [ edit ] The mission was launched on 22 October 2008 and expected to operate for two years. However, around 20:00 UTC on 28 August 2009 communication with the spacecraft was suddenly lost. The probe had operated for 312 days. The craft had been expected to remain in orbit for approximately another 1000 days and to crash into the lunar surface in late 2012, [90] although in 2016 it was found to still be in orbit. [23] A member of the science advisory board of Chandrayaan-1 said that it is difficult to ascertain reasons for the loss of contact. [91] ISRO Chairman Madhavan Nair said that due to very high radiation , power-supply units controlling both the computer systems on board failed, snapping the communication connectivity. [92] However, information released later showed that the power supply supplied by MDI failed due to overheating. [81] [82] [93] Although the mission was less than 10 months in duration, and less than half the intended two years in length, [7] [92] [94] a review by scientists termed the mission successful, as it had completed 95% of its primary objectives. Analysis of collected data [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Chandrayaan's Moon Mineralogy Mapper has confirmed the magma ocean hypothesis, meaning that the Moon was once completely molten. [95] The terrain mapping camera on board Chandrayaan-1, besides producing more than 70,000 three dimensional images, has recorded images of the landing site of U.S. spacecraft Apollo 15. [96] [97] TMC and HySI payloads of ISRO have covered about 70% of the lunar surface, while M 3 covered more than 95% of the same and SIR-2 has provided high-resolution spectral data on the mineralogy of the Moon. Indian Space Research Organisation said interesting data on lunar polar areas was provided by Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) and High Energy X-ray Spectrometer (HEX) of ISRO as well as Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR) of the USA. LLRI covered both the lunar poles and additional lunar regions of interest, HEX made about 200 orbits over the lunar poles and Mini-SAR provided complete coverage of both North and South Polar Regions of the Moon. Another ESA payload – Chandrayaan-1 imaging X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) – detected more than two dozen weak solar flares during the mission duration. The Bulgarian payload called Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM) was activated on the day of the launch itself and worked until the mission's end. ISRO said scientists from India and participating agencies expressed satisfaction on the performance of Chandrayaan-1 mission as well as the high quality of data sent by the spacecraft. They have started formulating science plans based on the data sets obtained from the mission. It is expected that in the next few months, interesting results about lunar topography, mineral and chemical contents of the Moon and related aspects are expected to be published. [98] The Chandrayaan-1 payload has enabled scientists to study the interaction between the solar wind and a planetary body like the Moon without a magnetic field. [99] In its 10-month orbit around the Moon, Chandrayaan-1's X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) detected titanium, confirmed the presence of calcium, and gathered the most accurate measurements yet of magnesium, aluminium and iron on the lunar surface. [100] Lunar water discovery [ edit ] Direct evidence of lunar water though Chandrayaan-1 Chandra's Altitudinal Composition (CHACE) output profile These images show a very young lunar crater on the side of the Moon that faces away from Earth, as viewed by Chandrayaan-1's NASA Moon Mineralogy Mapper equipment On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe was released from Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km (62 mi). During its 25-minute descent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered during this time. [101] On 24 September 2009 Science journal reported that the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M 3 ) on Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon. [102] But, on 25 September 2009, ISRO announced that the MIP, another instrument on board Chandrayaan-1, had discovered water on the Moon just before impact and had discovered it 3 months before NASA's M 3 . [103] The announcement of this discovery was not made until NASA confirmed it. [104] [105] M 3 detected absorption features near 2.8–3.0 µm on the surface of the Moon. For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to hydroxyl - and/or water -bearing materials. On the Moon, the feature is seen as a widely distributed absorption that appears strongest at cooler high latitudes and at several fresh feldspathic craters. The general lack of correlation of this feature in sunlit M 3 data with neutron spectrometer H abundance data suggests that the formation and retention of OH and H 2 O is an ongoing surficial process. OH/H 2 O production processes may feed polar cold traps and make the lunar regolith a candidate source of volatiles for human exploration. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M 3 ), an imaging spectrometer, was one of the 11 instruments on board Chandrayaan-I that came to a premature end on 28 August 2009. [106] M 3 was aimed at providing the first mineral map of the entire lunar surface. M 3 data were reanalyzed years later and revealed \"the most definitive proof to date\" of the presence of water in shaded regions of craters near the Moon's north and south poles. [68] Lunar scientists had discussed the possibility of water repositories for decades. They are now increasingly \"confident that the decades-long debate is over\" a report says. \"The Moon, in fact, has water in all sorts of places; not just locked up in minerals , but scattered throughout the broken-up surface , and, potentially, in blocks or sheets of ice at depth.\" The results from the Chandrayaan mission are also \"offering a wide array of watery signals.\" [107] [108] Lunar water production [ edit ] Main article: Lunar water According to European Space Agency (ESA) scientists, the lunar regolith (a loose collection of irregular dust grains making up the Moon’s surface) absorbs hydrogen nuclei from solar winds. Interaction between the hydrogen nuclei and oxygen present in the dust grains is expected to produce hydroxyl (HO − ) and water (H 2 O). [109] The SARA ( Sub keV Atom Reflecting Analyser ) instrument developed by ESA and the Indian Space Research Organisation was designed and used to study the Moon's surface composition and solar-wind/surface interactions. SARA's results highlight a mystery: not every hydrogen nucleus is absorbed. One out of every five rebounds into space, combining to form an atom of hydrogen. [ clarification needed ] [ citation needed ] Hydrogen shoots off at speeds of around 200 kilometres per second (120 mi/s) and escapes without being deflected by the Moon's weak gravity. This knowledge provides timely advice for scientists who are readying ESA's BepiColombo mission to Mercury , as that spacecraft will carry two instruments similar to SARA. Lunar caves [ edit ] Chandrayaan-1 imaged a lunar rille , formed by an ancient lunar lava flow, with an uncollapsed segment indicating the presence of a lunar lava tube , a type of large cave below the lunar surface. [110] The tunnel, which was discovered near the lunar equator, is an empty volcanic tube, measuring about 2 km (1.2 mi) in length and 360 m (1,180 ft) in width. According to A. S. Arya, scientist SF of Ahmedabad-based Space Application Centre (SAC), this could be a potential site for human settlement on the Moon. [111] Earlier, Japanese Lunar orbiter SELENE (Kaguya) also recorded evidence for other caves on the Moon. [112] Tectonism [ edit ] Data from the microwave sensor (Mini-SAR) of Chandrayaan-1 processed using the image analysis software ENVI, has revealed a good amount of past tectonic activity on the lunar surface. [113] The researchers think that the faults and fractures discovered could be features of past interior tectonic activity coupled with meteorite impacts. [113] Awards for Chandrayaan-1 [ edit ] The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) has selected ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 mission as one of the recipients of its annual AIAA SPACE 2009 awards, which recognises key contributions to space science and technology. [114] The International Lunar Exploration Working Group awarded the Chandrayaan-1 team the International Co-operation Award in 2008 for accommodation and tests of the most international lunar payload ever (from 20 countries, including India, the European Space Agency of 17 countries, USA, and Bulgaria). [115] US-based National Space Society awarded ISRO the 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category, for the Chandrayaan-1 mission. [116] [117] Team [ edit ] The scientists considered instrumental to the success of the Chandrayaan-1 project are: [118] [119] [120] G. Madhavan Nair – Chairman, Indian Space Research Organisation Dr. T. K. Alex – Director, ISAC (ISRO Satellite Centre) Dr.Mylswamy Annadurai – Project Director, Chandrayan-1 S. K. Shivkumar – Director – Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network Mr. M.Pitchaimani – Operations Director, Chandrayan-1 Mr. Leo Jackson John – Spacecraft Operations Manager, Chandrayan-1 Dr. K. Radhakrishnan (scientist) – Director, VSSC George Koshy – Mission Director, PSLV-C11 Srinivasa Hegde – Mission Director, Chandrayaan-1 Prof. J N Goswami – Director of Physical Research Laboratory and Principal Scientific Investigator of Chandrayaan-1 Madhavan Chandradathan - Head, Launch Authorization Board, Chandrayan-1 [121] Public release of data [ edit ] Data gathered by Chandrayaan-I was made available to the public by the end of the year 2010. The data was split into two seasons with the first season going public by the end of 2010 and the second going public by the mid of 2011. The data contained pictures of the Moon and also data of chemical and mineral mapping of the lunar surface. [122] Chandrayaan-2 [ edit ] Main article: Chandrayaan-2 ISRO is currently developing a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan named Chandrayaan-2 , which is scheduled to be launched in January-March 2019. [123] The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) plans to include a lander and robotic rover as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission. The rover will be designed to move on wheels on the lunar surface, do on-site chemical analysis and send the data to the Earth via the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter, which will be orbiting the Moon. [124] Lunar outpost [ edit ] Chandrayaan's imagery will be used to identify regions of interest that will be explored in detail by the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter . The interest lies in identifying lunar water on the surface that can be exploited in setting up a future lunar outpost . The Mini-SAR, one of the U.S. payloads on Chandrayaan, was used to determine the presence of water ice. 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Jump up ^ Power supply glitch partially cripples Insat-4B , HinduBusiness Line, Retrieved 13 July 2010. Jump up ^ Chandrayaan 1 Mission Terminated Archived 13 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"Chandrayaan confirms Moon was once completely molten: Scientist\" . Economic Times . 2 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Scientist Rubbishes Apollo 15 Conspiracy Theory\" . Moondaily.com. 4 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Chandrayaan sends images of Apollo 15 landing\" . Times of India . 2 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Chandrayaan Enables Study Interaction Without Magnetic Field\" . SpaceDaily.com. 10 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Chandrayaan enables study interaction without magnetic field\" . DNAIndia.com. 8 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Solar flares shine light on Moon's minerals\" . The Hindu . 19 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2010/2430.html Jump up ^ \"Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H 2 O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M 3 on Chandrayaan-1\" . Science Mag. 15 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"MIP detected water on Moon way back in June: ISRO Chairman\" . The Hindu . Bangalore. 25 September 2009 . Retrieved 9 June 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Chandrayaan first discovered water on Moon, but?\" . DNA . Bangalore. DNA. 25 September 2009 . Retrieved 9 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Bagla, Pallav (25 September 2009). \"Did India beat NASA to find water on Moon?\" . NDTV . Bangalore . Retrieved 9 June 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Welcome To ISRO:: Press Release:: 29 August 2009\" . Archived from the original on 3 September 2012. 101004 isro.org Jump up ^ \"It's not lunacy, probes find water in Moon dirt\" . USA Today. 23 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Water discovered on Moon?: \"A lot of it actually \" \" . The Hindu . 23 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 September 2009 . Jump up ^ India Space Programs and Exploration Handbook Jump up ^ A. S. Arya, R. P. Rajasekhar, Guneshwar Thangjam, Ajai and A. S. Kiran Kumar, \"Detection of potential site for future human habitability on the Moon using Chandrayaan-1 data\" , Current Science, Vol. 100 , NO. 4 , 25 February 2011 (accessed 24 January 2015) Jump up ^ \"After water, now Indian scientists find cave on Moon\" . Silicon India. 9 February 2010. Jump up ^ Drake, Nadia (25 March 2016). \"Scientists May Have Spotted Buried Lava Tubes on the Moon\" . National Geographic . ^ Jump up to: a b Priyadarshini, Subhra (25 April 2014). \"Moon shows Earth-like tectonic activity\" . Nature India . doi : 10.1038/nindia.2014.57 . Retrieved 29 April 2014 . Jump up ^ American astronautics society award for Chandrayaan-1 team news Jump up ^ Choudhury, Shubhadeep (30 November 2008). \"Chandrayaan-1 wins global award\" . Bangalore. Tribune News Service . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Jump up ^ \"NSS awards for 2009\" . National Space Society . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Hoover, Rachel (17 June 2010). \"NASA's Lunar Impact Mission Honored by National Space Society\" . National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The men behind the mission\" . NDTV. 22 October 2008. Archived from the original on 26 October 2008 . Retrieved 31 October 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Looking beyond Chandrayaan-1\" . Economic Times . 15 October 2008 . Retrieved 30 October 2008 . Jump up ^ \"The Chandrayaan Team\" . Zee News . Retrieved 30 October 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Launch authorization board\" . Telegraph India. 23 October 2008 . Retrieved 28 October 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Data From Chandrayaan Moon Mission To Go Public\" . Space-Travel. 6 September 2010 . Retrieved 10 September 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Chandrayaan-2 to be launched in January-March window in 2019\" . The Economic Times . Press Trust of India. 12 August 2018 . Retrieved 15 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Rathinavel, T. ; Singh, Jitendra (24 November 2016). \"Question No. 1084: Deployment of Rover on Lunar Surface\" (PDF) . Rajya Sabha . Jump up ^ David, Leonard (26 December 2006). \"Moonbase: In the Dark on Lunar Ice\" . Space.com . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chandrayaan-1 . Official website Datta, Jayati; Chakravarty, S. C. (2009). Chandrayaan-1: India's First Mission to Moon (PDF) . Indian Space Research Organisation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2009. show v t e Indian space programme Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Organisations Department of Space (DoS) Antrix Corporation Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS) National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) Physical Research Laboratory (DECU) Programmes Bhaskara GAGAN GSAT INSAT IRNSS IRS Cartosat RISAT Rohini SROSS Chandrayaan Human Spaceflight Programme Satellites APPLE Aditya-L1 Aryabhata Astrosat AstroSat-2 HAMSAT IMS-1 Megha-Tropiques NISAR SARAL South Asia Satellite SRE SRE II Kalpana-1 CARE Space probes Chandrayaan-1 Moon Impact Probe Chandrayaan-2 Mars Orbiter Mission Mars Orbiter Mission 2 Venus orbiter mission (proposed) Crewed spacecraft Gaganyaan Rockets Engine CE-7.5 CE-20 Orbital SLV ASLV PSLV GSLV GSLV Mark III Suborbital Rohini ATV Concepts ULV Under development RLV Technology Demonstration Programme RLV-TD Facilities Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN) ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) Master Control Facility (MCF) Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) ISRO Satellite Integration and Testing Establishment (ISITE) Vikram Sarabhai Space Center (VSSC) Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) ISRO Propulsion Complex See also SAGA-220 (supercomputer) List of Indian satellites List of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launches List of ISRO missions show v t e Indian spacecraft List of Indian satellites List of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launches List of ISRO missions Satellites Communication GSAT 1 2 3 (EDUSAT) 4 5P 6 6A 7 8 9 (South Asia Satellite) 10 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 HAMSAT INSAT 1A 1B 1C 1D 2A 2B 2C 2D 2DT 2E 3A 3B 3C 3D 3DR 3DS 3E 4A 4B 4C 4CR 4E 4F 4G Planned: GSAT 7A 11 20 22 23 24 29 Earth observation Bhaskara I II Cartosat 1 2 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F IMS-1 IRS 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E P1 P2 P3 Megha-Tropiques Microsat Oceansat 1 2 Resourcesat 1 2 RISAT 1 2 Rohini RS-D1 RS-D2 SARAL SCATSAT-1 Technology Experiment Satellite (TESS) Planned : Cartosat-3 NISAR GISAT Oceansat-3 Resourcesat-3 Experimental APPLE Aryabhata Rohini RS-1 Rohini Technology Payload (RTP) Navigation IRNSS 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F 1G Student satellites ANUSAT Jugnu SRMSAT StudSat StudSat-2 YouthSat Pratham Space probes Scientific SROSS A B C C2 Astronomical Astrosat Aditya-L1 ( planned ) Lunar programme Chandrayaan-1 Moon Impact Probe Chandrayaan-2 ( planned ) Inter-planetary Mars Orbiter Mission Mars Orbiter Mission 2 ( planned ) Venus orbiter mission ( planned ) Human spaceflight Indian human spaceflight programme SRE-1 SRE-II SRE-III Gaganyaan CARE Future spacecraft in italics . show v t e Spacecraft missions to the Moon Programs American Apollo Commercial Lunar Payload Services Lunar Orbiter Lunar Precursor Pioneer Ranger Surveyor Chinese (CLEP) Indian (Chandrayaan) Japanese Russian Luna-Glob Soviet Crewed Luna Zond Lunokhod Current Orbiters ARTEMIS Chang'e 5-T1 (Service Module) Longjiang-2 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Past Orbiters Apollo 8 10 Apollo 15 Subsatellite (PFS-1) Apollo 16 Subsatellite (PFS-2) Chandrayaan-1 Chang'e 1 Chang'e 2 Clementine Explorer 35 Explorer 49 GRAIL (Ebb & Flow) Hiten LADEE Luna 10 11 12 14 19 22 Lunar Orbiter 1 2 3 4 5 Lunar Prospector SELENE (Kaguya, Okina & Ouna) SMART-1 Flybys 4M Apollo 13 AsiaSat-3 Cassini–Huygens Chang'e 5-T1 (Xiaofei) Galileo Geotail ICE Longjiang-1 Luna 1 Luna 3 Mariner 10 Nozomi Pioneer 4 Pioneer 10 Ranger 5 STEREO TESS WIND WMAP Zond 3 5 6 7 8 Impactors LCROSS Luna 2 MIP Ranger 4 6 7 8 9 Landers Apollo Lunar Module x6 ALSEP (x5) and EASEP (x1) Chang'e 3 Luna 9 13 17 21 Surveyor 1 3 5 6 7 Rovers Apollo 15 16 17 Lunokhod 1 2 Yutu Sample return Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 Luna 16 20 24 Human landing Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 Planned EM-1 (2020) Orion ArgoMoon BioSentinel Cislunar Explorers CuSP CU-E 3 EQUULEUS LunaH-Map Lunar Flashlight Lunar IceCube NEA Scout OMOTENASHI SkyFire Team Miles Luna-Glob Luna 25 (2021) Luna 26 (2022) Luna 27 (2023) Luna 28 Luna 29 Others Chang'e 4 (2018) Sparrow (2018) Chandrayaan-2 (2019) Chang'e 5 (2019) MX-1E (2019) PTScientists (2019) Astrobotic / Hakuto / AngelicvM (2020) Chang'e 6 (2020) SLIM (2021) DESTINY + (2022) EM-2 (2023) EM-3 (2023+) Proposed Baden-Württemberg 1 Blue Origin Blue Moon DSE-Alpha International Lunar Network Lunar Lander Lunar Mission One Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway Lunar Orbital Station MoonLITE OpenLuna SELENE-R Synergy Moon TeamIndus Cancelled Altair European Lunar Explorer LEO LK Lunar-A Lunar Observer Lunokhod 3 MoonRise Prospector Resource Prospector SpaceX lunar tourism mission Ukrselena See also Colonization of the Moon Exploration of the Moon Google Lunar X Prize List of Apollo astronauts List of lunar probes List of artificial objects on the Moon List of missions to the Moon Lunar rover Moon landing Conspiracy theories Crewed missions in italics . show v t e 21st-century space probes Active space probes (deep space missions) Moon ARTEMIS Longjiang-2 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Mars ExoMars TGO InSight / MarCO Mangalyaan Mars Express 2001 Mars Odyssey MAVEN MER Opportunity MRO MSL Curiosity Venus Akatsuki IKAROS Minor planet Chang'e 2 Dawn Hayabusa2 / MASCOT New Horizons OSIRIS-REx PROCYON Solar science ACE DSCOVR Parker Solar Probe SOHO STEREO Wind Others Gaia Juno THEMIS Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Completed after 2000 (by termination date) 2001 NEAR Shoemaker Deep Space 1 2003 Pioneer 10 Galileo Nozomi 2004 Genesis 2005 Huygens 2006 Mars Global Surveyor 2008 Phoenix 2009 Chang'e 1 Ulysses Chandrayaan-1 SELENE LCROSS 2010 Hayabusa MER Spirit 2011 Stardust 2012 GRAIL 2013 Deep Impact 2014 LADEE Venus Express Chang'e 5-T1 2015 MESSENGER Chang'e 3 / Yutu 2016 Rosetta / Philae ExoMars Schiaparelli 2017 LISA Pathfinder Cassini List of Solar System probes List of lunar probes List of space telescopes show v t e ← 2007 · Orbital launches in 2008 · 2009 → Thuraya 3 | TecSAR | Ekspress AM-33 | Progress M-63 | STS-122 ( Columbus ) | Thor 5 | Kizuna | Jules Verne ATV | STS-123 ( Kibō ELM-PS · Dextre · Spacelab MD002 ) | USA-200 | AMC-14 | USA-201 | DirecTV-11 | SAR-Lupe 4 | Soyuz TMA-12 | ICO G1 | C/NOFS | Vinasat-1 · Star One C2 | Tianlian I-01 | GIOVE-B | Cartosat-2A · TWSAT · CanX-2 · CUTE-1.7 + APD II · Delfi-C3 · AAUSAT-II · Compass-1 · SEEDS-2 · CanX-6 · Rubin-8 | Amos-3 | Progress M-64 | Galaxy 18 | Kosmos 2437 · Kosmos 2438 · Kosmos 2439 · Yubileiny | Feng Yun 3A | STS-124 ( Kibō PM ) | ChinaSat 9 | Fermi | Skynet 5C · Türksat 3A | Orbcomm FM29 · Orbcomm FM37 · Orbcomm FM38 · Orbcomm FM39 · Orbcomm FM40 · Orbcomm FM41 | Jason-2 | Kosmos 2440 | Badr-6 · ProtoStar 1 | EchoStar XI | SAR-Lupe 5 | Kosmos 2441 | Trailblazer · NanoSail-D · PRESat · Explorers | Superbird-C2 · AMC-21 | Omid | Inmarsat-4 F3 | Tachys · Mati · Choma · Choros · Trochia | Huan Jing 1A · Huan Jing 1B | GeoEye-1 | Progress M-65 | Nimiq-4 | Galaxy 19 | Kosmos 2442 · Kosmos 2243 · Kosmos 2444 | Shenzhou 7 ( Banxing-1 ) | Ratsat | THEOS | Soyuz TMA-13 | IBEX | Chandrayaan-1 ( MIP ) | Shijian 6E · Shijian 6F | COSMO-3 | Venesat-1 | Chuang Xin 1B · Shiyan Weixing 3 | Astra 1M | Kosmos 2445 | STS-126 ( Leonardo MPLM · PSSC-1 ) | Progress M-01M | Yaogan 4 | Kosmos 2446 | Yaogan 5 | Hot Bird 9 · Eutelsat W2M | Feng Yun 2E | Kosmos 2447 · Kosmos 2448 · Kosmos 2449 Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Manned flights are indicated in bold text. Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in brackets. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chandrayaan-1&oldid=857064144 \" Categories : Space probes launched in 2008 2008 in India Missions to the Moon Indian lunar exploration programme ISRO space probes Space synthetic aperture radar Space radar altimeters Spacecraft launched by PSLV Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links EngvarB from February 2014 Use dmy dates from March 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية অসমীয়া বাংলা Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Latviešu Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Ślůnski کوردی Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Українська 中文 39 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 August 2018, at 09:40 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Chandrayaan-1", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Chandrayaan-1&amp;oldid=857064144" }

{ "text": "The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail - Wikipedia The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail Soundtrack album by Monty Python Released 18 July 1975 (UK) 21 July 1975 (US) Recorded 1974 (soundtrack) & 25 March 1975 (studio material) at Sunrise Music And Recording Ltd., London Genre Comedy Soundtrack Label Charisma (UK) Arista (US) Producer Andre Jacquemin Dave Howman Michael Palin Terry Jones Terry Gilliam Monty Python chronology Monty Python Live at Drury Lane (1974) The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) Monty Python Live at City Center (1976) Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating Allmusic [1] The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail is the first film soundtrack album by Monty Python , released in 1975. It features selected scenes from Monty Python and the Holy Grail interspersed with a large volume of new studio material, much of which centers on a spoof screening of the film at the Classic Silbury Hill Theatre. Also among the new items is the \"Marilyn Monroe\" sketch, which Graham Chapman co-wrote with Douglas Adams - the pair having recently collaborated on the fourth series of Monty Python . The album is billed as the \"Executive Version\" as a joke on popular \"special editions\" of albums that contained extra tracks unavailable on earlier versions. Naturally, no other version of this album existed in the original release. On the A side of the original UK vinyl release, the engraved text by George Peckham around the label reads: \" AN EXECUTIVE PORKY PRIME CUT \", while on the B side it reads: \" THIS IS THE SMALL DETAILED WRITING ON THE RECORD OF THE ALBUM OF THE SOUNDTRACK OF THE TRAILER OF THE FILM OF MONTY PYTHON AND THE HOLY GRAIL - THIS WRITING IS NOT INCLUDED ON THE EXECUTIVE VERSION OF THE ALBUM OF THE SOUNDTRACK OF THE TRAILER OF THE FILM OF MONTY PYTHON AND THE HOLY GRAIL \". The album reached No.45 in the UK album charts. [2] A CD reissue in 1997 contains extended versions of two sketches, \"Arrival At Castle\" and \"French Taunter\". This CD reissue also contains \"The Bridge of Death\". These additions are not available on any other version of the album. In 2006 a special edition was released containing three bonus tracks, consisting of two demos of unused Neil Innes songs and an audio extract of a documentary from the film's DVD release. This version of the CD does not contain \"The Bridge of Death\" or the two extended sketches. Also in 2006, yet another CD reissue was included in \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail: The Extraordinarily Deluxe DVD Edition\". The bonus features disc had instructions on how to play the record. This CD does not contain \"The Bridge of Death\", the bonus tracks, or the two extended versions. Contents 1 Track listing 1.1 Side one 1.2 Side two 1.3 Bonus Tracks on the 2006 special edition 2 Music credits 3 References Track listing [ edit ] Side one [ edit ] Introduction To The Executive Version Tour Of The Classic Silbury Hill Theatre Live Broadcast From London: Premiere Of The Film Narration From The Silbury Hill Gentlemen's Room Arrival At Castle (extended version on 1997 CD) Bring Out Your Dead Constitutional Peasants Witch Burning Logician Camelot Song The Quest For The Holy Grail Live From The Parking Lot At The Silbury Hill Theatre French Taunter (extended version on 1997 CD) Bomb Scare Side two [ edit ] This Is Side Two! Executive Version Announcement - Apology The Story So Far Brave Sir Robin The Knights Who Say Ni! Marilyn Monroe Swamp Castle Tim the Enchanter Drama Critique Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch The Bridge of Death (1997 CD version only) Executive Version Addendum French Taunter Part 2 Last Word Bonus Tracks on the 2006 special edition [ edit ] Arthur's Song Documentary - Terry Jones And Michael Palin Run Away Song Music credits [ edit ] The following is the list of musical works included on the album. They comprise a mixture of De Wolfe library music, self-penned Python songs and specially composed music by Neil Innes. Jeunesse (A. Mawer) Honours List (K. Papworth) Big Country (K. Papworth) Homeward Bound (T. Trombey) God Choir (Neil Innes) Fanfare (Neil Innes) Camelot Song (Graham Chapman, John Cleese & Neil Innes) Sunrise Music (Neil Innes) Magic Finger (K. Papworth) Sir Robin's Song (Eric Idle & Neil Innes) In The Shadows (No.3) (Paul Ferris) Desperate Moment (K. Essex) Knights Of Ni (Neil Innes) Circle Of Danger (B. Holmes) Love Theme (P. Knight) Magenta (R. Webb) Starlet In The Starlight (K. Essex) Monks Chant (Neil Innes) The Promised Land (S. Black) References [ edit ] Jump up ^ https://www.allmusic.com/album/r107852 Jump up ^ http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/27206/monty-pythons-flying-circus/ show v t e Monty Python Graham Chapman John Cleese Terry Gilliam Eric Idle Terry Jones Michael Palin Carol Cleveland Neil Innes Television series Flying Circus episodes Fliegender Zirkus Personal Best Films And Now for Something Completely Different Holy Grail Life of Brian Live at the Hollywood Bowl The Meaning of Life The Crimson Permanent Assurance Studio albums Another Record Previous Record Matching Tie and Handkerchief Holy Grail Life of Brian Contractual Obligation The Meaning of Life Compilation albums Instant Record Collection Final Rip Off Sings Ultimate Rip Off Instant CD Collection Total Rubbish Live albums Flying Circus Live at Drury Lane Live at City Center Specials Parrot Sketch Not Included Live at Aspen Python Night Documentaries The Pythons Life of Python Almost the Truth (Lawyers Cut) And Now for Something Rather Similar The Meaning of Live Stage productions Spamalot Not the Messiah (He's a Very Naughty Boy) An Evening Without Monty Python Live (Mostly) Literature Big Red Book Brand New Bok Holy Grail (Book) Life of Brian/SCRAPBOOK The Meaning of Life Just the Words Song Book A Pocketful of Python The Pythons Autobiography Live! Video games Flying Circus Complete Waste of Time Quest for the Holy Grail The Meaning of Life Cow Tossing Characters Mr Praline Gumbys The Colonel Mr Creosote Rabbit of Caerbannog Ron Obvious Other characters Sketches Albatross! Anne Elk's Theory on Brontosauruses Architects Argument Clinic Bishop Bruces Cheese Shop Colin \"Bomber\" Harris vs Colin \"Bomber\" Harris Crunchy Frog Dead Parrot Dirty Fork Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook Election Night Special Fish Licence Fish-Slapping Dance Four Yorkshiremen The Funniest Joke in the World How Not to Be Seen Kilimanjaro Expedition Lifeboat Marriage Guidance Counsellor Ministry of Silly Walks Mouse Problem Nudge Nudge Patient Abuse Philosophers' Football Match Piranha Brothers Sam Peckinpah's \"Salad Days\" Seduced Milkmen Self Defence Against Fresh Fruit Spam Spanish Inquisition Undertakers Upper Class Twit of the Year Vocational Guidance Counsellor World Forum/Communist Quiz Songs \" Always Look on the Bright Side of Life \" \" Brian Song \" \" Bruces' Philosophers Song \" \" Decomposing Composers \" \" Eric the Half-a-Bee \" \" Every Sperm Is Sacred \" \" Finland \" \" Galaxy Song \" \" I Bet You They Won't Play This Song on the Radio \" \" I Like Chinese \" \" I've Got Two Legs \" \" The Lumberjack Song \" \" Medical Love Song \" \" Never Be Rude to an Arab \" \" Oliver Cromwell \" \" Sit on My Face \" Related articles Filmography The Foot of Cupid Cambridge Circus I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again The Frost Report At Last the 1948 Show Twice a Fortnight Do Not Adjust Your Set We Have Ways of Making You Laugh Broaden Your Mind How to Irritate People The Complete and Utter History of Britain Teach Yourself Heath Tiny Black Round Thing Bert Fegg's Nasty Book for Boys and Girls Rutland Weekend Television Fawlty Towers Ripping Yarns Out of the Trees The Secret Policeman's Ball Python On Song All You Need Is Cash The Hastily Cobbled Together for a Fast Buck Album Monty Python Live Concert for George Diaries 1969–1979: The Python Years The Seventh Python Holy Flying Circus A Liar's Autobiography: The Untrue Story of Monty Python's Graham Chapman show v t e Monty Python and the Holy Grail Characters Knights Who Say Ni Black Knight Rabbit of Caerbannog Patsy Miscellaneous The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail Monty Python and the Holy Grail (Book) Spamalot Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Album_of_the_Soundtrack_of_the_Trailer_of_the_Film_of_Monty_Python_and_the_Holy_Grail&oldid=866227885 \" Categories : Monty Python soundtracks Monty Python and the Holy Grail 1975 soundtracks Arista Records soundtracks Charisma Records soundtracks Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2018, at 02:34 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Album_of_the_Soundtrack_of_the_Trailer_of_the_Film_of_Monty_Python_and_the_Holy_Grail&amp;oldid=866227885" }

{ "text": "Hydrolysis - Wikipedia Hydrolysis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Not to be confused with hydrogenolysis , hydroxylation , or water splitting . [ hide ] This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Generic mechanism for a hydrolysis reaction. (The 2-way yield symbol indicates an equilibrium in which hydrolysis and condensation can go both ways.) Hydrolysis ( / h aɪ ˈ d r ɒ l ɪ s ɪ s / ; from Ancient Greek hydro- , meaning 'water', and lysis , meaning 'to unbind') usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water . When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g. sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose ), this is termed saccharification . Generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance OR in the language of chemistry \"The reaction of cation and anion or both with water molecule due to which pH is altered, cleavage of H-O bond in hydrolysis takes place.\" Hydrolysis can be the reverse of a condensation reaction in which two molecules join together into a larger one and eject a water molecule. Thus hydrolysis adds water to break down, whereas condensation builds up by removing water and any other solvents. Contents [ hide ] 1 Types 1.1 Salts 1.2 Esters and amides 1.3 ATP 1.4 Polysaccharides 1.5 Metal aqua ions 2 See also 3 References Types [ edit ] Usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance. Sometimes this addition causes both substance and water molecule to split into two parts. In such reactions, one fragment of the target molecule (or parent molecule) gains a hydrogen ion . Salts [ edit ] A common kind of hydrolysis occurs when a salt of a weak acid or weak base (or both) is dissolved in water. Water spontaneously ionizes into hydroxide anions and hydronium cations . The salt also dissociates into its constituent anions and cations. For example, sodium acetate dissociates in water into sodium and acetate ions. Sodium ions react very little with the hydroxide ions whereas the acetate ions combine with hydronium ions to produce acetic acid . In this case the net result is a relative excess of hydroxide ions, yielding a basic solution . Strong acids also undergo hydrolysis. For example, dissolving sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) in water is accompanied by hydrolysis to give hydronium and bisulfate , the sulfuric acid's conjugate base . For a more technical discussion of what occurs during such a hydrolysis, see Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory . Esters and amides [ edit ] Acid–base-catalysed hydrolyses are very common; one example is the hydrolysis of amides or esters . Their hydrolysis occurs when the nucleophile (a nucleus-seeking agent, e.g., water or hydroxyl ion) attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide . In an aqueous base, hydroxyl ions are better nucleophiles than polar molecules such as water. In acids, the carbonyl group becomes protonated, and this leads to a much easier nucleophilic attack. The products for both hydrolyses are compounds with carboxylic acid groups. Perhaps the oldest commercially practiced example of ester hydrolysis is saponification (formation of soap). It is the hydrolysis of a triglyceride (fat) with an aqueous base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). During the process, glycerol is formed, and the fatty acids react with the base, converting them to salts. These salts are called soaps, commonly used in households. In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions (including ATP hydrolysis) take place during the catalysis of enzymes . The catalytic action of enzymes allows the hydrolysis of proteins , fats, oils, and carbohydrates . As an example, one may consider proteases (enzymes that aid digestion by causing hydrolysis of peptide bonds in proteins ). They catalyse the hydrolysis of interior peptide bonds in peptide chains, as opposed to exopeptidases (another class of enzymes, that catalyse the hydrolysis of terminal peptide bonds, liberating one free amino acid at a time). However, proteases do not catalyse the hydrolysis of all kinds of proteins. Their action is stereo-selective: Only proteins with a certain tertiary structure are targeted as some kind of orienting force is needed to place the amide group in the proper position for catalysis. The necessary contacts between an enzyme and its substrates (proteins) are created because the enzyme folds in such a way as to form a crevice into which the substrate fits; the crevice also contains the catalytic groups. Therefore, proteins that do not fit into the crevice will not undergo hydrolysis. This specificity preserves the integrity of other proteins such as hormones , and therefore the biological system continues to function normally. Upon hydrolysis, an amide converts into a carboxylic acid and an amine or ammonia (which in the presence of acid are immediately converted to ammonium salts). One of the two oxygen groups on the carboxylic acid are derived from a water molecule and the amine (or ammonia) gains the hydrogen ion. The hydrolysis of peptides gives amino acids . Mechanism for acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an amide. Many polyamide polymers such as nylon 6,6 hydrolyse in the presence of strong acids. The process leads to depolymerization . For this reason nylon products fail by fracturing when exposed to small amounts of acidic water. Polyesters are also susceptible to similar polymer degradation reactions. The problem is known as environmental stress cracking . ATP [ edit ] Hydrolysis is related to energy metabolism and storage. All living cells require a continual supply of energy for two main purposes: the biosynthesis of micro and macromolecules, and the active transport of ions and molecules across cell membranes. The energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients is not used directly but, by means of a complex and long sequence of reactions, it is channelled into a special energy-storage molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule contains pyrophosphate linkages (bonds formed when two phosphate units are combined together) that release energy when needed. ATP can undergo hydrolysis in two ways: the removal of terminal phosphate to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, or the removal of a terminal diphosphate to yield adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and pyrophosphate . The latter usually undergoes further cleavage into its two constituent phosphates. This results in biosynthesis reactions, which usually occur in chains, that can be driven in the direction of synthesis when the phosphate bonds have undergone hydrolysis. Polysaccharides [ edit ] Sucrose. The glycoside bond is represented by the central oxygen atom, which holds the two monosaccharide units together. Monosaccharides can be linked together by glycosidic bonds , which can be cleaved by hydrolysis. Two, three, several or many monosaccharides thus linked form disaccharides , trisaccharides , oligosaccharides or polysaccharides , respectively. Enzymes that hydrolyse glycosidic bonds are called \" glycoside hydrolases \" or \"glycosidases\". The best-known disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar). Hydrolysis of sucrose yields glucose and fructose . Invertase is a sucrase used industrially for the hydrolysis of sucrose to so-called invert sugar . Lactase is essential for digestive hydrolysis of lactose in milk; many adult humans do not produce lactase and cannot digest the lactose in milk (not a disorder). The hydrolysis of polysaccharides to soluble sugars is called \"saccharification\". Malt made from barley is used as a source of β-amylase to break down starch into the disaccharide maltose , which can be used by yeast to produce beer . Other amylase enzymes may convert starch to glucose or to oligosaccharides. Cellulose is first hydrolyzed to cellobiose by cellulase and then cellobiose is further hydrolyzed to glucose by beta-glucosidase . Ruminants such as cows are able to hydrolyze cellulose into cellobiose and then glucose because of symbiotic bacteria that produce cellulases. Metal aqua ions [ edit ] Main article: Metal ions in aqueous solution Metal ions are Lewis acids , and in aqueous solution they form metal aqua ions of the general formula M(H 2 O) n m+ . [1] [2] The aqua ions undergo hydrolysis, to a greater or lesser extent. The first hydrolysis step is given generically as M(H 2 O) n m+ + H 2 O ⇌ M(H 2 O) n−1 (OH) (m−1)+ + H 3 O + Thus the aqua cations behave as acids in terms of Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory . This effect is easily explained by considering the inductive effect of the positively charged metal ion, which weakens the O-H bond of an attached water molecule, making the liberation of a proton relatively easy. The dissociation constant , pK a , for this reaction is more or less linearly related to the charge-to-size ratio of the metal ion. [3] Ions with low charges, such as Na + are very weak acids with almost imperceptible hydrolysis. Large divalent ions such as Ca 2+ , Zn 2+ , Sn 2+ and Pb 2+ have a pK a of 6 or more and would not normally be classed as acids, but small divalent ions such as Be 2+ undergo extensive hydrolysis. Trivalent ions like Al 3+ and Fe 3+ are weak acids whose pK a is comparable to that of acetic acid . Solutions of salts such as BeCl 2 or Al(NO 3 ) 3 in water are noticeably acidic ; the hydrolysis can be suppressed by adding an acid such as nitric acid , making the solution more acidic. Hydrolysis may proceed beyond the first step, often with the formation of polynuclear species via the process of olation . [3] Some \"exotic\" species such as Sn 3 (OH) 4 2+ [4] are well characterized. Hydrolysis tends to proceed as pH rises leading, in many cases, to the precipitation of a hydroxide such as Al(OH) 3 or AlO(OH). These substances, major constituents of bauxite , are known as laterites and are formed by leaching from rocks of most of the ions other than aluminium and iron and subsequent hydrolysis of the remaining aluminium and iron. See also [ edit ] Adenosine triphosphate Catabolism Condensation reaction Dehydration synthesis Hydrolysis constant Inhibitor protein Polymer degradation Proteolysis Sol-gel polymerisation Solvolysis Thermal hydrolysis Tissue digestion References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Burgess, J. (1978). Metal ions in solution . New York: Ellis Horwood. Jump up ^ Richens, D. T. (1997). The chemistry of aqua ions: synthesis, structure, and reactivity: a tour through the periodic table of the elements . Wiley. ISBN 0-471-97058-1 . ^ Jump up to: a b Baes, C.F.; Mesmer, R.E. The Hydrolysis of Cations , (1976), Wiley, New York Jump up ^ Greenwood, Norman N. ; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann . p. 384. ISBN 0-08-037941-9 . 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{ "text": "Nebular hypothesis - Wikipedia Nebular hypothesis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Star formation Object classes Interstellar medium Molecular cloud Bok globule Dark nebula Young stellar object Protostar T Tauri star Pre-main-sequence star Herbig Ae/Be star Herbig–Haro object Theoretical concepts Accretion Initial mass function Jeans instability Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism Nebular hypothesis Planetary migration Star portal v t e The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System (as well as other planetary systems ). It suggests that the Solar System formed from nebulous material. The theory was developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (\"Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens\"), published in 1755. Originally applied to the Solar System , the process of planetary system formation is now thought to be at work throughout the Universe . [1] The widely accepted modern variant of the nebular hypothesis is the solar nebular disk model (SNDM) or solar nebular model . [2] It offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System, including the nearly circular and coplanar orbits of the planets, and their motion in the same direction as the Sun's rotation. Some elements of the nebular hypothesis are echoed in modern theories of planetary formation, but most elements have been superseded. According to the nebular hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen — giant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk , proplyd , around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years. [1] The protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star. Initially very hot, the disk later cools in what is known as the T tauri star stage; here, formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ice is possible. The grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer-sized planetesimals . If the disk is massive enough, the runaway accretions begin, resulting in the rapid—100,000 to 300,000 years—formation of Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos . Near the star, the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers, producing a few terrestrial planets . The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years. [1] The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the frost line , where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice. As a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10 Earth masses —the threshold value, which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen – helium gas from the disk. The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process, which continues for several million years, but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses ( M ⊕ ) it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner. Jupiter - and Saturn -like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted. The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation. Ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune are thought to be failed cores, which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared. [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Solar nebular model: achievements and problems 2.1 Achievements 2.2 Current issues 3 Formation of stars and protoplanetary disks 3.1 Protostars 3.2 Protoplanetary disks 4 Formation of planets 4.1 Rocky planets 4.2 Giant planets 4.3 Exoplanets 5 Meaning of accretion 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links History [ edit ] Main article: History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses There is evidence that Emanuel Swedenborg first proposed parts of the nebular hypothesis in 1734. [3] [4] Immanuel Kant , familiar with Swedenborg's work, developed the theory further in 1755, publishing his own Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens , wherein he argued that gaseous clouds ( nebulae ) slowly rotate, gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity , eventually forming stars and planets . [2] Pierre-Simon Laplace independently developed and proposed a similar model in 1796 [2] in his Exposition du systeme du monde . He envisioned that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System. His theory featured a contracting and cooling protosolar cloud—the protosolar nebula. As this cooled and contracted, it flattened and spun more rapidly, throwing off (or shedding) a series of gaseous rings of material; and according to him, the planets condensed from this material. His model was similar to Kant's, except more detailed and on a smaller scale. [2] While the Laplacian nebular model dominated in the 19th century, it encountered a number of difficulties. The main problem involved angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets. The planets have 99% of the angular momentum, and this fact could not be explained by the nebular model. [2] As a result, astronomers largely abandoned this theory of planet formation at the beginning of the 20th century. A major critique came during the 19th century from James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), who maintained that different rotation between the inner and outer parts of a ring could not allow condensation of material. [5] Astronomer Sir David Brewster also rejected Laplace, writing in 1876 that \"those who believe in the Nebular Theory consider it as certain that our Earth derived its solid matter and its atmosphere from a ring thrown from the Solar atmosphere, which afterwards contracted into a solid terraqueous sphere, from which the Moon was thrown off by the same process\". He argued that under such view, \"the Moon must necessarily have carried off water and air from the watery and aerial parts of the Earth and must have an atmosphere\". [6] Brewster claimed that Sir Isaac Newton 's religious beliefs had previously considered nebular ideas as tending to atheism, and quoted him as saying that \"the growth of new systems out of old ones, without the mediation of a Divine power, seemed to him apparently absurd\". [7] The perceived deficiencies of the Laplacian model stimulated scientists to find a replacement for it. During the 20th century many theories addressed the issue, including the planetesimal theory of Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton (1901), the tidal model of Jeans (1917), the accretion model of Otto Schmidt (1944), the protoplanet theory of William McCrea (1960) and finally the capture theory of Michael Woolfson . [2] In 1978 Andrew Prentice resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the modern Laplacian theory . [2] None of these attempts proved completely successful, and many of the proposed theories were descriptive. The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation—the solar nebular disk model (SNDM)—can be traced to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov . [8] His 1969 book Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets , [9] which was translated to English in 1972, had a long-lasting effect on the way scientists think about the formation of the planets. [10] In this book almost all major problems of the planetary formation process were formulated and some of them solved. Safronov's ideas were further developed in the works of George Wetherill , who discovered runaway accretion . [2] While originally applied only to the Solar System , the SNDM was subsequently thought by theorists to be at work throughout the Universe; as of 1 November 2017 astronomers have discovered 3,693 extrasolar planets in our galaxy . [11] Solar nebular model: achievements and problems [ edit ] Achievements [ edit ] The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of accretion disks around young stellar objects. [12] At the age of about 1 million years, 100% of stars may have such disks. [13] This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around protostars and T Tauri stars as well as by theoretical considerations. [14] Observations of these disks show that the dust grains inside them grow in size on short (thousand-year) time scales, producing 1 centimeter sized particles. [15] The accretion process, by which 1 km planetesimals grow into 1,000 km sized bodies, is well understood now. [16] This process develops inside any disk where the number density of planetesimals is sufficiently high, and proceeds in a runaway manner. Growth later slows and continues as oligarchic accretion. The end result is formation of planetary embryos of varying sizes, which depend on the distance from the star. [16] Various simulations have demonstrated that the merger of embryos in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk leads to the formation of a few Earth-sized bodies. Thus the origin of terrestrial planets is now considered to be an almost solved problem. [17] Current issues [ edit ] The physics of accretion disks encounters some problems. [18] The most important one is how the material, which is accreted by the protostar, loses its angular momentum . One possible explanation suggested by Hannes Alfvén was that angular momentum was shed by the solar wind during its T Tauri star phase. The momentum is transported to the outer parts of the disk by viscous stresses. [19] Viscosity is generated by macroscopic turbulence, but the precise mechanism that produces this turbulence is not well understood. Another possible process for shedding angular momentum is magnetic braking , where the spin of the star is transferred into the surrounding disk via that star's magnetic field. [20] The main processes responsible for the disappearance of the gas in disks are viscous diffusion and photo-evaporation. [21] [22] The formation of planetesimals is the biggest unsolved problem in the nebular disk model. How 1 cm sized particles coalesce into 1 km planetesimals is a mystery. This mechanism appears to be the key to the question as to why some stars have planets, while others have nothing around them, not even dust belts . [23] The formation timescale of giant planets is also an important problem. Old theories were unable to explain how their cores could form fast enough to accumulate significant amounts of gas from the quickly disappearing protoplanetary disk. [16] [24] The mean lifetime of the disks, which is less than ten million (10 7 ) years, appeared to be shorter than the time necessary for the core formation. [13] Much progress has been done to solve this problem and current models of giant planet formation are now capable of forming Jupiter (or more massive planets) in about 4 million years or less, well within the average lifetime of gaseous disks. [25] [26] [27] Another potential problem of giant planet formation is their orbital migration . Some calculations show that interaction with the disk can cause rapid inward migration, which, if not stopped, results in the planet reaching the \"central regions still as a sub-Jovian object.\" [28] More recent calculations indicate that disk evolution during migration can mitigate this problem. [29] Formation of stars and protoplanetary disks [ edit ] Protostars [ edit ] Main article: Protostar The visible-light (left) and infrared (right) views of the Trifid Nebula —a giant star-forming cloud of gas and dust located 5,400 light-years away in the constellation Sagittarius Stars are thought to form inside giant clouds of cold molecular hydrogen — giant molecular clouds roughly 300,000 times the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) and 20 parsecs in diameter. [1] [30] Over millions of years, giant molecular clouds are prone to collapse and fragmentation. [31] These fragments then form small, dense cores, which in turn collapse into stars. [30] The cores range in mass from a fraction to several times that of the Sun and are called protostellar (protosolar) nebulae. [1] They possess diameters of 0.01–0.1 pc (2,000–20,000 AU) and a particle number density of roughly 10,000 to 100,000 cm −3 . [a] [30] [32] The initial collapse of a solar-mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years. [1] [30] Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum . Gas in the central part of the nebula, with relatively low angular momentum, undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic (not contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula. [33] This core forms the seed of what will become a star. [1] [33] As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation of the infalling envelop accelerates, [34] [35] which largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core. The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane, forming a disk , which in turn accretes onto the core. [1] [34] [35] The core gradually grows in mass until it becomes a young hot protostar . [33] At this stage, the protostar and its disk are heavily obscured by the infalling envelope and are not directly observable. [12] In fact the remaining envelope's opacity is so high that even millimeter-wave radiation has trouble escaping from inside it. [1] [12] Such objects are observed as very bright condensations, which emit mainly millimeter-wave and submillimeter-wave radiation. [32] They are classified as spectral Class 0 protostars. [12] The collapse is often accompanied by bipolar outflows — jets —that emanate along the rotational axis of the inferred disk. The jets are frequently observed in star-forming regions (see Herbig–Haro (HH) objects ). [36] The luminosity of the Class 0 protostars is high — a solar-mass protostar may radiate at up to 100 solar luminosities. [12] The source of this energy is gravitational collapse , as their cores are not yet hot enough to begin nuclear fusion . [33] [37] Infrared image of the molecular outflow from an otherwise hidden newborn star HH 46/47 As the infall of its material onto the disk continues, the envelope eventually becomes thin and transparent and the young stellar object (YSO) becomes observable, initially in far-infrared light and later in the visible. [32] Around this time the protostar begins to fuse deuterium . If the protostar is sufficiently massive (above 80 Jupiter masses ( M J )), hydrogen fusion follows. Otherwise, if its mass is too low, the object becomes a brown dwarf . [37] This birth of a new star occurs approximately 100,000 years after the collapse begins. [1] Objects at this stage are known as Class I protostars, [12] which are also called young T Tauri stars , evolved protostars, or young stellar objects. [12] By this time the forming star has already accreted much of its mass: the total mass of the disk and remaining envelope does not exceed 10–20% of the mass of the central YSO. [32] At the next stage the envelope completely disappears, having been gathered up by the disk, and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star. [b] This happens after about 1 million years. [1] The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1–3% of the stellar mass, and it is accreted at a rate of 10 −7 to 10 −9 M ☉ per year. [40] A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well. [41] The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars: strong flux in the emission lines (up to 100% of the intrinsic luminosity of the star), magnetic activity, photometric variability and jets. [42] The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the \"surface\" of the star, which happens around its magnetic poles . [42] The jets are byproducts of accretion: they carry away excessive angular momentum. The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years. [1] The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star, planet formation, ejection by jets and photoevaporation by UV-radiation from the central star and nearby stars. [43] As a result, the young star becomes a weakly lined T Tauri star , which slowly, over hundreds of millions of years, evolves into an ordinary Sun-like star. [33] Protoplanetary disks [ edit ] See also: Protoplanetary disk and planetesimal Debris disks detected in HST archival images of young stars, HD 141943 and HD 191089 , using improved imaging processes (24 April 2014). [44] Under certain circumstances the disk, which can now be called protoplanetary, may give birth to a planetary system . [1] Protoplanetary disks have been observed around a very high fraction of stars in young star clusters . [13] [45] They exist from the beginning of a star's formation, but at the earliest stages are unobservable due to the opacity of the surrounding envelope. [12] The disk of a Class 0 protostar is thought to be massive and hot. It is an accretion disk , which feeds the central protostar. [34] [35] The temperature can easily exceed 400 K inside 5 AU and 1,000 K inside 1 AU. [46] The heating of the disk is primarily caused by the viscous dissipation of turbulence in it and by the infall of the gas from the nebula. [34] [35] The high temperature in the inner disk causes most of the volatile material—water, organics, and some rocks to evaporate, leaving only the most refractory elements like iron . The ice can survive only in the outer part of the disk. [46] A protoplanetary disk forming in the Orion Nebula The main problem in the physics of accretion disks is the generation of turbulence and the mechanism responsible for the high effective viscosity . [1] The turbulent viscosity is thought to be responsible for the transport of the mass to the central protostar and momentum to the periphery of the disk. This is vital for accretion, because the gas can be accreted by the central protostar only if it loses most of its angular momentum, which must be carried away by the small part of the gas drifting outwards. [34] [47] The result of this process is the growth of both the protostar and of the disk radius , which can reach 1,000 AU if the initial angular momentum of the nebula is large enough. [35] Large disks are routinely observed in many star-forming regions such as the Orion nebula . [14] Play media Artist's impression of the disc and gas streams around young star HD 142527 . [48] The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years. [13] By the time the star reaches the classical T-Tauri stage, the disk becomes thinner and cools. [40] Less volatile materials start to condense close to its center, forming 0.1–1 μm dust grains that contain crystalline silicates . [15] The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed dust grains with primordial ones, which contain organic matter and other volatiles. This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of interstellar grains in the primitive meteorites and refractory inclusions in comets. [46] Various planet formation processes, including exocomets and other planetesimals , around Beta Pictoris , a very young type A V star ( NASA artist's conception). Dust particles tend to stick to each other in the dense disk environment, leading to the formation of larger particles up to several centimeters in size. [49] The signatures of the dust processing and coagulation are observed in the infrared spectra of the young disks. [15] Further aggregation can lead to the formation of planetesimals measuring 1 km across or larger, which are the building blocks of planets . [1] [49] Planetesimal formation is another unsolved problem of disk physics, as simple sticking becomes ineffective as dust particles grow larger. [23] One hypothesis is formation by the gravitational instability . Particles several centimeters in size or larger slowly settle near the middle plane of the disk, forming a very thin—less than 100 km—and dense layer. This layer is gravitationally unstable and may fragment into numerous clumps, which in turn collapse into planetesimals. [1] [23] However, the differing velocities of the gas disk and the solids near the mid-plane can generate turbulence which prevents the layer from becoming thin enough to fragment due to gravitational instability. [50] This may limit the formation of planetesimals via gravitational instabilities to specific locations in the disk where the concentration of solids is enhanced. [51] Another possible mechanism for the formation of planetesimals is the streaming instability in which the drag felt by particles orbiting through gas creates a feedback effect causing the growth of local concentrations. These local concentration push back on the gas creating a region where the headwind felt by the particles is smaller. The concentration is thus able to orbit faster and undergoes less radial drift. Isolated particles join these concentrations as they are overtaken or as they drift inward causing it to grow in mass. Eventually these concentrations form massive filaments which fragment and undergo gravitational collapse forming planetesimals the size of the larger asteroids. [52] Planetary formation can also be triggered by gravitational instability within the disk itself, which leads to its fragmentation into clumps. Some of them, if they are dense enough, will collapse , [47] which can lead to rapid formation of gas giant planets and even brown dwarfs on the timescale of 1,000 years. [53] If these clumps migrate inward as the collapse proceeds tidal forces from the star can result in a significant mass loss leaving behind a smaller body. [54] However it is only possible in massive disks—more massive than 0.3 M ☉ . In comparison, typical disk masses are 0.01–0.03 M ☉ . Because the massive disks are rare, this mechanism of the planet formation is thought to be infrequent. [1] [18] On the other hand, this mechanism may play a major role in the formation of brown dwarfs . [55] Asteroid collision—building planets (artist concept). The ultimate dissipation of protoplanetary disks is triggered by a number of different mechanisms. The inner part of the disk is either accreted by the star or ejected by the bipolar jets , [40] [41] whereas the outer part can evaporate under the star's powerful UV radiation during the T Tauri stage [56] or by nearby stars. [43] The gas in the central part can either be accreted or ejected by the growing planets, while the small dust particles are ejected by the radiation pressure of the central star. What is finally left is either a planetary system, a remnant disk of dust without planets, or nothing, if planetesimals failed to form. [1] Because planetesimals are so numerous, and spread throughout the protoplanetary disk, some survive the formation of a planetary system. Asteroids are understood to be left-over planetesimals, gradually grinding each other down into smaller and smaller bits, while comets are typically planetesimals from the farther reaches of a planetary system. Meteorites are samples of planetesimals that reach a planetary surface, and provide a great deal of information about the formation of the Solar System. Primitive-type meteorites are chunks of shattered low-mass planetesimals, where no thermal differentiation took place, while processed-type meteorites are chunks from shattered massive planetesimals. [57] Formation of planets [ edit ] Rocky planets [ edit ] According to the solar nebular disk model, rocky planets form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk, within the frost line , where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains. [58] This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals. [c] [58] Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3–4 AU part of the disk of a Sun-like star. [1] After small planetesimals—about 1 km in diameter—have formed by one way or another, runaway accretion begins. [16] It is called runaway because the mass growth rate is proportional to R 4 ~M 4/3 , where R and M are the radius and mass of the growing body, respectively. [59] It is obvious that the specific (divided by mass) growth accelerates as the mass increases. This leads to the preferential growth of larger bodies at the expense of smaller ones. [16] The runaway accretion lasts between 10,000 and 100,000 years and ends when the largest bodies exceed approximately 1,000 km in diameter. [16] Slowing of the accretion is caused by gravitational perturbations by large bodies on the remaining planetesimals. [16] [59] In addition, the influence of larger bodies stops further growth of smaller bodies. [16] The next stage is called oligarchic accretion . [16] It is characterized by the dominance of several hundred of the largest bodies—oligarchs, which continue to slowly accrete planetesimals. [16] No body other than the oligarchs can grow. [59] At this stage the rate of accretion is proportional to R 2 , which is derived from the geometrical cross-section of an oligarch. [59] The specific accretion rate is proportional to M −1/3 ; and it declines with the mass of the body. This allows smaller oligarchs to catch up to larger ones. The oligarchs are kept at the distance of about 10·H r ( H r = a(1-e)(M/3M s ) 1/3 is the Hill radius , where a is the semimajor axis , e is the orbital eccentricity , and M s is the mass of the central star) from each other by the influence of the remaining planetesimals. [16] Their orbital eccentricities and inclinations remain small. The oligarchs continue to accrete until planetesimals are exhausted in the disk around them. [16] Sometimes nearby oligarchs merge. The final mass of an oligarch depends on the distance from the star and surface density of planetesimals and is called the isolation mass. [59] For the rocky planets it is up to 0.1 M ⊕ , or one Mars mass. [1] The final result of the oligarchic stage is the formation of about 100 Moon - to Mars-sized planetary embryos uniformly spaced at about 10·H r . [17] They are thought to reside inside gaps in the disk and to be separated by rings of remaining planetesimals. This stage is thought to last a few hundred thousand years. [1] [16] The last stage of rocky planet formation is the merger stage . [1] It begins when only a small number of planetesimals remains and embryos become massive enough to perturb each other, which causes their orbits to become chaotic . [17] During this stage embryos expel remaining planetesimals, and collide with each other. The result of this process, which lasts for 10 to 100 million years, is the formation of a limited number of Earth sized bodies. Simulations show that the number of surviving planets is on average from 2 to 5. [1] [17] [57] [60] In the Solar System they may be represented by Earth and Venus . [17] Formation of both planets required merging of approximately 10–20 embryos, while an equal number of them were thrown out of the Solar System. [57] Some of the embryos, which originated in the asteroid belt , are thought to have brought water to Earth. [58] Mars and Mercury may be regarded as remaining embryos that survived that rivalry. [57] Rocky planets, which have managed to coalesce, settle eventually into more or less stable orbits, explaining why planetary systems are generally packed to the limit; or, in other words, why they always appear to be at the brink of instability. [17] Giant planets [ edit ] The dust disk around Fomalhaut —the brightest star in Piscis Austrinus constellation. Asymmetry of the disk may be caused by a giant planet (or planets) orbiting the star. The formation of giant planets is an outstanding problem in the planetary sciences . [18] In the framework of the solar nebular model two theories for their formation exist. The first one is the disk instability model , where giant planets form in the massive protoplanetary disks as a result of its gravitational fragmentation (see above). [53] The second possibility is the core accretion model , which is also known as the nucleated instability model . [18] [29] The latter scenario is thought to be the most promising one, because it can explain the formation of the giant planets in relatively low-mass disks (less than 0.1 M ☉ ). [29] In this model giant planet formation is divided into two stages: a) accretion of a core of approximately 10 M ⊕ and b) accretion of gas from the protoplanetary disk. [1] [18] Either method may also lead to the creation of brown dwarfs . [26] [61] Searches as of 2011 have found that core accretion is likely the dominant formation mechanism. [61] Giant planet core formation is thought to proceed roughly along the lines of the terrestrial planet formation. [16] It starts with planetesimals that undergo runaway growth, followed by the slower oligarchic stage. [59] Hypotheses do not predict a merger stage, due to the low probability of collisions between planetary embryos in the outer part of planetary systems. [59] An additional difference is the composition of the planetesimals , which in the case of giant planets form beyond the so-called snow line and consist mainly of ice—the ice to rock ratio is about 4 to 1. [24] This enhances the mass of planetesimals fourfold. However, the minimum mass nebula capable of terrestrial planet formation can only form 1–2 M ⊕ cores at the distance of Jupiter (5 AU) within 10 million years. [59] The latter number represents the average lifetime of gaseous disks around Sun-like stars. [13] The proposed solutions include enhanced mass of the disk—a tenfold increase would suffice; [59] protoplanet migration, which allows the embryo to accrete more planetesimals; [24] and finally accretion enhancement due to gas drag in the gaseous envelopes of the embryos. [24] [27] [62] Some combination of the above-mentioned ideas may explain the formation of the cores of gas giant planets such as Jupiter and perhaps even Saturn . [18] The formation of planets like Uranus and Neptune is more problematic, since no theory has been capable of providing for the in situ formation of their cores at the distance of 20–30 AU from the central star. [1] One hypothesis is that they initially accreted in the Jupiter-Saturn region, then were scattered and migrated to their present location. [63] Another possible solution is the growth of the cores of the giant planets via pebble accretion . In pebble accretion objects between a cm and a meter in diameter falling toward a massive body are slowed enough by gas drag for them to spiral toward it and be accreted. Growth via pebble accretion may be as much as 1000 times faster than by the accretion of planesimals. [64] Once the cores are of sufficient mass (5–10 M ⊕ ), they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk. [1] Initially it is a slow process, increasing the core masses up to 30 M ⊕ in a few million years. [24] [62] After that, the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90% of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10,000 years. [62] The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted. This happens gradually, due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal. [29] [65] In this model ice giants—Uranus and Neptune—are failed cores that began gas accretion too late, when almost all gas had already disappeared. The post-runaway-gas-accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion. [65] Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk. It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained. The latter case corresponds to the so-called hot Jupiters , which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk. [65] In this artist's conception, a planet spins through a clearing (gap) in a nearby star's dusty, planet-forming disc. Giant planets can significantly influence terrestrial planet formation. The presence of giants tends to increase eccentricities and inclinations (see Kozai mechanism ) of planetesimals and embryos in the terrestrial planet region (inside 4 AU in the Solar System). [57] [60] If giant planets form too early, they can slow or prevent inner planet accretion. If they form near the end of the oligarchic stage, as is thought to have happened in the Solar System, they will influence the merges of planetary embryos, making them more violent. [57] As a result, the number of terrestrial planets will decrease and they will be more massive. [66] In addition, the size of the system will shrink, because terrestrial planets will form closer to the central star. The influence of giant planets in the Solar System, particularly that of Jupiter , is thought to have been limited because they are relatively remote from the terrestrial planets. [66] The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way. [60] In such a region, eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet, which may cause them to be ejected from the system. [d] [57] [60] If all embryos are removed, then no planets will form in this region. [60] An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain, because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos. The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small, because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99% of the small bodies. [57] Such a region will eventually evolve into an asteroid belt , which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System, located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun. [57] [60] Exoplanets [ edit ] Thousands of exoplanets have been identified in the last twenty years. The orbits of many of these planets and systems of planets differ significantly from the planets in the Solar System. The exoplanets discovered include hot-Jupiters, warm-Jupiters, super-Earths, and systems of tightly packed inner planets. The hot-Jupiters and warm-Jupiters are thought to have migrated to their current orbits during or following their formation. A number of possible mechanisms for this migration have been proposed. Type I or Type II migration could smoothly decrease the semimajor axis of the planet's orbit resulting in a warm- or hot-Jupiter. Gravitational scattering by other planets onto eccentric orbits with a perihelion near the star followed by the circularization of its orbit due to tidal interactions with the star can leave a planet on a close orbit. If a massive companion planet or star on an inclined orbit was present an exchange of inclination for eccentricity via the Kozai mechanism raising eccentricities and lowering perihelion followed by circularization can also result in a close orbit. Many of the Jupiter sized planets have eccentric orbits which may indicate that gravitational encounters occurred between the planets, although migration while in resonance can also excite eccentricities. [67] The in situ growth of hot Jupiters from closely orbiting super Earths has also been proposed. The cores in this hypothesis could have formed locally or at a greater distance and migrated close to the star. [68] Super-Earths and other closely orbiting planets are thought to have either formed in situ or to have migrated inward from their initial locations. The in situ formation of closely orbiting super-Earths would require a massive disk, the migration of planetary embryos followed by collisions and mergers, or the radial drift of small solids from farther out in the disk. The migration of the super-Earths, or the embryos that collided to form them, is likely to have been Type I due to their smaller mass. The resonant orbits of some of the exoplanet systems indicates that some migration occurred in these systems, while the spacing of the orbits in many of the other systems not in resonance indicates that an instability likely occurred in those systems after the dissipation of the gas disk. The absence of Super-Earths and closely orbiting planets in the Solar System may be due to the previous formation of Jupiter blocking their inward migration. [69] The amount of gas a super-Earth that formed in situ acquires may depend on when the planetary embryos merged due to giant impacts relative to the dissipation of the gas disk. If the mergers happen after the gas disk dissipates terrestrial planets can form, if in a transition disk a super-Earth with a gas envelope containing a few percent of its mass may form. If the mergers happen too early runaway gas accretion may occur leading to the formation of a gas giant. The mergers begin when the dynamical friction due to the gas disk becomes insufficient to prevent collisions, a process that will begin earlier in a higher metalicity disk. [70] Alternatively gas accretion may be limited due to the envelopes not being in hydrostatic equilibrium, instead gas may flow through the envelope slowing its growth and delaying the onset of runaway gas accretion until the mass of the core reaches 15 Earth masses. [71] Meaning of accretion [ edit ] Use of the term \" accretion disk \" for the protoplanetary disk leads to confusion over the planetary accretion process. The protoplanetary disk is sometimes referred to as an accretion disk, because while the young T Tauri -like protostar is still contracting, gaseous material may still be falling onto it, accreting on its surface from the disk's inner edge. [35] In an accretion disk, there is a net flux of mass from larger radii toward smaller radii. [19] However, that meaning should not be confused with the process of accretion forming the planets. In this context, accretion refers to the process of cooled, solidified grains of dust and ice orbiting the protostar in the protoplanetary disk, colliding and sticking together and gradually growing, up to and including the high-energy collisions between sizable planetesimals . [16] In addition, the giant planets probably had accretion disks of their own, in the first meaning of the word. [72] The clouds of captured hydrogen and helium gas contracted, spun up, flattened, and deposited gas onto the surface of each giant protoplanet , while solid bodies within that disk accreted into the giant planet's regular moons. [73] See also [ edit ] Book: Solar System Asteroid belt Bok globule Comet Exocomet Formation and evolution of the Solar System Herbig–Haro object History of Earth Kuiper belt Oort cloud T Tauri star Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Compare it with the particle number density of the air at the sea level— 7019280000000000000♠ 2.8 × 10 19 cm −3 . Jump up ^ The T Tauri stars are young stars with mass less than about 2.5 M ☉ showing a heightened level of activity. They are divided into two classes: weakly lined and classical T Tauri stars. [38] The latter have accretion disks and continue to accrete hot gas, which manifests itself by strong emission lines in their spectrum. The former do not possess accretion disks. Classical T Tauri stars evolve into weakly lined T Tauri stars. [39] Jump up ^ The planetesimals near the outer edge of the terrestrial planet region—2.5 to 4 AU from the Sun—may accumulate some amount of ice. 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Jump up ^ Font, Andreea S.; McCarthy, Ian G.; Johnstone, Doug; Ballantyne, David R. (2004). \"Photoevaporation of circumstellar disks around young stars\". The Astrophysical Journal . 607 (2): 890–903. arXiv : astro-ph/0402241 . Bibcode : 2004ApJ...607..890F . doi : 10.1086/383518 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Bottke, William F.; Durda, Daniel D.; Nesvorny, David; et al. (2005). \"Linking the collisional history of the main asteroid belt to its dynamical excitation and depletion\" (PDF) . Icarus . 179 (1): 63–94. Bibcode : 2005Icar..179...63B . doi : 10.1016/j.icarus.2005.05.017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Raymond, Sean N.; Quinn, Thomas; Lunine, Jonathan I. (2007). \"High-resolution simulations of the final assembly of Earth-like planets 2: water delivery and planetary habitability\". Astrobiology . 7 (1): 66–84. arXiv : astro-ph/0510285 . Bibcode : 2007AsBio...7...66R . doi : 10.1089/ast.2006.06-0126 . PMID 17407404 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Thommes, E.W.; Duncan, M.J.; Levison, H.F. (2003). \"Oligarchic growth of giant planets\". Icarus . 161 (2): 431–455. arXiv : astro-ph/0303269 . Bibcode : 2003Icar..161..431T . doi : 10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00043-X . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Petit, Jean-Marc; Morbidelli, Alessandro (2001). \"The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt\" (PDF) . Icarus . 153 (2): 338–347. Bibcode : 2001Icar..153..338P . doi : 10.1006/icar.2001.6702 . ^ Jump up to: a b Janson, M.; Bonavita, M.; Klahr, H.; Lafreniere, D.; et al. (2011). \"High-contrast Imaging Search for Planets and Brown Dwarfs around the Most Massive Stars in the Solar Neighborhood\". Astrophys. J . 736 (89): 89. arXiv : 1105.2577v1 . Bibcode : 2011ApJ...736...89J . doi : 10.1088/0004-637x/736/2/89 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Fortier, A.; Benvenuto, A.G. (2007). \"Oligarchic planetesimal accretion and giant planet formation\". Astron. Astrophys . 473 (1): 311–322. arXiv : 0709.1454 . Bibcode : 2007A&A...473..311F . doi : 10.1051/0004-6361:20066729 . Jump up ^ Thommes, Edward W.; Duncan, Martin J.; Levison, Harold F. (1999). \"The formation of Uranus and Neptune in the Jupiter-Saturn region of the Solar System\" (PDF) . Nature . 402 (6762): 635–638. Bibcode : 1999Natur.402..635T . doi : 10.1038/45185 . PMID 10604469 . Jump up ^ Lambrechts, M.; Johansen, A. (August 2012). \"Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion\". Astronomy & Astrophysics . 544 : A32. arXiv : 1205.3030 . Bibcode : 2012A&A...544A..32L . doi : 10.1051/0004-6361/201219127 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Papaloizou, J. C. B.; Nelson, R. P.; Kley, W.; et al. (2007). \"Disk-Planet Interactions During Planet Formation\". In Bo Reipurth; David Jewitt; Klaus Keil. Protostars and Planets V . Arizona Press. p. 655. arXiv : astro-ph/0603196 . Bibcode : 2007prpl.conf..655P . ^ Jump up to: a b Levison, Harold F.; Agnor, Craig (2003). \"The role of giant planets in terrestrial planet formation\" (PDF) . The Astronomical Journal . 125 (5): 2692–2713. Bibcode : 2003AJ....125.2692L . doi : 10.1086/374625 . Jump up ^ Baruteau, C.; Crida, A.; Paardekooper, S.-J.; Masset, F.; Guilet, J.; Bitsch, B.; Nelson, R.; Kley, W.; Papaloizou, J. (2014). Protostars and Planets VI, Chapter: Planet-Disk Interactions and Early Evolution of Planetary Systems . University of Arizona Press. pp. 667–689. Jump up ^ Batygin, Konstantin; Bodenheimer, Peter H.; Laughlin, Gregory P. (2016). \"In Situ Formation and Dynamical Evolution of Hot Jupiter Systems\" . The Astrophysical Journal . 829 (2): 114. arXiv : 1511.09157 . Bibcode : 2016ApJ...829..114B . doi : 10.3847/0004-637X/829/2/114 . Jump up ^ Morbidelli, Alessandro; Raymond, Sean (2016). \"Challenges in planet formation\" . Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets . 121 (10): 1962–1980. arXiv : 1610.07202 . Bibcode : 2016JGRE..121.1962M . doi : 10.1002/2016JE005088 . Jump up ^ Lee, Eve J.; Chiang, Eugene (2016). \"Breeding Super-Earths and Birthing Super-puffs in Transitional Disks\" . The Astrophysical Journal . 817 (2): 90. arXiv : 1510.08855 . Bibcode : 2016ApJ...817...90L . doi : 10.3847/0004-637X/817/2/90 . Jump up ^ Lambrechts, Michiel; Lega, Elana (2017). \"Reduced gas accretion on super-Earths and ice giants\". arXiv : 1708.00767 . Bibcode : 2017arXiv170800767L . Jump up ^ D'Angelo, G.; Podolak, M. (2015). \"Capture and Evolution of Planetesimals in Circumjovian Disks\". The Astrophysical Journal . 806 (1): 29pp. arXiv : 1504.04364 . Bibcode : 2015ApJ...806..203D . doi : 10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/203 . Jump up ^ Canup, Robin M.; Ward, William R. (2002). \"Formation of the Galilean Satellites: Conditions of Accretion\" (PDF) . The Astronomical Journal . 124 (6): 3404–3423. Bibcode : 2002AJ....124.3404C . doi : 10.1086/344684 . External links [ edit ] Proctor, Richard A. (1879). \" Nebular Hypothesis \". The American Cyclopædia . [ hide ] v t e Exoplanetology Planet Definition IAU Planetary science Main topics Exoplanet Methods of detecting exoplanets Planetary system Sizes and types Terrestrial Carbon planet Coreless planet Desert planet Dwarf planet Ice planet Iron planet Lava planet Mega-Earth Ocean planet Sub-Earth Super-Earth Gaseous Chthonian planet Eccentric Jupiter Gas dwarf Helium planet Hot Jupiter Hot Neptune Ice giant Mini-Neptune Super-Jupiter Other types Brown dwarf Circumbinary planet Double planet Mesoplanet Planemo Planet/Brown dwarf boundary Planetesimal Protoplanet Pulsar planet Sub-brown dwarf Ultra-cool dwarf Formation and evolution Accretion Merging stars Nebular hypothesis Planetary migration Systems Exocomet Exomoon Interstellar comet Mean-motion resonances Retrograde planet Rogue planet Titius–Bode laws Trojan planet Host stars A B Binary star Brown dwarfs Extragalactic planet F/Yellow-white dwarfs G/Yellow dwarfs Herbig Ae/Be K/Orange dwarfs M/Red dwarfs Planets in globular clusters Pulsar Red giant Subdwarf B Subgiant T Tauri White dwarfs Yellow giant Detection Astrometry Direct imaging list Microlensing list Polarimetry Pulsar timing list Radial velocity list Transit method list Transit-timing variation Habitability Astrobiology Circumstellar habitable zone Earth analog Extraterrestrial liquid water Habitability of natural satellites Superhabitable planet Catalogues Catalog of Nearby Habitable Systems Exoplanet Data Explorer Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia NASA Exoplanet Archive NASA Star and Exoplanet Database Lists Exoplanetary systems Host stars Multiplanetary systems Stars with proplyds Exoplanets List of exoplanets Discoveries Extremes Firsts Nearest Largest Most massive Terrestrial candidates Kepler Potentially habitable Other Carl Sagan Institute Exoplanet phase curves Nexus for Exoplanet System Science Planets in science fiction Sudarsky's gas giant classification Discoveries of exoplanets Search projects Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebular_hypothesis&oldid=805646667 \" Categories : Solar System Circumstellar disks Planetary systems Planets Pre-stellar nebulae History of astronomy Cosmogony 1755 in science Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia with a Wikisource reference Featured articles Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Čeština Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 Norsk Português Română Русский සිංහල Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 October 2017, at 18:59. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Nebular hypothesis", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Nebular_hypothesis&amp;oldid=805646667" }

{ "text": "Memories Don't Die - Wikipedia Memories Don't Die From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Memories Don't Die Studio album by Tory Lanez Released March 2, 2018 Length 70 : 02 Label Mad Love Interscope Producer Play Picasso ( exec .) Tory Lanez (also exec.) AraabMuzik Benny Blanco BobbyMadeTheBeat C-Sick Cashmere Cat Christian Lou Dr. Zeuz EC Fresco Happy Perez Lavish Mansa Nick Fouryn OG Parker Sean Myer Sergio R. Smash David SkipOnDaBeat Tory Lanez chronology The New Toronto 2 (2017) Memories Don't Die (2018) Singles from Memories Don't Die \"Shooters\" Released: September 22, 2017 \"Skrt Skrt\" Released: September 28, 2017 \"Real Thing\" Released: October 13, 2017 Memories Don't Die (stylized as MEMORIES DON'T DIE ) is the second studio album by Canadian rapper and singer Tory Lanez , released on March 2, 2018, by Mad Love Records and Interscope Records . [1] The album features guest appearances from Future , 50 Cent , Nav , Wiz Khalifa , Fabolous , Mansa and Paloma Ford , among others. Production is handled by C-Sick , Play Picasso and Dr. Zeuz, among others. [2] Memories Don't Die was supported by three singles: \"Shooters\", \"Skrt Skrt\" and \"Real Thing\" featuring Future . Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Promotion 2.1 Singles 2.2 Promotional singles 2.3 Other songs 3 Critical reception 4 Commercial performance 5 Track listing 6 Personnel 7 Charts 8 References Background [ edit ] On June 14, 2017, Tory Lanez confirmed that his second album was \"90% completed\" via a tweet on Twitter . [3] The album's completion was announced by Lanez on August 2, 2017. [4] On October 5, 2017, Lanez announced his second album's title. [5] On August 11, 2017, Lanez was featured in an interview with HotNewHipHop about his album's theme, by stating [2] “ \"There's a lot of bars on this for sure, but it's not like full of rap. It's full of great music, like you know what I mean. But it's definitely not I Told You . This album will be something different for you to love in a different way and for you to cherish in a different way.\" ” On February 9, 2018, Lanez unveiled the album's cover art and tracklist. [6] Promotion [ edit ] On January 1, 2017, Lanez released two mixtapes: Chixtape IV and The New Toronto 2 which were promoted as the prelude for his second album. [7] [8] Singles [ edit ] The album's lead single , \"Shooters\" was released for streaming and digital download on September 22, 2017. [9] Its music video was released a month later. [10] The album's second single, \"Skrt Skrt\" was released on September 28, 2017. [11] The album's third single, \"Real Thing\" featuring Future was released on October 13, 2017. [12] Promotional singles [ edit ] The lead promotional single, \"I Sip\" was released on November 16, 2017, shortly after premiering on Zane Lowe 's Beats 1 radio. [13] The second promotional single, \"B.I.D\" was released on February 15, 2018, following the same roll-out as the former. [14] Other songs [ edit ] On February 9, 2018, three tracks that were cut from the album – \"March 2nd\", \"More Than Friends\" and \"Leaning\", the latter two both featuring PartyNextDoor , was released by Lanez for his fans. [6] Critical reception [ edit ] Professional ratings Aggregate scores Source Rating Metacritic 46/100 [15] Review scores Source Rating Exclaim! 6/10 [16] The Guardian [17] HotNewHipHop 87% [18] Pitchfork 5.5/10 [19] Memories Don't Die received mixed reviews from critics. At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Memories Don't Die received an average score of 46 based on five reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews.\" [15] Kassandra Guagliardi of Exclaim! concluded that the album has \"a few quality tracks, but overall it misses the mark on classic appeal.\" [16] In a scathing negative review, Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian described the album as a \"astonishingly hackneyed, aggressively chameleonic LP\", while comparing the album to the work of Lanez's contemporaries: \"As Migos or 2 Chainz ably demonstrate, rapping about racks and whips isn’t necessarily dull, but you need to have wit, nimble hooks and idiosyncratic flow, none of which Lanez possesses. He’s so profoundly unoriginal you start to wonder if he is actually a rudimentary Spotify AI project who has been fed the RapCaviar playlist and given an edgy beard. But Lanez ultimately doesn’t pass the Turing test, and his jack-of-all-trades versatility leaves him the master of none.\" [17] Sheldon Pearce of Pitchfork commented that Memories Don't Die is \"a record full of crude imitations of every remotely bankable contemporary R&B or rap song\", criticising the originality of the album: \"Nearly everything he raps on Memories Don’t Die is something you’ve heard before, performed more ably elsewhere, and the few lines that aren’t are unbelievably simple-minded or straight-up witless.\" [19] Commercial performance [ edit ] Memories Don't Die debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart and number two on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, earning 54,000 album-equivalent units of which 15,000 were in pure album sales in its first week of release. [20] Track listing [ edit ] Credits adapted from Tidal . [21] Memories Don't Die [1] No. Title Writer(s) Producer(s) Length 1. \"Memories\" Daystar Peterson Daniel Gonzalez Play Picasso 0:28 2. \"Old Friends x New Foes\" Peterson Gonzalez Carl Caruso Play Picasso Lavish 3:27 3. \"Shooters\" Peterson Charles Dumazer C-Sick 3:28 4. \"4 Me\" Peterson Nathan Perez Gonzalez Happy Perez Play Picasso 3:48 5. \"Skrt Skrt\" Peterson Jesus Bobe Wallace Jefferson Ernesto Cornejo Anthony Kelly Karen Chin Gonzalez Dr. Zeuz Play Picasso 2:53 6. \"Benevolent\" Peterson Gonzalez Caruso Cornejo Douglas Gibbs Ralph Johnson Play Picasso Lavish EC Fresco 3:46 7. \"Real Thing\" (featuring Future ) Peterson Nayvadius Wilburn Dumazer C-Sick 4:03 8. \"Hate to Say\" Peterson Gonzalez Maurice Griffin Robert Williams Julian Bunetta John Ryan Jamie Scott Play Picasso Christian Lou BobbyMadeTheBeat 4:09 9. \"B.I.D\" Peterson Samuel Jimenez Joshua Parker OG Parker Smash David 2:44 10. \"48 Floors\" (featuring Mansa) Peterson Mansa Evans Gonzalez Mansa Play Picasso 3:43 11. \"B.B.W.W x Fake Show\" Peterson Edgar Ferrera Gonzalez Larry Cooper, Jr. Play Picasso EC Fresco SkipOnDaBeat 4:11 12. \"Dance for Me\" (featuring Nav ) Peterson Sergio Romero Gonzalez Navraj Goraya Amir Esmailian Sergio R. Play Picasso 5:25 13. \"Pieces\" (featuring 50 Cent ) Peterson Gonzalez Curtis Jackson Gordon Sumner Dominic Miller Play Picasso 5:48 14. \"Connection\" (featuring Fabolous , Davo and Paloma Ford ) Peterson Jimenez David Kerr John Jackson Paloma Ford Smash David Nick Fouryn 3:56 15. \"Hillside\" (featuring Wiz Khalifa and Mansa) Peterson Evans Gonzalez Cameron Thomaz Mansa Play Picasso 3:29 16. \"Hypnotized\" Peterson Benjamin Levin Magnus Høiberg Perez Kennedi Lykken Sean Myer Benny Blanco Cashmere Cat Sean Myer Happy Perez [a] 3:11 17. \"Happiness x Tell Me\" Peterson Romero Gonzalez Sergio R. Play Picasso 7:59 18. \"Don't Die\" Peterson Abraham Orellana AraabMuzik 3:34 Total length: 70:02 Notes ^[a] signifies a co- producer \"Memories\" is stylised as \"MEMORIES\" \"Don't Die\" is stylised as \"DON'T DIE\" Sample credits \"Benevolent\" contains a sample from \"Sounds Like a Love Song\", written by Douglas Gibbs and Ralph Johnson, as performed by Bobby Glenn. [22] \"Hate to Say\" contains a sample from \" You & I \", written by Julian Bunetta, John Ryan and Jamie Scott , as performed by One Direction . [23] \"Pieces\" contains a sample from \" Shape of My Heart \", written by Gordon Sumner and Dominic Miller , as performed by Sting . [24] Personnel [ edit ] Credits adapted from Tidal. [21] Performers Tory Lanez – vocals Future – vocals (track 7) Mansa – vocals (tracks 10, 15) Nav – vocals (track 12) 50 Cent – vocals (track 13) Fabolous – vocals (track 14) Davo – vocals (track 14) Paloma Ford – vocals (track 14) Wiz Khalifa – vocals (track 15) Technical Daniel Gonzalez – mixing (tracks 1–15, 17, 18) Johann Chavez – mixing (tracks 1–15, 17, 18) Mark \"Spike\" Stent – mixing (track 16) Production Play Picasso – production (tracks 1, 2, 4–6, 8, 10–13, 15, 17) Lavish – production (tracks 2, 6) C-Sick – production (tracks 3, 7) Happy Perez – production (track 4) , co-production (track 16) Dr. Zeuz – production (track 5) Play Picasso – production (track 5) EC Fresco – production (tracks 6, 11) Christian Lou – production (track 8) BobbyMadeTheBeat – production (track 8) OG Parker – production (track 9) Smash David – production (tracks 9, 14) Mansa – production (tracks 10, 15) SkipOnDaBeat – production (track 11) Sergio R. – production (tracks 12, 17) Nick Fouryn – production (track 14) Benny Blanco – production (track 16) Cashmere Cat – production (track 16) Sean Myer – production (track 16) AraabMuzik – production (track 18) Charts [ edit ] Chart (2018) Peak position Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders) [25] 30 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia) [26] 93 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [27] 1 Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) [28] 7 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) [29] 53 Irish Albums ( IRMA ) [30] 31 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) [31] 31 Norwegian Albums ( VG-lista ) [32] 20 Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) [33] 28 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [34] 28 UK Albums ( OCC ) [35] 8 US Billboard 200 [36] 3 US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums ( Billboard ) [37] 2 References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"MEMORIES DON'T DIE by Tory Lanez\" . Apple Music . Retrieved February 15, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Goddard, Kevin (February 9, 2018). \"Tory Lanez Unveils Tracklist For \"Memories Don't Die \" \" . HotNewHipHop . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Miss2Bees (June 14, 2017). \"Tory Lanez Confirms Sophomore Album Is \"90% Done \" \" . The Source . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Lamarre, Carl (August 2, 2017). \"Tory Lanez Says New Album Is Finished\" . Billboard . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ India, Lindsey (October 5, 2017). \"Here's the Name of Tory Lanez's New Album\" . XXL . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Fall, Kyle (February 9, 2018). \"Tory Lanez \"Memories Don't Die\" Album Artwork & Tracklist Revealed\" . RapWave . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Smith, Trevor (January 1, 2017). \"Chixtape 4\" . HotNewHipHop . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Smith, Trevor (January 1, 2017). \"The New Toronto 2\" . HotNewHipHop . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Big Homie (September 22, 2017). \"New Music: Tory Lanez \"Shooters \" \" . Rap Radar . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Walker, Joe (October 12, 2017). \"Watch Tory Lanez's New \"Shooters\" Video\" . OnSMASH . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"New Music: Tory Lanez – 'Skrt Skrt ' \" . Rap-Up . September 28, 2017 . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Slingerland, Calum (October 13, 2017). \"Tory Lanez \"Real Thing\" (ft. Future)\" . Exclaim! . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Penrose, Nerisha (November 16, 2017). \"Tory Lanez Serves Up New Single 'I Sip ' \" . Complex . Retrieved February 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ Cowen, Trace (February 15, 2018). \"Tory Lanez Shares New Song \"B.I.D\" and Explains Why Squashing Drake Feud Was a 'Good Moment' for Him\" . Complex . Retrieved February 15, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"MEMORIES DON'T DIE by Tory Lanez Reviews and Tracks\" . Metacritic . Retrieved March 9, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Guagliardi, Kassandra (March 1, 2018). \"Tory Lanez – Memories Don't Die\" . Exclaim! . Retrieved March 4, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Beaumont-Thomas, Ben (March 2, 2018). \"Tory Lanez: Memories Don't Die review – a gutless rap rip-off\" . The Guardian . Retrieved March 4, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Tory Lanez's \"Memories Don't Die\" Review\" . HotNewHipHop. March 7, 2018 . Retrieved March 9, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Pearce, Sheldon (March 7, 2018). \"Tory Lanez: Memories Don't Die Album Review\" . Pitchfork . Retrieved March 9, 2018 . Jump up ^ Keith Caufield (March 11, 2018). \" ' Black Panther: The Album' Earns Third Week at No. 1 on Billboard 200 Chart\" . Retrieved March 11, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"MEMORIES DON'T DIE / Tory Lanez\" . Tidal . Retrieved March 2, 2018 . Jump up ^ Acevedo, Kai (December 21, 2017). \"Tory Lanez talks 'Memories Don't Die,' why he won't stop freestyling, and working with PartyNextDoor\" . Revolt . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . I sampled the beat that JAY-Z used for \"Song Cry.\" Jump up ^ Fu, Eddie (March 2, 2018). \"Tory Lanez's New Song \"Hate To Say\" Addresses His Beefs With Travis Scott & Drake\" . Genius . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . On the production side, \"Hate to Say\" samples One Direction's 2013 song \"You & I\" from their album Midnight Memories. Jump up ^ Acevedo, Kai (December 21, 2017). \"Tory Lanez talks 'Memories Don't Die,' why he won't stop freestyling, and working with PartyNextDoor\" . Revolt . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . Me and 50 did a song on the album. It's one of the craziest songs on there. It's a Sting sample. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be – Tory Lanez – Memories Don't Die\" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved March 10, 2018. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be – Tory Lanez – Memories Don't Die\" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved March 10, 2018. Jump up ^ \"Tory Lanez Chart History (Canadian Albums)\" . Billboard . Retrieved March 17, 2018. Jump up ^ \"Dutchcharts.nl – Tory Lanez – Memories Don't Die\" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved March 10, 2018. Jump up ^ \"Offiziellecharts.de – Tory Lanez – Memories Don't Die\" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved March 9, 2018. Jump up ^ \"Irish Albums Chart: 9 March 2018\" . Irish Recorded Music Association . Retrieved March 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"NZ Top 40 Albums Chart\" . Recorded Music NZ . March 12, 2018 . Retrieved March 9, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"VG-lista – Topp 40 Album uke 10, 2018\" . VG-lista . Retrieved March 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Sverigetopplistan – Sveriges Officiella Topplista\" . Sverigetopplistan . Retrieved March 10, 2018 . Click on \"Veckans albumlista\". Jump up ^ \"Swisscharts.com – Tory Lanez – Memories Don't Die\" . Hung Medien. Retrieved March 14, 2018. Jump up ^ \"Official Albums Chart Top 100\" . Official Charts Company . Retrieved March 10, 2018. Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (March 11, 2018). \" ' Black Panther: The Album' No. 1 on Billboard 200 Chart for Third Week\" . Billboard . Retrieved March 12, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Tory Lanez Chart History (Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums)\" . Billboard . Retrieved March 13, 2018. [ hide ] v t e Tory Lanez Discography Studio albums I Told You Memories Don't Die Extended plays Cruel Intentions Mixtapes Lost Cause Chixtape III The New Toronto Singles \" Say It \" \" B.L.O.W. \" \" LA Confidential \" \" Luv \" Featured singles \" Drifting \" \" Trust Nobody \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memories_Don%27t_Die&oldid=841919785 \" Categories : 2018 albums Tory Lanez albums Interscope Records albums Albums produced by Happy Perez Albums produced by Benny Blanco Albums produced by Cashmere Cat Albums produced by AraabMuzik Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 18 May 2018, at 23:29. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Memories Don't Die", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Memories_Don%27t_Die&amp;oldid=841919785" }

{ "text": "The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) - Wikipedia The Mother ( How I Met Your Mother ) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Tracy McConnell How I Met Your Mother character The Mother appearing in \" The Locket \" First appearance \" Lucky Penny (unseen)\" \" Something New \" (seen) Last appearance \" Last Forever \" Created by Carter Bays Craig Thomas Portrayed by Cristin Milioti Information Aliases The Mother Gender Female Spouse(s) Ted Mosby Significant other(s) Max (deceased former boyfriend) Louis (ex-boyfriend) Children Penny Mosby (daughter, born in 2015, played by Lyndsy Fonseca ) Luke Mosby (son, born in 2017, played by David Henrie ) Nationality American Tracy McConnell (colloquial: \" The Mother \") is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother . The show, narrated by Future Ted , tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from \" Lucky Penny \" to \" The Time Travelers \" as an unseen character ; she was first seen fully in \" Something New \" and was promoted to a main character in season 9 . The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti . The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky 's wedding; this scene is shown in \" Last Forever \", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans. An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. [1] [2] In the video, future Ted is heard saying, \"...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mum every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...\", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby. [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Casting 2 Character history 2.1 Name 3 Death 4 Notes 5 References Casting [ edit ] During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that \"We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience\", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had \"kept the show alive\" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call . [4] [5] They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once ; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene—for the last episode of season 8 —having never watched How I Met Your Mother ; she recalled, \"I had ignorance on my side. So I didn’t know what it meant.\" Milioti learned of the character's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer. [5] [6] Character history [ edit ] The Mother was born on September 19, 1984. [note 1] The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly, awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love. [7] In \" Wait for It \", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In \" No Tomorrow \", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college. [7] On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale \" The Leap \", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, \" Definitions \", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in \" How Your Mother Met Me \", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy ( Rachel Bilson ), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom. Later, in \" Girls Versus Suits \", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, \"this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back.\" In \" How Your Mother Met Me \", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian , it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time. Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band. [7] In the season 6 opener \" Big Days \" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife \"the day of\" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode \" False Positive \" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode \" Challenge Accepted \", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, \" The Magician's Code \" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother \"the day of\" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the \" Farhampton \" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar. In the season 8 episode \" Band or DJ? ,\" Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding. The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in \" How Your Mother Met Me \" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after. The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in \" Platonish \". In \" The Locket \", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey. In \" Bass Player Wanted \", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall , carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom's best man punched him for \"no reason.\" Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger. In \" How Your Mother Met Me \", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings \" La Vie en Rose \". Ted hears her singing from his room next door. In \" Gary Blauman \", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the \"weirdest place on earth\" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date. In a flashforward in \" The Lighthouse \", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in \" Unpause \", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton. Name [ edit ] The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, \" Last Forever \". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode \" Belly Full of Turkey \", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says \"...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother\". The children react encouraged and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking, [9] which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother's name is Tracy. [10] Death [ edit ] See also: Last Forever In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she \"became sick\" and his children saying that she has been \"gone\" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother's death. [11] Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. [12] Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was \"an amazing character\" [9] and that \"over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. [13] Kuchman said that \"asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request\", that the finale \"advanced too quickly\" and that \" HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue\". [9] A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. [14] [15] On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. [16] [17] In the alternate ending, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. [18] [1] Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that \" Pilot \" is set. [7] The pilot is set on September 19, 2005. [8] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Debnath, Neela (7 September 2014). \"How I Met Your Mother alternative finale leaks online ahead of DVD release\" . The Independent . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). \"Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending\" . Rolling Stone . Jump up ^ MacGregor, Rachel (September 23, 2014). \"8 reasons why How I Met Your Mother should've used its alternative ending\" . Metro UK . Jump up ^ Stransky, Tanner (2013-05-13). \" ' How I Met Your Mother': Burning questions about the mother\" . Entertainment Weekly . ^ Jump up to: a b Fallon, Kevin (2013-05-14). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' Mother Revealed: Meet Cristin Milioti\" . The Daily Beast . Jump up ^ Fallon, Kevin (2015-11-03). \"How Cristin Milioti Met 'Fargo'—And Left 'How I Met Your Mother' Behind\" . The Daily Beast . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \" How Your Mother Met Me \". How I Met Your Mother . Season 9. Episode 16. January 27, 2014. Jump up ^ \" Pilot \". How I Met Your Mother . Season 1. Episode 1. September 19, 2005. CBS . ^ Jump up to: a b c Kuchman, Bill (April 4, 2014). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' 'Last Forever' Recap: A Divisive Finale and What It Means for 'HIMYM ' \" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rullo, Samantha (10 March 2014). \"What is The Mother's Name on 'How I Met Your Mother'? Episode Title Might Hold the Secret\" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"HIMYM Tomatometer Watch: Series Finale Currently Rotten - Majority of critics disappointed by 'Last Forever ' \" . Rotten Tomatoes . April 2, 2014 . Retrieved April 3, 2014 . Jump up ^ News, A. B. C. (4 October 2014). \"Why Cristin Milioti Sobbed for Her Character in 'How I Met Your Mother ' \" . ABC News . Retrieved 25 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Kuchman, Bill (March 31, 2014). \" ' HIMYM' Finale Instant Reaction\" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Guerrero, Danger (April 4, 2014). \"Now There's A Petition To 'Rewrite And Reshoot' The 'How I Met Your Mother' Ending\" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Maresca, Rachel (April 3, 2014). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' series finale sparks online petition from fans who want ending changed\" . New York Daily News . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Update for those who've been asking: Alt #himym ending will be on s9 DVD and also in the series box set. https://twitter.com/CarterBays/status/452299544995184640 Jump up ^ James, Lauren (April 5, 2014). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' May Get Alternate Ending After Petition, Says Carter Bays\" . Contact Music . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). \"Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending\" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved November 16, 2014 . [ hide ] v t e How I Met Your Mother Episodes Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Season 9 Characters Ted Mosby Marshall Eriksen Lily Aldrin Barney Stinson Robin Scherbatsky Tracy McConnell Soundtracks How I Met Your Music Related articles Awards and nominations The Bro Code Cheerleader effect \" Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Mother_(How_I_Met_Your_Mother)&oldid=836704260 \" Categories : How I Met Your Mother characters Fictional characters introduced in 2013 Fictional female musicians Hidden categories: Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Dansk Español Italiano Magyar Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018, at 11:10. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Mother_(How_I_Met_Your_Mother)&amp;oldid=836704260" }

{ "text": "Love It or List It - Wikipedia Love It or List It From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Love It or List It Genre Reality renovations , upgrading Created by Maria Armstrong Catherine Fogarty Directed by Various Starring Hilary Farr David Visentin Narrated by Jacqueline Hennessy Theme music composer Lou Pomanti Country of origin Canada United States Original language(s) English No. of seasons 10 No. of episodes 130 ( List of episodes ) Production Executive producer(s) Maria Armstrong Catherine Fogarty Producer(s) Maria Armstrong Location(s) Toronto, Ontario , Canada, Raleigh–Durham, North Carolina , United States Running time 44 minutes Production company(s) Big Coat Productions Release Original network W Network HGTV Original release September 8, 2008 – present External links Website www .wnetwork .com /Shows /love-it-or-list-it .aspx Production website www .bigcoatproductions .com Love It or List It is a Canadian home design TV show currently airing on HGTV , W Network , and on OWN Canada , and is the original show in the Love it or List It franchise . The show is produced by Big Coat Productions and was based in Toronto and other surrounding areas in Ontario , Canada. The show premiered as a primetime program on W Network on September 8, 2008, and has since aired on OWN Canada as well as HGTV in the United States. In September 2014, the show began filming in the United States in North Carolina . [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Format 2 Host and crew 3 Episodes 4 Franchise 5 International syndication 6 Reception 7 Controversy 8 References 9 External links Format [ edit ] This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Every episode of Love It or List It follows the same formula. A couple (usually, but not in all cases) presents their living situation in the current house that they own. In most episodes, the couple is split on whether or not they want to stay in the house. Interior designer Hilary Farr and real estate agent David Visentin tour the couple's home before meeting with them. The tour usually consists of David finding mostly negative things to say about the residence while Hilary is convinced that she can work magic with whatever plans she is given. At the meetup between the couple and the hosts of the show, both Hilary and David are briefed as to what the couple's desires are. Hilary is given a list of renovations the couple wants for the current house and her budget for the entire project. David, meanwhile, is tasked with searching for a new home for the couple that both meets their needs and stays within their desired budget. Common challenges faced by Hilary are an inadequate budget to complete the entire request list from the homeowners, often due to discovery of unforeseen issues with the house that are uncovered during the renovation such as lack of compliance with modern building codes. Common issues for David, meanwhile, depend on the homeowners' desires; for instance, the couple has children enrolled in the neighborhood school and they do not desire to change, or the potential house is too distant from family members or a workplace. After Hilary's renovation is complete, the homeowners are given a tour of their current home to see what she was able to accomplish. After the tour, David meets with them and hands them an evaluation of the home's current market value following the renovations. He will then remind the couple what they could have in one of the new homes they looked at and that they would not get that in their current home. After a moment to deliberate, Hilary and David pose a question to the homeowners. They must choose to either Love It, meaning that they will continue to live in their current home with the renovations, or to List It, meaning that they will buy one of the homes David showed them and sell their current home. After they reveal their decision, the homeowners explain their reasoning to Hilary and David (who, if they decided to Love It, reacts with incredulity) before bidding them farewell. Host and crew [ edit ] Hosts Hilary Farr – Hilary Farr is a home designer from Toronto . She has lived in Australia, England , California , and New York City . Farr honed her skills on properties in Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, New York and Toronto. When she first moved back to Toronto, she became the first designer to \"stage\" properties for sale. She continues to build and design homes in the downtown core where she herself owns properties. [2] David Visentin – David Visentin is a real estate agent in Southern Ontario with Country Living Realty Limited. He has been practicing since 1987. [3] Assistant Designer Desta Ostapyk (Canadian episodes) – Desta is a Toronto-based designer who graduated in 2004 from the Toronto International Academy of Design and Technology in Interior Design, and has since focused on a career in the Television Industry. She first started working with Big Coat Productions during her last semester of school as an intern for HGTV's hit series My Parents House . She soon became the Design Stylist for the show. [4] Contractors Eric Eremita (North Carolina episodes) – General contractor and designer Eric Eremita was selected to be the one and only general contractor on HGTV's \"Love It or List It\" U.S. version, after HGTV network took notice of him when he competed in its \"Brother vs. Brother\" reality show. Eddie Richardson (Canadian episodes) – Eddie Richardson was a contractor on Love It or List It who started his own family business. Richardson has also been a pro-beach volleyball player and professional bass fisherman. Fergus McLaren (Canadian episodes) – Fergus McLaren started up his own construction company, R-Mac Solutions, 10 years ago. Behind the Scenes Architect: Simon West Senior Production Coordinator: Linda Johnstone Construction Coordinator: David Violante Construction Assistants: Chris Blinn, Adam Dalgarno, Ahren Mrowietz, Dale George Design Coordinator: Kaaveh Shoman Episodes [ edit ] Main article: List of Love It or List It episodes Season Start date End date Episodes Hilary wins David wins 1 September 8, 2008 January 5, 2009 12 9 3 2 April 6, 2009 December 7, 2009 18 10 8 3 May 3, 2010 November 8, 2010 21 9 12 4 March 14, 2011 November 11, 2011 19 12 7 5 February 20, 2012 November 19, 2012 18 10 8 6 January 19, 2013 July 1, 2013 14 8 6 7 January 8, 2014 April 9, 2014 14 11 3 8 September 8, 2014 January 19, 2015 16 8 8 9 March 9, 2015 December 7, 2015 22 13 9 Total 154 90 64 Victories for Hilary are families or clients who decided to love their home and stay. Victories for David are families and clients who decided to list and move into a new or better home. Franchise [ edit ] Main article: Love It or List It (franchise) Love It or List It has spawned four spinoffs. The first, [5] known as Love It or List It Vancouver (or Love it or List it Too in the US), was launched in winter 2012 and is hosted by Jillian Harris and Todd Talbot . The second spin-off, a British version known as Love It or List It UK , debuted in 2015, [6] is hosted by Kirstie Allsopp and Phil Spencer . The third spin off, Love It or List It Vacation Homes debuted in spring 2016 and is hosted by Dan Vickery and Elisa Goldhawke . A fourth spin off, Vendre ou renover au Quebec debuted in January 2017 and is hosted by Maika Desnoyers and Daniel Corbin. The fifth spin off, Love It Or List It Australia debuted in September 2017 and is hosted by Andrew Winter and Neale Whittaker. International syndication [ edit ] Country / Region Name Television Network Dubbing / Subtitles Australia Love It or List It Lifestyle Home N/A Canada Love It or List It W Network N/A USA Love It or List It HGTV [7] N/A Spain Tu casa a juicio Divinity Spanish Brazil Ame-a ou Deixe-a Discovery Home & Health Portuguese Norway Bolighjelpen TV 2 (Norway) Norwegian Reception [ edit ] On August 31, 2010, Love It or List It was nominated for two Gemini Awards : Best Reality Program or Series and Best Direction in a Reality Program or Series. When HGTV premiered the show on the network, the company stated that Love It or List It has been the highest rating reality series since Candice Olson's Candice Tells All . [8] In 2012, New York Times' columnist Gail Collins noted that it was US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's favorite TV show. [9] [10] According to Collins, Clinton finds the show \"very calming\" [11] after being interviewed about her departure from politics. [12] [13] [14] In a 2013 interview with Las Vegas Magazine, Vanna White from Wheel of Fortune said it was one of her favourite HGTV programs. [15] Actress Julianne Moore also gave similar praise for the show in an interview with Katie Couric and the Daily Mail . [16] [17] According to the Wall Street Journal , the show and its Vancouver spinoff is one of Canada's beloved reality series. [18] Controversy [ edit ] In April 2016, the homeowners who participated in a 2015 Love It or List It episode filed suit against production company Big Coat TV, as well as the North Carolina contractor who the show hired to do the renovations on their home. The couple alleges that the renovation funds that they provided were not properly disbursed, and that the work on their home was done to a substandard quality. [19] Moreover, the lawsuit states that the television personalities on the show do not play an active role in the renovation process, and that they were not shown homes on the market by any licensed North Carolina real estate agent. Big Coat TV has commented that they \"do intend to vigorously defend what [they] consider to be false allegations.\" [20] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.bigcoatproductions.com/blog/post/love-it-or-list-it-is-on-the-move-to-the-us . Big Coat Productions. Retrieved 12 December 2014 Jump up ^ Host Bios; Hilary Farr http://www.wnetwork.com/Shows/Love-It-Or-List-It/HostBios.aspx Jump up ^ Host Bios; David Visentin http://www.wnetwork.com/Shows/Love-It-Or-List-It/HostBios.aspx Jump up ^ \"Big Coat Productions\" . Big Coat Productions . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ Love it or List it launches new spin off Jump up ^ \"Kirstie and Phil's Love It or List It will return for a second series:Channel 4 orders six more episodes of the show to air in 2016\" . Digital Spy . 2 June 2015 . Retrieved 14 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Vlessing, Etan (November 28, 2011). \"HGTV Acquires Canadian Lifestyle Series 'Love It Or List It ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ W Network's Top Rated Show; http://corusent.com/home/Corporate/PressReleases/tabid/1697/Default.aspx?Id=2323 Jump up ^ Maga, Carly (March 29, 2012). \"Hillary Clinton’s favorite show is Canada’s ‘Love It Or List It’\" . Ca.omg.yahoo.com . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ Miller, Julie. \"Hillary Clinton’s Unlikely Favorite TV Show Revealed\" . Vanity Fair . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Vanity Fair: Hillary Clinton's Unlikely Favorite TV Show Revealed\" . Huffingtonpost.com. November 13, 2012 . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Hillary Clinton likes 'Love It or List It ' \" . Politico.Com . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Love it or list it News, Video and Gossip\" . Jezebel. November 11, 2012 . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ Collins, Gail (November 10, 2012). \"Hillary's Next Move\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ \"Q&A WITH VANNA WHITE\" . Las Vegas Magazine. September 13, 2013. Jump up ^ Daily Mail . London http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/you/article-2376232/Julianne-Moore-My-50s-important-years.html . Missing or empty |title= ( help ) Jump up ^ \"Julianne Moore Opens Up About Her Family\" . KatieCouric.com . Retrieved August 17, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"W Network Announces Return of Home-grown Favourites in Fall 2013 Lineup\" . The Wall Street Journal . July 17, 2013. Jump up ^ CNN, Lisa Respers France. \" ' Love It or List It' homeowners file suit\" . CNN . Retrieved 2016-05-03 . Jump up ^ \"‘Love It Or List It’ homeowners sue over Raleigh renovation\" . miamiherald . Retrieved 2016-05-03 . External links [ edit ] Love It or List It on HGTV Love It or List It on W Network Love It or List It at the Internet Movie Database [ hide ] v t e Love It or List It franchise Love It or List It Hosts Hilary Farr David Visentin Other Episodes Love It or List It Vancouver Hosts Jillian Harris Todd Talbot Love It or List It UK Hosts Kirstie Allsopp Phil Spencer Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Love_It_or_List_It&oldid=807363903 \" Categories : Love It or List It 2008 Canadian television series debuts 2000s Canadian television series Television series produced in Toronto 2010s Canadian television series Hidden categories: Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Use mdy dates from February 2014 Articles needing additional references from November 2016 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 27 October 2017, at 13:55. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Love It or List It", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Love_It_or_List_It&amp;oldid=807363903" }

{ "text": "Royal Proclamation of 1763 - Wikipedia Royal Proclamation of 1763 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \"Indian Magna Carta\" redirects here. This term has also been applied to the United States Indian Reorganization Act . The Royal Proclamation of 1763, Library and Archives Canada . A portion of eastern North America; the 1763 \"proclamation line\" is the border between the red and the pink areas. Part of a series on the Constitution of Canada Constitutional history Bill of Rights (1689) Act of Settlement (1701) Treaty of Paris (1763) Royal Proclamation (1763) Quebec Act (1774) Constitutional Act (1791) Act of Union (1840) Constitution Act (1867) Supreme Court Act (1875) Constitution Act, 1886 British North America Acts (1867–1975) Statute of Westminster (1931) Succession to the Throne Act (1937) Letters Patent (1947) Canada Act (1982) Constitution Act (1982) Document list Amendments Unsuccessful amendments Constitutional law Constitutional debate Patriation Charter of Rights and Freedoms Canadian federalism Law of Canada Canadian Bill of Rights Implied Bill of Rights Canadian Human Rights Act Politics of Canada portal v t e The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War / Seven Years' War . It forbade all settlement west of a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains , which was delineated as an Indian Reserve . This proclamation rendered worthless all land grants given by the government to British subjects who fought for the Crown against France. People throughout the various colonies were filled with indignation at having been unjustly shut out of the vast western wilderness and away from its resources. This anger was a foreshadowing of the discontent that would later arise during the American Revolution . The Royal Proclamation continues to be of legal importance to First Nations in Canada. The 1763 proclamation line is similar to the Eastern Continental Divide's path running northwards from Georgia to the Pennsylvania–New York border and north-eastwards past the drainage divide on the St. Lawrence Divide from there northwards through New England. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Provisions 2.1 New colonies 2.2 Native lands 2.2.1 Proclamation line 3 Legacy 3.1 Indigenous peoples 3.2 United States 3.3 250th anniversary celebrations 4 See also 5 Footnotes 6 Sources 7 Further reading 7.1 Canada 8 External links Background [ edit ] Main article: Great Britain in the Seven Years' War The Treaty of Paris was the official conclusion to the Seven Years' War , of which the French and Indian War was the North American theater . Under this treaty, France ceded ownership of all of continental North America east of the Mississippi River , including Quebec, and the rest of Canada to Britain. Spain received all French territory west of the Mississippi. Both Spain and Britain received some French islands in the Caribbean. France kept a few small islands used by fishermen, [1] modern-day Haiti and the rich sugar island of Guadeloupe . Provisions [ edit ] New colonies [ edit ] The Eastern (orange line) in the southern areas, and St. Lawrence (magenta line) watershed boundaries in the northern areas of this map more-or-less defined almost all of the Royal Proclamation's western boundaries Besides regulating colonial expansion, the Proclamation of 1763 dealt with the management of inherited French colonies from the French and Indian War . It established government for four areas: Quebec , West Florida , East Florida , and Grenada . Native lands [ edit ] Some Native American peoples—primarily in the Great Lakes region—had a long and close relationship with France, and were dismayed to find that they were now under British sovereignty. They missed the amicable relationship with the French, along with the gifts they bestowed upon them, neither of which they had with the British. Pontiac's Rebellion (1763–66), a war launched by a group of natives around the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley, was an unsuccessful effort by the western tribes to push the British back. However tribes were able to take over a large number of the forts which commanded the waterways involved in trade within the region and export to Great Britain. The Proclamation of 1763 had been in the works before Pontiac's Rebellion, but the outbreak of the conflict hastened the process. [2] British officials hoped the proclamation would reconcile American Indians to British rule and help to prevent future hostilities. Proclamation line [ edit ] New borders drawn by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. At the outset, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 defined the jurisdictional limits of the occupied territories of North America. Explaining parts of the Frontier expansion in North America, in Colonial America and especially Canada colony of New France , a diminutive new colony, the Province of Quebec was carved. The territory northeast of the St. John River on the Labrador coast was placed under the Newfoundland Colony . [3] The lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement, to the great disappointment of the land speculators of Virginia and Pennsylvania, who had started the Seven Years' War to gain these territories. [4] The proclamation created a boundary line (often called the proclamation line ) between the British colonies on the Atlantic coast and American Indian lands (called the Indian Reserve ) west of the Appalachian Mountains . The proclamation line was not intended to be a permanent boundary between the colonists and Aboriginal lands, but rather a temporary boundary which could be extended further west in an orderly, lawful manner. [5] [6] It was also not designed as an uncrossable boundary; people could cross the line, just not settle past it. Its contour was defined by the headwaters that formed the watershed along the Appalachians. All land with rivers that flowed into the Atlantic was designated for the colonial entities, while all the land with rivers that flowed into the Mississippi was reserved for the native Indian population. The proclamation outlawed the private purchase of Native American land, which had often created problems in the past. Instead, all future land purchases were to be made by Crown officials \"at some public Meeting or Assembly of the said Indians\". Furthermore, British colonials were forbidden to settle on native lands, and colonial officials were forbidden to grant ground or lands without royal approval. The proclamation gave the Crown a monopoly on all future land purchases from American Indians. British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line, [2] some of which had been temporarily evacuated during Pontiac's War, and there were many already granted land claims yet to be settled. For example, George Washington and his Virginia soldiers had been granted lands past the boundary. Prominent American colonials joined with the land speculators in Britain to lobby the government to move the line further west. Their demands were met, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Native Americans. In 1768 the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the Treaty of Hard Labour , followed in 1770 by the Treaty of Lochaber , opened much of what is now Kentucky and West Virginia to British settlement. A new map was drawn up at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, that moved the line (from the green line to the red line on the map) much further to the west, and gave the lands claimed by the colonists to the British side. [7] Legacy [ edit ] Indigenous peoples in Canada First Nations Inuit Métis History [show] Paleo-Indians Pre-colonization Genetics Residential schools Indian hospitals Conflicts First Nations Inuit Politics [show] Crown and Indigenous peoples Treaty rights Health Policy Numbered Treaties Royal Commission Self-government Indian Act British Columbia Treaty Process Idle No More Missing and murdered Indigenous women Politics Organizations Case law Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada Culture [show] Indigenous cultures Indigenous personalities Country food Music Demographics [show] Indian reserves AB FN Métis Atlantic CA BC MB ON QC SK Territories Pacific Coast Linguistics [show] Indigenous languages Inuit languages Indigenous English Dialects NAPA Aboriginal syllabics Inuit grammar Religions [show] Traditional beliefs Inuit religion Index [show] Index of articles Indigenous First Nations Inuit Métis Stubs Wikiprojects [show] Portal Indigenous Canadian portal WikiProject Indigenous North Americans First Nations Commons Wiktionary Inuit Commons Wiktionary Métis Commons Wiktionary v t e Indigenous peoples [ edit ] Further information on Canadian Aboriginal legacy: The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples The Royal Proclamation continued to govern the cession of Indigenous land in British North America , especially Upper Canada and Rupert's Land . Upper Canada created a platform for treaty making based on the Royal Proclamation. After loyalists moved into land after Britain's defeat in the American Revolution, the first impetus was created out of necessity. [8] The proclamation forms the basis of land claims of Indigenous peoples in Canada – First Nations , Inuit , and Métis . The Royal Proclamation of 1763 is thus mentioned in Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . According to historian Colin Calloway, \"[settler] scholars disagree on whether the proclamation recognized or undermined tribal sovereignty\". [9] The proclamation established the important precedent that the indigenous population had certain rights to the lands they occupied. Some see the Royal Proclamation of 1763 as a \"fundamental document\" for First Nations land claims and self-government . [10] It is “the first legal recognition by the British Crown of Aboriginal rights \" [11] and imposes a fiduciary duty of care on the Crown. The intent and promises made to the native in the Proclamation have been argued to be of a temporary nature, only meant to appease the Native peoples who were becoming increasingly resentful of “settler encroachments on their lands” [12] and were capable of becoming a serious threat to British colonial settlement. [13] [14] Advice given by a merchant to the Board of Trade on August 30, 1764, expressed that The Indians all know we cannot be a Match for them in the midst of an extensive woody Country...from whence I infer that if we are determined to possess Our Posts, Trade & ca securely, it cannot be done for a Century by any other means than that of purchasing the favour of the numerous Indian inhabitants. [15] Some historians believe that “the British were trying to convince Native people that there was nothing to fear from the colonists , while at the same time trying to increase political and economic power relative to First Nations and other European powers.” [16] Others argue that the Royal Proclamation along with the subsequent Treaty of Niagara , provide for an argument that “discredits the claims of the Crown to exercise sovereignty over First Nations” [17] and affirms Aboriginal “powers of self-determination in, among other things, allocating lands.” [18] United States [ edit ] USA Proclamation of 1763 Silver Medal. Franklin Mint Issue 1970. The influence of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on the coming of the American Revolution has been variously interpreted. Many historians argue that the proclamation ceased to be a major source of tension after 1768, since the aforementioned treaties opened up extensive lands for settlement. Others have argued that colonial resentment of the proclamation contributed to the growing divide between the colonies and the mother country. Some historians argue that even though the boundary was pushed west in subsequent treaties, the British government refused to permit new colonial settlements for fear of instigating a war with Native Americans, which angered colonial land speculators. [19] Others argue that the Royal Proclamation imposed a fiduciary duty of care on the Crown. [20] [ citation needed ] George Washington was given 20,000 acres (81 km 2 ) of wild land in the Ohio region for his services in the French and Indian War. In 1770, Washington took the lead in securing the rights of him and his old soldiers in the French War, advancing money to pay expenses in behalf of the common cause and using his influence in the proper quarters. In August 1770, it was decided that Washington should personally make a trip to the western region, where he located tracts for himself and military comrades and eventually was granted letters patent for tracts of land there. The lands involved were open to Virginians under terms of the Treaty of Lochaber of 1770, except for the lands located 2 miles south of Fort Pitt, now known as Pittsburgh. [21] In the United States, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 ended with the American Revolutionary War because Great Britain ceded the land in question to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) . Afterward, the U.S. government also faced difficulties in preventing frontier violence and eventually adopted policies similar to those of the Royal Proclamation. The first in a series of Indian Intercourse Acts was passed in 1790, prohibiting unregulated trade and travel in Native American lands. In 1823, the U.S. Supreme Court case Johnson v. M'Intosh [22] established that only the U.S. government, and not private individuals, could purchase land from Native Americans. 250th anniversary celebrations [ edit ] In October 2013 the 250th anniversary of the Royal Proclamation was celebrated in Ottawa with a meeting of Indian leaders and Governor-General David Johnston. [23] The Aboriginal movement Idle No More held birthday parties for this monumental document at various locations across Canada. [24] See also [ edit ] Indian removal Indian barrier state Northwest Territory Indian Reserve (1763) Halifax Treaties Footnotes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 (2007) ^ Jump up to: a b Gordon S. Wood, The American Revolution, A History. New York, Modern Library, 2002 ISBN 0-8129-7041-1 , p.22 Jump up ^ W. J. Eccles, France in America, Fitzhrenry & Whiteside Limited 1972, p220 Jump up ^ Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness (University of Nebraska Pres. 1961 p. 146 Jump up ^ Harvey Markowitz, American Indians (1995) p. 633 Jump up ^ Louis De Vorsey, The Indian boundary in the southern colonies, 1763–1775 (1966) p. 39. Jump up ^ William J Campbell (29 April 2015). Speculators in Empire: Iroquoia and the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix . University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 118–20. Jump up ^ Miller, J. R. (May 2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant . University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 10. Jump up ^ Calloway, Scratch of a Pen , 93. Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum , 155. Jump up ^ Douglas R. Francis, Richard Jones and Donald B. Smith, Origins: Canadian History to Confederation 6th ed. (Toronto: Nelson Education Ltd., 2009), 157. Jump up ^ Francis et al., Origins, 156. Jump up ^ Jack Stagg, Anglo-Indian Relations In North America to 1763 and An Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 , Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Research Branch, 1981, 356. Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum , 158–159. Jump up ^ Quoted in Native Liberty, Crown Sovereignty: The Existing Aboriginal Right of Self-Government in Canada , Bruce Clark. (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990), 81. Jump up ^ Borrows, \" Wampum ,\" 160. Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum , 164. Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum , 165. Jump up ^ Woody Holton (August 1994). \"The Ohio Indians and the Coming of the American Revolution in Virginia\". The Journal of Southern History . 60 (3): 453–78. doi : 10.2307/2210989 . Jump up ^ \"Royal Proclamation of 1763: Relationships, Rights and Treaties – Poster\" . Government of Canada . 2013-11-27. Jump up ^ \"Letter from George Washington to George Mercer dated November 7, 1771, at Williamsburg\" . The writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources . p. 68. Archived from the original on October 4, 2013. Jump up ^ 21 U.S. (8 Wheat. ) 543 (1823) Jump up ^ CBC.ca: \"Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada's 'Indian Magna Carta,' turns 250\" 6 Oct 2013 Jump up ^ G+M \"Royal Proclamation’s 250th anniversary has First Nations reflecting on their rights\" 7 October 2013 Sources [ edit ] Abernethy, Thomas Perkins (1959) [1937]. Western Lands and the American Revolution . New York: Russell & Russell. Borrows, John (1997). \"Wampum at Niagara: The Royal Proclamation, Canadian Legal History, and Self-Government\". In Asch, Michael. Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada . Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-0580-3 . Calloway, Colin (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530071-8 . Further reading [ edit ] Marshall, Peter. \"Sir William Johnson and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768.\" Journal of American Studies (1967) 1#2 pp 149–179. doi : 10.1017/S0021875800007830 Sosin, Jack. Whitehall and the wilderness: The Middle West in British colonial policy, 1760-1775 (1961), the standard scholarly history of the proclamation and its effects. Stuart, Paul. The Indian Office: Growth and Development of an American Institution, 1865-1900 (UMI Research Press, 1979) Canada [ edit ] Cashin, Edward J. \"Governor Henry Ellis and the Transformation of British North America.\" Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. Fenge, Terry and Jim Aldridge (eds.), Keeping Promises: The Royal Proclamation of 1763, Aboriginal Rights, and Treaties in Canada, 2015, McGill-Queen's University Press Lawson, Philip. The Imperial Challenge: Quebec and Britain in the Age of the American Revolution. Montreal/Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1989. Roth, Christopher F. (2002) \"Without Treaty, without Conquest: Indigenous Sovereignty in Post-Delgamuukw British Columbia.\" Wicazo Sa Review, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 143–165. Stonechild, Blair A. \"Indian-White Relations in Canada, 1763 to the Present.\" In Encyclopedia of North American Indians , ed. Frederick E. Hoxie, 277–81. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996. Tousignant, Pierre. \"The Integration of the Province of Quebec into the British Empire, 1763–91. Part 1: From the Royal Proclamation to the Quebec Act.\" In Dictionary of Canadian Biography , vol. 4. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980. 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{ "text": "Colin Fickes - Wikipedia Colin Fickes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification . Please help by adding reliable sources . Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately , especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (September 2011) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Colin Fickes Born Raleigh, North Carolina , U.S. Occupation Actor Years active 1994–present Colin Fickes is an American actor . He is best known as high school teenager Jimmy Edwards on the hit series One Tree Hill . In one of the series' most notable episodes, the character committed suicide after bringing a gun to his school Tree Hill High, resulting in a hostage situation. [1] Jimmy Edwards was seen in the very first episode of One Tree Hill . The character's death motivated much of the drama in the third season. Fickes also appeared in the 2007 hit, Transformers as a Pentagon Analyst. Additionally, he has appeared in several other feature films and made guest television appearances, including a recurring role on Dawson's Creek . Colin was a classmate of writer/director Nick Karner and actress Aubrey Dollar , he attended Needham B. Broughton High School .\nHe has recently completed a movie called The Go-Getter where he plays Cousin Buddy alongside Lou Taylor Pucci , Zooey Deschanel and Jena Malone . Filmography [ edit ] 10 Years Later (2010) – Drew The Chopping Block (2009) – Arthur The New Twenty (2009) – Ben Barr Late in the Game (2008) (post-production) – Ben Barr Broken Angel (2008) (post-production) – Hank Ten Years Later (2008) (post-production) – Drew Over Her Dead Body (2008) – Don Sunny & Share Love You (2007) – Jason Trumble Fast Company (2007) – Ben Barr Transformers (2007) – Pentagon analyst #1 The Go-Getter (2007) – Cousin Buddy Chrystal (2004) – Hog One Tree Hill (2003) – Jimmy Edwards Roger Dodger (2002) – Angus Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (2001) – Glenn Rudd Cherry Falls (2000) – Dino The Rage: Carrie 2 (1999) – Tuba Player Dawson's Creek (1998) – Kenny The Hudsucker Proxy (1994) – Newsboy References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Holbrok, Damian (March 1, 2006). \"The Most Shocking One Tree Hill Ever?\" . TV Guide Network . Archived from the original on September 21, 2011. External links [ edit ] Colin Fickes on IMDb Authority control WorldCat Identities ISNI : 0000 0000 7136 9615 VIAF : 100737490 This article about an American film and television actor is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . v t e Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colin_Fickes&oldid=801424958 \" Categories : American male film actors American male television actors Living people Male actors from North Carolina Actors from Raleigh, North Carolina Needham B. Broughton High School alumni American screen actor stubs Hidden categories: BLP articles lacking sources from September 2011 All BLP articles lacking sources Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Year of birth missing (living people) All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 19 September 2017, at 16:05 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Colin Fickes", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Colin_Fickes&amp;oldid=801424958" }

{ "text": "Life as We Knew It (novel) - Wikipedia Life as We Knew It (novel) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Life As We Knew It Author Susan Beth Pfeffer Series The Last Survivors Genre Young adult novel , Science fiction Publisher Harcourt Children's Books Publication date October 1, 2006 Media type Print (hardback & paperback) Pages 337 pgs ISBN 0-15-205826-5 (first edition, hardcover) OCLC 63705625 LC Class PZ7.P44855 Lif 2004 Followed by The Dead and the Gone This World We Live In The Shade of the Moon Life As We Knew It is a young adult science fiction novel by American author Susan Beth Pfeffer , first published in 2006 by Harcourt Books . It is the first book in The Last Survivors series, followed by The Dead and the Gone . When an asteroid hits the moon and brings it closer to Earth, life in Northeastern Pennsylvania will never be the same again for Miranda and her family, with the lack of food and extreme cold major threats to their survival. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Characters 3 Reception 4 Awards 5 References Plot [ edit ] 16-year-old Miranda has a normal life in Pennsylvania living with her mother and brothers. Her biggest worries are about her grades and her conflicted feelings about becoming godmother to her soon-to-be-born half-sibling, who is expected by her father and his second wife Lisa. Soon, the news becomes focused on one subject: an asteroid predicted to hit the moon. People are excited about the opportunity to witness the astronomical event, and on the night of the impact, Miranda and her family, as well as many other people on their street, go outside to witness it. However, the asteroid was denser than expected by scientists, and immediately after impact, it becomes apparent that something is very wrong. The moon has been pushed closer to the Earth by the impact. Immediately, Miranda's life is shattered, as is the whole of society on Earth. Tsunamis and earthquakes ravage the coasts of many countries, causing millions of people to die instantly. Chaos erupts, and not long afterward, Miranda and her family are forced to go on a shopping spree before all the food runs out. Miranda's older brother Matt comes home from college to be with his family. As they are inland, they are safe from tsunamis, but as the summer goes on, another threat looms; the moon shift causes magma to be forced up to the surface, resulting in many dormant volcanoes erupting, which cover the sky in ash, causing the temperature to drop dramatically (enough for frost to appear by mid-August and for 20-degree weather by October), making it impossible for food to be grown. As things become harsher for the family, they start eating less and less to conserve food. It also becomes apparent that Laura is going without food and making other sacrifices to give Jon, who Miranda is convinced Laura considers to be the strongest of her children, a bigger chance of survival. This is often a source of resentment that causes conflict between Miranda and her mother. Winter is an especially hard time for the family. As well as a lack of food, they must deal with a multitude of snow, a lack of running water and electricity, and a terrible illness that nearly kills all of them. However, even as they become more and more isolated as nearly everyone else is either leaving town or dying, they continue to fight for survival. At the very end, there is almost no food left. Miranda ventures into town on a last breath of hope, though in her heart she believes she will find nothing, succumb to the cold, and die. However, just as she is about to lie down and give up, she sees a yellow piece of paper which attracts her gaze. The paper leads her to town hall, where, to her shock, she discovers the mayor is giving out bags of food for every family—but there are few takers, as many people are dead and even more have no way of knowing about the program. The family is given four bags of food and promised more to come in the following weeks. With a new reason to hope that she might live on, Miranda muses on her seventeenth birthday about why she is still keeping a diary: for the people who might read it in the future, or for herself. Characters [ edit ] Miranda Evans - The protagonist of the novel, a 16-year-old girl who is attempting to survive in the new, harsh world. The novel is presented as her diary entries. She has two brothers, one of whom she is jealous of, and the other she idolises, but, most of all, she cares greatly for both of them. Her favorite hobby used to be ice skating, but prior to the book's events, she suffered an ankle injury, forcing her to stop and take up swimming. She still has a passion of ice skating, idolising Brandon, a world-famous skater from her town. Later on in the novel, she is the only one of her family to not contract a life threatening strain of flu and takes care of them throughout it. Matt Evans - Miranda's older brother who provides and cares for the family, such as collecting firewood to keep them warm in the harsh winter. He is looked up to by his mother and siblings (Miranda \"cares desperately what he thinks of her\", despite denying it). Matt was studying at college before returning to his family after the event. Jonathan \"Jonny\" Evans - Miranda's younger brother who has a passion for baseball, attending a baseball camp during the novel. He is secretly voted most likely to live by his family, but comes to resent this when he realizes that they are starving themselves to allow him to eat more. Laura Evans - Miranda's mother, who was a writer. She has great care for her family, putting their lives ahead of her own often, such as starving herself so her children can have more to eat. She dates Peter during the novel. Later in the book, she sprains her ankle, rendering her immobile. Megan - Miranda's overly-religious friend. She used to be carefree before she went to church, an interest that began when their mutual friend Becky died. She begins to starve herself at the beginning of the incident with the moon because her pastor told her that God is punishing the human race for their sins. Sammi - another of Miranda's friends. She had been with numerous boys and fights with Megan, who believes that she leads an immoral life. Becky - Miranda's friend whom she constantly dreams about. She died before the book begins. She was \"like the glue\" between Miranda, Megan, and Sammi, and when she died, they began to go separate ways. Mrs. Wayne - Megan's mother. She worries greatly that her daughter is starving herself, as she does not share Megan's religious beliefs. Hal/Dad - Miranda's father who separated from her mother and remarried Lisa. He cares for his children very much, bringing them a large amount of food when they stop in on their way West. Lisa - Miranda's pregnant stepmother, whose child Miranda will be godmother to. Peter Elliot - Miranda's mom's boyfriend, a doctor. He works throughout the events, and visits several times, sometimes bringing food with him. Dan - a boy on Miranda's swim team, who she begins to go swimming with in the local pond, Miller's Pond, after their local indoor pool is closed. Horton - The beloved family cat. During the novel, Miranda accidentally leaves the door open, allowing him to escape, although he returns soon after. His bond with Jonny is well known, with them spending a large part of their lives together. Brandon - an ice skater from their town who is training for the Olympics. He is idolised by skaters worldwide. He has a fan-site dedicated to him, which Miranda went on frequently before the event. One day in the novel she surprisingly meets him at a frozen lake, where they talk and skate shortly. Although she continued returning to the lake, she never sees him again. It is assumed he died or left Howell, although it can be perceived that their meeting did not exist, and it was all in Miranda's imagination. Mrs. Nesbitt - an elderly woman who is like family to Miranda and her family, having cared for Miranda's mother when she was a child. George - Sammi's 40-year-old boyfriend, with whom she moves to Nashville. Reverend Marshall - The pastor at Megan's church. By telling his congregation that God will sustain them, and behaving in a falsely caring manner, he ensures that they bring him food by way of thanks. This means that he has much more to eat than most people, something which greatly enrages Miranda. Mayor Ford and Tom Danworth - Two men who inhabit the City Hall. They appear at the very end of the book, and tell Miranda that she can get bags of food from there. Reception [ edit ] Kirkus Reviews said that \"death is a constant threat, and Pfeffer instills despair right to the end but is cognizant to provide a ray of hope with a promising conclusion. Plausible science fiction with a frighteningly realistic reminder of recent tragedies here and abroad.\" [1] Ilene Cooper said in her review for Booklist that \"each page is filled with events both wearying and terrifying and infused with honest emotions. Pfeffer bring's cataclysmic tragedy very close.\" [2] Awards [ edit ] Pfeffer's book was named Young Adult Library Services Association 's Best Books for Young Adults in 2007, and shortlisted for the Andre Norton Award for Outstanding Science Fiction or Fantasy Book of 2007. In addition, it won the Booklist Editor's Choice Award for Books for Youth (Older Reader's Category) in 2006. [3] It was nominated for the 2009 Rebecca Caudill Young Readers' Book Award and the Truman Readers Award of 2008-2009. [4] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"LIFE AS WE KNEW IT\". Kirkus Reviews . 74 (18): 963. September 15, 2006. ISSN 0042-6598 . Jump up ^ Cooper, Ilene (September 1, 2006). \"Life as We Knew It\". Booklist . 103 (1): 127. ISSN 0006-7385 . Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 2008-12-11 . Retrieved 2009-02-23 . Jump up ^ http://www.rebeccacaudill.org/nominees/2009.htm Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Life_as_We_Knew_It_(novel)&oldid=832584832 \" Categories : 2006 American novels American young adult novels American science fiction novels Children's science fiction novels Fictional diaries Impact event novels Novels set in Pennsylvania Hidden categories: Pages to import images to Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 26 March 2018, at 21:20. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Life as We Knew It (novel)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Life_as_We_Knew_It_(novel)&amp;oldid=832584832" }

{ "text": "Miranda v. Arizona - Wikipedia Miranda v. Arizona From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Miranda v. Arizona Supreme Court of the United States Decided June 13, 1966 Full case name Miranda v. State of Arizona; Westover v. United States; Vignera v. State of New York; State of California v. Stewart Citations 384 U.S. 436 ( more ) 86 S. Ct. 1602; 16 L. Ed. 2d 694; 1966 U.S. LEXIS 2817; 10 A.L.R.3d 974 Argument Oral argument Prior history Defendant . Superior Ct.; affirmed, 401 P.2d 721 (Ariz. 1965); cert. granted, 382 U.S. 925 (1965) Subsequent history Retrial on remand, defendant convicted, Ariz. Superior Ct.; affirmed, 450 P.2d 364 (Ariz. 1969); rehearing denied, Ariz. Supreme Ct. March 11, 1969; cert. denied, 396 U.S. 868 (1969) Holding The Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination requires law enforcement officials to advise a suspect interrogated in custody of his or her rights to remain silent and to obtain an attorney. Supreme Court of Arizona reversed and remanded. Court membership Chief Justice Earl Warren Associate Justices Hugo Black · William O. Douglas Tom C. Clark · John M. Harlan II William J. Brennan Jr. · Potter Stewart Byron White · Abe Fortas Case opinions Majority Warren, joined by Black, Douglas, Brennan, Fortas Concur/dissent Clark Dissent Harlan, joined by Stewart, White Dissent White, joined by Harlan, Stewart Laws applied U.S. Const. amends. V , XIV Miranda v. Arizona , 384 U.S. 436 (1966), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court . In a 5–4 majority, the Court held that both inculpatory and exculpatory statements made in response to interrogation by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial only if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning and of the right against self-incrimination before police questioning, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily waived them. This case has a significant impact on law enforcement in the United States, by making what became known as the Miranda rights part of routine police procedure to ensure that suspects were informed of their rights. The Supreme Court decided Miranda with three other consolidated cases: Westover v. United States , Vignera v. New York , and California v. Stewart . The Miranda warning (often shortened to \"Miranda\", or \"Mirandizing\" a suspect) is the name of the formal warning that is required to be given by law enforcement in the United States to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial situation) before they are interrogated, in accordance with the Miranda ruling. Its purpose is to ensure the accused are aware of, and reminded of, these rights before questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. Per the U.S. Supreme Court decision Berghuis v. Thompkins (June 1, 2010), criminal suspects who are aware of their right to silence and to an attorney, but choose not to \"unambiguously\" invoke them, may find any subsequent voluntary statements treated as an implied waiver of their rights, and used as or as part of evidence. At least one scholar has argued that Thompkins effectively gutted Miranda . [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 1.1 Legal aid movement 1.2 Arrest and conviction 2 Opinion of the Supreme Court 2.1 Clark's concurrence in part, dissent in part 2.2 Harlan's dissent 2.3 White's dissent 3 Subsequent developments 3.1 Retrial 3.2 Reaction 3.3 Miranda warning 3.4 Legal developments 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Background [ edit ] Legal aid movement [ edit ] During the 1960s, a movement which provided defendants with legal aid emerged from the collective efforts of various bar associations . In the civil realm, it led to the creation of the Legal Services Corporation under the Great Society program of President Lyndon Baines Johnson . Escobedo v. Illinois , a case which closely foreshadowed Miranda, provided for the presence of counsel during police interrogation. This concept extended to a concern over police interrogation practices, which were considered by many [ who? ] to be barbaric and unjust. Coercive interrogation tactics were known in period slang as the \" third degree \". [ citation needed ] Arrest and conviction [ edit ] On March 13, 1963, Ernesto Miranda was arrested, by the Phoenix Police Department , based on circumstantial evidence linking him to the kidnapping and rape of an eighteen-year-old woman ten days earlier. [2] After two hours of interrogation by police officers, Miranda signed a confession to the rape charge on forms that included the typed statement: \"I do hereby swear that I make this statement voluntarily and of my own free will, with no threats, coercion, or promises of immunity, and with full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me.\" [3] However, at no time was Miranda told of his right to counsel. Before being presented with the form on which he was asked to write out the confession he had already given orally, he was not advised of his right to remain silent, nor was he informed that his statements during the interrogation would be used against him. At trial, when prosecutors offered Miranda's written confession as evidence, his court-appointed lawyer , Alvin Moore, objected that because of these facts, the confession was not truly voluntary and should be excluded. Moore's objection was overruled and based on this confession and other evidence, Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping. He was sentenced to 20–30 years of imprisonment on each charge, with sentences to run concurrently. Moore filed Miranda's appeal to the Arizona Supreme Court, claiming that Miranda's confession was not fully voluntary and should not have been admitted into the court proceedings. The Arizona Supreme Court affirmed the trial court's decision to admit the confession in State v. Miranda, 401 P.2d 721 (Ariz. 1965). In affirmation, the Arizona Supreme emphasized heavily the fact that Miranda did not specifically request an attorney. [4] Attorney John Paul Frank , former law clerk to Justice Hugo Black , represented Miranda in his appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. [5] Opinion of the Supreme Court [ edit ] Chief Justice Earl Warren , a former prosecutor , delivered the opinion of the Court [6] , ruling that due to the coercive nature of the custodial interrogation by police (Warren cited several police training manuals which had not been provided in the arguments), no confession could be admissible under the Fifth Amendment self-incrimination clause and Sixth Amendment right to an attorney unless a suspect had been made aware of his rights and the suspect had then waived them: The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in court; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him. [7] Thus, Miranda's conviction was overturned. The Court also made clear what had to happen if the suspect chose to exercise his or her rights: If the individual indicates in any manner, at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease... If the individual states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present. At that time, the individual must have an opportunity to confer with the attorney and to have him present during any subsequent questioning. Justice Brennan's comments on the Miranda decision. Warren pointed to the existing practice of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the rules of the Uniform Code of Military Justice , both of which required notifying a suspect of his right to remain silent; the FBI warning included notice of the right to counsel. However, the dissenting justices accused the majority of overreacting to the problem of coercive interrogations, and anticipated a drastic effect. They believed that, once warned, suspects would always demand attorneys, and deny the police the ability to gain confessions. Clark's concurrence in part, dissent in part [ edit ] In a separate concurrence in part, dissent in part, Justice Tom C. Clark argued that the Warren Court went \"too far too fast\". Instead, Justice Clark would use the \" totality of the circumstances \" test enunciated by Justice Goldberg in Haynes v. Washington . Under this test, the court would: consider in each case whether the police officer prior to custodial interrogation added the warning that the suspect might have counsel present at the interrogation and, further, that a court would appoint one at his request if he was too poor to employ counsel. In the absence of warnings, the burden would be on the State to prove that counsel was knowingly and intelligently waived or that in the totality of the circumstances, including the failure to give the necessary warnings, the confession was clearly voluntary. Harlan's dissent [ edit ] In dissent, Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote that \"nothing in the letter or the spirit of the Constitution or in the precedents squares with the heavy-handed and one-sided action that is so precipitously taken by the Court in the name of fulfilling its constitutional responsibilities\". Harlan closed his remarks by quoting former Justice Robert H. Jackson : \"This Court is forever adding new stories to the temples of constitutional law, and the temples have a way of collapsing when one story too many is added.\" White's dissent [ edit ] Justice Byron White took issue with the court announcing a new constitutional right when it had no \"factual and textual bases\" in the Constitution or previous opinions of the Court for the rule announced in the opinion. He stated: \"The proposition that the privilege against self-incrimination forbids in-custody interrogation without the warnings specified in the majority opinion and without a clear waiver of counsel has no significant support in the history of the privilege or in the language of the Fifth Amendment.\" Nor did Justice White believe it had any basis in English common law. White further warned of the dire consequences of the majority opinion: I have no desire whatsoever to share the responsibility for any such impact on the present criminal process. In some unknown number of cases, the Court's rule will return a killer, a rapist or other criminal to the streets and to the environment which produced him, to repeat his crime whenever it pleases him. As a consequence, there will not be a gain, but a loss, in human dignity. Subsequent developments [ edit ] Retrial [ edit ] Miranda was retried in 1967 after the original case against him was thrown out. This time the prosecution, instead of using the confession, introduced other evidence and called witnesses. One witness was Twila Hoffman, a woman with whom Miranda was living at the time of the offense; she testified that he had told her of committing the crime. [8] [9] Miranda was convicted in 1967 and sentenced to serve 20 to 30 years. [9] The Supreme Court of Arizona affirmed, [10] and the United States Supreme Court denied review. [11] Miranda was paroled in 1972. After his release, he returned to his old neighborhood and made a modest living autographing police officers' \"Miranda cards\" which contained the text of the warning, for reading to arrestees. He was stabbed to death during an argument in a bar on January 31, 1976. [12] A suspect was arrested, but he, unlike Miranda, exercised his right to remain silent. With no evidence against him, he was released. [13] Another three defendants whose cases had been tied in with Miranda's – an armed robber, a stick-up man, and a bank robber – either made plea bargains to lesser charges or were found guilty again despite the exclusion of their confessions. [14] Reaction [ edit ] The Miranda decision was widely criticized when it came down, as many felt it was unfair to inform suspected criminals of their rights, as outlined in the decision. Richard Nixon and other conservatives denounced Miranda for undermining the efficiency of the police, and argued the ruling would contribute to an increase in crime. Nixon, upon becoming President, promised to appoint judges who would be \"strict constructionists\" and who would exercise judicial restraint. Many supporters of law enforcement were angered by the decision's negative view of police officers. [ citation needed ] Miranda warning [ edit ] Main article: Miranda warning After the Miranda decision, the nation's police departments were required to inform arrested persons or suspects of their rights under the ruling prior to custodial interrogation. [15] Such information is called a Miranda warning . Since it is usually required that the suspects be asked if they understand their rights, courts have also ruled that any subsequent waiver of Miranda rights must be knowing, intelligent, and voluntary. [16] Many American police departments have pre-printed Miranda waiver forms which a suspect must sign and date (after hearing and reading the warnings again) if an interrogation is to occur. [17] [18] Data from the FBI Uniform Crime Reports shows a sharp reduction in the clearance rate of violent and property crimes after Miranda . [19] However, according to other studies from the 1960s and 1970s, \"contrary to popular belief, Miranda had little, if any, effect on detectives’ ability to solve crimes.\" [9] Legal developments [ edit ] The federal Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 purported to overrule Miranda for federal criminal cases and restore the \"totality of the circumstances\" test that had prevailed previous to Miranda . [20] The validity of this provision of the law, which is still codified at 18 U.S.C. § 3501 , was not ruled on for another 30 years because the Justice Department never attempted to rely on it to support the introduction of a confession into evidence at any criminal trial. [ citation needed ] Miranda was undermined by several subsequent decisions which seemed to grant exceptions to the \"Miranda warnings\", challenging its claim to be a necessary corollary of the Fifth Amendment. The exceptions and developments that occurred over the years included: The Court found in Harris v. New York , 401 U.S. 222 (1971), that a confession obtained in violation of the Miranda standards may nonetheless be used for purposes of impeaching the defendant's testimony: that is, if the defendant takes the stand at trial and the prosecution wishes to introduce the defendant's confession as a prior inconsistent statement to attack the defendant's credibility, the Miranda holding will not prohibit this. The Court found in Rhode Island v. Innis , 446 U.S. 291 (1980), that a \"spontaneous\" statement made by a defendant while in custody, even though the defendant has not been given the Miranda warnings or has invoked the right to counsel and a lawyer is not yet present, is admissible in evidence, as long as the statement was not given in response to police questioning or other conduct by the police likely to produce an incriminating response. The Court found in Berkemer v. McCarty , 468 U.S. 420 (1984), that a person subjected to custodial interrogation is entitled to the benefit of the procedural safeguards enunciated in Miranda , regardless of the nature or severity of the offense of which he is suspected or for which he was arrested. The Court found in New York v. Quarles , 467 U.S. 649 (1984), that there is also a \"public safety\" exception to the requirement that Miranda warnings be given before questioning: for example, if the defendant is in possession of information regarding the location of an unattended gun or there are other similar exigent circumstances which require protection of the public, the defendant may be questioned without warning and his responses, though incriminating, will be admissible in evidence. In 2009, the California Supreme Court upheld the conviction of Richard Allen Davis , finding that the public safety exception applied despite the fact that 64 days had passed from the disappearance of the girl later found to be murdered. [21] The Court found in Colorado v. Connelly , 479 U.S. 157 (1986), that the words \"knowing, intelligent, and voluntary\" mean only that suspects reasonably appear to understand what they are doing and are not being coerced into signing the waiver; the Court ruled that it is irrelevant whether the suspect may actually have been insane at the time. United States v. Garibay (1998) pointed out an important matter in regards to expansion of Miranda . Garibay barely spoke English and clearly showed a lack of understanding; indeed, \"the agent admitted that he had to rephrase questions when the defendant appeared confused.\" [22] The U.S. Court of Appeals ruled a \"clear error\" when the district court found that Garibay had \"knowingly and intelligently waived his Miranda rights\" due to the defendant’s low I.Q. and poor English language skills. [23] The court investigated many facets of his waiver and discovered that Mr. Garibay was missing all items that they were looking for: he never signed a waiver, he only received his warnings verbally and in English, and no interpreter was provided although they were available. With an opinion that stressed \"the requirement that a defendant 'knowingly and intelligently' waive his Miranda rights\", the Court reversed Garibay's conviction and remanded his case. [23] Miranda survived a strong challenge in Dickerson v. United States , 530 U.S. 428 (2000), where the validity of Congress's overruling of Miranda through § 3501 was tested. At issue was whether the Miranda warnings were actually compelled by the Constitution, or were rather merely measures enacted as a matter of judicial policy. [ citation needed ] In Dickerson , the Court, speaking through Chief Justice Rehnquist , upheld Miranda 7–2 and stated that \"the warnings have become part of our national culture\". In dissent, Justice Scalia argued Miranda warnings were not constitutionally required. He cited several cases demonstrating a majority of the then-current court, counting himself, and Justices Kennedy, O'Connor, and Thomas, as well as the Chief Justice (who had just delivered a contrary opinion), \"[were] on record as believing that a violation of Miranda is not a violation of the Constitution\". [ citation needed ] Over time, interrogators began to think of techniques to honor the \"letter\" but not the \"spirit\" of Miranda. In the case of Missouri v. Seibert , 542 U.S. 600 (2004), the Supreme Court halted one of the more controversial practices. Missouri police were deliberately withholding Miranda warnings and questioning suspects until they obtained confessions, then giving the warnings, getting waivers, and getting confessions again . Justice Souter wrote for the plurality: \"Strategists dedicated to draining the substance out of Miranda cannot accomplish by training instructions what Dickerson held Congress could not do by statute.\" [24] Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010) is a ruling where the Supreme Court held that a suspect's \"ambiguous or equivocal\" statement or no statements do not mean that police must end an interrogation. [25] At least one scholar has argued that Thompkins effectively gutted Miranda . In The Right to Remain Silent , Charles Weisselberg wrote that \"the majority in Thompkins rejected the fundamental underpinnings of Miranda v. Arizona ’s prophylactic rule and established a new one that fails to protect the rights of suspects\" and that But in Thompkins , neither Michigan nor the Solicitor General were able to cite any decision in which a court found that a suspect had given an implied waiver after lengthy questioning. Thompkins persevered for almost three hours before succumbing to his interrogators. In finding a waiver on these facts, Thompkins gives us an implied waiver doctrine on steroids. [1] See also [ edit ] United States constitutional criminal procedure Berghuis v. Thompkins Berkemer v. McCarty Escobedo v. Illinois Stansbury v. California List of criminal competencies List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 384 Miranda warning Schmerber v. California R. v. Hebert R. v. Brydges References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Charles Weisselberg and Stephanos Bibas, The Right to Remain Silent , 159 U. Pa. L. Rev. PENNumbra 69 (2010), Available at: http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/facpubs/2181 (Retrieved May 2, 2016) Jump up ^ Miranda also matched the description given by a robbery victim of the perpetrator in a robbery several months earlier. He was simultaneously interrogated about both of these crimes, confessed to both, but was not asked to and did not write down his confession to the robbery. He was separately tried and convicted of the robbery and sentenced to 20 to 25 years of imprisonment. This crime, trial, and sentence is separate from the rape-kidnapping case appealed to the Supreme Court. Jump up ^ Michael S. Lief and H. Mitchell Caldwell \"'You Have the Right to Remain Silent,'\" American Heritage , August/September 2006. Jump up ^ Miranda's oral confession in the robbery case was also appealed and the Arizona Supreme Court likewise affirmed the trial decision to admit it in State v. Miranda , 401 P.2d 716. This case was not part of the appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. Jump up ^ Oliver, Myrna (September 12, 2002). \"John P. Frank, 84; Attorney Won Key Decision in 1966 Miranda Case\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved May 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Supreme Court of the United States. 2/2/1790- (1966-06-13). Opinion of the Court by Chief Justice Earl Warren in the Case of Miranda v. Arizona . File Unit: Appellate Jurisdiction Case File Miranda v. Arizona, 1965 - 1966. Jump up ^ Syllabus to the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Miranda v. Arizona , holding 1.(d). Jump up ^ State v. Miranda , 104 Ariz. 174, 176, 450 P.2d 364, 366 (1969). ^ Jump up to: a b c Lief, Michael S.; H. Mitchell Caldwell (Aug–Sep 2006). \"You Have The Right To Remain Silent\" . American Heritage . Archived from the original on 2009-02-06 . Retrieved 2011-08-24 . Jump up ^ State v. Miranda , 104 Ariz. 174, 450 P.2d 364 (1969) Jump up ^ 396 U.S. 868 (1969). Jump up ^ \"Miranda Slain; Main Figure in Landmark Suspects' Rights Case\" . The New York Times . February 1, 1976 . Retrieved May 12, 2010 . Jump up ^ Charles Montaldo, Miranda Rights and Warning: Landmark Case Evolved from 1963 Ernesto Miranda Arrest , about.com; accessed 13 June 2014. Jump up ^ \"The Law: Catching Up with Miranda\" . Time . March 3, 1967 . Retrieved November 7, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"What Are Your Miranda Rights\" . ExpertLaw. 2017-05-01 . Retrieved 2017-05-01 . Jump up ^ See, e.g., \" Colorado v. Spring , 479 U.S. 564, 856-57 (1987)\" . Google Scholar . Google . Retrieved 18 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Edwards, H. Lynn (1966). \"The Effects of Miranda on the Work of the Federal Bureau of Investigation\" . American Criminal Law Quarterly . 159 : 160–161 . Retrieved 18 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Miranda Waiver\" (PDF) . University Police Department . University of North Alabama . Retrieved 18 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Handcuffing the Cops: Miranda's Harmful Effects on Law Enforcement | NCPA\" . 2015-05-18. Archived from the original on 2015-05-18 . Retrieved 2016-09-28 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Cite Miranda And Go Free\" . Sarasota Journal . 31 May 1968. p. 7. Jump up ^ People vs. Davis , S056425. Jump up ^ Einesman, Floralynn (1999). \"Confessions and Culture: The Interaction of Miranda and Diversity\". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology . 90 (1): 1–48 [p. 41]. JSTOR 1144162 . NCJ 182327 . ^ Jump up to: a b United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit (May 5, 1998), UNITED STATES of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. Jose Rosario GARIBAY, Jr., Defendant-Appellant. No. 96-50606. , retrieved February 15, 2017 Jump up ^ \" Missouri v. Seibert , section VI\" . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved 2010-05-07 . Hosted by Duke University School of Law . Jump up ^ Berghuis v. Thompkins , 560 U.S. 370 (2010). Further reading [ edit ] Baker, Liva (1983). Miranda: Crime, law, and politics . New York: Atheneum. ISBN 0-689-11240-8 . Kassin, Saul M.; Norwick, Rebecca J. (2004). \"Why People Waive Their Miranda Rights: The Power of Innocence\". Law and Human Behavior . 28 (2): 211–221. doi : 10.1023/B:LAHU.0000022323.74584.f5 . Levy, Leonard W. (1986) [1969]. Origins of the Fifth Amendment (Reprint ed.). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-919580-2 . Soltero, Carlos R. (2006). \" Miranda v. Arizona (1966) and the rights of the criminally accused\" . Latinos and American Law: Landmark Supreme Court Cases . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. pp. 61–74. ISBN 0-292-71411-4 . Stuart, Gary L. (2004). Miranda: The Story of America's Right to Remain Silent . Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-2313-4 . External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Miranda v. Arizona Text of Miranda v. Arizona , (1966) 384 U.S. 436 (1966) is available from: Cornell CourtListener Findlaw Justia Oyez OpenJurist Google Scholar \"Supreme Court Landmark Case Miranda v. Arizona \" from C-SPAN 's Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions An online publication titled \"Miranda v. Arizona: The Rights to Justice\" containing the most salient documents and other primary and secondary sources from the Law Library of Congress Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miranda_v._Arizona&oldid=835403766 \" Categories : History of law enforcement in the United States Miranda warning case law History of the United States (1964–80) 1966 in United States case law 20th century American trials United States Supreme Court cases American Civil Liberties Union litigation 1966 in Arizona Legal history of Arizona United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court Hidden categories: CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from May 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2014 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Deutsch Español Français 한국어 עברית 日本語 Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi 中文 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2018, at 14:17. 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{ "text": "Chief Justice of the United States - Wikipedia Chief Justice of the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Chief Justice of the United States Incumbent John Roberts since September 29, 2005 Style The Honorable (formal) Mr. Chief Justice (informal) Your Honor (when addressed directly in court) Appointer Presidential nomination with Senate confirmation Term length Life tenure Constituting instrument U.S. Constitution Inaugural holder John Jay as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court September 26, 1789 Formation March 4, 1789 This article is part of a series on the Politics of the United States of America Federal Government [show] Constitution of the United States Law Taxation Legislature [show] United States Congress House of Representatives Speaker Paul Ryan (R) Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy (R) Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D) Congressional districts United States Senate President Mike Pence (R) President Pro Tempore Orrin Hatch (R) President Pro Tempore Emeritus Patrick Leahy (D) Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R) Minority Leader Chuck Schumer (D) Executive [show] President of the United States Donald Trump (R) Vice President of the United States Mike Pence (R) Cabinet Federal agencies Executive Office Judiciary [show] Supreme Court of the United States Chief Justice John Roberts Kennedy Thomas Ginsburg Breyer Alito Sotomayor Kagan Gorsuch Courts of Appeals District Courts ( list ) Other tribunals Elections [show] Presidential elections Midterm elections Off-year elections Political parties [show] Democratic Republican Third parties Federalism [show] State Government Governors Legislatures ( List ) State courts Local government Other countries Atlas v t e This article is part of the series on the United States Supreme Court The Court Decisions Procedure History Court Building Current membership Chief Justice John Roberts Associate Justices Anthony Kennedy Clarence Thomas Ruth Bader Ginsburg Stephen Breyer Samuel Alito Sonia Sotomayor Elena Kagan Neil Gorsuch Retired Associate Justices John Paul Stevens Sandra Day O'Connor David Souter All members List of all justices by court by seat by time in office by education List of Chief Justices List of Associate Justices Specialty lists All nominations Unsuccessful nominations Nominations late in presidency Court demographics Justices who served in Congress Ideological leanings of justices Court functionaries Clerks Reporter of Decisions Marshal of the Court Supreme Court Police Other countries Law Portal v t e The Chief Justice of the United States is the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States and thus the head of the United States federal court system , which functions as the judicial branch of the nation's federal government . The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices; the other eight have the title Associate Justice . The Chief Justice, as the highest judicial officer in the country, serves as a spokesperson for the federal government's judicial branch, and acts as a chief administrative officer for the federal courts. The Chief Justice is also head of the Judicial Conference of the United States , and in that capacity appoints the director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts . By law, The Chief Justice is also a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution , and by custom is elected chancellor of the board. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments . When the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the court's meetings. In the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States , which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the U.S. Senate . Additionally, the presidential oath of office is typically administered by the Chief Justice (although the Constitution does not assign this duty to anyone in particular). Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 17 persons have served as chief justice. The first was John Jay (1789–1795). The current chief justice is John Roberts (since 2005). Four— Edward Douglass White , Charles Evans Hughes , Harlan Fiske Stone , and William Rehnquist —were previously confirmed for associate justice and subsequently confirmed for chief justice separately. Contents [ hide ] 1 Origin, title, and appointment to office 2 Duties 2.1 Impeachment trials 2.2 Seniority 2.3 Oath of office 2.4 Other duties 3 Disability or vacancy 4 List of Chief Justices 4.1 Notes 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Origin, title, and appointment to office [ edit ] John Jay , by Gilbert Stuart The United States Constitution does not explicitly establish an office of Chief Justice, but presupposes its existence with a single reference in Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 : \"When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside.\" Nothing more is said in the Constitution regarding the office. Article III, Section 1 , which authorizes the establishment of the Supreme Court, refers to all members of the Court simply as \"judges.\" The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the distinctive titles of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . In 1866, at the urging of Salmon P. Chase , Congress restyled the chief justice's title to the current Chief Justice of the United States . The first person whose Supreme Court commission contained the modified title was Melville Fuller in 1888. [1] The associate justices' title was not altered in 1866, and remains as originally created. The chief justice, like all federal judges , is nominated by the President and confirmed to office by the U.S. Senate . Article III , Section 1 of the Constitution specifies that they \"shall hold their Offices during good Behavior\". This language means that the appointments are effectively for life , and that, once in office, a justice's tenure ends only when they die , retire , resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process . The salary of the chief justice is set by Congress; the current (2018) annual salary is $267,000, which is slightly higher than that of associate justices, which is $255,300. [2] The practice of appointing an individual to serve as chief justice is grounded in tradition; while the Constitution mandates that there be a chief justice, it is silent on the subject of how one is chosen and by whom. There is no specific constitutional prohibition against using another method to select the chief justice from among those justices properly appointed and confirmed to the Supreme Court. Constitutional law scholar Todd Pettys has proposed that presidential appointment of chief justices should be done away with, and replaced by a process that permits the Justices to select their own chief justice. [3] Three incumbent associate justices have been nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate as chief justice: Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, and William Rehnquist in 1986. A fourth, Abe Fortas , was nominated to the position in 1968, but not confirmed. As an associate justice does not have to resign his or her seat on the Court in order to be nominated as chief justice, Fortas remained an associate justice. Similarly, when associate justice William Cushing was nominated and confirmed as chief justice in January 1796, but declined the office, he too remained on the Court. Additionally, two former associate justices subsequently returned to service on the Court as chief justice. John Rutledge was the first. President Washington gave him a recess appointment in 1795. However, his subsequent nomination to the office was not confirmed by the Senate, and he left office and the Court. In 1933, former associate justice Charles Evans Hughes was confirmed as chief justice. Duties [ edit ] Along with his general responsibilities as a member of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice has several unique duties to fulfill. Impeachment trials [ edit ] Article I, section 3 of the U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice shall preside over impeachment trials of the President of the United States in the U.S. Senate. Two Chief Justices, Salmon P. Chase and William Rehnquist , have presided over the trial in the Senate that follows an impeachment of the president – Chase in 1868 over the proceedings against President Andrew Johnson and Rehnquist in 1999 over the proceedings against President Bill Clinton . Both presidents were subsequently acquitted. Seniority [ edit ] John Marshall , the fourth and longest serving Chief Justice. Many of the procedures and inner workings of the Court turn on the seniority of the justices. Traditionally, the chief justice has been regarded as primus inter pares (first among equals)—that is, the chief justice is the highest-ranking and foremost member of the Court, regardless of that officeholder's length of service when compared against that of any associate justice. This seniority and added prestige enables a chief justice to define the Court's culture and norms, and thus influence how it functions. The chief justice sets the agenda for the weekly meetings where the justices review the petitions for certiorari , to decide whether to hear or deny each case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear less than one percent of the cases petitioned to it. While associate justices may append items to the weekly agenda, in practice this initial agenda-setting power of the chief justice has significant influence over the direction of the court. Nonetheless, a chief justice's influence may be limited by circumstances and the associate justices' understanding of legal principles ; it is definitely limited by the fact that he has only a single vote of nine on the decision whether to grant or deny certiorari. [4] [5] Despite the chief justice's elevated stature, his vote carries the same legal weight as the vote of each associate justice. Additionally, he has no legal authority to overrule the verdicts or interpretations of the other eight judges or tamper with them. [4] The task of assigning who shall write the opinion for the majority falls to the most senior justice in the majority. Thus, when the chief justice is in the majority, he always assigns the opinion. [6] Early in his tenure, Chief Justice John Marshall insisted upon holdings which the justices could unanimously back as a means to establish and build the Court's national prestige. In doing so, Marshall would often write the opinions himself, and actively discouraged dissenting opinions. Associate Justice William Johnson eventually persuaded Marshall and the rest of the Court to adopt its present practice: one justice writes an opinion for the majority, and the rest are free to write their own separate opinions or not, whether concurring or dissenting. [7] The chief justice's formal prerogative—when in the majority—to assign which justice will write the Court's opinion is perhaps his most influential power, [5] as this enables him to influence the historical record. [4] He \"may assign this task to the individual justice best able to hold together a fragile coalition, to an ideologically amenable colleague, or to himself.\" Opinion authors can have a big influence on the content of an opinion; two justices in the same majority, given the opportunity, might write very different majority opinions. [5] A chief justice who knows well the associate justices can therefore do much—by the simple act of selecting the justice who writes the opinion of the court—to affect the general character or tone of an opinion, which in turn can affect the interpretation of that opinion in cases before lower courts in the years to come. Additionally, the chief justice chairs the conferences where cases are discussed and tentatively voted on by the justices. He normally speaks first and so has influence in framing the discussion. Although the chief justice votes first—the Court votes in order of seniority—he may strategically pass in order to ensure membership in the majority if desired. [5] It is reported that: Chief Justice Warren Burger was renowned, and even vilified in some quarters, for voting strategically during conference discussions on the Supreme Court in order to control the Court’s agenda through opinion assignment. Indeed, Burger is said to have often changed votes to join the majority coalition, cast \"phony votes\" by voting against his preferred position, and, declined to express a position at conference. [8] Oath of office [ edit ] The Chief Justice typically administers the oath of office at the inauguration of the President of the United States. This is a tradition, rather than a constitutional responsibility of the Chief Justice; the Constitution does not require that the oath be administered by anyone in particular, simply that it be taken by the president. Law empowers any federal and state judge, as well as notaries public (such as John Calvin Coolidge, Sr. ), to administer oaths and affirmations . William Rehnquist (left) takes the oath as Chief Justice from retiring Chief Justice Warren E. Burger in 1986, as his wife, Natalie, holds the Bible and President Ronald Reagan (far right) looks on. If the Chief Justice is ill or incapacitated, the oath is usually administered by the next senior member of the Supreme Court. Seven times, someone other than the Chief Justice of the United States administered the oath of office to the President. [9] Robert Livingston , as Chancellor of the State of New York (the state's highest ranking judicial office), administered the oath of office to George Washington at his first inauguration; there was no Chief Justice of the United States, nor any other federal judge prior to their appointments by President Washington in the months following his inauguration. William Cushing , an associate justice of the Supreme Court, administered Washington's second oath of office in 1793. Calvin Coolidge 's father , a notary public, administered the oath to his son after the death of Warren Harding. [10] This, however, was contested upon Coolidge's return to Washington and his oath was re-administered by Judge Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr. of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia . [11] John Tyler and Millard Fillmore were both sworn in on the death of their predecessors by Chief Justice William Cranch of the Circuit Court of the District of Columbia. [12] Chester A. Arthur and Theodore Roosevelt 's initial oaths reflected the unexpected nature of their taking office. On November 22, 1963, after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Judge Sarah T. Hughes , a federal district court judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, administered the oath of office to then Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson aboard the presidential airplane . In addition, the Chief Justice ordinarily administers the oath of office to newly appointed and confirmed associate justices, whereas the senior associate justice will normally swear in a new Chief Justice or vice president. Other duties [ edit ] Since the tenure of William Howard Taft , the office of the Chief Justice has moved beyond just first among equals . [13] The Chief Justice also: Serves as the head of the federal judiciary. Serves as the head of the Judicial Conference of the United States , the chief administrative body of the United States federal courts . The Judicial Conference is empowered by the Rules Enabling Act to propose rules, which are then promulgated by the Supreme Court (subject to disapproval by Congress under the Congressional Review Act ), to ensure the smooth operation of the federal courts. Major portions of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Federal Rules of Evidence have been adopted by most state legislatures and are considered canonical by American law schools . Appoints sitting federal judges to the membership of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC), a \"secret court\" which oversees requests for surveillance warrants by federal police agencies (primarily the F.B.I. ) against suspected foreign intelligence agents inside the United States. ( see 50 U.S.C. § 1803 ). Appoints the members of the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation , a special tribunal of seven sitting federal judges responsible for selecting the venue for coordinated pretrial proceedings in situations where multiple related federal actions have been filed in different judicial districts. Serves ex officio as a member of the Board of Regents, and by custom as the Chancellor , of the Smithsonian Institution . Supervises the acquisition of books for the Law Library of the Library of Congress . [14] Unlike Senators and Representatives who are constitutionally prohibited from holding any other \"office of trust or profit\" of the United States or of any state while holding their congressional seats, the Chief Justice and the other members of the federal judiciary are not barred from serving in other positions. Chief Justice John Jay served as a diplomat to negotiate the so-called Jay Treaty (also known as the Treaty of London of 1794), Justice Robert H. Jackson was appointed by President Truman to be the U.S. Prosecutor in the Nuremberg trials of leading Nazis, and Chief Justice Earl Warren chaired The President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy . As described above, the Chief Justice holds office in the Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress. Disability or vacancy [ edit ] Under 28 USC , [15] when the Chief Justice is unable to discharge his functions, or that office is vacant, his duties are carried out by the most senior associate justice who is able to act, until the disability or vacancy ends, as chief justice. [3] As of February 13, 2016, Anthony Kennedy is the most senior associate justice. List of Chief Justices [ edit ] Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 17 persons have served as Chief Justice: [16] [17] Chief Justice Date confirmed (Vote) Tenure [a] Tenure length Appointed by Prior position [b] 1 John Jay (1745–1829) September 26, 1789 ( Acclamation ) 000000001789-10-19-0000 October 19, 1789 – June 29, 1795 (Resigned) 7003207900000000000♠ 5 years, 253 days George Washington Acting United States Secretary of State (1789–1790) 2 John Rutledge (1739–1800) December 15, 1795 ( 10–14 ) [c] 000000001795-08-12-0000 August 12, 1795 [d] – December 28, 1795 (Resigned, nomination having been rejected) 7002138000000000000♠ 138 days Chief Justice of the South Carolina Court of Common Pleas and Sessions (1791–1795) Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1789–1791) 3 Oliver Ellsworth (1745–1807) March 4, 1796 (21–1) 000000001796-03-08-0000 March 8, 1796 – December 15, 1800 (Resigned) 7003174200000000000♠ 4 years, 282 days United States Senator from Connecticut (1789–1796) 4 John Marshall (1755–1835) January 27, 1801 (Acclamation) 000000001801-02-04-0000 February 4, 1801 – July 6, 1835 (Died) 7004125700000000000♠ 34 years, 152 days John Adams 4th United States Secretary of State (1800–1801) 5 Roger B. Taney (1777–1864) March 15, 1836 (29–15) 000000001836-03-28-0000 March 28, 1836 – October 12, 1864 (Died) 7004104250000000000♠ 28 years, 198 days Andrew Jackson 12th United States Secretary of the Treasury (1833–1834) 6 Salmon P. Chase (1808–1873) December 6, 1864 (Acclamation) 000000001864-12-15-0000 December 15, 1864 – May 7, 1873 (Died) 7003306500000000000♠ 8 years, 143 days Abraham Lincoln 25th United States Secretary of the Treasury (1861–1864) 7 Morrison Waite (1816–1888) January 21, 1874 (63–0) 000000001874-03-04-0000 March 4, 1874 – March 23, 1888 (Died) 7003513300000000000♠ 14 years, 19 days Ulysses S. Grant Ohio State Senator (1849–1850) Presiding officer, Ohio constitutional convention (1873) 8 Melville Fuller (1833–1910) July 20, 1888 (41–20) 000000001888-10-08-0000 October 8, 1888 – July 4, 1910 (Died) 7003793800000000000♠ 21 years, 269 days Grover Cleveland President, Illinois State Bar Association (1886) Illinois State Representative (1863–1865) 9 Edward Douglass White (1845–1921) December 12, 1910 [e] (Acclamation) 000000001910-12-19-0000 December 19, 1910 – May 19, 1921 (Died) 7003380400000000000♠ 10 years, 151 days William Howard Taft Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1894–1910) 10 William Howard Taft (1857–1930) June 30, 1921 (Acclamation) 000000001921-07-11-0000 July 11, 1921 – February 3, 1930 (Retired) 7003312900000000000♠ 8 years, 207 days Warren G. Harding 27th President of the United States (1909–1913) 11 Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948) February 13, 1930 (52–26) 000000001930-02-24-0000 February 24, 1930 – June 30, 1941 (Retired) 7003414400000000000♠ 11 years, 126 days Herbert Hoover 44th United States Secretary of State (1921–1925) Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1910–1916) 12 Harlan F. Stone (1872–1946) June 27, 1941 [e] (Acclamation) 000000001941-07-03-0000 July 3, 1941 – April 22, 1946 (Died) 7003175400000000000♠ 4 years, 293 days Franklin D. Roosevelt Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1925–1941) 13 Fred M. Vinson (1890–1953) June 20, 1946 (Acclamation) 000000001946-06-24-0000 June 24, 1946 – September 8, 1953 (Died) 7003263300000000000♠ 7 years, 76 days Harry S. Truman 53rd United States Secretary of the Treasury (1945–1946) 14 Earl Warren (1891–1974) March 1, 1954 (Acclamation) 000000001953-10-05-0000 October 5, 1953 [d] – June 23, 1969 (Retired) 7003574000000000000♠ 15 years, 261 days Dwight D. Eisenhower 30th Governor of California (1943–1953) 15 Warren E. Burger (1907–1995) June 9, 1969 (74–3) 000000001969-06-23-0000 June 23, 1969 – September 26, 1986 (Retired) 7003630400000000000♠ 17 years, 95 days Richard Nixon Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit (1956–1969) 16 William Rehnquist (1924–2005) September 17, 1986 [e] (65–33) 000000001986-09-26-0000 September 26, 1986 – September 3, 2005 (Died) 7003691700000000000♠ 18 years, 342 days Ronald Reagan Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1972–1986) 17 John Roberts (born 1955) September 29, 2005 (78–22) 000000002005-09-29-0000 September 29, 2005 – Incumbent 7003453600000000000♠ 12 years, 153 days George W. Bush Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit (2003–2005) Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ The start date given here for each chief justice is the day they took the oath of office, and the end date is the day of the justice's death, resignation, or retirement. Jump up ^ Listed here (unless otherwise noted) is the position—either with a U.S. state or the federal government—held by the individual immediately prior to becoming Chief Justice of the United States. Jump up ^ This was the first Supreme Court nomination to be rejected by the United States Senate. Rutledge remains the only \"recess appointed\" justice not to be subsequently confirmed by the Senate. ^ Jump up to: a b Recess appointment ^ Jump up to: a b c Elevated from associate justice to chief justice while serving on the Supreme Court. The nomination of a sitting associate justice to be chief justice is subject to a separate confirmation process. See also [ edit ] Lists of United States Supreme Court cases References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Administrative Agencies: Office of the Chief Justice, 1789–present\" . Washington, D.C.: Federal Judicial Center . Retrieved April 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Judicial Compensation\" . Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts . Retrieved January 27, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Pettys, Todd E. (2006). \"Choosing a Chief Justice: Presidential Prerogative or a Job for the Court?\" . Journal of Law & Politics . The University of Iowa College of Law. 22 (3): 231–281. SSRN 958829 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Judiciary\" . Ithaca, New York: Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School . Retrieved May 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Cross, Frank B.; Lindquist, Stefanie (June 2006). \"The decisional significance of the Chief Justice\" (PDF) . University of Pennsylvania Law Review . Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Law School. 154 (6): 1665–1707. Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-393-93218-8 . Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-393-93218-8 . Jump up ^ Johnson, Timothy R.; Spriggs II, James F.; Wahlbeck, Paul J. (June 2005). \"Passing and Strategic Voting on the U.S. Supreme Court\" . Law & Society Review . Law and Society Association, through Wiley. 39 (2): 349–377 . Retrieved May 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Presidential Inaugurations: Presidential Oaths of Office\" . Memory.loc.gov . Retrieved June 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Excerpt from Coolidge's autobiography\" . Historicvermont.org . Retrieved May 15, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Prologue: Selected Articles\" . Archives.gov . Retrieved May 15, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Presidential Swearing-In Ceremony, Part 5 of 6\" . Inaugural.senate.gov. Archived from the original on February 3, 2011 . Retrieved August 17, 2011 . Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-393-93218-8 . Jump up ^ \"Jefferson's Legacy: A Brief History of the Library of Congress\" . Library of Congress . March 6, 2006 . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"28 U.S. Code § 3 – Vacancy in office of Chief Justice; disability | LII / Legal Information Institute\" . Law.cornell.edu . Retrieved June 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations: 1789–Present\" . www.senate.gov . Retrieved February 17, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Justices 1789 to Present\" . www.supremecourt.gov . Retrieved January 11, 2018 . Further reading [ edit ] Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 0-19-506557-3 . Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7 . Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court . Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. , 1874 at Google Books . Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions . Chelsea House Publishers . ISBN 0-7910-1377-4 . Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6 . Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography . Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 0-87187-554-3 . Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary . New York: Garland Publishing . p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1 . External links [ edit ] Media related to Chief Justice of the United States at Wikimedia Commons [ show ] v t e Chief Justices of the United States John Jay ( 1789–1795 ; cases ) John Rutledge ( 1795 ; cases ) Oliver Ellsworth ( 1796–1800 ; cases ) John Marshall ( 1801–1835 ; cases ) Roger B. Taney ( 1836–1864 ; cases ) Salmon P. Chase ( 1864–1873 ; cases ) Morrison Waite ( 1874–1888 ; cases ) Melville Fuller ( 1888–1910 ; cases ) Edward Douglass White ( 1910–1921 ; cases ) William Howard Taft ( 1921–1930 ; cases ) Charles Evans Hughes ( 1930–1941 ; cases ) Harlan F. Stone ( 1941–1946 ; cases ) Fred M. Vinson ( 1946–1953 ; cases ) Earl Warren ( 1953–1969 ; cases ) Warren E. 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{ "text": "2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships - Wikipedia 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search 2018 IIHF World U20 Championships Tournament details Host country United States Dates December 26, 2017 – January 5, 2018 Teams 10 Venue(s) KeyBank Center , Buffalo HarborCenter , Buffalo New Era Field , Orchard Park [1] (in 2 host cities) Tournament statistics Matches played 23 Goals scored 169 (7.35 per match) Attendance 160,087 (6,960 per match) Scoring leader(s) Casey Mittelstadt (9 points) Website 2018 .worldjunior .hockey ← 2017 2019 → This article documents a current sports-related event . Information may change rapidly as the event progresses. Initial news reports, scores, or statistics may be unreliable . The last updates to this article may not reflect the most current information. (December 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The 2018 IIHF World Junior Championship is the 42nd Ice Hockey World Junior Championship . It is being hosted by the city of Buffalo, New York [2] at the KeyBank Center and HarborCenter . It began on December 26, 2017, and will end with the gold medal game being played on January 5, 2018. This marks the sixth time that the United States has hosted the IHWJC and the second time that Buffalo has done so, having hosted in 2011 . A preliminary round game between Canada and the United States was also played outdoors at New Era Field in nearby Orchard Park, New York , on December 29, 2017. It marked the first ever outdoor game played during an IIHF World Championship at the junior level. [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Top Division 1.1 Venues 1.2 Host selection 1.3 Officials 1.4 Rosters 1.5 Format 1.6 Preliminary round 1.6.1 Group A 1.6.2 Group B 1.7 Relegation 1.8 Playoff round 1.8.1 Quarterfinals 1.8.2 Semifinals 1.8.3 Bronze medal game 1.8.4 Final 1.9 Statistics 1.9.1 Scoring leaders 1.9.2 Goaltending leaders 2 Division I 2.1 Division IA 2.2 Division IB 3 Division II 3.1 Division IIA 3.2 Division IIB 4 Division III 4.1 Division III qualification 5 References 6 External links Top Division [ edit ] Venues [ edit ] KeyBank Center Capacity: 19,070 KeyBank Rink at HarborCenter Capacity: 1,800 New Era Field Capacity: 71,870 United States – Buffalo United States – Buffalo United States – Orchard Park Host selection [ edit ] On July 28, 2015, USA Hockey named the five initial finalists for hosting the event: [4] Buffalo, New York Pittsburgh St. Louis Chicago Tampa, Florida Chicago and Tampa were eliminated on September 15. [5] Buffalo was chosen as the host site on December 3, with a formal announcement on December 4. [6] For the first time in WJC history, one of the games (Canada vs USA, on December 29) was played outdoors. [1] Officials [ edit ] The following officials have been assigned by the International Ice Hockey Federation to officiate the 2018 World Junior Championships. [7] Referees Andris Ansons Alexandre Garon Jacob Grumsen Mikko Kaukokari Artur Kulev Manuel Nikolic Gordon Schukies Robin Šír Mikael Sjöqvist Stephen Thomson Jeremy Tufts Marc Wiegand Linesmen Franco Castelli Markus Hägerström William Hancock II Rene Jensen Jon Kilian Dustin McCrank Jiří Ondráček Peter Šefčík Alexander Sysuev Emil Yletyinen Rosters [ edit ] Main article: 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships rosters Format [ edit ] The four best ranked teams from each group of the preliminary round advanced to the quarterfinals, while the last-placed team from both groups played a relegation round in a best-of-three format to determine the relegated team. [8] Preliminary round [ edit ] All times are local. ( Eastern Standard Time – UTC-5 ) Group A [ edit ] Pos Team Pld W OTW OTL L GF GA GD Pts Qualification 1 Canada 4 3 0 1 0 21 6 +15 10 Advance to Quarterfinals 2 United States 4 2 1 0 1 20 10 +10 8 3 Finland 4 2 0 0 2 15 12 +3 6 4 Slovakia 4 2 0 0 2 10 14 −4 6 5 Denmark 4 0 0 0 4 2 26 −24 0 Advance to Relegation Source: IIHF.com December 26, 2017 16:00 Canada 4–2 (3–1, 1–1, 0–0) Finland KeyBank Center Attendance: 9,552 [ show ] Game reference Carter Hart Goalies Ukko–Pekka Luukkonen Referees: Artur Kulev Manuel Nikolic Linesmen: Jon Kilian Jiří Ondráček Katchouk ( Thomas ) – 05:34 1–0 Steel ( Raddysh , Kyrou ) (PP) – 06:01 2–0 2–1 12:19 – Heponiemi ( Välimäki ) Batherson ( Gadjovich , Mete ) – 12:52 3–1 3–2 27:31 – Jokiharju ( Tolvanen , Koivula ) (PP) Raddysh (Katchouk) – 32:47 4–2 12 min Penalties 6 min 32 Shots 31 December 26, 2017 20:00 Denmark 0–9 (0–5, 0–2, 0–2) United States KeyBank Center Attendance: 7,207 [ show ] Game reference Kasper Krog Emil Gransøe Goalies Joseph Woll Referees: Gordon Schukies Robin Šír Linesmen: Peter Šefčík Alexander Sysuev 0–1 02:27 – Jones ( Peeke , Norris ) 0–2 05:04 – Bellows ( Brown ) (PP) 0–3 08:26 – Mittelstadt ( Hughes , M. Anderson ) 0–4 11:35 – Yamamoto ( Tkachuk , Hughes) 0–5 18:48 – Mittelstadt ( Harper , Tufte ) 0–6 24:08 – Bellows (PS) 0–7 39:31 – Harper ( Fox ) 0–8 52:30 – Peeke (Jones) (PP) 0–9 53:23 – Samberg ( Perunovich , Norris) 10 min Penalties 6 min 17 Shots 36 December 27, 2017 19:00 Slovakia 0–6 (0–1, 0–3, 0–2) Canada KeyBank Center Attendance: 7,834 [ show ] Game reference Dávid Hrenák Goalies Colton Point Referees: Jeremy Tufts Marc Wiegand Linesmen: William Hancock II Rene Jensen 0–1 03:39 – Steel ( Makar , Kyrou ) 0–2 21:24 – Kyrou ( Mete , Dubé ) (PP) 0–3 25:43 – Gadjovich (Makar) 0–4 30:33 – Raddysh (Kyrou, Steel) (PP) 0–5 55:58 – Comtois 0–6 58:30 – Gadjovich ( McLeod , Timmins ) (PP) 12 min Penalties 4 min 20 Shots 52 December 28, 2017 12:00 Finland 4–1 (2–0, 2–1, 0–0) Denmark KeyBank Center Attendance: 5,026 [ show ] Game reference Ukka–Pekka Luukkonen Goalies Kasper Krog Referees: Andris Ansons Alexandre Garon Linesmen: Franco Castelli Jon Kilian Koppanen ( Välimäki , Heiskanen ) – 02:49 1–0 Räsänen ( Tolvanen , Jokiharju ) – 06:56 2–0 2–1 21:38 – Krag ( Røndbjerg , Setkov ) (PP) Välimäki (Heiskanen, Vaakanainen ) – 35:38 3–1 Jokiharju ( Koivula ) – 37:44 4–1 2 min Penalties 14 min 62 Shots 7 December 28, 2017 20:00 United States 2–3 (0–0, 1–1, 1–2) Slovakia KeyBank Center Attendance: 8,188 [ show ] Game reference Joseph Woll Goalies Roman Durný Referees: Artur Kulev Mikael Sjöqvist Linesmen: Markus Hägerström Emil Yletyinen 0–1 24:52 – Krivošík ( Buček ) Tkachuk ( Poehling , J. Anderson ) – 31:07 1–1 1–2 55:15 – Krivošík (Buček) Mittelstadt – 56:49 2–2 2–3 57:52 – Buček 2 min Penalties 4 min 45 Shots 25 December 29, 2017 15:00 Canada 3–4 GWS (2–0, 1–1, 0–2) ( OT : 0–0) ( SO : 0–2) United States New Era Field Attendance: 44,592 [ show ] Game reference Carter Hart Goalies Jake Oettinger Referees: Mikko Kaukokari Marc Wiegand Linesmen: Jiří Ondráček Alexander Sysuev Makar ( Thomas ) (PP) – 04:13 1–0 Dubé ( Steel ) (PP) – 15:17 2–0 2–1 36:27 – Bellows ( Mittelstadt , Oettinger) (PP2) Katchouk ( Bean ) – 37:39 3–1 3–2 46:09 – Perunovich (Mittelstadt) (PP) 3–3 46:43 – Tkachuk (Mittelstadt) Steel Thomas Raddysh Batheson Shootout Bellows Tkachuk Mittelstadt 12 min Penalties 6 min 22 Shots 36 December 30, 2017 16:00 Finland 5–2 (0–0, 2–1, 3–1) Slovakia KeyBank Center Attendance: 6,229 [ show ] Game reference Ukko-Pekka Luukkonen Goalies Roman Durný Referees: Gordon Schukies Stephen Thomson Linesmen: Dustin McCrank Jiří Ondráček Koppanen ( Nurmi , Jääskä ) – 27:02 1–0 1–1 34:14 – Bodák ( Tamáši , Ivan ) Räsänen ( Juolevi , Tolvanen ) (PP) – 39:02 2–1 Heponiemi ( Kuokkanen ) – 46:23 3–1 3–2 49:03 – Buček ( Krivošík , Ružička ) Ikonen – 52:36 4–2 Nurmi (Koppanen) – 54:01 5–2 8 min Penalties 8 min 39 Shots 26 December 30, 2017 20:00 Denmark 0–8 (0–3, 0–2, 0–3) Canada KeyBank Center Attendance: 8,671 [ show ] Game reference Emil Gransøe Goalies Carter Hart Referees: Manuel Nikolic Mikael Sjöqvist Linesmen: Peter Šefčík Emil Yletyinen 0–1 03:52 – Thomas ( Raddysh , Katchouk ) 0–2 17:21 – Howden ( Comtois , Foote ) 0–3 19:39 – Steel ( Clague , Kyrou ) 0–4 27:52 – Makar ( Bean ) (PP) 0–5 29:20 – Howden (Foote, Formenton ) 0–6 43:30 – Formenton ( Timmins ) 0–7 49:03 – McLeod 0–8 52:26 – Batherson (Foote, McLeod) (PP) 8 min Penalties 4 min 18 Shots 44 December 31, 2017 16:00 United States 5–4 (2–0, 2–2, 1–2) Finland KeyBank Center Attendance: 7,884 [ show ] Game reference Joseph Woll Goalies Ukko-Pekka Luukkonen Referees: Alexandre Garon Robin Šír Linesmen: Rene Jensen Peter Šefčík Frederic ( Tufte , Yamamoto ) – 03:59 1–0 Mittelstadt ( Tkachuk ) – 14:33 2–0 J. Anderson (Tkachuk, Fox ) (PP2) – 26:56 3–0 3–1 29:01 – Räsänen ( Tolvanen ) 3–2 38:44 – Tolvanen ( Jokiharju , Vesalainen ) (PP) J. Anderson (Fox, Mittelstadt) (PP) – 39:26 4–2 4–3 48:25 – Koppanen ( Nurmi , Vaakanainen ) (SH) 4–4 49:31 – Vesalainen ( Juolevi , Välimäki ) Fox (Mittelstadt, Tkachuk) – 58:23 5–4 8 min Penalties 10 min 37 Shots 24 December 31, 2017 18:00 Slovakia 5–1 (1–1, 2–0, 2–0) Denmark HarborCenter Attendance: 1,419 [ show ] Game reference Roman Durný Goalies Kasper Krog Referees: Andris Ansons Jeremy Tufts Linesmen: Franco Castelli Alexander Sysuev 0–1 04:46 – Blichfield ( Krag , Røndbjerg ) (PP) Roman ( Tamáši ) – 11:42 1–1 Fehérváry ( Ružička , Buček ) – 29:38 2–1 Roman (SH) – 34:38 3–1 Buček (Fehérváry) – 44:06 4–1 Liška ( Kundrík , Solenský ) – 45:22 5–1 12 min Penalties 10 min 40 Shots 31 Group B [ edit ] Pos Team Pld W OTW OTL L GF GA GD Pts Qualification 1 Sweden 4 3 1 0 0 20 7 +13 11 Advance to Quarterfinals 2 Czech Republic 4 3 0 0 1 18 15 +3 9 3 Russia 4 2 0 1 1 17 13 +4 7 4 Switzerland 4 1 0 0 3 10 20 −10 3 5 Belarus 4 0 0 0 4 10 20 −10 0 Advance to Relegation Source: IIHF.com December 26, 2017 12:00 Czech Republic 5–4 (2–2, 2–0, 1–2) Russia KeyBank Center Attendance: 4,998 [ show ] Game reference Josef Kořenář Goalies Alexei Melnichuk Vladislav Sukhachyov Referees: Andris Ansons Alexandre Garon Linesmen: Franco Castelli Markus Hägerström Nečas ( Kaut , Zadina ) (PP) – 04:42 1–0 1–1 05:21 – Polodyan ( Altybarmakyan , Zaitsev ) Safin ( Chytil , Hájek ) – 07:28 2–1 2–2 09:16 – Sholokhov ( Kostin , Syomin ) Zadina (Kaut, Nečas) (PP) – 25:34 3–2 Chytil (Safin, Zachar ) – 37:26 4–2 Král (Kaut, Galvas ) – 46:16 5–2 5–3 57:48 – Kayumov ( Maunkyan , Rubstov ) 5–4 59:02 – Syomin (Kayumov, Rubstov) (EA) 14 min Penalties 6 min 24 Shots 38 December 26, 2017 14:00 Belarus 1–6 (1–1, 0–3, 0–2) Sweden HarborCenter Attendance: 1,754 [ show ] Game reference Andrei Grishenko Goalies Filip Gustavsson Referees: Jacob Grumsen Mikko Kaukokari Linesmen: William Hancock II Rene Jensen 0–1 08:44 – Pettersson ( Dahlin ) (PP) Sharangovich (SH) – 14:56 1–1 1–2 30:57 – Brännström ( Nylander , Steen ) 1–3 32:33 – Gustafsson ( G. Lindström , Sellgren ) 1–4 34:18 – Boqvist (Brännström, Karlström ) 1–5 42:17 – Andersson (Nylander, Pettersson) (PP) 1–6 51:07 – Andersson (Dahlin, Karlström) 16 min Penalties 8 min 9 Shots 36 December 27, 2017 15:00 Switzerland 3–2 (1–1, 0–0, 2–1) Belarus KeyBank Center Attendance: 5,224 [ show ] Game reference Philip Wüthrich Goalies Andrei Grishenko Referees: Mikael Sjöqvist Stephen Thomson Linesmen: Dustin McCrank Emil Yletyinen Müller – 08:07 1–0 1–1 18:34 – Sushko ( Martynyuk , Gabrus ) 1–2 44:25 – Bovbel ( Litvinov , Sushko) (PP) Nussbaumer ( Luenberger ) – 48:12 2–2 Kurashev ( Maillard , Miranda ) – 51:16 3–2 4 min Penalties 2 min 39 Shots 29 December 28, 2017 14:00 Russia 5–2 (1–0, 1–1, 3–1) Switzerland HarborCenter Attendance: 1,895 [ show ] Game reference Vladislav Sukhachyov Goalies Philip Wüthrich Referees: Jacob Grumsen Jeremy Tufts Linesmen: Jiří Ondráček Peter Šefčík Syomin ( Sokolov ) (PP) – 10:21 1–0 1–1 20:09 – Miranda ( Kurashev , Maillard ) Kostin ( Svechnikov , Syomin) – 38:16 2–1 2–2 42:10 – Jäger ( Heim , Sigrist ) Kayumov (Kostin) – 51:02 3–2 Ivanov (Svechnikov) – 58:18 4–2 Abramov (Sokolov) (ENG) – 58:31 5–2 6 min Penalties 8 min 37 Shots 13 December 28, 2017 16:00 Sweden 3–1 (2–0, 0–1, 1–0) Czech Republic KeyBank Center Attendance: 6,890 [ show ] Game reference Filip Gustavsson Goalies Jakub Škarek Referees: Filip Larsson Marc Wiegand Linesmen: Dustin McCrank Alexander Sysuev Davidsson ( Fjällby , Gustafsson ) – 05:56 1–0 Pettersson ( Nylander , Dahlin ) (PP) – 19:04 2–0 2–1 39:02 – Zadina ( Nečas , Hájek ) (PP) Nylander (Dahlin) (PP) – 44:25 3–1 10 min Penalties 8 min 35 Shots 25 December 29, 2017 12:00 Belarus 2–5 (0–2, 0–1, 2–2) Russia HarborCenter Attendance: 1,841 [ show ] Game reference Andrei Grishenko Goalies Vladislav Sukhachyov Referees: Manuel Nikolic Gordon Schukies Linesmen: William Hancock II Jon Kilian 0–1 10:14 – Polodyan ( Makeyev , Maltsev ) 0–2 12:44 – Rubtsov ( Manukyan , Minulin ) 0–3 23:33 – Kostin ( Svechnikov ) Deryabin ( Pishuk ) – 42:03 1–3 1–4 44:21 – Kayumov (Rubtsov, Manukyan) 1–5 48:12 – Kostin (Svechnikov, Ivanov ) Pishuk ( Martynov ) – 50:43 2–5 6 min Penalties 10 min 19 Shots 40 December 30, 2017 12:00 Czech Republic 6–5 (0–1, 5–2, 1–2) Belarus KeyBank Center Attendance: 5,222 [ show ] Game reference Josef Kořenář Jakub Škarek Goalies Andrei Grishenko Dmitri Rodik Referees: Jacob Grumsen Artur Kulev Linesmen: Franco Castelli Rene Jensen 0–1 08:31 – Sharangovich ( Yeryomenko , Litvinov ) (PP) 0–2 20:48 – Drozdov ( Sushko , Bovbel ) Pavlík ( Safin , Reichel ) – 21:29 1–2 Hájek ( Nečas , Budík ) – 21:53 2–2 Zadina ( Michnáč , Kaut ) (PP) – 25:58 3–2 Chytil ( Zachar , Hájek) – 32:45 4–2 Pavlík (Chytil) – 35:26 5–2 5–3 38:45 – Sharangovich (Sushko, Bovbel) (PP) 5–4 50:27 – Martynov (Drozdov, Yeryomenko) (PP) Zachar (Budík) – 53:23 6–4 6–5 54:52 – Gabrus 41 min Penalties 4 min 39 Shots 21 December 30, 2017 14:00 Sweden 7–2 (1–1, 2–1, 4–0) Switzerland HarborCenter Attendance: 2,115 [ show ] Game reference Filip Larsson Goalies Matteo Ritz Referees: Andris Ansons Robin Šír Linesmen: Markus Hägerström William Hancock II Andersson ( Nylander , Pettersson ) (PP) – 05:25 1–0 1–1 10:13 – Müller Andersson – 26:07 2–1 Fjällby (SH) – 32:27 3–1 3–2 39:14 – Miranda (PP) Pettersson – 44:55 4–2 Söderlund ( Dahlin , Brännström ) – 50:01 5–2 Zetterlund – 51:43 6–2 Pettersson (Andersson, Dahlin) – 52:17 7–2 6 min Penalties 8 min 42 Shots 22 December 31, 2017 12:00 Switzerland 3–6 (1–2, 2–2, 0–2) Czech Republic KeyBank Center Attendance: 5,548 [ show ] Game reference Philip Wüthrich Goalies Jakub Škarek Josef Kořenář Referees: Mikko Kaukokari Mikael Sjöqvist Linesmen: Jon Kilian Emil Yletyinen 0–1 02:38 – Lauko ( Hájek , Budík ) Jäger ( Miranda , Kurashev ) – 02:51 1–1 1–2 11:07 – Nečas ( Kaut , Hájek) (PP) 1–3 22:11 – Reichel ( Pavlík ) Rohrbach – 22:20 2–3 Riva ( le Coultre , Heim ) (PP) – 23:55 3–3 3–4 28:38 – Kaut ( Michnáč , Nečas) (PP) 3–5 47:46 – Kurovský ( Kodýtek ) 3–6 57:40 – Reichel (Kurovský) 4 min Penalties 8 min 31 Shots 60 December 31, 2017 20:00 Russia 3–4 GWS (2–2, 0–0, 1–1) ( OT : 0–0) ( SO : 1–2) Sweden KeyBank Center Attendance: 6,121 [ show ] Game reference Vladislav Sukhachyov Goalies Filip Gustavsson Referees: Gordon Schukies Stephen Thomson Linesmen: Markus Hägerström Dustin McCrank 0–1 07:18 – Andersson ( Liljegren , Nylander ) Sokolov ( Maltsev , Polodyan ) – 15:09 1–1 1–2 17:32 – Liljegren ( Söderlund , L. Lindström ) Kostin ( Ivanov , Svechnikov ) – 18:18 2–2 2–3 54:21 – Gustafsson ( Fjällby , Davidsson ) Polodyan ( Shepelev , Ivanov) – 56:15 3–3 Yelizarov Abramov Maltsev Kostin Kayumov Shootout Pettersson Nylander L. Lindström Steen 12 min Penalties 8 min 31 Shots 43 Relegation [ edit ] January 2, 2018 14:00 Belarus 4–5 (0–2, 2–0, 2–3) Denmark HarborCenter Attendance: 1,245 [ show ] Game reference Andrei Grishenko Goalies Kasper Krog Referees: Gordon Schukies Marc Wiegand Linesmen: Franco Castelli Markus Hägerström 0–1 15:56 – Røndbjerg ( Blichfeld ) 0–2 16:48 – Schultz ( Madsen , Grundtvig ) Litvinov (SH) – 21:01 1–2 Yeryomenko ( Sushko , Sharangovich ) (PP) – 29:13 2–2 Drozdov (SH) – 41:44 3–2 Martynov (Sushko, Sharangovich) (PP) – 48:30 4–2 4–3 49:04 – Blichfeld (Røndbjerg, Jessen ) 4–4 59:26 – Blichfeld ( Setkov ) (EA) 4–5 59:45 – Grundtvig (Røndbjerg, Mogensen ) 20 min Penalties 14 min 28 Shots 29 January 4, 2018 12:00 Denmark v Belarus KeyBank Center January 5, 2018 12:00 Belarus v Denmark KeyBank Center Playoff round [ edit ] Quarterfinal 1A Canada 8 4B Switzerland 2 Semifinal 1A Canada Quarterfinal 2B Czech Republic 2B Czech Republic 4 3A Finland 3 Final Quarterfinal 1B Sweden 4A Slovakia Semifinal Bronze medal game Quarterfinal 2A United States 3B Russia Quarterfinals [ edit ] January 2, 2018 12:00 Czech Republic 4–3 GWS (1–0, 1–2, 1–1) ( OT : 0–0) ( SO : 2–1) Finland KeyBank Center Attendance: 5,109 [ show ] Game reference Josef Kořenář Goalies Ukko-Pekka Luukkonen Referees: Stephen Thomson Jeremy Tufts Linesmen: Jon Kilian Emil Yletyinen Zadina ( Nečas , Hájek ) (PP) – 06:20 1–0 1–1 23:04 – Räsänen ( Vesalainen , Juolevi ) (PP) 1–2 29:53 – Juolevi (Vesalainen, Kuokkanen ) Reichel ( Pavlík , Budík ) – 34:17 2–2 2–3 46:30 – Vesalainen ( Tolvanen ) Zadina ( Galvas , Nečas) (EA) – 57:34 3–3 Reichel Zadina Nečas Kaut Zachar Shootout Räsänen Tolvanen Kuokkanen Vesalainen Juolevi 8 min Penalties 4 min 30 Shots 54 January 2, 2018 16:00 Canada 8–2 (3–0, 3–1, 2–1) Switzerland KeyBank Center Attendance: 5,533 [ show ] Game reference Carter Hart Goalies Philip Wüthrich Matteo Ritz Referees: Jacob Grumsen Mikael Sjöqvist Linesmen: Rene Jensen Alexander Sysuev Howden ( Comtois , Makar ) – 00:48 1–0 Makar ( Timmins , Comtois) – 08:29 2–0 Batherson ( Katchouk , Thomas ) (PP) – 12:06 3–0 Batherson (Howden) – 26:12 4–0 Kyrou ( Steel ) – 27:24 5–0 5–1 28:46 – Rohrbach ( Le Coultre , Maillard ) Timmins ( Steenbergen , Howden) – 32:19 6–1 6–2 50:26 – Simic ( Maillard ) (SH) Dubé (Kyrou, Raddysh ) (PP) – 51:12 7–2 Comtois (Howden) – 59:09 8–2 6 min Penalties 8 min 60 Shots 15 January 2, 2018 18:00 Sweden v Slovakia HarborCenter January 2, 2018 20:00 United States v Russia KeyBank Center Semifinals [ edit ] January 4, 2018 16:00 v KeyBank Center January 4, 2018 20:00 v KeyBank Center Bronze medal game [ edit ] January 5, 2018 16:00 v KeyBank Center Final [ edit ] January 5, 2018 20:00 v KeyBank Center Statistics [ edit ] Scoring leaders [ edit ] Pos Player Country GP G A Pts +/− PIM 1 Casey Mittelstadt United States 4 4 5 9 +6 2 2 Lias Andersson Sweden 4 5 1 6 +5 2 3 Klim Kostin Russia 4 4 2 6 +6 0 3 Elias Pettersson Sweden 4 4 2 6 +2 0 5 Samuel Buček Slovakia 4 3 3 6 +4 0 6 Martin Nečas Czech Republic 4 2 4 6 −1 0 6 Brady Tkachuk United States 4 2 4 6 +3 2 8 Libor Hájek Czech Republic 4 1 5 6 +4 4 8 Martin Kaut Czech Republic 4 1 5 6 +1 0 8 Alexander Nylander Sweden 4 1 5 6 +3 2 GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/− = Plus-minus ; PIM = Penalties In Minutes Source: IIHF [9] Goaltending leaders [ edit ] (minimum 40% team's total ice time) Pos Player Country TOI GA GAA Sv% SO 1 Roman Durný Slovakia 180:00 8 2.67 93.04 0 2 Carter Hart Canada 185:00 6 1.95 92.94 1 3 Filip Gustavsson Sweden 185:00 5 1.62 92.31 0 4 Philip Wüthrich Switzerland 179:58 12 4.00 90.40 0 5 Josef Kořenář Czech Republic 116:53 6 3.08 90.16 0 TOI = Time On Ice (minutes:seconds); GA = Goals Against; GAA = Goals Against Average; Sv% = Save Percentage; SO = Shutouts Source: IIHF [10] Division I [ edit ] Main article: 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships – Division I The Division IA tournament was held in Courchevel and Meribel , France from 10 to 16 December 2017. The Division IB tournament was held in Bled , Slovenia from 9 to 15 December 2017. Division IA [ edit ] Pos Team Pld W OTW OTL L GF GA GD Pts Qualification or relegation 1 Kazakhstan 5 3 2 0 0 20 10 +10 13 Promoted to Top Division 2 Latvia 5 3 1 1 0 13 5 +8 12 3 Germany 5 3 0 1 1 17 7 +10 10 4 France (H) 5 1 1 1 2 11 15 −4 6 5 Austria 5 1 0 0 4 10 20 −10 3 6 Hungary 5 0 0 1 4 11 25 −14 1 Relegation to Division I B Source: IIHF Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) head-to-head points; 3) head-to-head goal difference; 4) head-to-head number of goals scored; 5) result against closest best-ranked team outside tied teams; 6) result against second-best ranked team outside tied teams; 7) seeding before tournament. (H) Host. Division IB [ edit ] Pos Team Pld W OTW OTL L GF GA GD Pts Qualification or relegation 1 Norway 5 3 2 0 0 18 5 +13 13 Promoted to Division I A 2 Poland 5 3 1 1 0 23 14 +9 12 3 Slovenia (H) 5 3 0 1 1 18 15 +3 10 4 Ukraine 5 1 1 1 2 9 11 −2 6 5 Italy 5 0 1 0 4 9 23 −14 2 6 Lithuania 5 0 0 2 3 7 16 −9 2 Relegation to Division II A Source: IIHF Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) head-to-head points; 3) head-to-head goal difference; 4) head-to-head number of goals scored; 5) result against closest best-ranked team outside tied teams; 6) result against second-best ranked team outside tied teams; 7) seeding before tournament. (H) Host. Division II [ edit ] Main article: 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships – Division II The Division IIA tournament was held in Dumfries , Great Britain from 10 to 16 December 2017. The Division IIB tournament will be held in Belgrade , Serbia from 10 to 16 January 2018. Division IIA [ edit ] Pos Team Pld W OTW OTL L GF GA GD Pts Qualification or relegation 1 Japan 5 4 1 0 0 23 7 +16 14 Promoted to Division I B 2 South Korea 5 2 2 0 1 21 19 +2 10 3 Great Britain (H) 5 3 0 1 1 23 15 +8 10 4 Estonia 5 1 0 1 3 20 25 −5 4 5 Romania 5 1 0 1 3 17 20 −3 4 6 Netherlands 5 1 0 0 4 13 31 −18 3 Relegation to Division II B Source: IIHF Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) head-to-head points; 3) head-to-head goal difference; 4) head-to-head number of goals scored; 5) result against closest best-ranked team outside tied teams; 6) result against second-best ranked team outside tied teams; 7) seeding before tournament. (H) Host. Division IIB [ edit ] Croatia (relegated from Division II A) Belgium Mexico Serbia Spain Turkey (promoted from Division III) Division III [ edit ] Main article: 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships – Division III The tournament will be held in Sofia , Bulgaria from 22 to 28 January 2018. The Qualification tournament will be held in Cape Town , South Africa from 5 to 7 February 2018. Australia (relegated from Division II B) Bulgaria China Iceland Israel New Zealand Division III qualification [ edit ] Chinese Taipei South Africa Turkmenistan References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b https://www.tsn.ca/sources-outdoor-game-planned-for-2018-world-juniors-in-buffalo-1.403558 Jump up ^ \"USA Hockey Selects Buffalo Sabres as Host of 2018 IIHF World Junior Championship\" . Sabres.com . December 4, 2015 . Retrieved January 3, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Canada faces U.S. outdoors at 2018 WJC\" . TSN.ca . Bell Media . Retrieved 28 October 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Finalists Named for Hosting 2018 IIHF World Juniors\" . USA Hockey . July 28, 2015 . Retrieved July 28, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Host Finalists Announced for 2018 World Juniors\" . USA Hockey . September 15, 2015 . Retrieved September 15, 2015 . Jump up ^ http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/14c4e4c9ee6a44589225bc1863c6b30e/HKO--World-Junior-Championship-Buffalo Jump up ^ http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/sport/officials/assignments/#c34618 Jump up ^ \"New format for U18, U20 Worlds\" . IIHF .com . 2012-05-29. Archived from the original on July 2, 2012 . Retrieved 2011-05-29 . Jump up ^ \"Scoring Leaders\" (PDF) (PDF). IIHF. 31 December 2017. Jump up ^ \"Goalkeepers\" (PDF) . IIHF.com. December 31, 2017. External links [ edit ] Official website [ show ] v t e IIHF World U20 Championships Current champions (2017): United States 2018 Championship teams Belarus Canada Czech Republic Denmark Finland Russia Slovakia Sweden Switzerland United States Championships Soviet Union 1974 Canada 1975 Finland 1976 Czechoslovakia 1977 Canada 1978 Sweden 1979 Finland 1980 West Germany 1981 United States 1982 Soviet Union 1983 Sweden 1984 Finland 1985 Canada 1986 Czechoslovakia 1987 Soviet Union 1988 United States 1989 Finland 1990 Canada 1991 Germany 1992 Sweden 1993 Czech Republic 1994 Canada 1995 United States 1996 Switzerland 1997 Finland 1998 Canada 1999 Sweden 2000 Russia 2001 Czech Republic 2002 Canada 2003 Finland 2004 United States 2005 Canada 2006 Sweden 2007 Czech Republic 2008 Canada 2009 Canada 2010 United States 2011 Canada 2012 Russia 2013 Sweden 2014 Canada 2015 Finland 2016 Canada 2017 United States 2018 Canada 2019 Czech Republic 2020 Canada 2021 Finals 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Rosters 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Division I 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Division II 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Division III 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Medalists Directorate award winners Media All-Star Teams Players for Canada Punch-up in Piestany Team Canada New Year's Eve Game [ show ] v t e 2017 – 18 in men's ice hockey International World Championships Championship Rosters Group A Group B Playoff round Final Division I Division II Division III Under-20 Division I Division II Division III Under-18 Division I Division II Division III Leagues International National Hockey League AHL ECHL Kontinental Hockey League Champions Hockey League Continental Cup Austria League Asia League MOL Liga Domestic Australia '17 '18 Belarus Czech Republic 2nd tier Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany 2nd tier Norway 2nd tier Poland Slovakia Sweden 2nd tier Switzerland 2nd tier Ukraine United Kingdom Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_World_Junior_Ice_Hockey_Championships&oldid=818341829 \" Categories : 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships 2017 in ice hockey 2018 in ice hockey World Junior Ice Hockey Championships Scheduled sports events International ice hockey competitions hosted by the United States Sports competitions in Buffalo, New York Outdoor ice hockey games 2017–18 in American ice hockey 2017 in sports in New York (state) 2018 in sports in New York (state) December 2017 sports events in the United States January 2018 sports events in the United States Current sports events 21st century in Buffalo, New York Hidden categories: Official website not in Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Deutsch Français Norsk Русский Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 3 January 2018, at 00:25. 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{ "text": "Characters of Malcolm in the Middle - Wikipedia Characters of Malcolm in the Middle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search The cast of Malcolm in the Middle as of season 5, (from behind, left to right): Christopher Kennedy Masterson as Francis, Frankie Muniz as Malcolm, Erik Per Sullivan as Dewey, and Justin Berfield as Reese. (In front, left to right) Jane Kaczmarek as Lois and Bryan Cranston as Hal. The following characters had significant roles in the American television comedy series Malcolm in the Middle , which was originally televised from 2000 to 2006 on the Fox Network . Contents [ hide ] 1 Characters 2 Character Appearances 3 The Family 3.1 Hal 3.2 Francis 3.3 Malcolm 3.4 Lois 3.5 Reese 3.6 Dewey 3.7 Jamie 4 Recurring characters 5 References Characters [ edit ] This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . (March 2014) Originally there were four brothers (although Malcolm's oldest brother attended a military school away from home, so Malcolm was still the middle sibling left at home). A fifth son was introduced in the show's fourth season, a boy named Jamie. The boys are, from eldest to youngest: Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie. In the final episode, Lois discovered she was pregnant with a sixth child. In the third season, Francis travels home (to celebrate his father's birthday) with an Alaskan girl named Piama, and reveals that they are married. During the first season, the writers decided to keep the family's last name a mystery. In the fifth season episode \"Reese Joins the Army (1)\", Reese uses a fake ID by the name of \"Jetson\" to lie about his age. In the series finale, \"Graduation\", Francis' employee ID reads \"Nolastname\" (or \"No Last Name\", a joke referring to the fact that the family name was never spoken aloud). In the same episode when Malcolm was introduced to give the graduation speech, the speaker announces Malcolm's name, but microphone feedback makes his surname inaudible, even though he does appear to mouth the phrase \"No last name\". [1] In the pilot episode, the name Wilkerson can be seen on the name badge of the uniform Francis is wearing at Marlin Academy. In the sleeve notes for the season 5 DVD released in Europe, the family is referred to as the Wilkersons in the description for the episode \"Block Party\". British television advertisements and some Fox promotional material also occasionally referred to the family as the Wilkersons, although this name was never spoken aloud in the series. In an early version of the pilot, Malcolm had an exchange of dialogue with a classmate, who claims to have overheard his parents talking about Malcolm's family and asks him what his last name is. When Malcolm responds, \"Wilkerson, why?\" the friend replied with the punchline, \"Oh...who are the 'Pariahs'?\" Out of the show's six leads, Cranston, Berfield and Sullivan were the only ones to appear in all 151 . Character Appearances [ edit ] Actor Character Season 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Main characters Jane Kaczmarek Lois Main Bryan Cranston Hal Main Christopher Masterson Francis Main Recurring Justin Berfield Reese Main Erik Per Sullivan Dewey Main Frankie Muniz Malcolm Main Catherine Lloyd Burns Caroline Miller Main Recurring James and Lukas Rodriguez Jamie Recurring Main Recurring characters Craig Lamar Traylor Stevie Kenarban Recurring David Anthony Higgins Craig Feldspar Recurring Gary Anthony Williams Abe Kenarban Recurring Evan Matthew Cohen Lloyd Recurring Kyle Sullivan Dabney Recurring Daniel Von Bargen Edwin Spangler Recurring Flashback Will Jennings Kyle Recurring Flashback Drew Powell Drew Horton Recurring Flashback Arjay Smith Ken Finley Recurring Flashback Karim Prince Stanley Winn Recurring Eric Nenninger Eric Hansen Guest Recurring Flashback Merrin Dungey Kitty Kenarban Guest Recurring Guest Guest Kasan Butcher Joe Guest Recurring Flashback Tania Raymonde Cynthia Recurring Guest Cloris Leachman Ida Guest Recurring Emy Coligado Piama Tananahaakna Recurring Chris Eigeman Lionel Herkabe Recurring Guest Recurring Victor Z. Isaac Kevin Recurring Brenda Wehle Lavernia Recurring Sandy Ward Pete Recurring John Ennis Artie Recurring Kenneth Mars Otto Mannkusser Recurring Meagen Fay Gretchen Mannkusser Recurring The Family [ edit ] Hal [ edit ] Hal , played by Bryan Cranston (all 151 episodes), is the father of the family. Though relaxed in his parenting when compared to Lois, Hal has shown that he can slide into a disciplinarian when confronted by the boys' bad behavior. He comes from a wealthy family who resent his choice to marry Lois over Susan (an action also shared by Victor and Ida). Hal has a hard time making good decisions, which he often deferred to Lois. Despite the fact many of the neighbors hate his family, Hal blends in well with them. He loves Lois more than she loves him, never even thinking about other women. He is also very scared of her, even more than the boys are, which is why he often bribes their sons to take the fall for his wrongdoings. He is very neurotic and has a slight obsessive-compulsive disorder, and also enjoys unusual hobbies. Hal is also a sex addict, this was revealed in the episode \"Forbidden Girlfriend\" when Lois is taking medication and is unable to have sex for an entire week, it is mentioned again in the episode \"Poker 2\" when Hal tells his friends he has sex 14 times per week. It was also revealed that Hal was a chain smoker before quitting the habit. Hal's best friend is Abe Kenarban. Francis [ edit ] Francis , played by Christopher Kennedy Masterson (119 episodes), is the oldest of the brothers, whom Malcolm often looks up to. It is revealed in the episodes \"Sleepover\" and \"The Bots and the Bees\" in season one that Francis was a breech birth , and in \"Flashback\" in season 2, that Lois was in labor with him during her and Hal's wedding. A rebel from birth, showing signs of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder , he was exiled to Marlin Academy by Lois for his behavior before eventually emancipating himself to run away from the Academy to work in Alaska , incurring his mother's wrath. Upon moving to Alaska, he marries a local woman named Piama, who is about one year older than him, and had previously been married briefly, and whom Lois doesn't like. In the series finale, Hal discovers that Francis has taken a job with Amerysis, and Francis admits he likes sitting at a desk sorting computer data. However, he also admits that he has no intentions of telling Lois about the job and enjoys torturing her by telling her that he's still unemployed. Malcolm [ edit ] Malcolm , portrayed by Frankie Muniz (150 episodes), is the protagonist of the series. He is Five years younger than his oldest brother Francis, one year younger than his older brother Reese, Four years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 15 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. In the first episode of the series, he is discovered to be a child prodigy and immediately moved from his regular class into the 'Krelboynes', a class for gifted students. Despite his high intelligence, he still gets into mischief either alongside or working against his brothers (in particular, Reese), although he becomes more self-absorbed and egotistical in the later seasons as he goes through puberty. Malcolm, like Reese, is not very popular. However, he has had a number of girlfriends during the series run. Even though he is very intelligent, Malcolm has a short temper, can be easily manipulated and also has problems containing his opinion about himself. Malcolm also occasionally serves as the voice of reason, and does have a conscience, (for instance, despite emotionally manipulating a grieving Hal to buy him a car in the episode \"Hal Grieves,\" when the time comes to make the purchase he finds he can't go through with it). In the series finale, it is revealed that Lois intended him to have a hard life, knowing that he is destined to assume the role of President of the United States; she wants him to remember where he came from to get there and try to help families like his own when he assumes the office. Malcolm eventually comes to terms with his future, after being unable to tell Lois he can't do it. In the series finale, Malcolm begins taking classes at Harvard University . Throughout the series, Malcolm frequently breaks the fourth wall and talks to the viewer about either the current situation or giving exposition about past events. Lois [ edit ] Lois , played by Jane Kaczmarek (146 episodes), is Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie's angry and temperamental mother. She is an overbearing control freak despised by the neighbors to the point that they refuse to invite her to their gatherings, revealed in \"Mono\". Unlike Malcolm, Lois isn't bothered by it and tries her best to blend in with it. She was revealed to be a charming and a nurturing mother while Francis was little, but toughened up. She is also always stubbornly right, to the point of being unable to say that she was wrong. It was also shown that she is overbearing and mad as a result of her children's bad behavior, and not her pure hate. At the series finale, Lois is revealed to be pregnant with a sixth child (actually twins). Her unfairness and behavior also come from her miserable childhood, living with a tough mother and an uncaring father (both of whom favored her younger sister, Susan). Reese [ edit ] Reese , played by Justin Berfield (all 151 episodes), is the second oldest of the sons. He is two years younger than his older brother Francis, one year older than his younger brother Malcolm, six years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 16 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. It was revealed in the episode \"Flashback\", in season 2, that Reese has been vicious from the womb, so vicious in fact that when he kept kicking Lois during labor, she pushed him out by force. A complete moron from birth, Reese is the worst-behaved of the brothers. Reese is inclined to beat up the Krelboynes. He is intimidated by certain students, including Ira, a dumb jock at school. Despite his violent, idiotic nature, Reese is a culinary prodigy , after finding that he has a talent and genuine love for cooking and baking. He is also the favorite grandson of his grandmother Ida, who taught him the importance of having patsies . In the series finale, Reese moves in with Craig Feldspar and is a janitor at his alma mater North High. Dewey [ edit ] Dewey , played by Erik Per Sullivan (all 151 episodes), is portrayed as being quieter and more inclined to the arts than his brothers. He soon finds he is a musical prodigy, and as the series goes on he becomes more caring and thoughtful especially in regards to his younger brother Jamie, whom he decides not to bully like he was by Malcolm and Reese. Lois remarks at one point that unlike Malcolm, who would have to work hard to achieve success, Dewey would have success handed to him. Dewey joins the Buseys, a class for the emotionally disturbed, by mistake and ends up becoming their unofficial teacher. He ended up caring for his fellow students so much that, when the mistake was uncovered, he feigned severe emotional problems so he could remain. In the final few seasons, Dewey becomes increasingly bitter towards his parents due to them overlooking him throughout his childhood and neglecting his interests. Because of this, he forces them to give Jamie the childhood he never had. In the last episode, he and Jamie (the only other remaining brother living at home) continued the tradition of causing havoc all over the house. Jamie [ edit ] Jamie was played by identical twin brothers James and Lukas Rodriguez (35 episodes). The youngest brother born who is the only brother to have beaten Lois in her own game, bordering to attacking her (though Reese was mostly responsible for feeding him soda). Like Malcolm and Dewey, Jamie is revealed to be intelligent, evident when he tricked Reese into taking a marker after he colored part of the wall. Recurring characters [ edit ] This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards . You can help . The discussion page may contain suggestions. (March 2014) Stevie Kenarban , played by Craig Lamar Traylor (56 episodes), is Malcolm's best friend and classmate. He is wheelchair-bound and is missing a lung, requiring him to speak slowly and take deep breaths after saying a word. Though Malcolm is initially upset when Lois arranges a \"playdate\" for him and Stevie in the pilot episode, the boys immediately find common ground, particularly their love of comic books, and become friends. His parents are very overprotective of him, although Stevie displays in many episodes that he lives very comfortably with his disability and even has a dark sense of humor about it. Craig Feldspar , portrayed by David Anthony Higgins (39 episodes), is Lois' co-worker at the Lucky Aide. He is a hopeless romantic, and has unrequited feelings for Lois. He is very childish and is a coward. He plays the ukulele and the banjo, and he sings in a countertenor voice. By the end of the series, Craig becomes Reese's roommate. Piama Tananahaakna , played by Emy Coligado (29 episodes), is Francis' wife whom he met and married off-screen during his year in Alaska. Piama is about a year older than Francis, and before him, Piama had previously been married briefly. Primarily due to her being brought home under volatile circumstances, in which Francis (while still a minor, although emancipated) shocked the family with news of the marriage and thus disrupting Hal's birthday party, Lois disliked Piama from her introduction in the third season and into the fourth. However, after an embarrassing encounter with her wealthy in-law's, Lois has been much more respectful of Piama. She originally started off against having children, but by Graduation, Piama got over it after Reese's prank went awry (\" We may as well go ahead and have kids now, I'm not afraid of changing diapers any more. \") Victor Welker and Ida Kenzel-Welker , played by Robert Loggia (1 episode) and Cloris Leachman (11 episodes) respectively, are Lois' parents of a German - Croatian background. Victor dies some time before the events of the season two episode \"Christmas\", in which Ida is widowed. Ida harbors a strong dislike for both Francis and Lois, evident for the way she has been treated by them. She favors Reese, which allows him to love her. Ida belittles Malcolm for being weak in not standing up against his mother and largely ignores Dewey (although she did, on one occasion, save him from being hit by a car, causing her to lose a leg). Ida harbored resentment towards Victor's secret other family for stealing what was rightfully hers, until Lois discovered that she isn't blood related to Victor (and possibly Susan as well) and abandoned Ida. Ida acknowledged that her life growing up in Croatia under the Ustaše was difficult, possibly due to the Ustaše's policies. Abraham \" Abe \" Kenarban , played by Gary Anthony Williams (19 episodes), is Stevie's father and Kitty's husband, and a close family friend of both Lois and particularly Hal. Abe is initially depicted as cowardly and dependent on Kitty's guidance (which he attributes to his upbringing, having been raised by his grandmother and four spinster aunts). However he ultimately becomes more self-reliant after Kitty's departure. Despite this, Abe is more than willing to take Kitty back after her return, going as far as to harbor resentment towards Lois after she criticized Kitty's decision to leave. Kitty Kenarban , played by Merrin Dungey (5 episodes), is Stevie's mother and Abe's wife. Because of actress Merrin Dungey's commitment to the ABC series Alias , Kitty remains unseen for much of the series before it is revealed that she abandoned her husband and son, briefly throwing Stevie into a deep depression. She returns briefly in the season six episode \"Kitty's Back\". Caroline Miller , played by Catherine Lloyd Burns (15 episodes), is the primary teacher of Malcolm's \"Krelboyne\" class in the first two seasons. She is shown to be overly-earnest as well as to adore Malcolm, who might possibly have been her favorite student. In season 1, she is included as part of the main cast, but in season 2, is a recurring character. In season 2, she is shown to be pregnant until she gives birth to her baby in the parking lot. After her baby was born, she quit teaching. She was never seen or mentioned again after season 2. Cynthia Sanders , played by Tania Raymonde (4 episodes), is one of Malcolm's classmates. She has a very extensive vocabulary, but has a difficult time making friends. Depicted as relatively cheerful, Cynthia becomes one of Malcolm's earliest crushes on the show, although a relationship never develops. Cynthia is last seen claiming to never have sex with Malcolm again (which never happened in the first place) to snap him out of a recent funk and keep him from pulling a prank meant to get him sent away like Francis. Lloyd Jensen , played by Evan Matthew Cohen (25 episodes) is one of Malcolm's \"Krelboyne\" classmates who recurs throughout the series. He frequently worries about random small things, gets hurt, and falls victim to bullies. He also has an effeminate personality. Dabney Hooper , played by Kyle Sullivan (24 episodes) is one of Malcolm's \"Krelboyne\" classmates who recurs throughout the series. Often depicted as the weakest and most cowardly of the group, Dabney's life is almost completely controlled by his overbearing mother, although in his last appearance his ability to release his anger towards his mom results in him immediately developing a tougher persona. Flora Mayesh , played by Kristin Quick (15 episodes), is one of Malcolm's other \"Krelboyne\" classmates. Flora was mostly just a background character and rarely had dialogue and was therefore not in the credits for 12 of her episodes. Eraserhead , played by Will Jennings (12 episodes), is one of Malcolm's \"Krelboyne\" classmates who recurs throughout early episodes of the series. Kevin , played by Victor Z. Isaac (5 episodes) Jessica , played by Hayden Panettiere (4 episodes), is a classmate of Malcolm and Reese's. In one instance, she babysat Malcolm and Reese despite being younger than them, embarrassing the brothers. Mr. Herkabe (first name Lionel), played by Chris Eigeman (8 episodes), is introduced in Season 3 as the Krelboynes' teacher after Caroline leaves. A Krelboyne himself in middle school, he was forced into a teaching career after losing his millions in a failed dot-com company. He is portrayed as an evil and conniving man who thrives on psychological warfare and making children suffer. He is especially threatened by Malcolm and quickly becomes his nemesis at school, even blackmailing North High's principal, Block (before Hodges took over), into hiring him as vice principal when Malcolm enrolls there. For some reason Mr. Herkabe also intensely enjoys humiliating Reese to antagonize Malcolm more. However, Herkabe's arrogance in confessing that he had failed gym and lied about not taking the course, was brought to light that led to his GPA Award being revoked by Mr. Hodges. He was last seen being humiliated by Reese during dodgeball. Commandant Edwin Spangler , played by Daniel von Bargen (16 episodes), is the military veteran in charge of the cadets at Marlin Academy. He has a contentious relationship with the rebellious Francis throughout his entire stay at the Academy, although the two were shown at times to have a deep sympathy for the other's emotional scarring. After Spangler is fired from Marlin Academy and arrives in Alaska, Francis gets him a job at the Snow Haven Retirement Home where he has free rein to bully the elderly. Cadet Eric Hansen , played by Eric Nenninger (28 episodes), one of Francis' friends and classmates from Marlin Academy. Francis accompanies Eric in his plan to abandon the Academy to find well-paying labor work in Alaska. At the end of season three, Eric is seen for the final time being left by Francis to hitchhike home, possibly as revenge for even suggesting to find work in Alaska. Lavernia , played by Brenda Wehle (10 episodes), is Francis and Eric's malevolent boss who owns the logging site in Alaska. She has a debt book and presumably knows every dirty secret about her workers. Lavernia has a personal grudge towards Piama, who blackmailed her to be nice to Francis by holding her pet parakeet hostage. Otto Mankusser , played by Kenneth Mars (13 episodes), is Francis' friendly and cheerful boss at the dude ranch, albeit a bit naïve at times. Ed , played by Paul Wilson (5 episodes), is one of the many neighbors who despises Hal and Lois, along with Reese. He has shown some favoritism towards Malcolm for helping him set up his new computer. Ira Prescott , played by Jonny Acker (3 episodes), is a student of North High School. He is Billy's older brother and Reese's bully. Ira made his first appearance in \" Forbidden Girlfriend \" in which he owns a car which Reese ruins by using Dewey in pouring cement in it and letting Billy take the blame for the prank. With Dewey's help, Ira got his revenge on Reese for his prank and using Billy by simply beating him up. He returns briefly in Season 5's \" Malcolm Films Reese \" who is among the students in humiliation and in Reese's Apartment when Malcolm is tutoring Ira and help get him a passing grade in his classes so he can keep his spot on the North High School sports team(which is never specified). Unlike Reese, Ira has more respect for Malcolm. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Malcolm In The Middle, Fox, \"Graduation\", May 14, 2006, Production #722, Episode #151 [ hide ] v t e Malcolm in the Middle Episodes \"Pilot\" \"Bowling\" Characters Malcolm Wilkerson Other Characters \" Boss of Me \" Soundtrack Guest stars Awards and nominations Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Characters_of_Malcolm_in_the_Middle&oldid=816241569 \" Categories : Malcolm in the Middle characters Lists of American sitcom television characters Hidden categories: Articles to be expanded from March 2014 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from March 2014 All articles needing rewrite Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Italiano Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2017, at 04:20. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Characters of Malcolm in the Middle", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Characters_of_Malcolm_in_the_Middle&amp;oldid=816241569" }

{ "text": "Taxman - Wikipedia Taxman From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Beatles song. For the profession, see Tax collector . For other uses of taxman, see The Taxman (disambiguation) . \"Taxman\" Cover of the Northern Songs sheet music (licensed to Sonora Musikförlag) Song by the Beatles from the album Revolver Published Northern Songs Released 5 August 1966 Recorded 20–22 April, 16 May and 21 June 1966, EMI Studios , London Genre Rock , [1] hard rock , [2] psychedelic rock [3] Length 2 : 39 Label Parlophone Songwriter(s) George Harrison Producer(s) George Martin Audio sample file help \" Taxman \" is a song written by George Harrison and released as the opening track on the Beatles ' 1966 album Revolver . Its lyrics attack the high levels of progressive tax taken by the British Labour government of Harold Wilson . [4] [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Composition and recording 2 Musical characteristics 3 Legacy 4 Personnel 5 Other versions 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Composition and recording Harrison said, \"'Taxman' was when I first realized that even though we had started earning money, we were actually giving most of it away in taxes. It was and still is typical.\" [6] As their earnings placed them in the top tax bracket in the United Kingdom , the Beatles were liable to a 95% supertax introduced by Harold Wilson 's Labour government (hence the lyrics \"There's one for you, nineteen for me\", referring to the pre-decimal pound sterling which consisted of twenty shillings). [7] In a 1984 interview with Playboy magazine, Paul McCartney explained: \"George wrote that and I played guitar on it. He wrote it in anger at finding out what the taxman did. He had never known before then what he'll do with your money.\" John Lennon recalled, in a 1980 interview with Playboy magazine: \"I remember the day he [Harrison] called to ask for help on 'Taxman', one of his first songs. I threw in a few one-liners to help the song along, because that's what he asked for. He came to me because he couldn't go to Paul, because Paul wouldn't have helped him at that period. I didn't want to do it ... I just sort of bit my tongue and said OK. It had been John and Paul for so long, he'd been left out because he hadn't been a songwriter up until then.\" [8] \"Taxman\", however, was the sixth song written by Harrison to be included on an album issued by the group. The backing vocals' references to \"Mr Wilson\" and \"Mr Heath\", suggested by Lennon, refer respectively to Harold Wilson and Edward Heath ; the former was the leader of the Labour Party and the latter the leader of the Conservative Party , the two largest parties in British politics . [4] Wilson, then Prime Minister , had nominated all four of the Beatles as Members of the Order of the British Empire just the previous year. [4] The chanted names replaced two refrains of \"Anybody got a bit of money?\" heard in take 11, an earlier version that was subsequently released on Anthology 2 in 1996. [9] Recording began on 20 April, but this was left unused and ten new takes occurred on 21 April, the four tracks being filled that day with drums and bass, Harrison's distorted rhythm guitar, followed by overdubs of McCartney's lead guitar, Harrison's lead vocal and Lennon and McCartney's backing vocals. The ending was created on 21 June. [10] [11] As the lead track on Revolver , \"Taxman\" represents the only time a UK-issued Beatles studio album opened with a Harrison song or lead vocal. Musical characteristics The song is in the key of D major and in 4/4 time. [12] The recording begins before the actual song with coughing and counting (pointedly cut short — the real count being heard in the background [12] ) that McCartney described as sounds that were on the tape, and that Lennon \"thought [the listeners] would like to hear.\" [13] The counting, sounding like a half-speed 'tape-effect' version of the brisk 'live-effect' \"one-two-three-four\" that opened their first LP record, has been described as an \"elaborate conceptual joke\" with hints of \"self-mockery\". [14] The chords stress the flat VII scale degree (C-natural in the key of D major) and frequently involve a major/minor I chord (D/Dm) in the harmony, which consequently evokes either Mixolydian or Dorian modes. There is one flat-III (F chord) near the end, but unusually no V (A) chord. [12] The song is also notable musically for its use of both a 5th-string voicing of the dominant seventh sharp ninth chord to embellish the tonic D7 chord at the end of each two-line verse (at 0.12 and 0.19secs), and a 6th-string form to create a complementary \"jarring dissonance\" with the lyrics in the subdominant (IV) G chord (to a G7#9) at 1.29 (after the solo) on \"Cause I'm the taxman, yeah — I'm the taxman \". [15] This also accentuates the comic comparison between this \"civil servant superhero\" and the hero of the popular 1966 television series Batman . [16] McCartney's bass line has been considered to imitate Motown bassist James Jamerson in its active lines and glissandi (at 0.55-1.08) [17] In the third verse McCartney doubles his own pentatonic bass line while outlining the jarring Iflat7 chord in octaves (at 1.32-1.44). [17] McCartney's guitar solo uses what musicologist Alan W. Pollack describes as \"fast triplets, exotic modal touches, and a melodic shape which traverses several octaves and ends with a breathtaking upward flourish\". [12] Walter Everett considers that the solo is in the same Dorian mode that Harrison had adapted for his sitar part in \" Love You To \". [17] In 1987, Harrison stated: \"I was pleased to have Paul play that bit on 'Taxman'. If you notice, he did like a little Indian bit on it for me.\" [18] Ian MacDonald writes that, while Harrison was \"rightly praised\" for his composition, the track benefits from the whole group's creativity. MacDonald highlights McCartney's contributions, saying his guitar solo is \"outstanding\" and his bass part is \"remarkable\". [4] Legacy In the show Love , the guitar solo was sampled in the piece \" Drive My Car \"/\" The Word \"/\" What You're Doing \". \"Taxman\" was included in Harrison's concert repertoire during his solo career; on his tour of Japan in 1991 with Eric Clapton , \"Taxman\" was on the set list . \"It's a song that goes regardless if it's the sixties, seventies, eighties or nineties,\" Harrison declared. \"There's always a taxman.\" Harrison added more lyrics on that tour, such as \"If you're overweight, I'll tax your fat.\" [ citation needed ] In the United States, radio disc jockeys and TV news reporters annually feature the song in the days leading up to 15 April, the date by which US income tax returns must usually be filed. Some post offices have even been known to sardonically play the song on in-house audio systems for the long lines of last-minute tax filers. In 2002 tax preparation service H&R Block used a slower-paced cover version of the song in television commercials. [ citation needed ] In 2006, Virginia State Senator and future Republican gubernatorial candidate Ken Cuccinelli introduced an amendment to make \"Taxman\" the state song of Virginia, stating that taxes were an important part of Virginia history. He gave the example of Patrick Henry 's strong opposition to British taxation during the American Revolution. The measure did not pass. [19] The Jam's 'Start' is openly influenced by Taxman Personnel According to Ian MacDonald, [4] except where noted: George Harrison – lead vocals, rhythm guitar John Lennon – backing vocals Paul McCartney – backing vocals, bass guitar, lead guitar Ringo Starr – drums, cowbell , tambourine [20] Other versions The song has also been played and recorded by Junior Parker , Les Claypool , Black Oak Arkansas , Bill Wyman , the Music Machine , Stevie Ray Vaughan , Nickel Creek , Les Fradkin , Rootjoose , Garrison Starr , Rockwell , Mutual Admiration Society , Pat Travers , Franz Ferdinand , Power Station and Saga . Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers played the song in tribute to Harrison at 2002's Concert For George . Tok tok tok played the song on their Beatles tribute album from 2010, Revolution 69 . \"Weird Al\" Yankovic recorded a parody of this song in late 1981 called \"Pac-Man\", during the height of the game 's popularity. It was released on the compilations Dr. Demento's Basement Tapes No. 4 and Squeeze Box: The Complete Works of \"Weird Al\" Yankovic [21] Beatallica recorded a parody called \"Sandman\", which also was a parody of a popular Metallica song, \" Enter Sandman \". The Jam released \" Start! \" in 1980, which uses the bassline and guitar solos. [22] Ride 's song \"Seagull\", from the album Nowhere , borrows McCartney's bassline. The main guitar riff of 31 Minutos 's song \"Equilibrio Espiritual\" is based in this song. Cheap Trick's \"Taxman, Mr Thief\", from their eponymous debut , takes its title, theme and several lyrics from the Beatles' \"Taxman\". Notes Jump up ^ \"Greatest Beatles Songs\" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 16 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Pete Prown; Harvey P. Newquist; Jon F. Eiche. Legends of rock guitar: the essential reference of rock's greatest guitarists . p. 28. ISBN 0-7935-4042-9 . the hard-rock riffing of 'Taxman' Jump up ^ Chris Gregory. Who Could Ask For More?: Reclaiming The Beatles . p. 125. Two brilliantly incendiary ascending guitar solos played by Paul transform the song into a psychedelic opus. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e MacDonald 2005 , p. 200. Jump up ^ Everett 2010 , p. 48. Jump up ^ Harrison 1980 , p. 94. Jump up ^ WalesOnline 2009 . Jump up ^ Sheff 2000 , pp. 150–151. Jump up ^ Apple Records 1996 , p. 22. Jump up ^ Walter Everett. The Beatles as Musicians. Revolver Through the Anthology . Oxford University Press,. New York, 1999 ISBN 978-0-19-512941-0 p48 Jump up ^ \"Paul Played Lead Guitar on 'Ticket to Ride ' \" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2017-04-04 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Alan Pollack. Notes on 'Taxman' http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/t.shtml accessed 28 Feb 2012 Jump up ^ Gilliland 1969 , show 39, track 1. Jump up ^ Jonathan Gould. Can't Buy Me Love. The Beatles, Britain and America, Piatkus 2007 p349 Jump up ^ Dominic Pedler. The Song Writing Secrets of the Beatles. Omnibus Press. London 2003 p440. Jump up ^ Jonathan Gould. Can't Buy Me Love. The Beatles, Britain and America, Piatkus 2007 p350 ^ Jump up to: a b c Walter Everett. The Beatles as Musicians. Revolver Through the Anthology. Oxford Uni Press. NY 1999 ISBN 978-0-19-512941-0 p49 Jump up ^ Guitar 1987 . Jump up ^ Hugh Lessig. \"Searching For a Song, Legislators Weigh \"Taxman\". Daily Press, 31 January 2006. Jump up ^ Winn 2009 , p. 13. Jump up ^ http://www.avclub.com/article/weird-al-yankovic-shares-his-unreleased-beatles-pa-250477 Jump up ^ \"Music – Review of The Jam – Sound Affects\" . BBC. 1 January 1970 . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . References Anthology 2 (booklet). The Beatles . London: Apple Records . 1996. 31796. Everett, Walter (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver through the Anthology Project . US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512941-5 . Everett, Walter (2010). The Beatles as Musicians . Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-512941-0 . Retrieved 2014-01-27 . Gilliland, John (1969). \"The Rubberization of Soul: The great pop music renaissance\" (audio) . Pop Chronicles . Digital.library.unt.edu . Retrieved 2014-01-27 . Guitar . November 1987. Missing or empty |title= ( help ) Harrison, George (1980). I Me Mine . London: Phoenix. ISBN 0-7538-1734-9 . \"How the Budget affects you: The public give their verdict\" . WalesOnline. 23 April 2009 . Retrieved 20 July 2009 . MacDonald, Ian (2005). Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties (Second Revised ed.). London: Pimlico (Rand). ISBN 1-84413-828-3 . Robb, John (2010). The Stone Roses and the Resurrection of British Pop . Sheff, David (2000). All We Are Saying: The Last Major Interview with John Lennon and Yoko Ono . New York: St. Martin's Press . ISBN 0-312-25464-4 . Strong, Martin C (2010). The Essential Rock Discography . Unterberger, Richie (2009). \"Review of \"Taxman \" \" . Allmusic . Retrieved 7 September 2009 . Winn, John C. (2009). That Magic Feeling: The Beatles' Recorded Legacy, Volume Two, 1966–1970 . New York, NY: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-307-45239-9 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Revolver (Beatles album) Alan W. Pollack 's Notes on \"Taxman\" hide v t e Revolver Songs Side one \" Taxman \" \" Eleanor Rigby \" \" I'm Only Sleeping \" \" Love You To \" \" Here, There and Everywhere \" \" Yellow Submarine \" \" She Said She Said \" Side two \" Good Day Sunshine \" \" And Your Bird Can Sing \" \" For No One \" \" Doctor Robert \" \" I Want to Tell You \" \" Got to Get You into My Life \" \" Tomorrow Never Knows \" Non-album single \" Paperback Writer \" \" Rain \" Related articles Yesterday and Today More popular than Jesus The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines The Beatles' 1966 US tour The Beatles discography Please Please Me With the Beatles A Hard Day's Night Beatles for Sale Help! Rubber Soul Revolver Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band Magical Mystery Tour The Beatles (White Album) Yellow Submarine Abbey Road Let It Be Past Masters Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taxman&oldid=849364494 \" Categories : The Beatles songs 1966 songs Song recordings produced by George Martin Protest songs Songs written by George Harrison Songs published by Northern Songs Hidden categories: Wikipedia semi-protected pages Use British English from June 2011 Use dmy dates from March 2012 Pages using deprecated image syntax Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 Pages with citations lacking titles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Svenska Tiếng Việt 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 July 2018, at 13:29 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Taxman", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Taxman&amp;oldid=849364494" }

{ "text": "List of changes in Star Wars re-releases - Wikipedia List of changes in Star Wars re-releases From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Changes in Star Wars re-releases vary from minor differences in color timing , audio mixing , and take choices to major insertions of new visual effects , additions of characters and dialogue, scene expansions, and replacement of original cast members with newer ones. Though changes were also made to the prequel trilogy , the original trilogy saw the most alteration. Dissatisfied with the original theatrical cuts of the original Star Wars film , The Empire Strikes Back , and Return of the Jedi , creator George Lucas altered the films in an attempt to achieve the ideal versions that he could not initially due to limitations of time, budget, and technology. The first significant changes were made in 1997 with the release of a Special Edition remaster in commemoration of the franchise's twentieth anniversary. These changes were intended to modernize the films and create consistency with the forthcoming prequel trilogy. Additional significant changes were made when the original trilogy was released on DVD in 2004, and such changes tried to further create consistency with the prequel trilogy after the release of The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones and in anticipation of Revenge of the Sith . Further changes were made to the films for their Blu-ray release in 2011. Many changes met criticism and outrage from fans and critics, and many believed that Lucas degraded the original films with the additions. Most controversial is the decision to have Greedo shoot before Han Solo does, which sparked wide usage of the phrase \" Han shot first \". Other controversial changes include replacing the \"Lapti Nek\" performance by a puppet Sy Snootles with a longer \"Jedi Rocks\" performance by a CGI Snootles, having Darth Vader yell \"No!\" as he kills the Emperor , and replacing Sebastian Shaw as the Force ghost of Anakin Skywalker with Hayden Christensen , who was cast to play Anakin in the prequel films. It was also felt that subsequent changes stripped the Star Wars film of the qualities for which it won Academy Awards . Despite the negative response to many significant changes, critics also felt that many smaller changes were improvements, innocuous, or understandable. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 1.1 Star Wars release history 2 Significant changes 2.1 Title change to Star Wars 2.2 Han shot first 2.3 Biggs Darklighter on Yavin IV 2.4 Jabba the Hutt and Boba Fett in Star Wars 2.5 Max Rebo Band 2.6 Expansion of Oola's death scene 2.7 Addition of Darth Vader's \"No!\" in Return of the Jedi 2.8 Victory celebration in Return of the Jedi 2.9 Consistency between original and prequel trilogies 3 Response 4 References 5 External links Background [ edit ] There will only be one [version of the films]. And it won't be what I would call the \"rough cut\", it'll be the \"final cut\". The other one will be some sort of interesting artifact that people will look at and say, \"There was an earlier draft of this.\" The same thing happens with plays and earlier drafts of books. In essence, films never get finished, they get abandoned. At some point, you're dragged off the picture kicking and screaming while somebody says, \"Okay, it's done.\" That isn't really the way it should work. Occasionally, [you can] go back and get your cut of the video out there, which I did on both American Graffiti and THX 1138 ; that's the place where it will live forever. So what ends up being important in my mind is what the DVD version is going to look like, because that's what everybody is going to remember. The other versions will disappear. Even the 35 million tapes of Star Wars out there won't last more than 30 or 40 years. A hundred years from now, the only version of the movie that anyone will remember will be the DVD version [of the Special Edition], and you'll be able to project it on a 20-foot-by-40-foot screen with perfect quality. I think it's the director's prerogative, not the studio's, to go back and reinvent a movie. George Lucas [1] The 1977 release of Star Wars was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the United States Library of Congress in 1989. [2] In 2014, the National Film Registry still did not have a copy of the 1977 film; George Lucas refused to submit a copy, stating that he no longer authorized the release of the theatrical version. [3] Lucasfilm offered the altered 1997 Special Edition release, but the Registry refused it as the first published version must be accepted. [4] The Library of Congress, however, received a 35mm print of the film, without the A New Hope subtitle and subsequent alterations, in 1978 as part of the film's copyright deposit . [3] [5] Star Wars release history [ edit ] 1977: Star Wars was theatrically released. [6] 1980: The Empire Strikes Back was theatrically released. [6] A 70mm print of the film differed from the more widely distributed 35mm print in takes of dialogue, visual and sound effects, shot choices, and transitions between shots. [7] [8] None of these changes appeared in later releases, with exception of one dialogue change. [8] 1983: Return of the Jedi was theatrically released. [6] 1985: Star Wars , now subtitled A New Hope , was re-released on VHS and in 1989 released on LaserDisc with an improved audio mix . The LaserDisc release, and the CED videodisc also released, sped the film up by three percent to fit the film onto a single disc. Some releases additionally had minor aspect ratio changes. [8] 1993: The original trilogy was released on LaserDisc as \"The Definitive Collection\". With exception of a THX audio mix, scratch and dirt removal, and color balance changes, it matched the original theatrical releases. [8] 1995: The original trilogy was offered on VHS in a \"last chance to own the original\" campaign before the films were taken off the market in January 1996 and an altered re-release released in 1997. [9] [10] 1997: The Special Edition of the original trilogy was released theatrically and to home media for the twentieth anniversary of Star Wars . This release featured the first significant changes, intended to modernize the films and create consistency with the forthcoming prequel trilogy. [8] The original negatives were also digitally restored . 1999: Episode I – The Phantom Menace was theatrically released. [6] 2002: Episode II – Attack of the Clones was theatrically released. [6] 2004: The original trilogy was released on DVD . Further significant alterations were made. [8] 2005: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith was theatrically released. [6] 2006: Another version of 2004 DVD edition was released. An unaltered version of the trilogy was included on bonus discs; it was same as the 1993 LaserDisc release and was of inferior quality to the restored version. [8] 2011: The original and prequel films were released for Blu-ray . Alterations were made to all films. [8] 2015: The original and prequel films were released digitally to streaming services. It is identical to the Blu-ray release, except for changes to the opening logos and fanfares . [8] Significant changes [ edit ] Title change to Star Wars [ edit ] Main article: Star Wars (film) § Title The first film was released in 1977 under the title Star Wars . The subtitles Episode IV and A New Hope were retroactively added to the opening crawl in a subsequent release. [11] [12] Accounts differ as to when this change occurred. Some, including Lucasfilm, date the addition to a theatrical re-release on April 10, 1981, [8] [11] [12] while others place it much earlier at the re-release in July 1978. [13] This change was made to bring the original film in line with the titling of its sequel The Empire Strikes Back , which was released in 1980 with the subtitle Episode V . [8] Han shot first [ edit ] Main article: Han shot first Because I was thinking mythologically — should he be a cowboy, should he be John Wayne ? And I said, ‘Yeah, he should be John Wayne.’ And when you’re John Wayne, you don’t shoot people [first] — you let them have the first shot. George Lucas in 2015 [14] In the Star Wars film, Han Solo is cornered in the Mos Eisley Cantina by the bounty hunter Greedo , and the confrontation ends with Han shooting under the table and killing Greedo. The circumstances of the shot varies between versions of the film. In the original 1977 theatrical release of the film, Han shoots Greedo, and Greedo does not shoot at all. [5] The 1997 Special Edition release of the film alters the scene so that Greedo shoots first and misses, and the scene is altered again in the 2004 DVD release of the film so that Han and Greedo shoot simultaneously. [3] Lucas stated that he always intended for Greedo to have shot first. [15] He felt that the idea of Han shooting first depicts him as \"a cold-blooded killer\". [15] [14] This decision sparked objections that it changed Han's moral ambiguity, fundamentally altered his established character, [16] and diminished his transition from antihero to hero; it became one of the most controversial changes to the films. Biggs Darklighter on Yavin IV [ edit ] During the production of the Star Wars film, scenes were filmed featuring Biggs Darklighter and his friendship with Luke Skywalker set on Tatooine and at the rebel base on Yavin IV shortly before the attack on the Death Star . The scenes were cut because they were felt to disrupt the pacing of the film, and in the original theatrical release, Biggs is only seen briefly during the attack on the Death Star, in which he dies, and a relationship between Biggs and Luke is never stated. Despite this, Luke reacts strongly to Biggs's death. The 1997 Special Edition of the Star Wars film incorporated the previously deleted scene on Yavin IV. The loss of the scenes at Tatooine and Yavin IV was felt to lessen the significance of Biggs' death, cast Luke's reaction to the death as overly strong, and make the framing of the death as a tragedy confusing. It was felt that the readdition of the Yavin IV scene helped to rectify this issue. [17] [18] Jabba the Hutt and Boba Fett in Star Wars [ edit ] The original script for the Star Wars film included a scene between Jabba the Hutt and Han Solo, and the scene was filmed with Harrison Ford , playing Solo, and Declan Mulholland , a stand-in for Jabba. [19] [20] Lucas intended to replace Mulholland in post-production with a stop motion character. Due to time limitations and budget constraints, Lucas could not achieve this, and the scene was cut. In the 1997 Special Edition, the scene was reinserted with CGI replacing Mulholland. Because Ford walked too close to Mulholland in the original scene, Han stepping on Jabba's tail, causing Jabba to squeal, was created as a workaround. [19] Boba Fett was also added to the background of the scene. [20] Jabba's design was modified for the 2004 DVD release. [19] The insertion of this scene into the film was criticized for being superfluous to the previous cantina scene, slowing down the pacing, and failing to move the plot forward. [19] [20] The original 1997 CGI was also described as \"atrocious\". [19] Max Rebo Band [ edit ] Main article: Max Rebo Band The scene in Return of the Jedi in which Jabba the Hutt feeds the dancer Oola to the rancor opens with performance by the Max Rebo Band and its lead singer Sy Snootles . In the original theatrical release, the song is \"Lapti Nek\", sung for 45 seconds in the fictional language Huttese . The 1997 Special Edition changed the performance to the \"less dated\" song \"Jedi Rocks\", which runs nearly 2 minutes. [21] Owen Good of Polygon , though he understood the desire to update the song, described the \"Jedi Rocks\" performance as \"an overproduced intrusion that takes twice as long to add nothing\" and felt that it distracted from the intention of the scene: to establish the trapdoor leading to the rancor and Jabba's deadliness. He also felt that \"Lapti Nek\" was an overall better song and described the vocal performance in \"Jedi Rocks\" as difficult to listen to or understand and as having \"the volume and vocal fry of a higher pitched Tina Turner but none of the soul\". [16] Brian Raftery of Wired wrote that replacing \"Lapti Nek\", which he praised as a track, was \"one of Lucas' most salaciously dumb choices\" and described \"Jedi Rocks\" as a Pointer Sisters \"rip-off\" and a \"soul-free strutter, which is so grating that you can almost hear a tone-deaf Lucas beard-smirking approvingly in the background\". [22] Ryan Lambie of Den of Geek! similar noted that change negatively altered the tone of the scene and only \"replaced one flawed effect with another\", writing: \"What was once a low-key yet appealing background moment in the movie’s first act had grown into a literal show-stopper—an in-your-face audio-visual spectacle that literally overshadowed the original hand-made effects\". The puppet used for Sy Snootles was also replaced with CGI in the Special Edition. This was made because, according to producer Rick McCallum , Lucas could not achieve the \"large musical number\" he envisioned because characters could not move in certain ways, Sy Snootles could not open her mouth to lip sync correctly, and her eyes did not move. Lambie criticized this decision because it removed almost all evidence of puppeteer Timothy D. Rose 's work in the film. [23] The 1997 Special Edition also increased the size of the Max Rebo Band from three members to twelve. [21] While Good wrote that this change was inconsequential, [16] Ratery felt that the additions made the scene \"overstuffed\" and described the CGI as dead on arrival . [22] Expansion of Oola's death scene [ edit ] In the theatrical release of Return of the Jedi , Oola's death is filmed from outside the rancor pit: she falls into the pit, and her scream is heard from off-screen. In the 1997 Special Edition, extra shots were inserted depicting her in the pit, including shots where she looks up to the crowd, the pit door being raised, and a shot of her terror. The rancor and Oola as she screams remain off-screen. [18] Femi Taylor , who played Oola, impressed critics with her ability to reprise the role almost a decade later without visible difference. [18] [20] James Whitbrook at io9 praised the additions to the scene, especially in comparison to the decision to bring the wampa on-screen in the Special Edition of The Empire Strikes Back , writing that it teased the rancor well while still keeping the monster a surprise for Luke's later battle with it. [18] Den of Geek! UK , however, criticized the additions as unnecessary and felt that they made the audience familiar with the pit, lessening fear during Luke's scene in the pit. [20] Addition of Darth Vader's \"No!\" in Return of the Jedi [ edit ] At the climax of Return of the Jedi , the Emperor tortures Luke with Force lightning, prompting Darth Vader to throw the Emperor down a chasm and kill him. In the theatrical release and earlier home video releases, Darth Vader watches and acts in silence. [24] The 2011 Blu-ray release adds Darth Vader yelling a drawn out \"No\", creating a parallel with his similar cry at the end of Episode III – Revenge of the Sith . This addition was described as unnecessary [16] [24] and awful sounding, [8] and it was said to \"[take] what was once emotional and [make] it laughable\" and even ruin the film's climax. [16] It was also felt that the addition displayed a distrust in an audience's ability to interpret Vader's emotions. [16] [24] The symmetry created by the parallel was described as \"clumsy\" and was felt to mock the scene in the prequel. [8] [24] Victory celebration in Return of the Jedi [ edit ] Return of the Jedi ends with a scene of the Rebel Alliance and a village of Ewoks on Endor celebrating the death of the Emperor and victory over the Empire. The original theatrical release of the film featured the song \" Ewok Celebration \", also known as \"Yub Nub\", playing over the celebration. [8] [22] The 1997 Special Edition release of the film replaced \"Ewok Celebration\" with score composed by John Williams titled \"Victory Celebration\", [8] and the scene was lengthened to include shots of celebration on the planets Coruscant , [8] [25] Bespin , and Tatooine . [26] The 2004 DVD release further added a shot set on Naboo , in which a Gungan is given a line of dialogue. [8] Consistency between original and prequel trilogies [ edit ] The original theatrical release of Return of the Jedi showed Sebastian Shaw as Anakin Skywalker (above). The 2004 DVD release of the film replaced him with Hayden Christensen (below), who was cast in the role for the prequel trilogy . In The Empire Strikes Back , the Emperor appears via hologram . [27] In the original theatrical 1980 release, he was portrayed by a woman under heavy makeup and voiced by Clive Revill . The Emperor was later played by Ian McDiarmid in Return of the Jedi , and McDiarmid reprised the role for the prequel trilogy. [27] [28] To reflect this, the 2004 DVD release of The Empire Strikes Back replaced the woman with McDiarmid and new dialogue was written. [27] Boba Fett's dialogue in The Empire Strikes Back was originally recorded by Jason Wingreen . [3] [29] Subsequently, Attack of the Clones revealed Boba to be a clone of Jango Fett , played by Temuera Morrison . [30] To reflect this, Morrison re-recorded Boba's lines for the 2004 DVD release of the film. [3] [27] [29] In a scene of Return of the Jedi where Darth Vader is unmasked, the 2004 DVD release digitally removed his eyebrows to reflect Anakin burning on Mustafar at the end of Revenge of the Sith . [27] At the end of Return of the Jedi , Darth Vader is redeemed killing the Emperor to save Luke Skywalker's life, dies of his injuries shortly after, and appears to Luke as Anakin Skywalker alongside the Force ghosts of Yoda and Obi-Wan Kenobi . In the 1983 theatrical release, Sebastian Shaw plays this Force ghost in addition to an unmasked Vader. Later, Hayden Christensen was cast as Anakin in the prequel trilogy films Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith . To reflect this, the 2004 DVD release of Return of the Jedi replaced Shaw's appearance as the Force ghost with Christensen. [27] Response [ edit ] The first Star Wars won the Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects , Best Production Design , Best Original Score , and the Special Edition changes to the sound mixing, sound effects, and visual effects were felt to have \"stripped the film of every aspect that it had won its Academy Awards for\". [4] Michael Matessino of Mashable , who in 2015 viewed the original theatrical print of Star Wars submitted to the Library of Congress, notes merit to Lucas' belief that technology did not allow him to achieve his vision, noting that a visible marquee around Leia's ship is \"so jarring that it temporarily pulls me out of the film\" because it is \"lack[ing] the seamless quality [he has] come to expect from sci-fi and fantasy\". Despite this, he \"hate[s] each and every one\" of the later added CGI effects and describes positively his ability to view the original print despite \"Lucas's meddling\". [5] Dave Tach writing for Polygon noted minor changes, such as adding windows to Cloud City on Bespin, adding sparks to Jango Fett's jetpack, or replacing the original Emperor hologram with McDiarmid, as \"innocuous\" ones that \"angered, to a close approximation, nobody\" because \"there was a solid logic behind those amendments\". [16] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Magid, Ron (February 1997). \"An Expanded Universe\" . American Society of Cinematographers . p. 4 . Retrieved August 24, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Complete National Film Registry Listing\" . Library of Congress . Retrieved May 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Eveleth, Rose (August 27, 2014). \"The Star Wars George Lucas Doesn't Want You To See\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved May 17, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Abramo, Donya (February 23, 2017). \"Unaltered Star Wars theatrical cuts rumored to be released: Why it’s culturally important\" . Hypable . Retrieved May 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Unaloff, Lance (December 17, 2015). \"The search for the 'Star Wars' George Lucas doesn't want you to see\" . Mashable . Retrieved May 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"George Lucas\" . Catalog of Feature Films . American Film Institute . Retrieved July 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ Matessino, Michael (January–February 1997). \"70mm Variations Strike Back\" . Film Score Monthly . Vol. 2 no. 1. p. 15 . Retrieved May 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Kirby, Ben (January 31, 2017). \"Who Shot First? The Complete List Of Star Wars Changes\" . Empire . Retrieved May 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Daly, Steve (September 15, 1995). \"Video Review: 'The Star Wars Trilogy ' \" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Eileen; Goldstein, Seth (July 1, 1997). \"Video at 'Miracle' Price; Last Shot for 'Star Wars ' \" . Billboard . p. 107 . Retrieved July 19, 2017 – via Google Books . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope\" . Lucasfilm . Retrieved July 20, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"30 pieces of trivia about Star Wars \" . BBC . May 23, 2007 . Retrieved July 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ Marcus, Hearn (2005). The Cinema of George Lucas . New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 124. ISBN 0810949687 . OCLC 56405075 . ^ Jump up to: a b Stuever, Hank (December 5, 2015). \"George Lucas: To feel the true force of ‘Star Wars,’ he had to learn to let it go\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved May 17, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Block, Alex Ben (February 9, 2012). \"5 Questions With George Lucas: Controversial 'Star Wars' Changes, SOPA and 'Indiana Jones 5 ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved May 17, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Polo, Susana; Hall, Charlie; Good, Owen; Tach, Dave (December 17, 2015). \"The Worst Things in Star Wars\" . Polygon . Retrieved July 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Vanderbilt, Mike (May 11, 2015). \"Finally, Star Wars character Biggs Darklighter gets his due\" . The A.V. Club . Retrieved July 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Whitbrook, James (September 28, 2015). \"6 Ways the Star Wars Special Editions Actually Improved The Original Trilogy\" . io9 . Retrieved July 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Watkins, Gwynne (July 29, 2015). \"15 Changes to the Original ‘Star Wars’ Trilogy That Still Make Us Crazy\" . Yahoo! . Retrieved July 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"The 10 Worst Crimes Against the Original Star Wars Trilogy\" . Den of Geek! . April 4, 2011 . Retrieved July 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Max Rebo Band: Behind the Scenes\" . StarWars.com . Lucasfilm . Archived from the original on December 15, 2006 . Retrieved July 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Raftery, Brian (December 21, 2015). \"The 9 Best Songs Ever Played in a Star Wars Movie\" . Wired . Retrieved July 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Lambie, Ryan (January 22, 2016). \"Star Wars: the changing face of Sy Snootles & the Rebo band\" . Den of Geek! . Retrieved July 20, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Popolo, Meredith (September 16, 2011). \"Top 10 Worst Changes Made to Star Wars\" . PC Magazine . Retrieved May 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ King, Darryn (December 12, 2016). \"The Star Wars Saga’s Secret Weapon: A Visual Effects Nerd with a Big Story to Tell\" . Vanity Fair . Retrieved July 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ Clark, Mark (2015). Star Wars FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the Trilogy That Changed the Movies . Milwaukee, WI: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books. ISBN 148036018X . OCLC 907104091 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Hyde, Douglas (September 23, 2004). \"Five major changes in the 'Star Wars' DVD\" . CNN . Retrieved May 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Palpatine\" . StarWars.com . Lucasfilm . Archived from the original on December 1, 2006 . Retrieved May 18, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Romano, Nick (January 2, 2016). \"Jason Wingreen dead: All in the Family, Star Wars actor was 95\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Fett, Jango\" . StarWars.com . Lucasfilm . Archived from the original on December 16, 2008 . Retrieved May 18, 2017 . External links [ edit ] Online archive of Star Wars coverage at American Cinematographer , including interviews regarding the 1997 Special Edition Lists of changes in Star Wars , The Empire Strikes Back , Return of the Jedi , and the prequel trilogy at DVD Active [ hide ] v t e Star Wars Feature films Saga Star Wars (1977) The Empire Strikes Back (1980) Return of the Jedi (1983) The Phantom Menace (1999) Attack of the Clones (2002) Revenge of the Sith (2005) The Force Awakens (2015) The Last Jedi (2017) Anthology Rogue One (2016) Solo (2018) Other The Clone Wars (2008) Television and radio Films Holiday Special (1978) Caravan of Courage (1984) The Battle for Endor (1985) Series Droids (1985–1986) Ewoks (1985–1986) Clone Wars (2003–2005) The Clone Wars (2008–2014) cast episodes Rebels (2014–) characters episodes Detours Radio dramas (1981–1996) Other media Games and multimedia Video games list Shadows of the Empire (1996) Knights of the Old Republic (2003–2005) The Force Unleashed (2008–2010) The Old Republic (2011–) Forces of Destiny (2017) Literature and artwork Art Books non-fiction Comics list Legends Setting Characters Jedi Sith Stormtrooper Clone trooper Concepts Architecture Creatures / Species Languages The Force Physics Planets and moons Events Clone Wars Galactic Civil War Organizations First Order Galactic Empire Galactic Republic New Republic Rebel Alliance Technology Weapons Blaster Death Star Lightsaber Vehicles Landspeeder TIE fighter X-wing fighter Star Destroyer Millennium Falcon Production George Lucas Lucasfilm Canon Cast Changes in film re-releases Filming locations Music Opening crawl Sequel trilogy Sources and analogues Cultural impact Attractions A Galactic Spectacular Jedi Training: Trials of the Temple Star Tours The Adventures Continue Galaxy's Edge Star Wars Hotel Star Wars Launch Bay Star Wars Weekends Where Science Meets Imagination Lego List of sets TV series The Yoda Chronicles (2013–2014) Droid Tales (2015) The Resistance Rises (2016) The Freemaker Adventures (2016–) Video games Merchandise Action figures Kenner list Hasbro Vintage Collection Star Wars Transformers Games Star Wars Pez Manga Force Trainer Shepperton Design Studios Trading cards Vinylmation Star Wars Rollinz toys Parodies Hardware Wars (1978) Spaceballs (1987) Star Warped (1997) Thumb Wars (1999) George Lucas in Love (1999) Robot Chicken: Star Wars (2007) Laugh It Up, Fuzzball: The Family Guy Trilogy (2007–10) The People vs. George Lucas (2010) Other 501st Legion Comparison to Star Trek Fan films Force for Change Jedi census Jediism Rebel Legion Star Wars Celebration Star Wars Day Star Wars: In Concert Star Wars Insider Wookieepedia TheForce.Net Yoda conditions Book Category Portal Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_changes_in_Star_Wars_re-releases&oldid=806906073 \" Categories : Star Wars lists Alternate versions of films Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from December 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2017, at 21:41. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of changes in Star Wars re-releases", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_changes_in_Star_Wars_re-releases&amp;oldid=806906073" }

{ "text": "King and Lionheart - Wikipedia King and Lionheart From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"King and Lionheart\" Single by Of Monsters and Men from the album My Head Is an Animal Released March 3, 2013 Recorded 2011 Genre Indie rock , indie pop , indie folk Length 4 : 34 Label Republic Songwriter(s) Nanna Bryndís Hilmarsdóttir Producer(s) Of Monsters and Men, Aron Arnarsson, Jacquire King Of Monsters and Men singles chronology \" Mountain Sound \" (2012) \" King and Lionheart \" (2013) \" Crystals \" (2015) \" Mountain Sound \" (2012) \" King and Lionheart \" (2013) \" Crystals \" (2015) \" King and Lionheart \" is a song recorded by Icelandic alternative folk band Of Monsters and Men , written by co-lead vocalist Nanna Bryndís Hilmarsdóttir and produced by the band with Aron Arnarsson and Jacquire King for the band's debut studio album, My Head Is an Animal . The song maintains its position on both issues of the album, appearing as the second track on both the original Icelandic and international versions of the album. After reaching #1 on the Icelandic Tónlist singles chart in 2012, [1] the song was released as a radio-only single from My Head Is an Animal in the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2013. The song peaked at #17 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart. Contents [ hide ] 1 Music video 1.1 Synopsis 2 Lyric video 3 Track listing 4 Personnel 5 Charts 5.1 Weekly charts 5.2 Year-end charts 6 Release history 7 References Music video [ edit ] A music video for \"King and Lionheart\", directed by video production group WeWereMonkeys, was produced and released on 23 January 2013. [2] The video, which mirrors the Nordic art style of the music video for \" Little Talks \", [3] also directed by WeWereMonkeys, blends in the visual art styles of two-dimensional rendered backgrounds with CGI and live action -imposed film sequences. [4] Synopsis [ edit ] It starts with a boy and girl in an apocalyptical kingdom being separated from each other by Viking warriors. The warriors whisk the girl away to the middle of the bayou where they put her in a pit and leave her to sulk. Suddenly, a rabbit-like ghost appears to the girl and sets her free. She soon is spotted by the Viking warriors and chased by them through the bayou with the ghost leading the way. Meanwhile, the boy is locked in a cage sulking and watching the Viking warriors beat themselves up. Suddenly, a mini-ghost-dolphin appears to the boy and sets him free as well. Meanwhile, the ghost-rabbit helps the girl safely avoid attempting to cross a broken bridge. However, the ghost is soon eaten by the Viking warriors ship. The girl presses on and enters the kingdom where the boy's ghost leads him away from the Viking warriors by leading him into a four-faced rocket ship which he enters, whereupon it immediately blasts off. The girl returns just to see the boy crying in the rocket ship as it blasts away. The girl runs toward it being chased by the viking warriors. The screen blanks out and the video ends stating their fates remain unknown. Lyric video [ edit ] A lyric video was released in 2014 in the music videos presence. The lyric video begins with a ruins of a kingdom where the camera moves backwards. Towards the main chorus, a violent thunderstorm breaks ahead. Two cloaked figures move toward it as the video ends. Track listing [ edit ] UK promotional single No. Title Length 1. \"King and Lionheart\" 4:34 Personnel [ edit ] Adapted from My Head Is an Animal liner notes. [5] Of Monsters and Men Arnar Rósenkranz Hilmarsson – drums , percussion , co-producer Árni Guðjónsson – accordion , piano , organ , co-producer Brynjar Leifsson – electric and baritone guitar , co-producer Kristján Páll Kristjánsson – bass , co-producer Nanna Bryndís Hilmarsdóttir – vocals , acoustic guitar , co-producer Ragnar Þórhallsson – vocals, acoustic guitar, co-producer Additional personnel Aron Arnarsson – engineer, producer Jacquire King – producer Craig Silvey – mixing Greg Calbi – mastering Charts [ edit ] Weekly charts [ edit ] Chart (2013) Peak position US Hot Rock Songs ( Billboard ) [6] 28 US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [7] 14 US Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [8] 17 US Rock Airplay ( Billboard ) [9] 24 Year-end charts [ edit ] Chart (2013) Position US Hot Rock Songs ( Billboard ) [10] 88 Release history [ edit ] Region Date Format Label United Kingdom March 3, 2013 CD-R ( Modern Rock / Alternative radio ) Republic Records United States March 4, 2013 References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Netlistinn viku 3, 2012\" . Tonlist.is. Archived from the original on 2013-07-19 . Retrieved 2013-06-20 . Jump up ^ \"Of Monsters and Men — King And Lionheart\" . OfMonstersAndMenVEVO . YouTube , Google . Retrieved 29 June 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Review: King and Lionheart – Of Monsters And Men (video)\" . ramblingaboutmusic. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013 . Retrieved 29 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Hohnen, Mike. \"Watch: Of Monsters and Men New Video 'King And Lionheart ' \" . Musicfeeds.com.au . Retrieved 29 June 2013 . Jump up ^ My Head Is an Animal (2012 Issue) (liner notes). Of Monsters and Men . Republic Records . 2012. Jump up ^ \"Of Monsters and Men Chart History (Hot Rock Songs)\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 21, 2014. Jump up ^ \"Of Monsters and Men Chart History (Adult Alternative Songs)\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 21, 2014. Jump up ^ \"Of Monsters and Men Chart History (Alternative Songs)\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 21, 2014. Jump up ^ \"Of Monsters and Men Chart History (Rock Airplay)\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 21, 2014. Jump up ^ \"Hot Rock Songs: Year End 2013\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 21, 2014 . [ hide ] v t e Of Monsters and Men Nanna Bryndís Hilmarsdóttir Ragnar Þórhallsson Brynjar Leifsson Kristján Páll Kristjánsson Arnar Rósenkranz Hilmarsson Árni Guðjónsson Studio albums My Head Is an Animal Beneath the Skin Live albums Live from Vatnagarðar Extended plays Into the Woods Singles \" Little Talks \" \" Dirty Paws \" \" Mountain Sound \" \" King and Lionheart \" \" Crystals \" \"Empire\" \"Wolves Without Teeth\" Related articles Republic Records Universal Music Group Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_and_Lionheart&oldid=823020329 \" Categories : 2012 singles Of Monsters and Men songs Republic Records singles 2012 songs Song recordings produced by Jacquire King Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Billboardrocksongs Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardadultalternativesongs Singlechart usages for Billboardalternativesongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrockairplay Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2018, at 21:13. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "King and Lionheart", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=King_and_Lionheart&amp;oldid=823020329" }

{ "text": "Basidiocarp - Wikipedia Basidiocarp From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Schematic of a typical basidiocarp, showing fruiting body, hymenium and basidia In fungi , a basidiocarp , basidiome or basidioma (plural: basidiomata ) is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete , the multicellular structure on which the spore -producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes ; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures. As with other sporocarps, epigeous (above-ground) basidiocarps that are visible to the naked eye (especially those with a more or less agaricoid morphology) are commonly referred to as mushrooms , while hypogeous (underground) basidiocarps are usually called false truffles . Contents [ hide ] 1 Structure 2 Types 3 See also 4 External links Structure [ edit ] All basidiocarps serve as the structure on which the hymenium is produced. Basidia are found on the surface of the hymenium, and the basidia ultimately produce spores. In its simplest form, a basidiocarp consists of an undifferentiated fruiting structure with a hymenium on the surface; such a structure is characteristic of many simple jelly and club fungi. In more complex basidiocarps, there is differentiation into a stipe , a pileus , and/or various types of hymenophores . Types [ edit ] Basidiocarps of Amanita muscaria , an agaric. Basidiocarps of Ramaria rugosa , a coral fungus Basidiocarps of Craterellus tubaeformis , a cantharelloid fungus. Basidiocarps are classified into various types of growth forms based on the degree of differentiation into a stipe, pileus, and hymenophore, as well as the type of hymenophore, if present. Growth forms include: jelly fungus – fruiting body is jelly-like. club fungus and coral fungus – erect fruiting body without a distinct stalk and cap, either unbranched (club fungus) or profusely branched (coral fungus). polypore – underside of the fruiting body usually consists of tubes; otherwise very variable, usually wood-inhabiting tooth fungus or hydnoid fungus - underside of the fruiting body composed of spines or teeth corticioid fungus - the underside of the fruiting body is usually smooth or with spines (vs. hydnoid fungi) but not poroid nor gilled; typically effused without caps cantharelloid fungus – fruiting body with shallow fold-like gills running over most of the lower surface of the fruiting body and not much differentiation between the stalk and cap. gasteromycete or \"gastroid fungus\" – fruiting body has a ball-like shape and in which the hymenophore has become entirely enclosed on the inside of the fruiting body. false truffle – like a gasteromycete, however, but with a hypogeous (underground) fruiting body. secotioid fungus – like a gasteromycete, but with a stalk. Thought to be an evolutionarily intermediate stage between a gasteromycete and an agaric. agaric or gill fungi – fruiting body with caps, gills, and (usually) a stalk. bolete – fleshy fruiting body with a cap, a stalk, and tubes on the underside. Basic divisions of Agaricomycotina were formerly based entirely upon the growth form of the mushroom. Molecular phylogenetic investigation (as well as supporting evidence from micromorphology and chemotaxonomy ) has since demonstrated that similar types of basidiomycete growth form are often examples of convergent evolution and do not always reflect a close relationship between different groups of fungi. For example, agarics have arisen independently in the Agaricales , the Boletales , the Russulales , and other groups, while secotioid fungi and false truffles have arisen independently many times just within the Agaricales. [1] See also [ edit ] Ascocarp Conidium External links [ edit ] Evolution & Morphology in the Homobasidiomycetes: The Clade/Morphology Chart by Gary Lincoff & Michael Wood, MykoWeb , November 27, 2005. \"Mycomorphology Part 1: Why Do Mushrooms Look Like Mushrooms?\" by Peter Werner, Mycena News , December 2002. (Archived at MycoWeb ) \"Mycomorphology Part 2: Basidiocarp Keeps its Balance\" by Peter Werner, Mycena News , March 2003. (Archived at MycoWeb ) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basidiocarp&oldid=838565630 \" Categories : Fungal morphology and anatomy Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2016 All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Euskara Bahasa Melayu Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2018, at 20:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Basidiocarp", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Basidiocarp&amp;oldid=838565630" }

{ "text": "Charles M. Schwab - Wikipedia Charles M. Schwab From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the founder and chairman of the Charles Schwab Corporation brokerage firm, see Charles R. Schwab Charles M. Schwab Charles M. Schwab, 1918 Born Charles Michael Schwab ( 1862-02-18 ) February 18, 1862 Williamsburg, Pennsylvania , U.S. Died September 18, 1939 (1939-09-18) (aged 77) Manhattan , New York City, U.S. Relatives Frank Perry (great nephew) Katy Perry (great great niece) Signature Charles Michael Schwab (February 18, 1862 – September 18, 1939) was an American steel magnate. Under his leadership, Bethlehem Steel became the second largest steel maker in the United States, and one of the most important heavy manufacturers in the world. Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Personal life 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Early life [ edit ] Charles Schwab, was born in Williamsburg, Pennsylvania , the son of Pauline (née Farabaugh) and John Anthony Schwab. [1] [2] All four of his grandparents were Roman Catholic immigrants from Germany . [2] Schwab was raised in Loretto, Pennsylvania , which he considered his home town. He attended Saint Francis College (now Saint Francis University) , but left after two years and obtaining two certificates to find work in Pittsburgh . Career [ edit ] Schwab began his career as an engineer in Andrew Carnegie 's steelworks, starting as a stake-driver in the engineering corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Furnaces in Braddock, Pennsylvania . He was promoted often, including to the positions of general superintendent of the Homestead Works in 1887 and general superintendent of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works in 1880. [3] In 1897, at only 35 years of age, he became president of the Carnegie Steel Company . In 1901, he helped negotiate the secret sale of Carnegie Steel to a group of New York –based financiers [ according to whom? ] led by J. P. Morgan . After the buyout, Schwab became the first president of the U.S. Steel Corporation, the company formed out of Carnegie's former holdings. [ citation needed ] After several clashes with Morgan and fellow US Steel executive Elbert Gary , Schwab left USS in 1903 to run the Bethlehem Shipbuilding and Steel Company in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. The company had gained shipyards in California, Delaware, and New Jersey through its brief but fortunate involvement as one of the few solvent enterprises in United States Shipbuilding Company . Under his leadership (and that of Eugene Grace ), it became the largest independent steel producer in the world. A major part of Bethlehem Steel's success was the development of the H-beam , a precursor of today's ubiquitous I-beam [ dubious – discuss ] . Schwab was interested in mass-producing the wide flange steel beam, but that was a risky venture that required raising capital and building a large new plant, all to make a product whose ability to sell was unproven. In his most famous remark, Schwab told his secretary, \"I've thought the whole thing over, and if we are going bust, we will go bust big.\" [ citation needed ] In 1908, Bethlehem Steel began making the beam, which revolutionized building construction and contributed to the age of the skyscraper . Its success helped make Bethlehem Steel the second-largest steel company in the world. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was incorporated, virtually as a company town , by uniting four previous villages. In 1910, Schwab broke the Bethlehem Steel strike by calling out the newly formed Pennsylvania State Police . Schwab successfully kept labor unions out of Bethlehem Steel throughout his tenure (although Bethlehem Steel unionized in 1941, two years after his death. [ citation needed ] [4] Schwab in 1901, at age 39 In 1911, Bethlehem Steel formed a company soccer team known as Bethlehem Steel F.C. In 1914 Schwab took the team professional. [5] [6] Until its demise in 1930, the team won eight league championships, six American Cups and five National Challenge Cups . It was considered among the greatest soccer teams in U.S. history. The company disbanded the team as a result of financial losses incurred during the internecine 1928–1929 \"Soccer Wars\" between American Soccer League and United States Football Association and the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. During the first years of World War I , Bethlehem Steel had a virtual monopoly in contracts to supply the Allies with certain kinds of munitions . Schwab made many visits to Europe in connection with the manufacture and supply of munitions to the Allied governments, during this period. [7] He circumvented American neutrality laws by funneling goods through Canada . On April 16, 1918, Schwab became Director General of the Emergency Fleet Corporation , a board granted by Congress with master authority over all shipbuilding in the United States. He was appointed over Charles Piez , the former general manager of the corporation. President Wilson had specifically asked Schwab to assume this responsibility. Schwab's biggest change to the shipbuilding effort was to abandon the cost plus profit contracting system that had been in place up to that time and begin issuing fixed-price contracts. [8] After America's entry into the war, he was accused of profiteering but was later acquitted. Schwab was considered to be a risk taker and was highly controversial ( Thomas Edison once famously called him the \"master hustler\"). Schwab's lucrative contract providing steel to the Trans-Siberian Railroad came after he provided a $200,000 \"gift\" to the mistress of the Grand Duke Alexis Aleksandrovich. [ citation needed ] His innovative ways of dealing with his staff are given a mention in Dale Carnegie 's most famous work, How to Win Friends and Influence People (1936). In 1928, Schwab was awarded the Bessemer Gold Medal for \"outstanding services to the steel industry\". In 1932 he was awarded the Melchett Medal by the British Institute of Fuel [9] In 1982, Schwab was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame. In 2011 Schwab was inducted into the inaugural class of the American Metal Market Steel Hall of Fame ( http://www.amm.com/HOF-Profile/CharlesSchwab.html ) for his lifelong work in the US steel industry. Personal life [ edit ] Schwab married Emma Eurana Dinkey (1859-1939) on May 1, 1883. Mrs. Schwab had lived in Weatherly, Pennsylvania and donated $85,000 to build a school there. [10] Schwab eventually became very wealthy. He moved to New York City's Upper West Side , which at the time was considered the \"wrong\" side of Central Park , where he built \" Riverside \", the most ambitious private house ever built in New York. The US$7 million 75-room house, designed by French architect Maurice Hebert, combined details from three French chateaux on a full city block. After Schwab's death, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia turned down a proposal to make Riverside the official mayoral residence, deeming it too grandiose. It was eventually razed and replaced by an apartment block. [11] The main house, cascades, and gardens of \"Immergrün\", Charles M. Schwab's retreat in Loretto, Pennsylvania Schwab also owned a 44-room summer estate on 1,000 acres (4 km 2 ) in Loretto, Pennsylvania, called \" Immergrün \" ( German for \" evergreen \"). The house featured opulent gardens and a nine-hole golf course. Rather than raze the existing house, Schwab had the mansion moved 200 feet on rollers to a new location to make room for the new mansion. Schwab's estate sold Immergrün after his death, and it is now Mount Assisi Friary on the grounds of Saint Francis University . [12] Schwab became notorious for his \"fast lane\" lifestyle including opulent parties, high-stakes gambling, and a string of extramarital affairs producing at least one child out of wedlock. The affairs and the out-of-wedlock child soured his relationship with his wife. He became an international celebrity when he \"broke the bank\" at Monte Carlo and traveled in a $100,000 private rail car named \"Loretto\". [13] Even before the Great Depression , he had already spent most of his fortune, estimated at between $25 million and $40 million. Adjusted for inflation, that equates to between $500 million and $800 million in the first decade of the 21st century. The stock market crash of 1929 finished off what years of wanton spending had started. He spent his last years in a small apartment. He could no longer afford the taxes on \"Riverside\" and it was seized by creditors. He had offered to sell the mansion at a huge loss but there were no buyers. At his death ten years later, Schwab's holdings in Bethlehem Steel were virtually worthless, and he was over US$300,000 in debt. Had he lived a few more years, he would have seen his fortunes restored when Bethlehem Steel was flooded with orders for war materiel. He was buried in Loretto at Saint Michael's Cemetery in a private mausoleum with his wife. Schwab had no children by Eurana Dinkey, but had one daughter by a mistress. A bust-length portrait of Schwab painted in 1903 by Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862–1947) was formerly in the Jessica Dragonette Collection at the American Heritage Center at the University of Wyoming at Laramie, but has been donated to the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. Müller-Ury also painted his nephew and namesake Charles M. Schwab (son of his brother Joseph) as a boy in a sailor suit around the same date. [14] See also [ edit ] List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s : November 22, 1926 References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Local history including Men of Bethlehem at the Bethlehem Area Public Library\" . Bapl.org. April 16, 1918 . Retrieved October 1, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b [1] Archived May 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Charles M. Schwab Correspondence Finding Aid , 1891, AIS.1994.02, Archives Services Center, University of Pittsburgh. Jump up ^ \"Forging America:The History of Bethlehem Steel - Chapter 5 - The Grace Period\" . The Morning Call . 2003 . Retrieved 27 March 2014 . Jump up ^ \"SCHWAB CORNERS FOOTBALL STARS - Steel Man Gathers High-Class Soccer Team to Represent Bethlehem, Penn.\" The New York Times , August 2, 1914. PDF . Jump up ^ \"Makes Record in Soccer: Bethlehem Sets Mark by Winning Double Championship\" . The New York Times , July 23, 1916. PDF . Jump up ^ Reynolds, Francis J., ed. (1921). \" Schwab, Charles M. \". Collier's New Encyclopedia . New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company. Jump up ^ \"SCHWAB PLACED IN FULL CONTROL OF SHIPBUILDING\" . The New York Times . April 17, 1918. p. 1. Jump up ^ Melchett Medal awarded to Charles M Schwab JTA archive 21 October 1932 retrieved 21 January 2015 Jump up ^ Laylo, Bob (December 16, 1990). \"Weatherly Unsure Of Portrait's Fate\" . Allentown Morning Call . Retrieved November 11, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Charles M. Schwab and his mansion\" . New York Social Diary . November 27, 2013 . Retrieved November 11, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"History & Traditions: A Brief History of Saint Francis University\" . Saint Francis University . Jump up ^ North Carolina Transportation Museum: Rail Equipment Archived June 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine . 1 Jump up ^ Town & Country , August 22, 1903, ‘A Successful Portrait Painter’, by S. E. L[eisha], p.21 (reproduced) Further reading [ edit ] James H. Bridge, 1903. The Inside History of the Carnegie Steel Company . Arundel Cotter, 1916. The Story of Bethlehem Steel . Arundel Cotter, 1921. United States Steel: A Corporation with a Soul . Burton W. Folsom, Jr. , The Myth of the Robber Barons . Young America. Louis M. Hacker , 1968. The World of Andrew Carnegie . Burton J. Hendrick, 1969. The Life of Andrew Carnegie , 2 vols. 1st ed., 1932. Hessen, Robert, 1990. Steel titan: the life of Charles M. Schwab , Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press. Napoleon Hill , 1937. Think and Grow Rich . Stewart H. Holbrook, 1953. Age of the Moguls . Ida M. Tarbell , 1925. The Life of Elbert H. Gary . Joseph Frazier Wall, 1970. Andrew Carnegie . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Charles Michael Schwab . Charles M. Schwab . Biography at Explore Pennsylvania History. Schwab biography at the Bethlehem website Beyond Steel: An Archive of Lehigh Valley Industry and Culture Loretto Railcar Restoration Charles M. Schwab Correspondence , Finding Aid for Correspondence Collection, 1891, AIS.1994.02, Archives Services Center, University of Pittsburgh. Texts on Wikisource: \" Schwab, Charles M. \". The Cyclopædia of American Biography . 1918. \" Schwab, Charles M. \". Collier's New Encyclopedia . 1921. \" Schwab, Charles Michael \". Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). 1922. Newspaper clippings about Charles M. Schwab in the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of Economics (ZBW) show v t e Presidents of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 1880–1899 Robert Henry Thurston (1880-82) E. D. Leavitt (1883-84) John Edson Sweet (1884-85) J. F. Holloway (1885-86) Coleman Sellers (1886-87) George Herman Babcock (1887-88) Horace See (1888-89) Henry R. Towne (1889-90) Oberlin Smith (1890-91) Robert W. Hunt (1891-92) Charles H. Loring (1892-93) Eckley B. Coxe (1893-94) Edward F. C. Davis (1894-95) Charles E. Billings (1895-96) John Fritz (1896-97) Worcester R. Warner (1897-98) Charles Wallace Hunt (1898-99) George W. Melville (1899-1900) 1900–1919 Charles H. Morgan (1900-1901) Samuel T. Wellman (1901-1902) Edwin Reynolds (1902-1903) James M. Dodge (1903-1904) Ambrose Swasey (1904-1905) John R. Freeman (1905-1906) Frederick W. Taylor (1906-1907) F. R. Hutton (1907-1908) Minard L. Holman (1908-1909) Jesse M. Smith (1909-1910) George Westinghouse (1910-11) Edward D. Meier (1911-12) Alexander C. Humphreys (1912-13) William F. M. Goss (1913-14) James Hartness (1914-15) John A. Brashear (1915-16) David S. Jacobus (1916-17) Ira N. Hollis (1917-18) Charles T. Main (1918-19) Mortimer E. Cooley (1919-20) 1920–1939 Fred J. Miller (1920-21) Edwin S. Carman (1921-22) Dexter S. Kimball (1922-23) John L. Harrington (1923-24) Fred R. Low (1924-25) William F. Durand (1925-26) William L. Abbott (1926-27) Charles M. Schwab (1927-28) Alex Dow (1928-29) Elmer A. Sperry (1929-30) Charles Piez (1930-31) Roy V. Wright (1931-32) Conrad N. Lauer (1932-33) A. A. Potter (1933-34) Paul Doty (1934-35) Ralph E. Flanders (1935-36) William L. Batt (1936-37) James H. Herron (1937-38) Harvey N. Davis (1938-39) Alexander G. Christie (1939-40) 1940–1959 Warren H. McBryde (1940-41) William A. Hanley (1941-42) James W. Parker (1942-43) Harold V. Coes (1943-44) Robert M. Gates (1944-45) Alex D. Bailey (1945-46) D. Robert Yarnall (1946-47) Eugene W. O'Brien (1947-48) Ervin G. Bailey (1948-49) James M. Todd (1949-50) James D. Cunningham (1950-51) J. Calvin Brown (1951-52) Reginald J. S. Pigott (1952-53) Frederick S. Blackall Jr. (1953-54) Lewis K. Sillcox (1954-55) David W. R. Morgan (1955-56) Joseph W. Barker (1956-57) William F. Ryan (1957-58) James N. Landis (1958-59) Glenn B. Warren (1959-60) 1960–1979 Walker L. Cisler (1960-61) William H. Bryne (1961-62) Clifford H. Shumaker (1962-63) Ronald B. Smith (1963-64) Elmer O. Bergman (1964-65) Henry N. Muller (1965-66) James H. Harlow (1966-67) Louis N. Rowley Jr. (1967-68) George F. Habach (1968-69) Donald E. Marlowe (1969-70) Allen F. Rhodes (1970-71) Kenneth A. Roe (1971-72) Richard G. Folsom (1972-73) Daniel C. Drucker (1973-74) Richard B. Robertson (1974-75) Charles L. Tutt, III (1975-76) Earle C. Miller (1976-77) Stothe P. Kezios (1977-78) Orval L. Lewis (1978-79) Donald N. Zwiep (1979-80) 1980–1999 Charles E. Jones (1980-81) Robert B. Gaither (1981-82) Serge Gratch (1982-83) Frank M. Scott (1983-84) George Kotnick (1984-85) Leroy S. Fletcher (1985-86) Nancy D. Fitzroy (1986-87) Richard Rosenberg (1987-88) Ernest L. Daman (1988-89) Charles O. Velzy (1989-90) Arthur E. Bergles (1990-91) Nathan H. Hurt (1991-92) Joseph A. Falcon (1992-93) John H. Fernandes (1993-94) Paul J. Torpey (1994-95) Daniel T. Koenig (1995-96) Richard J. Goldstein (1996-97) Keith B. Thayer (1997-98) Winfred M. Phillips (1998-99) Robert E. Nickell (1999-2000) 2000–present John R. Parker (2000-2001) William A. Weiblen (2001-2002) Susan H. Skemp (2002-2003) Reginald I. Vachon (2003-2004) Harry Armen (2004-2005) Richard E. Feigel (2005-2006) Terry E. Shoup (2006-2007) Sam Y. Zamrik (2007-2008) Thomas M. Barlow (2008-2009) Amos E. Holt (2009-2010) Robert T. Simmons (2010-2011) Victoria Rockwell (2011-2012) Marc Goldsmith (2012-2013) Madiha Kotb (2013-2014) J. Robert Sims (2014-2015) Authority control WorldCat Identities BNF : cb16593944j (data) GND : 118795643 ISNI : 0000 0000 6674 584X LCCN : n90616421 NARA : 10570752 SNAC : w6tx3njr SUDOC : 168653982 VIAF : 3267088 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_M._Schwab&oldid=854708370 \" Categories : American steel industry businesspeople 1862 births 1939 deaths American soccer chairmen and investors Presidents of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers American people of German descent People from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Saint Francis University alumni Bethlehem Steel U.S. Steel 19th-century American businesspeople 20th-century American businesspeople Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia Use mdy dates from September 2012 Biography with signature Articles with hCards All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013 All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from March 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Cyclopaedia of American Biography Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1922 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Deutsch Español فارسی Français Malagasy Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 13 August 2018, at 07:08 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Charles M. Schwab", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Charles_M._Schwab&amp;oldid=854708370" }

{ "text": "Heart valve - Wikipedia Heart valve From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Heart valves Valves of the heart in motion, the front wall of the heart is removed in this image. Details System Cardiovascular Identifiers MeSH D006351 FMA 7110 Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata ] A heart valve normally allows blood to flow in only one direction through the heart . The four valves are commonly represented in a mammalian heart that determines the pathway of blood flow through the heart. A heart valve opens or closes incumbent on differential blood pressure on each side. [1] [2] [3] The four main valves in the heart are: The two atrioventricular (AV) valves, the mitral valve (bicuspid valve), and the tricuspid valve , which are between the upper chambers (atria) and the lower chambers (ventricles). The two semilunar (SL) valves, the aortic valve and the pulmonary valve , which are in the arteries leaving the heart. The mitral valve and the aortic valve are in the left heart; the tricuspid valve and the pulmonary valve are in the right heart. There are also the coronary sinus and the inferior vena cava valves . Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Atrioventricular valves 1.2 Semilunar valves 1.3 Development 2 Physiology 3 Clinical significance 3.1 Congenital heart disease 4 History 5 References 6 External links Structure [ edit ] Structure of the heart valves Blood flow through the valves The heart valves and the chambers are lined with endocardium . Heart valves separate the atria from the ventricles , or the ventricles from a blood vessel . Heart valves are situated around the fibrous rings of the cardiac skeleton . The valves incorporate leaflets or cusps , which are pushed open to allow blood flow and which then close together to seal and prevent backflow. The mitral valve has two cusps, whereas the others have three. There are nodules at the tips of the cusps that make the seal tighter. The pulmonary valve has left, right, and anterior cusps. [4] The aortic valve has left, right, and posterior cusps. [5] The tricuspid valve has anterior, posterior, and septal cusps; and the mitral valve has just anterior and posterior cusps. Atrioventricular valves [ edit ] Main articles: Mitral valve and Tricuspid valve 3D - loop of a heart viewed from the apex, with the apical part of the ventricles removed and the mitral valve clearly visible. Due to missing data, the leaflets of the tricuspid and aortic valves are not clearly visible, but the openings are; the pulmonary valve is not visible. On the left are two standard 2D views (taken from the 3D dataset) showing tricuspid and mitral valves (above) and aortal valve (below). These are the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are situated between the atria and the ventricles and prevent backflow from the ventricles into the atria during systole . They are anchored to the walls of the ventricles by chordae tendineae , which prevent the valves from inverting. The chordae tendineae are attached to papillary muscles that cause tension to better hold the valve. Together, the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae are known as the subvalvular apparatus. The function of the subvalvular apparatus is to keep the valves from prolapsing into the atria when they close. The subvalvular apparatus has no effect on the opening and closure of the valves, however, which is caused entirely by the pressure gradient across the valve. The peculiar insertion of chords on the leaflet free margin, however, provides systolic stress sharing between chords according to their different thickness. [6] The closure of the AV valves is heard as lub , the first heart sound (S1). The closure of the SL valves is heard as dub , the second heart sound (S2). The mitral valve is also called the bicuspid valve because it contains two leaflets or cusps. The mitral valve gets its name from the resemblance to a bishop 's mitre (a type of hat). It is on the left side of the heart and allows the blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle . During diastole, a normally-functioning mitral valve opens as a result of increased pressure from the left atrium as it fills with blood (preloading). As atrial pressure increases above that of the left ventricle, the mitral valve opens. Opening facilitates the passive flow of blood into the left ventricle. Diastole ends with atrial contraction, which ejects the final 30% of blood that is transferred from the left atrium to the left ventricle. This amount of blood is known as the end diastolic volume (EDV), and the mitral valve closes at the end of atrial contraction to prevent a reversal of blood flow. The tricuspid valve has three leaflets or cusps and is on the right side of the heart. It is between the right atrium and the right ventricle , and stops the backflow of blood between the two. Semilunar valves [ edit ] Main articles: Aortic valve and Pulmonary valve The aortic and pulmonary valves are located at the base of the aorta and the pulmonary trunk respectively. These are also called the \"semilunar valves\". These two arteries receive blood from the ventricles and their semilunar valves permit blood to be forced into the arteries, and prevent backflow from the arteries into the ventricles. These valves do not have chordae tendineae, and are more similar to the valves in veins than they are to the atrioventricular valves. The closure of the semilunar valves causes the second heart sound . The aortic valve , which has three cusps, lies between the left ventricle and the aorta . During ventricular systole , pressure rises in the left ventricle and when it is greater than the pressure in the aorta, the aortic valve opens, allowing blood to exit the left ventricle into the aorta. When ventricular systole ends, pressure in the left ventricle rapidly drops and the pressure in the aorta forces aortic valve to close. The closure of the aortic valve contributes the A2 component of the second heart sound. The pulmonary valve (sometimes referred to as the pulmonic valve) lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery , and has three cusps. Similar to the aortic valve, the pulmonary valve opens in ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle rises above the pressure in the pulmonary artery. At the end of ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle falls rapidly, the pressure in the pulmonary artery will close the pulmonary valve. The closure of the pulmonary valve contributes the P2 component of the second heart sound. The right heart is a low-pressure system, so the P2 component of the second heart sound is usually softer than the A2 component of the second heart sound. However, it is physiologically normal in some young people to hear both components separated during inhalation. Development [ edit ] See also: Heart development In the developing heart, the valves between the atria and ventricles, the bicuspid and the tricuspid valves, develop on either side of the atrioventricular canals . [7] The upward extension of the bases of the ventricles causes the canal to become invaginated into the ventricle cavities. The invaginated margins form the rudiments of the lateral cusps of the AV valves. The middle and septal cusps develop from the downward extension of the septum intermedium . The semilunar valves (the pulmonary and aortic valves) are formed from four thickenings at the cardiac end of the truncus arteriosus . [7] These thickenings are called endocardial cushions . [ citation needed ] The truncus arteriosus is originally a single outflow tract from the embryonic heart that will later split to become the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk . Before it has split, four thickenings occur. There are anterior, posterior, and two lateral thickenings. A septum begins to form between what will later become the ascending aorta and pulmonary tract. As the septum forms, the two lateral thickenings are split, so that the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk have three thickenings each (an anterior or posterior, and half of each of the lateral thickenings). The thickenings are the origins of the three cusps of the semilunar valves. The valves are visible as unique structures by the ninth week. As they mature, they rotate slightly as the outward vessels spiral, and move slightly closer to the heart. [7] Physiology [ edit ] In general, the motion of the heart valves is determined using the Navier–Stokes equation , using boundary conditions of the blood pressures, pericardial fluid, and external loading as the constraints.\nThe motion of the heart valves is used as a boundary condition in the Navier–Stokes equation in determining the fluid dynamics of blood ejection from the left and right ventricles into the aorta and the lung. Wiggers diagram , showing various events during a cardiac cycle , with closures and openings of the aortic and mitral marked in the pressure curves. This is further explanation of the echocardiogram above. MV: Mitral valve, TV: Tricuspid valve, AV: Aortic valve, Septum: Interventricular septum. Continuous lines demarcate septum and free wall seen in echocardiogram, dotted line is a suggestion of where the free wall of the right ventricle should be. The red line represents where the upper left loop in the echocardiogram transects the 3D-loop, the blue line represents the lower loop. Relationship between pressure and flow in open valves The pressure drop, Δ p {\\displaystyle {\\Delta }p} , across an open heart valve relates to the flow rate, Q, through the valve: a ∂ Q ∂ t + b Q 2 = Δ p {\\displaystyle a{{\\partial }Q \\over {\\partial }t}+bQ^{2}={\\Delta }p} If: Inflow energy conserved Stagnant region behind leaflets Outflow momentum conserved Flat velocity profile Valves with a single degree of freedom Usually, the aortic and mitral valves are incorporated in valve studies within a single degree of freedom. These relationships are based on the idea of the valve being a structure with a single degree of freedom. These relationships are based on the Euler equations . Equations for the aortic valve in this case: ρ ( ∂ u ∂ t + u ∂ u ∂ x ) + ∂ p ∂ x = 0 {\\displaystyle {\\rho }\\left({{\\partial }u \\over {\\partial }t}+{u{\\partial }u \\over {\\partial }x}\\right)+{{\\partial }p \\over {\\partial }x}=0} ∂ A ∂ t + ∂ ∂ x ( A u ) = 0 {\\displaystyle {{\\partial }A \\over {\\partial }t}+{{\\partial } \\over {\\partial }x}(Au)=0} A ( x , t ) = A 0 ( 1 − [ 1 − Λ ( t ) ] x L ) 2 {\\displaystyle A(x,t)=A_{0}\\left(1-[1-{\\Lambda }(t)]{x \\over {L}}\\right)^{2}} ∫ 0 L p ( x , t ) ∂ A ∂ x d x = [ A 0 − A ( L , t ) ] p ( L , t ) {\\displaystyle \\int _{0}^{L}p(x,t){{\\partial }A \\over {\\partial }x}\\,dx=[A_{0}-A(L,t)]\\,p(L,t)} where: u = axial velocity p = pressure A = cross sectional area of valve L = axial length of valve Λ( t ) = single degree of freedom; when Λ 2 ( t ) = A ( L , t ) A 0 {\\displaystyle \\Lambda ^{2}(t)={A(L,t) \\over A_{0}}} Atrioventricular valve Clinical significance [ edit ] Main article: Valvular heart disease Valvular heart disease is a general term referring to dysfunction of the valves, and is primarily in two forms, either regurgitation , where a dysfunctional valve lets blood flow in the wrong direction, or stenosis , when a valve is narrow. [8] Regurgitation occurs when a valve becomes insufficient and malfunctions, allowing some blood to flow in the wrong direction. This insufficiency can affect any of the valves as in aortic insufficiency , mitral insufficiency , pulmonary insufficiency and tricuspid insufficiency . The other form of valvular heart disease is stenosis , a narrowing of the valve. This is a result of the valve becoming thickened and any of the heart valves can be affected, as in mitral valve stenosis , tricuspid valve stenosis , pulmonary valve stenosis and aortic valve stenosis . Stenosis of the mitral valve is a common complication of rheumatic fever . Inflammation of the valves can be caused by infective endocarditis , usually a bacterial infection but can sometimes be caused by other organisms. Bacteria can more readily attach to damaged valves. [9] Another type of endocarditis which doesn't provoke an inflammatory response, is nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis . This is commonly found on previously undamaged valves. [9] A major valvular heart disease is mitral valve prolapse , which is a weakening of connective tissue called myxomatous degeneration of the valve. This sees the displacement of a thickened mitral valve cusp into the left atrium during systole. [8] Disease of the heart valves can be congenital, such as aortic regurgitation or acquired, for example infective endocarditis . Different forms are associated with cardiovascular disease , connective tissue disorders and hypertension . The symptoms of the disease will depend on the affected valve, the type of disease, and the severity of the disease. For example, valvular disease of the aortic valve , such as aortic stenosis or aortic regurgitation , may cause breathlessness, whereas valvular diseaes of the tricuspid valve may lead to dysfunction of the liver and jaundice . When valvular heart disease results from infectious causes, such as infective endocarditis , an affected person may have a fever and unique signs such as splinter haemorrhages of the nails, Janeway lesions , Osler nodes and Roth spots . A particularly feared complication of valvular disease is the creation of emboli because of turbulent blood flow, and the development of heart failure . [8] Valvular heart disease is diagnosed by echocardiography , which is a form of ultrasound . Damaged and defective heart valves can be repaired , or replaced with artificial heart valves . Infectious causes may also require treatment with antibiotics . [8] Congenital heart disease [ edit ] Main article: Congenital heart defect The most common form of valvular anomaly is a congenital heart defect (CHD), called a bicuspid aortic valve . This results from the fusing of two of the cusps during embryonic development forming a bicuspid valve instead of a tricuspid valve. This condition is often undiagnosed until calcific aortic stenosis has developed, and this usually happens around ten years earlier than would otherwise develop. [10] [11] Less common CHD's are tricuspid and pulmonary atresia , and Ebstein's anomaly . Tricuspid atresia is the complete absence of the tricuspid valve which can lead to an underdeveloped or absent right ventricle. Pulmonary atresia is the complete closure of the pulmonary valve. Ebstein's anomaly is the displacement of the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve causing a larger atrium and a smaller ventricle than normal. History [ edit ] This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . (October 2014) Illustration of the valves of the heart when the ventricles are contracting. Function of heart valves Pericardial heart valves Bjork–Shiley valve References [ edit ] This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918) Jump up ^ \"Heart Valves\" . American Heart Association, Inc – 10000056 Heart and Stroke Encyclopedia . American Heart Association, Inc . Retrieved 2010-08-05 . Jump up ^ Klabunde, RE (2009-07-02). \"Pressure Gradients\" . Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts . Richard E. Klabunde . Retrieved 2010-08-06 . Jump up ^ Klabunde, RE (2007-04-05). \"Cardiac Valve Disease\" . Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts . Richard E. Klabunde . Retrieved 2010-08-06 . Jump up ^ Anatomy photo:20:21-0102 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center – \"Heart: The Pulmonic Valve\" Jump up ^ Anatomy photo:20:29-0104 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center – \"Heart: The Aortic Valve and Aortic Sinuses\" Jump up ^ S Nazari et al.: Patterns Of Systolic Stress Distribution On Mitral Valve Anterior Leaflet Chordal Apparatus. A Structural Mechanical Theoretical Analysis.\nJ Cardiovasc Surg (Turin) 2000 Apr;41(2):193–202 (video) ^ Jump up to: a b c Schoenwolf, Gary C.; et al. (2009). \"Development of the Urogenital system\". Larsen's human embryology (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 177–79. ISBN 978-0-443-06811-9 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 612–28. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b Mitchell RS, Kumar V, Robbins SL, Abbas AK, Fausto N (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th ed.). Saunders/Elsevier. pp. 406–08. ISBN 1-4160-2973-7 . Jump up ^ Bertazzo, S. et al. Nano-analytical electron microscopy reveals fundamental insights into human cardiovascular tissue calcification. Nature Materials 12, 576–83 (2013). Jump up ^ Miller, J. D. Cardiovascular calcification: Orbicular origins. Nature Materials 12, 476–78 (2013). External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heart valves . Mitral Valve Repair at The Mount Sinai Hospital – \"Mitral Valve Anatomy\" 3D, animated, rotatable heart valves (Rich media including Javascript and Flash player required) Transcatheter mitral valve implantation: Tendyne hide Anatomy of the heart General Surface base apex sulci coronary interatrial anterior interventricular posterior interventricular borders right left Internal atria interatrial septum pectinate muscles terminal sulcus ventricles interventricular septum trabeculae carneae chordae tendineae papillary muscle valves cusps atrioventricular septum cardiac skeleton intervenous tubercle Chambers Right heart ( venae cavae , coronary sinus ) → right atrium ( atrial appendage , fossa ovalis , limbus of fossa ovalis , crista terminalis , valve of inferior vena cava , valve of coronary sinus ) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle ( infundibulum , moderator band/septomarginal trabecula , crista supraventricularis ), → pulmonary valve → ( pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation ) Left heart ( pulmonary veins ) → left atrium ( atrial appendage ) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve ( aortic sinus ) → ( aorta and systemic circulation ) Layers Endocardium heart valves Myocardium Conduction system cardiac pacemaker SA node Bachmann's bundle AV node bundle of His bundle branches Purkinje fibers Pericardial cavity pericardial sinus Pericardium fibrous pericardium sternopericardial ligaments serous pericardium epicardium/visceral layer fold of left vena cava Blood supply Circulatory system Coronary circulation Coronary arteries Anatomy portal Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heart_valve&oldid=865365405 \" Categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918) Cardiac anatomy Heart valves Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014 Articles to be expanded from October 2014 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Magyar Македонски Nederlands नेपाली Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 26 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 October 2018, at 13:53 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "History of Antarctica - Wikipedia History of Antarctica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the natural history of the Antarctic continent, see Antarctica . Painting of James Weddell 's second expedition, depicting the brig Jane and the cutter Beaufroy . The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis , believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic , referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle , was coined by Marinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD. The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita (\"Unknown Southern Land\"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773 James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time but although they discovered nearby islands, they did not catch sight of Antarctica itself. It is believed he was as close as 150 mi (241.4 km) from the mainland. In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted the ice shelf or the continent. A Russian expedition was led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev , a British expedition was captained by Edward Bransfield and an American sealer Nathaniel Palmer participated. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis , a sealer , set foot on the ice. Several expeditions attempted to reach the South Pole in the early 20th century, during the ' Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration '. Many resulted in injury and death. Norwegian Roald Amundsen finally reached the Pole on December 14, 1911, following a dramatic race with the Englishman Robert Falcon Scott . Contents [ hide ] 1 Early exploration 1.1 The search for Terra Australis Incognita 1.2 South of the Antarctic Convergence 1.3 The Antarctic Circle 1.4 First sighting 1.5 Early Exploration 2 Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration 2.1 Origins 2.2 Early British expeditions 2.3 Expeditions from other countries 2.4 Race to the Pole 2.5 Further expeditions 3 Further exploration 3.1 By air 3.2 Overland crossing 4 Political history 4.1 British claims 4.2 Other European claims 4.3 South American involvement 4.4 Post war developments 4.5 Towards an international treaty 5 Recent history 6 Women in Antarctica 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Early exploration [ edit ] The search for Terra Australis Incognita [ edit ] Main article: Terra Australis In 1570 a map by Ortelius showed the imagined link between the proposed continent of Antarctica and South America . Note also the proposed landmasses surrounding the North Pole . In the Western world , belief in a Cold Land —a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to \"balance\" out the northern lands of Europe , Asia and North Africa —had existed for centuries. Aristotle had postulated a symmetry of the earth, which meant that there would be equally habitable lands south of the known world. The Greeks suggested that these two hemispheres, north and south, were divided by a \"belt of fire\", due to the general observation that the climate got warmer and warmer the further south someone travelled, and no Europeans had gone past the equator to see that this was not the case. [ citation needed ] It was not until Prince Henry the Navigator began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa that European exploration of the southern hemisphere began. In 1473 Portuguese navigator Lopes Gonçalves proved that the equator could be crossed, and cartographers and sailors began to assume the existence of another, temperate continent to the south of the known world. The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist. Ferdinand Magellan , who passed through the Straits of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land, and it appeared as such on a map by Ortelius : Terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita (\"Southern land recently discovered but not yet fully known\"). [ citation needed ] Map from 1771, showing \"Terres Australes\" label without any charted landmass. European geographers connected the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita (\"Unknown Southern Land\"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries. In 1599, according to the account of Jacob le Maire , the Dutch Dirck Gerritsz Pomp observed mountainous land at latitude (64°). If so, these were the South Shetland Islands , and possibly the first European sighting of Antarctica (or offshore-lying islands belonging to it). Other accounts, however, do not note this observation, casting doubt on their accuracy. It has been argued that the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla claimed to have sighted \"snow-covered mountains\" beyond the 64° S in 1603, but this claim is not generally recognized. Quirós in 1606 took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides ) and those he would discover \"even to the Pole\". Francis Drake like Spanish explorers before him had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. Indeed, when Schouten and Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land. Finally, in 1642 Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia) was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did. South of the Antarctic Convergence [ edit ] The visit to South Georgia by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence . [1] [2] Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict ‘ Roché Island ’, honouring the discoverer. James Cook was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775. [3] Edmond Halley 's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi off the north coast of South Georgia ) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the \"South Land\" – described by a half legendary \"sieur de Gonneyville\" – resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730 . In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in search of \"a very large continent.\" He lighted upon a land in 50° S which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him . [4] The Antarctic Circle [ edit ] Further information: Second voyage of James Cook James Cook 's 1777 South-Up map of South Georgia within the Antarctic Circle . The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple , the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook . Sailing in 1772 with the Resolution , a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and the Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux , Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island , then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58° S , and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S , a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E , where their course was stopped by ice. Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern and Antarctic Lands , of the discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town , but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S to 147° E . On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the Adventure , and reached 60° S by 177° W , whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching 67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W . A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego . Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W . This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia , and discovered the South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60° . He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel , and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and of no economic value. [4] First sighting [ edit ] Admiral Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen was one of the first to spot the continent of Antarctica. Admiral Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen was one of the first to spot the continent of Antarctica. The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith , who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island , and claimed the new territories for Britain . The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources, [5] [6] [7] three men all sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen , a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy ; Edward Bransfield , a captain in the Royal Navy ; and Nathaniel Palmer , an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut . It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny , reached on 28 January 1820 a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W  /  69.35778°S 2.24722°W  / -69.35778; -2.24722 [8] that became known as the Fimbul ice shelf . On 30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula , the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island , the first islands to be discovered south of the circle. Early Exploration [ edit ] See also: List of Antarctic expeditions This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The first landing on the Antarctic mainland, was according to the American Captain John Davis , a sealer, who claimed to have set foot there on 7 February 1821, [9] though this is not accepted by all historians. [ citation needed ] In December 1821, Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer looking for seal breeding grounds, sighted what is now known as the Antarctic Peninsula , located between 55 and 80 degrees west. In 1823, James Weddell , a British sealer, sailed into what is now known as the Weddell Sea . Until, the twentieth century, most expeditions were for commercial purpose, to look for the prospects of seal and whale hunting. A piece of wood, from the South Shetland Islands , was the first fossil ever recorded from Antarctica, obtained during a private United States expedition during 1829-31, commanded by Captain Benjamin Pendleton . [10] [11] [12] Charles Wilkes , as commander of a United States Navy expedition in 1840, [13] discovered what is now known as Wilkes Land , a section of the continent around 120 degrees East. After the North Magnetic Pole was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for the South Magnetic Pole . One of the explorers, James Clark Ross , a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on his 4 year-expedition from 1839 to 1843. Commanding the British ships Erebus and Terror , he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the Ross Ice Shelf , a massive floating ice shelf over 100 feet (30 m) high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: Mount Erebus , the most active volcano on Antarctica, and Mount Terror . [13] Map of exploration routes, 1911. The first documented landing on the mainland of East Antarctica was at Victoria Land by the American sealer Mercator Cooper on 26 January 1853. [14] These explorers, despite their impressive contributions to South Polar exploration, were unable to penetrate the interior of the continent and, rather, formed a broken line of discovered lands along the coastline of Antarctica. What followed this period of Antarctic interest is what historian H.R. Mill called 'the age of averted interest'. [15] Following the expedition South by the ships Erebus and Terror under James Clark Ross (January, 1841), he suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or 'problems', worth exploration in the far South. [15] It is considered that Ross' influence, as well as the loss of the Franklin expedition in the Arctic, lead to disinterest in polar interest, particularly by the Royal Society - the organization that helped oversee many Arctic explorations, including those that would be made by Shackleton and Scott. However, in the following twenty years after Ross' return, there was a general lull internationally in Antarctic exploration. [15] Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration [ edit ] The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration began at the end of the 19th century and closed with Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1917. [16] During this period the Antarctic continent became the focus of an international effort that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration and in which 17 major Antarctic expeditions were launched from ten countries. [17] Origins [ edit ] Dr. John Murray was the driving force behind the renewal of interest in Antarctic exploration at the beginning of the 20th century. The initial impetus for the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was a lecture given by Dr. John Murray entitled \"The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration\", given to the Royal geographical Society in London, November 27, 1893. [18] Murray advocated that research into the Antarctic should be organised to \"resolve the outstanding geographical questions still posed in the south\". [19] Furthermore, the Royal Geographic Society instated an Antarctic Committee shortly prior to this, in 1887, which successfully encouraged many whalers to explore the Southern regions of the world and laid the groundwork for the lecture given by Murray. [20] The Norwegian ship Antarctic was put ashore at Cape Adare , on January 24, 1895. [21] In August 1895 the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London passed a general resolution calling on scientific societies throughout the world to promote the cause of Antarctic exploration \"in whatever ways seem to them most effective\". [22] Such work would \"bring additions to almost every branch of science\". [22] The Congress had been addressed by the Norwegian Carsten Borchgrevink , who had just returned from a whaling expedition during which he had become one of the first to set foot on the Antarctic mainland. During his address, Borchgrevink outlined plans for a full-scale pioneering Antarctic expedition, to be based at Cape Adare . [23] [24] Adrien de Gerlache , leader of the Belgian expedition. The Heroic Age was inaugurated by an expedition launched by the Belgian Geographical Society in 1897; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately sponsored British expedition. [25] (Some histories consider the Discovery expedition, which departed in 1901, as the first proper expedition of the Heroic Age. [26] ) The Belgian Antarctic Expedition was led by Belgian Adrian de Gerlache . In 1898, they became the first men to spend winter on Antarctica, when their ship Belgica became trapped in the ice. They became stuck on 28 February 1898, and only managed to get out of the ice on 14 March 1899. During their forced stay, several men lost their sanity, not only because of the Antarctic winter night and the endured hardship, but also because of the language problems between the different nationalities. This was the first expedition to overwinter within the Antarctic Circle , [27] [28] and they visited the South Shetland Islands . [29] Early British expeditions [ edit ] RRS Discovery carried an expedition led by Robert Falcon Scott in 1901. The Southern Cross Expedition began in 1898 and lasted for two years. This was the first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland ( Cape Adare ) and was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of The Great Ice Barrier , (The Great Ice Barrier later became formally known as the Ross Ice Shelf ). The expedition set a Farthest South record at 78°30'S. It also calculated the location of the South Magnetic Pole . [30] [31] The Discovery Expedition was then launched, from 1901–04 and was led by Robert Falcon Scott . It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in Victoria Land , and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record, 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in McMurdo Sound . [32] [33] [34] Jameson Adams , Frank Wild and Eric Marshall (left to right) of the Nimrod Expedition plant the Union flag at their southernmost position. A year later, the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition was launched, headed by William Speirs Bruce . ' Ormond House ' was established as a meteorological observatory on Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and was the first permanent base in Antarctica. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline of Coats Land was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits. [35] [36] [37] Ernest Shackleton , who had been a member of Scott's expedition, organized and led the Nimrod Expedition from 1907 to 1909. The expedition's primary objective was of reaching the South Pole. Based in McMurdo Sound , the expedition pioneered the Beardmore Glacier route to the South Pole , and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88°23'S, a new Farthest South record 97 geographical miles from the Pole before having to turn back. During the expedition, Shackleton was the first to reach the polar plateau. Parties led by T. W. Edgeworth David also became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole . [38] [39] [40] Expeditions from other countries [ edit ] Erich von Drygalski led the First German Antarctic Expedition in 1901. The First German Antarctic Expedition was sent to investigate eastern Antarctica in 1901. It discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land , and Mount Gauss . The expedition's ship became trapped in ice, however, which prevented more extensive exploration. [41] [42] [43] The Swedish Antarctic Expedition , operating at the same time worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land , and was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea , after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel Uruguay . [44] [45] [46] The French organized their first expedition in 1903 under the leadership of Jean-Baptiste Charcot . Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskiöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts of Graham Land , on the Antarctic peninsula . A section of the coast was explored, and named Loubet Land after the President of France. [47] [48] [49] A follow up trip was organized from 1908–10 which continued the earlier work of the French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including Marguerite Bay , Charcot Island , Renaud Island , Mikkelsen Bay , Rothschild Island . [50] Race to the Pole [ edit ] Main articles: Terra Nova expedition and Amundsen's South Pole expedition Terra Nova bore Robert Falcon Scott and his team on their ill-fated expedition to the South Pole. The prize of the Heroic age was to reach the South Pole. Two expeditions set off in 1910 to attain this goal; a party led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram and Robert Falcon Scott 's British group from the Terra Nova . Amundsen succeeded in reaching the Pole on 14 December 1911 using a route from the Bay of Whales to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier . [51] [52] [53] Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold. [54] The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was later named after these two men. Further expeditions [ edit ] The Main Base Hut of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition The Australasian Antarctic Expedition took place between 1911-1914 and was led by Sir Douglas Mawson . It concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories. Discoveries included Commonwealth Bay , Ninnis Glacier , Mertz Glacier , and Queen Mary Land . Major accomplishments were made in geology, glaciology and terrestrial biology. [55] As time wore on it became more and more evident that the ship was doomed by Frank Hurley . (The Endurance trapped in pack ice.) The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914-1917 was led by Ernest Shackleton and set out to cross the continent via the South pole. However, their ship, the Endurance , was trapped and crushed by pack ice in the Weddell Sea before they were able to land. The expedition members survived after a journey on sledges over pack ice, a prolonged drift on an ice-floe , and a voyage in three small boats to Elephant Island . Then Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean in an open boat called James Caird and made the first crossing of South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken . [56] A related component of the Trans-Antarctic Expedition was the Ross Sea party , led by Aeneas Mackintosh . Its objective was to lay depots across the Great Ice Barrier , in order to supply Shackleton's party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, lost their lives. [57] Shackleton's last expedition and the one that brought the 'Heroic Age' to a close, was the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition from 1921-1922 on board the ship Quest . Its vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.| [58] Further exploration [ edit ] By air [ edit ] Sir Hubert Wilkins pioneered the exploration of the Arctic regions by aircraft. Pictured, his plane and encampment as part of the Detroit Arctic Expedition, 1926. After Shackleton's last expedition, there was a hiatus in Antarctic exploration for about seven years. From 1929, aircraft and mechanized transportation were increasingly used, earning this period the sobriquet of the 'Mechanical Age'. Hubert Wilkins first visited Antarctica in 1921-1922 as an ornithologist attached to the Shackleton-Rowett Expedition . From 1927, Wilkins and pilot Carl Ben Eielson began exploring the Arctic by aircraft. [59] On 15 April 1928, only a year after Charles Lindbergh 's flight across the Atlantic, Wilkins and Eielson made a trans-Arctic crossing from Point Barrow, Alaska , to Spitsbergen , arriving about 20 hours later on 16 April, touching along the way at Grant Land on Ellesmere Island . [60] For this feat and his prior work, Wilkins was knighted. With financial backing from William Randolph Hearst , Wilkins returned to the South Pole and flew over Antarctica in the San Francisco . He named the island of Hearst Land after his sponsor. US Navy Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd led five expeditions to Antarctica during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. He overflew the South Pole with pilot Bernt Balchen on November 28 and 29, 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. Byrd's explorations had science as a major objective and extensively used the aircraft to explore the continent. Captain Finn Ronne , Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947–1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected. [61] The expedition explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified the Ronne Ice Shelf , named by Ronne after his wife Edith Ronne . [62] Ronne covered 3,600 miles by ski and dog sled—more than any other explorer in history. [63] Overland crossing [ edit ] Main article: Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition Hillary (left) with Rear-Admiral George J. Dufek at Scott Base just before the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition 's departure from the base. The 1955–58 Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition successfully completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica , via the South Pole . Although supported by the British and other Commonwealth governments, most of the funding came from corporate and individual donations. It was headed by British explorer Dr Vivian Fuchs , with New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary leading the New Zealand Ross Sea Support team. After spending the winter of 1957 at Shackleton Base, Fuchs finally set out on the transcontinental journey in November 1957, with a twelve-man team travelling in six vehicles; three Sno-Cats , two Weasels and one specially adapted Muskeg tractor . On route, the team were also tasked with carrying out scientific research including seismic soundings and gravimetric readings. In parallel Hillary's team had set up Scott Base – which was to be Fuchs' final destination – on the opposite side of the continent at McMurdo Sound on the Ross Sea . Using three converted Massey Ferguson TE20 tractors [64] and one Weasel (abandoned part-way), Hillary and his three men (Ron Balham, Peter Mulgrew and Murray Ellis), were responsible for route-finding and laying a line of supply depots up the Skelton Glacier and across the Polar Plateau on towards the South Pole , for the use of Fuchs on the final leg of his journey. Other members of Hillary's team carried out geological surveys around the Ross Sea and Victoria Land areas. Hillary's party reached the South Pole on January 3, 1958, and was just the third (preceded by Amundsen in 1911 and Scott in 1912) to reach the Pole overland. Fuchs' team reached the Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, where they met up with Hillary. Fuchs then continued overland, following the route that Hillary had laid and on 2 March succeeded in reaching Scott Base , completing the first overland crossing of the continent by land via the South Pole. [13] Political history [ edit ] British claims [ edit ] As Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies , Leopold Amery aimed to assert British sovereignty over the entire continent of Antarctica. The United Kingdom reasserted sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the far South Atlantic in 1833 and maintained a continuous presence there. In 1908, the British government extended its territorial claim by declaring sovereignty over \" South Georgia , the South Orkneys , the South Shetlands , and the Sandwich Islands , and Graham's Land , situated in the South Atlantic Ocean and on the Antarctic continent to the south of the 50th parallel of south latitude , and lying between the 20th and the 80th degrees of west longitude \". [65] All these territories were administered as Falkland Islands Dependencies from Stanley by the Governor of the Falkland Islands . The motivation for this declaration lay in the need for regulating and taxing the whaling industry effectively. Commercial operators would hunt whales in areas outside of the official boundaries of the Falkland Islands and its dependencies and there was a need to close this loophole. In 1917, the wording of the claim was modified, so as to, among other things, unambiguously include all the territory in the sector stretching to the South Pole (thus encompassing all of the present-day British Antarctic Territory ). The new claim covered \"all islands and territories whatsoever between the 20th degree of west longitude and the 50th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 50th parallel of south latitude; and all islands and territories whatsoever between the 50th degree of west longitude and the 80th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 58th parallel of south latitude \". [65] Under the ambition of Leopold Amery , the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies , Britain attempted to incorporate the entire continent into the Empire . In a memorandum to the governor-generals for Australia and New Zealand , he wrote that 'with the exception of Chile and Argentina and some barren islands belonging to France... it is desirable that the whole of the Antarctic should ultimately be included in the British Empire.' The first step was taken on 30 July 1923, when the British government passed an Order in Council under the British Settlements Act 1887, defining the new borders for the Ross Dependency - \"that part of His Majesty's Dominions in the Antarctic Seas, which comprises all the islands and territories between the 160th degree of East Longitude and the 150th degree of West Longitude which are situated south of the 60th degree of South Latitude shall be named the Ross Dependency.\" The Order in Council then went on to appoint the Governor-General and Commander-in Chief of New Zealand as the Governor of the territory. [66] In 1930, the United Kingdom claimed Enderby Land . In 1933, a British imperial order transferred territory south of 60° S and between meridians 160° E and 45° E to Australia as the Australian Antarctic Territory . [67] [68] Following the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the government of the United Kingdom relinquished all control over the government of New Zealand and Australia . This however had no bearing on the obligations of the Governor-General of both countries in their capacity as Governor of the Antarctic territories. Other European claims [ edit ] Discovery by Jules Dumont d'Urville of Adélie Land in 1840. This served as a basis for the French claim to this region in 1924. Meanwhile, alarmed by these unilateral declarations, the French government laid claim to a strip of the continent in 1924. The basis for their claim to Adélie Land lay on the discovery of the coastline in 1840 by the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville , who named it after his wife, Adèle. [69] The British eventually decided to recognize this claim and the border between Adélie Land and Australian Antarctic Territory was fixed definitively in 1938. [70] These developments also concerned Norwegian whaling interests, who wished to avoid the British taxation of whaling stations in the Antarctic and were concerned that they would be commercially excluded from the continent. The whale-ship owner Lars Christensen financed several expeditions to the Antarctic with the view to claim land for Norway and establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges. [71] The first expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad, landed on Peter I Island in 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian sovereignty [71] and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency. [72] The 1929 expedition led by Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen and Finn Lützow-Holm named the continental land mass near the island as Queen Maud Land , named after the Norwegian queen Maud of Wales . [73] The territory was explored further during the Norvegia expedition of 1930–31. [74] Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20°W. [74] Norwegian expedition landing on the Peter I Island in 1929. Norway's claim was disputed by Nazi Germany , [75] which in 1938 dispatched the German Antarctic Expedition , led by Alfred Ritscher , to fly over as much of it as possible. [74] The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939. [76] During the expedition, an area of about 350,000 square kilometres (140,000 sq mi) was photographed from the air by Ritscher, [77] who dropped darts inscribed with swastikas every 26 kilometres (16 mi). Germany eventually attempted to claim the territory surveyed by Ritscher under the name New Swabia , but lost any claim to the land following its defeat in the Second World War . [75] On 14 January 1939, five days prior to the German arrival, Queen Maud Land was annexed by Norway, [73] after a royal decree announced that the land bordering the Falkland Islands Dependencies in the west and the Australian Antarctic Dependency in the east was to be brought under Norwegian sovereignty. [74] The primary basis for the annexation was to secure the Norwegian whaling industry's access to the region. [73] [78] In 1948, Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to from 20°W to 45°E, and that the Bruce Coast and Coats Land were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory. [74] South American involvement [ edit ] Omond House was built in 1904 by the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition as the first permanent base in Antarctica. It was later sold to Argentina. This encroachment of foreign powers was a matter of immense disquiet to the nearby South American countries, Argentina and Chile . Taking advantage of a European continent plunged into turmoil with the onset of the Second World War , Chile's president, Pedro Aguirre Cerda declared the establishment of a Chilean Antarctic Territory in areas already claimed by Britain. Argentina had an even longer history of involvement in the Continent. Already in 1904 the Argentine government began a permanent occupation in the area with the purchase of a meteorological station on Laurie Island established in 1903 by Dr William S. Bruce 's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition . Bruce offered to transfer the station and instruments for the sum of 5.000 pesos , on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission. [79] British officer William Haggard also sent a note to the Argentine Foreign Minister, Jose Terry, ratifying the terms of Bruce proposition. [79] In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on South Orkney Islands. However, Haggard responded by reminding Argentina that the South Orkneys were British. The British position was that Argentine personnel was granted permission only for the period of one year. The Argentine government entered into negotiations with the British in 1913 over the possible transfer of the island. Although these talks were unsuccessful, Argentina attempted to unilaterally establish their sovereignty with the erection of markers, national flags and other symbols. [80] Finally, with British attention elsewhere, Argentina declared the establishment of Argentine Antarctica in 1943, claiming territory that overlapped with British ( 20°W to 80°W ) and the earlier Chilean ( 53°W to 90°W ) claims. In response to this and earlier German explorations, the British Admiralty and Colonial Office launched Operation Tabarin in 1943 to reassert British territorial claims against Argentine and Chilean incursion and establish a permanent British presence in the Antarctic . [81] The move was also motivated by concerns within the Foreign Office about the direction of United States post-war activity in the region. A suitable cover story was the need to deny use of the area to the enemy. The Kriegsmarine was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points and as shelters for commerce raiders, U-boats and supply ships. Also, in 1941, there existed a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands , either as a base or to hand them over to Argentina, thus gaining political advantage for the Axis and denying their use to Britain. In 1943, British personnel from HMS Carnarvon Castle [82] removed Argentine flags from Deception Island . The expedition was led by Lieutenant James Marr and left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and Fitzroy , on Saturday January 29, 1944. Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island , where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land . A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. Symbols of British sovereignty, including post offices , signposts and plaques were also constructed and postage stamps were issued. Operation Tabarin provoked Chile to organize its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947-48, where the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla personally inaugurated one of its bases. [83] Following the end of the war in 1945, the British bases were handed over to civilian members of the newly created Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (subsequently the British Antarctic Survey ) the first such national scientific body to be established in Antarctica. Post war developments [ edit ] Hut built at Hope Bay in 1903. It was there that the only instance of shots fired in anger on the Continent occurred in 1952. Friction between Britain and the Latin American states continued into the post war period. Royal Navy warships were despatched in 1948 to prevent naval incursions and in 1952, an Argentine shore party at Hope Bay (the British Base \"D\", established there in 1945, came up against the Argentine Esperanza Base , est. 1952) fired a machine gun over the heads of a British Antarctic Survey team unloading supplies from the John Biscoe . The Argentines later extended a diplomatic apology, saying that there had been a misunderstanding and that the Argentine military commander on the ground had exceeded his authority. The United States became politically interested in the Antarctic continent before and during WWII. The United States Antarctic Service Expedition , from 1939-1941, was sponsored by the government with additional support came from donations and gifts by private citizens, corporations and institutions. The objectives of the Expedition, outlined by President Franklin D. Roosevelt , was to establish two bases: East Base, in the vicinity of Charcot Island , and West Base, in the vicinity of King Edward VII Land . After operating successfully for two years, but with international tensions on the rise, it was considered wise to evacuate the two bases. [84] However, Immediately after the war, American interest was rekindled with an explicitly geopolitical motive. Operation Highjump , from 1946-1947 was organized by Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd Jr. and included 4,700 men, 13 ships, and multiple aircraft. The primary mission of Operation Highjump was to establish the Antarctic research base Little America IV, [85] for the purpose of training personnel and testing equipment in frigid conditions and amplifying existing stores of knowledge of hydrographic , geographic, geological , meteorological and electromagnetic propagation conditions in the area. The mission was also aimed at consolidating and extending United States sovereignty over the largest practicable area of the Antarctic continent, although this was publicly denied as a goal even before the expedition ended. Towards an international treaty [ edit ] The International Geophysical Year was pivotal in establishing a cooperative international framework in Antarctica, and led on to the Antarctic Treaty System in 1959. Meanwhile, in an attempt at ending the impasse, Britain submitted an application to the International Court of Justice in 1955 to adjudicate between the territorial claims of Britain, Argentina and Chile. This proposal failed, as both Latin American countries rejected submitting to an international arbitration procedure. [86] Negotiations towards the establishment of an international condominium over the continent first began in 1948, involving the 7 claimant powers (Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway, Chile and Argentina) and the US. This attempt was aimed at excluding the Soviet Union from the affairs of the continent and rapidly fell apart when the USSR declared an interest in the region, refused to recognize any claims of sovereignty and reserved the right to make its own claims in 1950. [86] An important impetus toward the formation of the Antarctic Treaty System in 1959, was the International Geophysical Year , 1957-1958. This year of international scientific cooperation triggered an 18-month period of intense Antarctic science. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. The British established Halley Research Station in 1956 by an expedition from the Royal Society . Sir Vivian Fuchs headed the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , which completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica in 1958. In Japan, the Japan Maritime Safety Agency offered ice breaker Sōya as the South Pole observation ship and Showa Station was built as the first Japanese observation base on Antarctica. France contributed with Dumont d'Urville Station and Charcot Station in Adélie Land . The ship Commandant Charcot of the French Navy spent nine months of 1949/50 at the coast of Adelie Land, performing ionospheric soundings. [87] The US erected the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station as the first permanent structure directly over the South Pole in January 1957. [88] Finally, to prevent the possibility of military conflict in the region, the United States, United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and 9 other countries with significant interests negotiated and signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. The treaty entered into force in 1961 and sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that continent . The treaty was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War . [89] Recent history [ edit ] MS Explorer in Antarctica in January 1999. She sank on 23 November 2007 after hitting an iceberg . A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma , was born near Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history. [90] On 28 November 1979, an Air New Zealand DC-10 on a sightseeing trip crashed into Mount Erebus on Ross Island , killing all 257 people on board. In 1991 a convention among member nations of the Antarctic Treaty on how to regulate mining and drilling was proposed. Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke and French Prime Minister Michel Rocard led a response to this convention that resulted in the adoption of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty , now known as the Madrid Protocol. All mineral extraction was banned for 50 years and the Antarctic was set aside as a \"natural reserve, devoted to peace and science\". [91] Børge Ousland , a Norwegian explorer, finished the first unassisted Antarctic solo crossing on January 18, 1997. On 23 November 2007, the MS Explorer struck an iceberg and sank, but all on board were rescued by nearby ships, including a passing Norwegian cruise ship , the MS Nordnorge . Women in Antarctica [ edit ] Main article: Women in Antarctica First women at the South Pole are Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones , Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill. Women were originally kept from exploring Antarctica until well into the 1950s. A few pioneering women visited the Antarctic land and waters prior to the 1950s and many women requested to go on early expeditions, but were turned away. [92] Early pioneers such as Louise Séguin [93] and Ingrid Christensen were some of the first women to see Antarctic waters. [94] Christensen was the first woman to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica. [94] The first women to have any fanfare about their Antarctic journeys were Caroline Mikkelsen who set foot on an island of Antarctica in 1935, [95] and Jackie Ronne and Jennie Darlington who were the first women to over-winter in Antarctica in 1947. [96] The first woman scientist to work in Antarctica was Maria Klenova in 1956. [97] Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978. Women faced legal barriers and sexism that prevented most from visiting Antarctica and doing research until the late 1960s. The United States Congress banned American women from traveling to Antarctica until 1969. [98] Women were often excluded because it was thought that they could not handle the extreme temperatures or crisis situations. [99] The first woman from the British Antarctic Survey to go to Antarctica was Janet Thomson in 1983 who described the ban on women as a \"rather improper segregation.\" [100] [101] Once women were allowed in Antarctica, they still had to fight against sexism and sexual harassment. [102] [103] However, a tipping point was reached in the mid 1990s when it became the new normal that women were part of Antarctic life. [104] Women began to see a change as more and more women began working and researching in Antarctica. [105] See also [ edit ] Antarctica portal History of Livingston Island List of Antarctic expeditions Research stations in Antarctica Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands List of Russian explorers Timeline of women in Antarctica Women in Antarctica References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Dalrymple, Alexander. (1771). A Collection of Voyages Made to the Ocean Between Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope . Two volumes. London. Jump up ^ Headland, Robert K. (1984). The Island of South Georgia , Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-25274-1 Jump up ^ Cook, James. (1777). A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World. Performed in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, In the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. In which is included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships . Volume II. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. ( Relevant fragment ) ^ Jump up to: a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Polar Regions\". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Jump up ^ U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel. \"Antarctica —past and present\" (PDF) . NSF . Retrieved 2007-11-14 . Jump up ^ Guy G. Guthridge. \"Nathaniel Brown Palmer\" . NASA . Retrieved 2007-11-14 . Jump up ^ Palmer Station . ucsd.edu Jump up ^ Erki Tammiksaar (14 December 2013). \"Punane Bellingshausen\" [Red Bellingshausen]. Postimees . Arvamus. Kultuur (in Estonian). Jump up ^ Alan Gurney, Below the Convergence: Voyages Toward Antarctica, 1699–1839 , Penguin Books, New York, 1998. p. 181 Jump up ^ \"Charles Wilkes\" . South-Pole.com. Jump up ^ M. R. A. Thomson (1977). \"An Annotated Bibliography Of The Paleontology Of Lesser Antarctica And The Scotia Ridge\" . N.Z. 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Scott of the Antarctic: A Life of Courage, and Tragedy in the Extreme South . London: Harper Collins. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-00-715068-7 . Jump up ^ American Association for the Advancement of Science (1887). The Exploration of the Antarctic Regions . New York: Science, Vol. 9, No. 223. Jump up ^ \"Henrik Bull\" . ^ Jump up to: a b Borchgrevink, Carstens (1901). First on the Antarctic Continent . George Newnes Ltd. ISBN 978-0-90-583841-0 . Retrieved 11 August 2008 . pp. 9–10 Jump up ^ Borchgrevink, Carstens (1901). First on the Antarctic Continent . George Newnes Ltd. ISBN 978-0-90-583841-0 . Retrieved 11 August 2008 . pp. 4–5 Jump up ^ Carsten Borchgrevink (1901). \"First on the Antarctic continent : being an account of the British Antarctic expedition, 1898-1900\" . Jump up ^ Jones, Max (2003). The Last Great Quest . Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 01-9280-483-9 . Jump up ^ \"Mountaineering and Polar Collection – Antarctica\" . National Library of Scotland . Retrieved 19 November 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Antarctic Explorers – Adrien de Gerlache\" . South-pole.com . Retrieved 22 September 2008 . Jump up ^ Huntford ( Last Place on Earth ) pp. 64–75 Jump up ^ R. K. Headland (1989). Chronological List of Antarctic Expeditions and Related Historical Events . Cambridge University Press. p. 221. Jump up ^ \"The Forgotten Expedition\" . Antarctic Heritage Trust . Retrieved 13 August 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Borchgrevink, Carsten Egeberg (1864–1934)\" . Australian Dictionary of Biography Online Edition . Retrieved 10 August 2008 . Jump up ^ Preston, pp. 57–79 Jump up ^ Crane, p. 253 (map); pp. 294–95 (maps) Jump up ^ Fiennes, p. 89 Jump up ^ \"Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 5: The Voyage of the Scotia \" . Glasgow Digital Library . Retrieved 23 September 2008 . Jump up ^ Speak, pp. 82–95 Jump up ^ \"William S. Bruce\" . South-Pole.com . Retrieved 2007-11-14 . Jump up ^ \"Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 3: Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen\" . Glasgow Digital Library . Retrieved 24 September 2008 . Jump up ^ Riffenburgh, pp. 309–12 (summary of achievements) Jump up ^ Huntford ( Shackleton biography) p. 242 (map) Jump up ^ \"Erich von Drygalski 1865–1949\" . South-pole.com . Retrieved 23 September 2008 . Jump up ^ Mill, pp. 420–24 Jump up ^ Crane, p. 307 Jump up ^ Goodlad, James A. \"Scotland and the Antarctic, Section II: Antarctic Exploration\" . Royal Scottish Geographical Society . Retrieved 23 September 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Otto Nordenskiöld 1869–1928\" . South-pole.com . Retrieved 23 September 2008 . Jump up ^ Barczewski, p. 90 Jump up ^ Mills, William James (11 December 2003). Exploring Polar Frontiers . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57-607422-0 . Retrieved 23 September 2008 . pp. 135–139 Jump up ^ \"Jean-Baptiste Charcot\" . South-pole.com . Retrieved 24 September 2008 . ( Francais voyage) Jump up ^ Mill, pp. 431–32 Jump up ^ \"Jean-Baptiste Charcot\" . South-pole.com . Retrieved 24 September 2008 . ( Pourquoispas? voyage) Jump up ^ Amundsen, Vol I pp. 184–95; Vol II, pp. 120–134 Jump up ^ Huntford ( Last Place on Earth ), pp. 446–74 Jump up ^ \"Roald Amundsen\" . Norwegian Embassy (UK). Archived from the original on 22 April 2008 . Retrieved 25 September 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Explorer and leader: Captain Scott\" . National Maritime Museum . Retrieved 27 September 2008 . Jump up ^ National Research Council (U.S.), Polar Research Board (1986). Antarctic Treaty System: An assessment . National Academies. p. 96 . Retrieved 18 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Shackleton, Ernest Henry. South: The Story of Shackleton's 1914-1917 Expedition . Jump up ^ Tyler-Lewis, Kelly (2007). The Lost Men . London: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 193–197. ISBN 978-0-74-757972-4 . Jump up ^ Huntford, Roland (1985). Shackleton . London: Hodder & Stoughton. p. 684. ISBN 03-4025-007-0 . Jump up ^ Althoff, William F. Drift Station: Arctic outposts of superpower science . Potomac Books Inc., Dulles, Virginia. 2007. p. 35. Jump up ^ Wilkins, Hubert Wilkins. Flying the Arctic . p. 313. Jump up ^ \"Milestones, Jan. 28, 1980\" . Time . 28 January 1980 . Retrieved 4 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Historic Names — Norwegian-American Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica . Traverse.npolar.no. Retrieved on 2012-01-29. Jump up ^ Navy Military History . History.navy.mil. Retrieved on 2012-01-29. Jump up ^ Friends of Ferguson Heritage- The Worst Journey in the World ^ Jump up to: a b International law for Antarctica , p. 652 , Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi, 1996 Jump up ^ http://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/imperial/1923/0974/latest/DLM1195.html Order in Council Under the British Settlements Act, 1887 (50 & 51 Vict c 54), Providing for the Government of the Ross Dependency. Jump up ^ Antarctica and international law: a collection of inter-state and national documents, Volume 2. pp. 143. Author: W. M. Bush. Editor: Oceana Publications, 1982. ISBN 0-379-20321-9 , ISBN 978-0-379-20321-9 Jump up ^ C2004C00416 / Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Act 1933 ( Cth ) Jump up ^ Dunmore, John (2007). From Venus to Antarctica: The Life of Dumont D'Urville . Auckland: Exisle Publ. p. 209. ISBN 9780908988716 . Jump up ^ \"A Brief History of Mawson\" . Australian Government - Australian Arctic Division. Archived from the original on 27 July 2008 . Retrieved 2008-07-16 . ^ Jump up to: a b Kyvik, Helga, ed. (2008). Norge i Antarktis . Oslo: Schibsted Forlag. p. 52. ISBN 82-516-2589-0 . Jump up ^ \"Lov om Bouvet-øya, Peter I's øy og Dronning Maud Land m.m. (bilandsloven)\" (in Norwegian). Lovdata. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013 . Retrieved 29 August 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Dronning Maud Land\" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Polar Institute . Retrieved 10 May 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Gjeldsvik, Tore. \"Dronning Maud Land\" . Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian) . Retrieved 9 May 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Widerøe, Turi (2008). \"Annekteringen av Dronning Maud Land\" . Norsk Polarhistorie (in Norwegian) . Retrieved 15 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Murphy, 2002, p. 192. Jump up ^ Murphy, 2002, p. 204. Jump up ^ \"Forutsetninger for Antarktistraktaten\" . Norsk Polarhistorie (in Norwegian) . Retrieved 15 May 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Escude, Carlos; Cisneros, Andres. \"Historia General de las Relaciones Exteriores de la Republica Argentina\" (in Spanish) . Retrieved July 6, 2012 . Jump up ^ Kieran Mulvaney (2001). At the Ends of the Earth: A History of the Polar Regions . Island Press. pp. 124–130. Jump up ^ British Research Stations and Refuges - History Jump up ^ HMS Carnarvon Castle 1943 Jump up ^ Antarctica and the Arctic: the complete encyclopedia, Volume 1, by David McGonigal, Lynn Woodworth, page 98 Jump up ^ Bertrand, Kenneth J. (1971). Americans in Antarctica 1775-1948 . New York: American Geographical Society. Jump up ^ Kearns, David A. (2005). \"Operation Highjump: Task Force 68\". Where Hell Freezes Over: A Story of Amazing Bravery and Survival . New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 304. ISBN 0-312-34205-5 . Retrieved 2011-05-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b Klaus Dodds (2012). The Antarctic: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford University Press. Jump up ^ M. Barré, K. Rawer: \"Quelques résultats d’observations ionosphériques effectuées près de la Terre Adélie\". Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics volume 1, issue 5–6 (1951), pp. 311–314. Jump up ^ \"South Pole's first building blown up after 53 years\" . OurAmazingPlanet.com. 2011-03-31. Jump up ^ ATS.aq Jump up ^ antarctica.org —Science: in force... Jump up ^ \"Bob Hawke: There is not one outstanding leader in the world\" . Sydney Morning Herald. Jump up ^ Blackadder, Jesse (2015). \"Frozen Voices: Women, Silence and Antarctica\". In Hince, Bernadette; Summerson, Rupert; Wiesel, Arnan. Antarctica: Music, Sounds, and Cultural Connections (PDF) . Canberra: ANU Press. p. 90. Jump up ^ Hulbe, Christina L.; Wang, Weili; Ommanney, Simon (2010). \"Women in Glaciology, a Historical Perspective\" (PDF) . Journal of Glaciology . 56 (200): 947 . Retrieved 27 August 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Blackadder 2015, p.172 Jump up ^ \"Women in Antarctica: Sharing this Life-Changing Experience\" , transcript of speech by Robin Burns, given at the 4th Annual Phillip Law Lecture; Hobart, Tasmania, Australia; 18 June 2005. Retrieved 5 August 2010. Jump up ^ \"Antarctic Firsts\" . Antarctic Circle . 4 October 2014 . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Bogle, Ariel (11 August 2016). \"New Wikipedia Project Champions Women Scientists in the Antarctic\" . Mashable . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Davis, Amanda (14 April 2016). \"This IEEE Fellow Blazed a Trail for Female Scientists in Antarctica\" . The Institute . Retrieved 27 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Hament, Ellyn. \"A Warmer Climate for Women in Antarctica\" . Origins Antarctica: Scientific Journeys from McMurdo to the Pole . Exploratorium . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Brueck, Hilary (13 February 2016). \"Meet the All-Women Team heading to Antarctica This Year\" . Forbes . Retrieved 27 August 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Janet Thomson: An 'Improper Segregation of Scientists' at the British Antarctic Survey\" . Voices of Science . British Library . Retrieved 27 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Dean, Cornelia (10 November 1998). \"After a Struggle, Women Win A Place 'on the Ice'; In Labs and in the Field, a New Outlook\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 30 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Satchell, Michael (5 June 1983). \"Women Who Conquer the South Pole (continued)\" . The San Bernardino County Sun . Retrieved 29 August 2016 – via Newspapers.com. Jump up ^ Rejcek, Peter (13 November 2009). \"Women Fully Integrated Into USAP Over Last 40 Years\" . The Antarctic Sun . United States Antarctic Program . Retrieved 25 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Marler, Regina (2005). \"Ice Queen\" . Advocate (952): 77 . Retrieved 29 August 2016 – via EBSCOhost. (Subscription required ( help )) . Further reading [ edit ] \"Working-Class Hero\" . Portland Magazine . 8 November 2012. — \"'She’s just moored there at the dock in Bay Center, sitting in the mud,' says Charles Lagerbom, Northport, Maine, resident and president of the Antarctican Society\". The South Pole; an account of the Norwegian Antarctic expedition in the \"Fram,\" 1910–12 — Volume 1 and Volume 2 at Project Gutenberg The Worst Journey in the World, Volumes 1 and 2 Antarctic 1910–1913 at Project Gutenberg South: the story of Shackleton's 1914–1917 expedition at Project Gutenberg Anthony, Jason C. (2012). Hoosh : roast penguin, scurvy day, and other stories of Antarctic cuisine . Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2666-1 . Robert Clancy, John Manning, Henk Brolsma: Mapping Antarctica: A Five Hundred Year Record of Discovery. Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-94-007-4320-5 [Print]; ISBN 978-94-007-4321-2 [eBook] Ivanov, L. General Geography and History of Livingston Island. In: Bulgarian Antarctic Research: A Synthesis . Eds. C. Pimpirev and N. Chipev. Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2015. pp. 17–28. ISBN 978-954-07-3939-7 External links [ edit ] Early Antarctic Adventures (State Library of New South Wales) PCO: Antarctic History Antarctic Heritage Trust Surveying Antarctica, 1957 Big Dead Place Working-Class 'Hero' after two decades of polar exploration. Hurley's Antarctica [ show ] v t e Antarctica General Antarctic Treaty System Climate Colonization Demographics Economy Expeditions Field camps Flags Geography Geology History Mammals Military activity Protected areas Religion Research stations Telecommunications Territorial claims Time Tourism Transport Volcanoes Wildlife Geographic regions Antarctic Peninsula East Antarctica West Antarctica Ecozone Extreme points Islands Waterways Lake Vostok List of rivers McMurdo Sound Ross Sea Southern Ocean Weddell Sea Lake CECs Famous explorers Roald Amundsen Richard E. Byrd Douglas Mawson James Clark Ross Robert Falcon Scott Ernest Shackleton more... Category Commons Antarctica portal Index [ show ] v t e History by continent Africa Americas ( North America South America ) Antarctica Australia Eurasia ( Europe Asia ) Oceania [ show ] v t e Polar exploration [ show ] Arctic Ocean History Expeditions Research stations Farthest North North Pole Barentsz Hudson Marmaduke Carolus Parry North Magnetic Pole J. Ross J. C. Ross Abernethy Kane Hayes Polaris Polaris C. F. Hall British Arctic Expedition HMS Alert Nares HMS Discovery Stephenson Markham Lady Franklin Bay Expedition Greely Lockwood Brainard 1st Fram expedition Fram Nansen Johansen Sverdrup Jason Amedeo F. Cook Peary Sedov Byrd Airship Norge Amundsen Nobile Wisting Riiser-Larsen Ellsworth Airship Italia Nautilus Wilkins ANT-25 Chkalov Baydukov Belyakov \"North Pole\" manned drifting ice stations NP-1 Papanin Shirshov E. Fyodorov Krenkel NP-36 NP-37 Sedov Badygin Wiese USS Nautilus USS Skate Plaisted Herbert NS Arktika Barneo Arktika 2007 Mir submersibles Sagalevich Chilingarov Iceland Greenland Pytheas Brendan Papar Vikings Naddodd Svavarsson Arnarson Norse colonization of the Americas Ulfsson Galti Erik the Red Christian IV's expeditions J. Hall Cunningham Lindenov C. Richardson Danish colonization Egede Scoresby Jason Nansen Sverdrup Peary Rasmussen Northwest Passage Northern Canada Cabot G. Corte-Real M. Corte-Real Frobisher Gilbert Davis Hudson Discovery Bylot Baffin Munk I. Fyodorov Gvozdev HMS Resolution J. Cook HMS Discovery Clerke Mackenzie Kotzebue J. Ross HMS Griper Parry HMS Hecla Lyon HMS Fury Hoppner Crozier J. C. Ross Coppermine Expedition Franklin Back Dease Simpson HMS Blossom Beechey Franklin's lost expedition HMS Erebus HMS Terror Collinson Rae–Richardson Expedition Rae J. Richardson Austin McClure Expedition HMS Investigator McClure HMS Resolute Kellett Belcher Kennedy Bellot Isabel Inglefield 2nd Grinnell Expedition USS Advance Kane Fox McClintock HMS Pandora Young Fram Sverdrup Gjøa Amundsen Rasmussen Karluk Stefansson Bartlett St. Roch H. Larsen Cowper North East Passage Russian Arctic Pomors Koch boats Willoughby Chancellor Barentsz Mangazeya Hudson Poole Siberian Cossacks Perfilyev Stadukhin Dezhnev Popov Ivanov Vagin Permyakov Great Northern Expedition Bering Chirikov Malygin Ovtsyn Minin V. Pronchishchev M. Pronchishcheva Chelyuskin Kh. Laptev D. Laptev Chichagov Lyakhov Billings Sannikov Gedenschtrom Wrangel Matyushkin Anjou Litke Lavrov Pakhtusov Tsivolko Middendorff Austro-Hungarian Expedition Weyprecht Payer Vega Expedition A. E. Nordenskiöld Palander USS Jeannette De Long Yermak Makarov Zarya Toll Kolomeitsev Matisen Kolchak Sedov Rusanov Kuchin Brusilov Expedition Sv. Anna Brusilov Albanov Konrad Wiese Nagórski Taymyr / Vaygach Vilkitsky Maud Amundsen AARI Samoylovich Begichev Urvantsev Sadko Ushakov Glavsevmorput Schmidt Aviaarktika Shevelev Sibiryakov Voronin Chelyuskin Krassin Gakkel Nuclear-powered icebreakers NS Lenin Arktika class [ show ] Antarctic Continent History Expeditions Southern Ocean Roché Bouvet Kerguelen HMS Resolution J. Cook HMS Adventure Furneaux Smith San Telmo Vostok Bellingshausen Mirny Lazarev Bransfield Palmer Davis Weddell Morrell Astrolabe Dumont d'Urville United States Exploring Expedition USS Vincennes Wilkes USS Porpoise Ringgold Ross expedition HMS Erebus ( J. C. Ross Abernethy ) HMS Terror ( Crozier ) Cooper Challenger expedition HMS Challenger Nares Murray Jason C. A. Larsen \" Heroic Age \" Belgian Antarctic Expedition Belgica de Gerlache Lecointe Amundsen Cook Arctowski Racoviță Dobrowolski Southern Cross Southern Cross Borchgrevink Discovery Discovery Discovery Hut Gauss Gauss Drygalski Swedish Antarctic Expedition Antarctic O. Nordenskjöld C. A. Larsen Scottish Antarctic Expedition Bruce Scotia Orcadas Base Nimrod Expedition Nimrod French Antarctic Expeditions Pourquoi-Pas Charcot Japanese Antarctic Expedition Shirase Amundsen's South Pole expedition Fram Amundsen Framheim Polheim Terra Nova Terra Nova Scott Wilson E. R. Evans Crean Lashly Filchner Australasian Antarctic Expedition SY Aurora Mawson Far Eastern Party Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Endurance Ernest Shackleton Wild James Caird Ross Sea party Mackintosh Shackleton–Rowett Expedition Quest IPY · IGY Modern research Christensen Byrd BANZARE BGLE Rymill New Swabia Ritscher Operation Tabarin Marr Operation Highjump Captain Arturo Prat Base British Antarctic Survey Operation Windmill Ketchum Ronne Expedition F. Ronne E. Ronne Schlossbach Operation Deep Freeze McMurdo Station Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition Hillary V. Fuchs Soviet Antarctic Expeditions 1st Somov Klenova Mirny 2nd Tryoshnikov 3rd Tolstikov Antarctic Treaty System Transglobe Expedition Fiennes Burton Lake Vostok Kapitsa Farthest South South Pole HMS Resolution J. Cook HMS Adventure Furneaux Weddell HMS Erebus J. C. Ross HMS Terror Crozier Southern Cross Borchgrevink Discovery Barne Nimrod Shackleton Wild Marshall Adams South Magnetic Pole Mawson David Mackay Amundsen's South Pole expedition Fram Amundsen Bjaaland Helmer Hassel Wisting Polheim Terra Nova Scott E. Evans Oates Wilson Bowers Byrd Balchen McKinley Dufek Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station Hillary V. Fuchs Pole of Cold Vostok Station Pole of inaccessibility Pole of Inaccessibility Station Tolstikov Crary A. Fuchs Messner Coordinates : 67°15′S 39°35′E  /  67.250°S 39.583°E  / -67.250; 39.583 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&oldid=810642498 \" Categories : History of Antarctica Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica without Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 Estonian-language sources (et) CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Pages containing links to subscription-only content All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 Articles needing additional references from June 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Coordinates not on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 November 2017, at 15:02. 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{ "text": "Mistry v Interim National Medical and Dental Council of South Africa - Wikipedia Mistry v Interim National Medical and Dental Council of South Africa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search hide This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs more links to other articles to help integrate it into the encyclopedia . Please help improve this article by adding links that are relevant to the context within the existing text. (June 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Mistry v Interim National Medical and Dental Council of South Africa and Others is an important case in the South African law of medicine , constitutional law , constitutional litigation and criminal procedure . In the area of constitutional litigation, the court dealt with an application for a certificate in terms of Rule 18 of the Constitutional Court Rules, and held that the considerations relevant to deciding whether the certificate should be positive or negative are similar to those which should influence the court in deciding whether or not to grant leave to appeal to Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA): The High Court is required in both instances to consider whether or not there are reasonable prospects of success; and whether the issues raised are of sufficient substance to be dealt with by the SCA. It was appropriate, in other words, that an application for a certificate in terms of Rule 18 be dealt with in the same manner as a conventional application for leave to appeal. In both instances judgment on the application is required. The case is also important, in this area of the law, for its treatment of the power of the Constitutional Court to suspend a declaration of invalidity, in the interests of justice and good government, pending a correction of the invalid statute by the competent authority. As a general rule, the court held, it will not suspend an order of invalidity, with exceptions to be made only when the reasons are good and persuasive. The party requesting the suspension carries the burden of proof; it must provide the court with reliable information to justify a suspension, indicating at the very least what negative consequences there may be for justice and good government of an immediately operational declaration of invalidity; why other existing measures would not be an adequate alternative stop-gap; what legislation on subject, if any, is in the pipeline; and how much time would reasonably be required to adopt the corrective legislation. Contents 1 Facts 2 Judgment 2.1 Chaskalson 2.1.1 Application for leave to appeal 2.2 Sachs 2.2.1 Suspension of declaration of invalidity 2.2.2 Retrospective effect 2.2.3 Obiter 3 References 4 Sources Facts [ edit ] Section 28(1) of the Medicines and Related Substances Control Act gave inspectors of medicines the authority to enter into and inspect any premises, place, vehicle, vessel or aircraft where such inspectors reasonably believed there were medicines or other substances regulated by the Act, and to seize any medicine or books, records or documents found in or upon such premises, place, vehicle, vessel or aircraft which appeared to afford evidence of a contravention of any provision of the Act. [1] In short, this provision gave inspectors sweeping powers to search and seize without a warrant. Judgment [ edit ] Chaskalson [ edit ] Application for leave to appeal [ edit ] As to the application for leave to appeal, Chaskalson P held, and the other members of the court concurred, that the considerations relevant to deciding whether a certificate in terms of Rule 18 of the Constitutional Court Rules should be positive or negative were \"in many respects similar\" to those which should influence a court in deciding whether or not to grant leave to appeal to the Supreme Court of Appeal. [2] In both instances, the High Court was required to consider whether or not there were \"reasonable prospects of success;\" and whether the issues raised were \"of sufficient substance\" to be dealt with by the SCA. [3] \"It is appropriate, therefore,\" Chaskalson concluded, that an application for a certificate in terms of Rule 18 should be dealt with in the same manner as a conventional application for leave to appeal. In both instances a judgment on the application is required. [4] Having observed that \"the purpose of the certificate is to assist this Court in the decision that it has to make as to whether or not leave to appeal should be granted,\" Chaskalson held that, where the relevant constitutional issues had been fully traversed in the judgment in respect of which the certificate had been given, there might be no need for a detailed judgment on the certificate. [5] Where, however, \"the application for a certificate raises issues which have not been fully canvassed in the judgment, or where the reasoning in the judgment is subjected to challenge which calls for comment, the judgment on the certificate may have to be more comprehensive.\" Ultimately, what was necessary was that the High Court to which the application had been made should consider the issues identified in Rule 18(e) and give reasons for the findings made. Chaskalson applauded McLaren J for having done as much in the present matter. [6] Sachs [ edit ] Sachs J held for a unanimous court that the existence of safeguards to regulate the way in which State officials may enter the private domains of ordinary citizens is one of the features that distinguish a constitutional democracy from a police state. Although, he wrote, there had been an admirable history of strong statutory controls over the powers of the police to search and seize, yet when it came to racially discriminatory laws and security legislation, vast and often unrestricted discretionary powers were conferred on officials and police. Furthermore, he observed, generations of systematised and egregious violations of personal privacy had established norms of disrespect for citizens that had seeped generally into the public administration, and had promoted among a great many officials habits and practices inconsistent with the standards of conduct now required by the Bill of Rights . The provision in the Medicines and Related Substances Control Act was found, accordingly, to be invalid. Suspension of declaration of invalidity [ edit ] Sachs turned next to the power of the Constitutional Court to suspend a declaration of invalidity, \"in the interests of justice and good government,\" [7] pending correction of the constitutional defect in the legislation by Parliament. He held that a party wishing for the court to make such an order had to provide it with \"reliable information\" to justify its doing so. This information would necessarily depend for its detail on \"the nature of the law in question and the character of the defect to be corrected.\" [8] As a general rule, however, a government organ or other party wishing to keep an unconstitutional provision alive should indicate, \"at least,\" the following: what the negative consequences for justice and good government of an immediately operational declaration of invalidity would be; why other existing measures would not be an adequate alternative stop-gap; what legislation on the subject, if any, was in the pipeline; and how much time would reasonably be required to adopt corrective legislation. [9] Parties interested in opposing such an order should be given an opportunity to motivate their opposition. Legal representatives should ensure that they have \"appropriate and timeous instructions\" on the matter; they should \"not do their best while on their feet or else rely on a rushed telephone call at the tail-end of the hearing.\" [10] In the present matter, counsel for the Minister of Health and Mr Coote (the third and fourth respondents respectively) had requested by letter some days after the conclusion of the hearing that the court receive written evidence as to why it was imperative that the court make a declaration of specified inconsistency, rather than one of general invalidity. No notice was given to the applicant who, on being informed of the request, had indicated strenuous opposition. The request was refused. \"These,\" Sachs held, are matters that should be addressed at the earliest opportunity. If, for example, it is necessary to adduce evidence, this can be done under the proviso to s 102(1) of the interim Constitution prior to the referral of the matter to this Court. The issues should also be properly canvassed in the written arguments. [11] \"Right at the end of the proceedings,\" [12] the court's attention had been drawn by counsel for the respondents to the fact that section 28(1)(a) of the Act was due to be amended by the Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act. On this Sachs held as follows: Since we are not called upon to decide whether the new provisions relating to entry, search and seizure would be consistent with the Constitution and the principles outlined in the present judgment, I will say nothing further on the matter, and simply state that in my opinion there are no grounds upon which this Court could accede to the request by counsel to use its powers under s 98(5) to suspend the effect of a declaration of invalidity pending correction of its defects. [13] The order of invalidity, therefore, took immediate effect. Retrospective effect [ edit ] As to the power of the court to give retrospective effect to its order of invalidity, Sachs held that a general declaration of invalidity with retrospective effect would impact negatively on good government by rendering unlawful all searches conducted after the retrospective date specified. This could create considerable uncertainty regarding the validity of proceedings conducted on the basis of evidence obtained as a result of such searches. It could also give rise to delictual claims by persons subjected to searches and seizures after that date, adding further burdens to a health budget already under considerable strain. [14] Obiter [ edit ] Although the provision in the Medicines and Related Substances Control Act was struck down, Sachs J made an obiter comment to the effect that Chapter 2 of the Criminal Procedure Act appeared to be in line with constitutional requirements. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Mistry v Interim National Medical and Dental Council and Others\" . Retrieved 16 July 2013 . Jump up ^ Para 6. Jump up ^ Para 6. Jump up ^ Para 6. Jump up ^ Para 7. Jump up ^ Para 7. Jump up ^ s 98(5) of the interim Constitution. Jump up ^ Para 37. Jump up ^ Para 37. Jump up ^ Para 37. Jump up ^ Para 38. Jump up ^ Para 39. Jump up ^ Para 39. Jump up ^ Para 41. Sources [ edit ] LTC Harms Civil Procedure in the Superior Courts 3 ed (2003). Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mistry_v_Interim_National_Medical_and_Dental_Council_of_South_Africa&oldid=852317395 \" Categories : South African case law 1998 in case law 1998 in South African law Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles with too few wikilinks from June 2013 All articles with too few wikilinks Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2013 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles with multiple maintenance issues Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 28 July 2018, at 03:18 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "O Brother, Where Art Thou? - Wikipedia O Brother, Where Art Thou? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the film soundtrack, see O Brother, Where Art Thou? (soundtrack) . For the unrelated Simpsons episodes, see Oh Brother, Where Art Thou? and O Brother, Where Bart Thou? O Brother, Where Art Thou? Theatrical release poster Directed by Joel Coen Produced by Ethan Coen Written by Ethan Coen Joel Coen Based on The Odyssey by Homer Starring George Clooney John Turturro Tim Blake Nelson Charles Durning Michael Badalucco John Goodman Holly Hunter Music by T Bone Burnett Cinematography Roger Deakins Edited by Roderick Jaynes Tricia Cooke Production company Working Title Films [1] Distributed by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution [1] Release date October 19, 2000 ( 2000-10-19 ) Running time 107 minutes Country United Kingdom [1] United States [1] France [1] Language English Budget $26 million [2] Box office $72 million [3] O Brother, Where Art Thou? is a 2000 crime comedy film written, produced, and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen , and starring George Clooney , John Turturro , and Tim Blake Nelson , with John Goodman , Holly Hunter , and Charles Durning in supporting roles. The film is set in 1937 rural Mississippi [4] during the Great Depression , and its story is a modern satire loosely based on Homer 's epic poem The Odyssey that incorporates mythology from the American South. The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 film Sullivan's Travels , in which the protagonist is a director who wants to film O Brother, Where Art Thou? , a fictional book about the Great Depression. [5] Much of the music used in the film is period folk music , [6] including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley . [7] The movie was one of the first to extensively use digital color correction to give the film an autumnal, sepia-tinted look. [8] The film received positive reviews, and the soundtrack won a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 2001 using American folk music . [9] The original band became popular after the film release. The country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film included John Hartford , Alison Krauss , Emmylou Harris , Gillian Welch , Chris Sharp , and others. They joined together to perform the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD. [6] Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Critical reception 5.2 Accolades 6 Soggy Bottom Boys 7 References 8 External links Plot [ edit ] Three convicts, Ulysses Everett McGill, Pete Hogwallop, and Delmar O'Donnell, escape from a chain gang and set out to retrieve a supposed treasure Everett buried before the area is flooded to make a lake. The three get a lift from a blind man driving a handcar on a railway. He tells them, among other prophecies, that they will find a fortune but not the one they seek. The trio make their way to the house of Wash, Pete's cousin. They sleep in the barn, but Wash reports them to Sheriff Cooley, who, along with his men, torches the barn. Wash's son helps them escape. They pick up Tommy Johnson, a young black man, who claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for the ability to play guitar. In need of money, the four stop at a radio broadcast tower where they record a song as The Soggy Bottom Boys. That night, the trio part ways with Tommy after their car is discovered by the police. Unbeknownst to them, the recording becomes a major hit. Near a river, the group hears singing. They see three women washing clothes and singing. The women drug them with corn whiskey and they lose consciousness. Upon waking, Delmar finds Pete's clothes lying next to him, empty except for a toad. Delmar is convinced the women were Sirens and transformed Pete into the toad. Later, one-eyed Bible salesman Big Dan Teague invites them for a picnic lunch, then mugs them and kills the toad. Everett and Delmar arrive in Everett's home town. Everett confronts his wife Penny, who changed her last name and told his daughters he was dead. He gets into a fight with Vernon T. Waldrip, her new \"suitor.\" They later see Pete working on a chain gang. Later that night, they sneak into Pete's holding cell and free him. As it turns out, the women had dragged Pete away and turned him in to the authorities. Under torture, Pete gave away the treasure's location to the police. Everett then confesses that there is no treasure. He made it up to convince the guys he was chained with to escape with him in order to stop his wife from getting married. Pete is enraged at Everett, because he had two weeks left on his original sentence, and must serve fifty more years for the escape. The trio stumble upon a rally of the Ku Klux Klan , who are planning to hang Tommy. The trio disguise themselves as Klansmen and attempt to rescue Tommy. However, Big Dan, a Klan member, reveals their identities. Chaos ensues, and the Grand Wizard reveals himself as Homer Stokes, a candidate in the upcoming gubernatorial election. The trio rush Tommy away and cut the supports of a large burning cross, leaving it to fall on Big Dan. Everett convinces Pete, Delmar and Tommy to help him win his wife back. They sneak into a Stokes campaign gala dinner she is attending, disguised as musicians. The group begins a performance of their radio hit. The crowd recognizes the song and goes wild. Homer recognizes them as the group who humiliated his mob. When he demands the group be arrested and reveals his white supremacist views, the crowd runs him out of town on a rail . Pappy O'Daniel, the incumbent candidate, seizes the opportunity, endorses the Soggy Bottom Boys and grants them full pardons. Penny agrees to marry Everett with the condition that he find her original ring. The next morning, the group sets out to retrieve the ring, which is at a cabin in the valley which Everett had earlier claimed was the location of his treasure. The police, having learned of the place from Pete, arrest the group. Dismissing their claims of having received pardons, Sheriff Cooley orders them hanged. Just as Everett prays to God, the valley is flooded and they are saved. Tommy finds the ring in a desk that floats by, and they return to town. However, when Everett presents the ring to Penny, it turns out it was not her ring, she doesn't want that one, and she can't remember where she put the real ring. Cast [ edit ] George Clooney as Ulysses Everett McGill, a man who is imprisoned for practicing law without a license. He claims to have escaped from prison so he can find a stash of money he had hidden, though in reality it is so he can get back to his family before his wife remarries. He corresponds to Odysseus (Ulysses) in the Odyssey . [10] John Turturro , as Pete Hogwallop, a fellow criminal who reveals little about his past. He believes in being true to one's kin, even when his cousin Washington B. Hogwallop betrays him. He dreams of moving out west and opening a fine restaurant, where he will be the maître d' . He agreed to go along with the breakout, though he only had two weeks left on his sentence. Tim Blake Nelson as Delmar O'Donnell, a small-time crook imprisoned for robbing a Piggly Wiggly in Yazoo City ; he initially claims innocence but later admits he is guilty. Delmar says he will spend his share of Everett's nonexistent money buying back his family farm, believing, \"You ain't no kind of man if you ain't got land.\" Chris Thomas King as Tommy Johnson, a skilled blues musician. He is the accompanying guitarist in the Soggy Bottom Boys. He claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for his skill on the guitar. He shares his name and story with Tommy Johnson , a blues musician with a mysterious past, who is said to have sold his soul to the devil at the Crossroads (a story more often attributed to Robert Johnson ). [11] [12] Frank Collison as Washington B. \"Wash\" Hogwallop, Pete's paternal cousin. He removes the escapees' chains but later betrays the men to the police. John Goodman as Daniel \"Big Dan\" Teague, a one-eyed man who masquerades as a Bible salesman and mugs Everett and Delmar. He later reveals the identity of the trio when they are disguised at a Ku Klux Klan rally, but they kill him by cutting loose a burning cross, which falls on him and the Klansmen. He corresponds to the cyclops Polyphemus in the Odyssey . [10] Holly Hunter as Penny, Everett's ex-wife, who is fed up with Everett's wheeling and dealing. She divorces him while he is in prison, telling their children he was hit by a Louisville & Nashville train. She is engaged to Vernon T. Waldrip until Everett wins her back. She corresponds to Penelope in the Odyssey . [10] (Penelope is an icon of the faithful wife, as she rejected her many suitors, stalling for time while awaiting Odysseus' return.) Charles Durning as Menelaus \"Pappy\" O'Daniel, the incumbent Governor of Mississippi. He is frequently seen berating his son and his campaign managers, who are depicted as simpletons. The character is based on Texas governor W. Lee \"Pappy\" O'Daniel . [13] (Flensted-Jensen elaborates on the connection between the fictional and the real Pappy O'Daniel.) [10] He corresponds to Menelaus in the Odyssey . Daniel von Bargen as Sheriff Cooley, a ruthless rural sheriff who, with his bloodhound, pursues the trio for the duration of the film. It is implied several times that he is the devil incarnate, and Cooley fits Tommy Johnson's description of Satan: Cooley's sunglasses evoke Satan's \"big empty eyes.\" He eventually ambushes the escapees after they have been pardoned by the governor. He intends to hang them nonetheless, but when the valley is flooded, he, his men, and his dog all drown. He corresponds to Poseidon in the Odyssey . [10] He has been compared to Boss Godfrey in Cool Hand Luke . [14] Wayne Duvall as Homer Stokes, the reform candidate in the upcoming election for Governor. He travels the countryside with a dwarf, who depicts the \"little man\", and a broom, with which he promises to \"sweep this state clean.\" He is secretly an Imperial Wizard in the Ku Klux Klan. He falsely identifies Everett, Pete, and Delmar as people of color because they darkened their faces to remain unseen when freeing Tommy. Ray McKinnon as Vernon T. Waldrip, Penny's bona fide suitor and the manager of Homer Stokes's election campaign. It has been suggested that his name is a nod to novelist Howard Waldrop , whose novella A Dozen Tough Jobs is one of the inspirations for the film. [15] He corresponds to the Suitors of Penelope in the Odyssey . [10] Michael Badalucco as George Nelson , a bipolar bank robber who dislikes being called \"Baby Face.\" The real George Nelson died in 1934, three years before the story is set. Nelson died in a shootout known as the Battle of Barrington rather than by electric chair, as suggested in the film. Stephen Root as Mr. Lund, the blind radio station manager who records Everett's story in the song \" Man of Constant Sorrow \" and makes him known throughout the state. He corresponds to Homer. [10] Lee Weaver as the Blind Seer, a mysterious railroad man who accurately predicts the outcome of the trio's adventure as well as several other incidents. He corresponds to Tiresias in the Odyssey . [10] Production [ edit ] The idea of O Brother, Where Art Thou? arose spontaneously. Work on the script began in December 1997, long before the start of production, and was at least half-written by May 1998. Despite the fact that Ethan Coen described the Odyssey as \"one of my favorite storyline schemes,\" neither of the brothers had read the epic and were only familiar with its content through adaptations and numerous references to the Odyssey in popular culture. [16] According to the brothers, Nelson (who has a degree in classics from Brown University ) [17] [18] was the only person on the set who had read the Odyssey . [19] The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 Preston Sturges film Sullivan's Travels , in which the protagonist (a director) wants to direct a film about the Great Depression called O Brother, Where Art Thou? [5] that will be a \"commentary on modern conditions, stark realism, and the problems that confront the average man.\" Lacking any experience in this area, the director sets out on a journey to experience the human suffering of the average man but is sabotaged by his anxious studio. The film has some similarity in tone to Sturges's film, including scenes with prison gangs and a black church choir. The prisoners at the picture show scene is also a direct homage to a nearly identical scene in Sturges's film. [20] Joel Coen revealed in a 2000 interview that he came to Phoenix, Arizona , to offer the lead role to Clooney. Clooney agreed to do the role immediately, without reading the script. He stated that he liked even the Coens' least successful films. [21] Clooney did not immediately understand his character and sent the script to his uncle Jack who lived in Kentucky and asked him to read the entire script into a tape recorder. [22] Unknown to Clooney, in his recording, Jack, a devout Baptist , omitted all instances of the words \"damn\" and \"hell\" from the Coens' script, which only became known to Clooney after the directors pointed this out to him in the middle of shooting. [22] This was the fourth film of the brothers in which John Turturro has starred. Other actors in O Brother, Where Art Thou? who had worked previously with the Coens include John Goodman (three films), Holly Hunter (two), Michael Badalucco and Charles Durning (one film each). The Coens used digital color correction to give the film a sepia -tinted look. [8] Joel stated this was because the actual set was \"greener than Ireland.\" [22] Cinematographer Roger Deakins stated, \"Ethan and Joel favored a dry, dusty Delta look with golden sunsets. They wanted it to look like an old hand-tinted picture, with the intensity of colors dictated by the scene and natural skin tones that were all shades of the rainbow.\" [23] Initially the crew tried to perform the color correction using a physical process, however after several tries with various chemical processes proved unsatisfactory, it became necessary to perform the process digitally. [22] This was the fifth film collaboration between the Coen Brothers and Deakins, and it was slated to be shot in Mississippi at a time of year when the foliage, grass, trees, and bushes would be a lush green. [23] It was filmed near locations in Canton, Mississippi and Florence, South Carolina in the summer of 1999. [24] After shooting tests, including film bipack and bleach bypass techniques, Deakins suggested digital mastering be used. [23] Deakins subsequently spent 11 weeks fine-tuning the look, mainly targeting the greens, making them a burnt yellow and desaturating the overall image in the digital files. [8] This made it the first feature film to be entirely color corrected by digital means, narrowly beating Nick Park 's Chicken Run . [8] O Brother, Where Art Thou? was the first time a digital intermediate was used on the entirety of a first-run Hollywood film that otherwise had very few visual effects. The work was done in Los Angeles by Cinesite using a Spirit DataCine for scanning at 2K resolution, a Pandora MegaDef to adjust the color, and a Kodak Lightning II recorder to put out to film. [25] A major theme of the film is the connection between old-time music and political campaigning in the Southern U.S. It makes reference to the traditions, institutions, and campaign practices of bossism and political reform that defined Southern politics in the first half of the 20th century. The Ku Klux Klan, at the time a political force of white populism , is depicted burning crosses and engaging in ceremonial dance. The character Menelaus \"Pappy\" O'Daniel, the governor of Mississippi and host of the radio show The Flour Hour , is similar in name and demeanor to W. Lee \"Pappy\" O'Daniel , [26] one-time Governor of Texas and later U.S. Senator from that state. [27] W. Lee O'Daniel was in the flour business, and used a backing band called the Light Crust Doughboys on his radio show. [28] In one campaign, W. Lee O'Daniel carried a broom, [29] an oft-used campaign device in the reform era, promising to sweep away patronage and corruption . [29] His theme song had the hook, \"Please pass the biscuits, Pappy\", emphasizing his connection with flour. [28] While the film borrows from real-life politics, differences are obvious between the characters in the film and historical political figures. The O'Daniel of the movie used \" You Are My Sunshine \" as his theme song (which was originally recorded by real-life Governor of Louisiana James Houston \"Jimmie\" Davis [30] ) and Homer Stokes, as the challenger to the incumbent O'Daniel, portrays himself as the \"reform candidate\", using a broom as a prop. Music [ edit ] See also: O Brother, Where Art Thou? (soundtrack) and Down from the Mountain Music in the film was originally conceived as a major component of the film, not merely as a background or a support. Producer and musician T-Bone Burnett worked with the Coens while the script was still in its working phases, and the soundtrack was recorded before filming commenced. [31] Much of the music used in the film is period-specific folk music, [6] including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley . [7] The musical selection also includes religious music, including Primitive Baptist and traditional African American gospel , most notably The Fairfield Four , an a cappella quartet with a career extending back to 1921 who appear in the soundtrack and as gravediggers towards the film's end. Selected songs in the film reflect the possible spectrum of musical styles typical of the old culture of the American South: gospel, delta blues , country , swing and bluegrass. [32] [33] The use of dirges and other macabre songs is a theme that often recurs in Appalachian music [34] (\"O Death\", \"Lonesome Valley\", \" Angel Band \", \"I Am Weary\") in contrast to bright, cheerful songs (\"Keep On the Sunny Side\", \"In the Highways\") in other parts of the film. The voices of the Soggy Bottom Boys were provided by Dan Tyminski (lead vocal on \"Man of Constant Sorrow\"), Nashville songwriter Harley Allen , and the Nashville Bluegrass Band 's Pat Enright. [35] The three won a CMA Award for Single of the Year [35] and a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals , both for the song \"Man of Constant Sorrow\". [9] Tim Blake Nelson sang the lead vocal on \" In the Jailhouse Now \". [5] \"Man of Constant Sorrow\" has five variations: two are used in the film, one in the music video, and two in the soundtrack album. Two of the variations feature the verses being sung back-to-back, and the other three variations feature additional music between each verse. [36] Though the song received little significant radio airplay, [37] it reached #35 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in 2002. [38] The version of \"I'll Fly Away\" heard in the film is performed not by Krauss and Welch (as it is on the CD and concert tour), but by the Kossoy Sisters with Erik Darling accompanying on long-neck five-string banjo, recorded in 1956 for the album Bowling Green on Tradition Records . [39] Release [ edit ] The film premiered at the AFI Film Festival on October 19, 2000. [1] It grossed $71,868,327 worldwide [3] off its $26 million budget. [2] Critical reception [ edit ] Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 77% based on 147 reviews and an average score of 7.1/10. The consensus reads: \"Though not as good as Coen brothers' classics such as Blood Simple , the delightfully loopy O Brother, Where Art Thou? is still a lot of fun.\" [40] The film holds an average score of 69/100 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews. [41] Roger Ebert gave two and a half out of four stars to the film, saying all the scenes in the film were \"wonderful in their different ways, and yet I left the movie uncertain and unsatisfied\". [42] Accolades [ edit ] The film was selected into the main competition of the 2000 Cannes Film Festival . [43] The film also received two Academy Award nominations at the 73rd Academy Awards : Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Cinematography . Cinematographer Roger Deakins was recognized with both Academy Award and ASC Outstanding Achievement Award nominations for his work on the film. [23] For his portrayal of Ulysses Everett McGill, George Clooney received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . Soggy Bottom Boys [ edit ] The Soggy Bottom Boys is the musical group that the main characters form to serve as accompaniment for the film. The name is in homage to the Foggy Mountain Boys , a bluegrass band led by Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs . [44] In the film, the songs credited to the band are lip-synched by the actors, except that Tim Blake Nelson does sing his own vocals on \" In the Jailhouse Now .\" The actual musicians are Dan Tyminski (guitar and lead vocals), Harley Allen , and Pat Enright . [45] [46] The band's hit single is Dick Burnett 's \" Man of Constant Sorrow ,\" a song that had already enjoyed much success in real life. [47] After the film's release, the fictitious band became so popular that the country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film got together and performed the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD. [6] This included Ralph Stanley , John Hartford , Alison Krauss , Emmylou Harris , Gillian Welch , Chris Sharp , and others. References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" . American Film Institute . Archived from the original on December 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 24, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Box Office Data:O Brother Where Art Thou\" . The Numbers.com. ^ Jump up to: a b \"O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved January 8, 2008 . Jump up ^ Richard J. Gray, Owen Robinson. A companion to the literature and culture of the American south . Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-631-22404-4 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Lafrance, J.D. (April 5, 2004). \"The Coen Brothers FAQ\" (PDF) . pp. 33–35. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 26, 2007 . Retrieved November 8, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Menaker, Daniel (November 30, 2000). \"A Film Score Odyssey Down a Quirky Country Road\" . The New York Times . Retrieved February 4, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"NPR: Pioneering Bluegrass Musician Ralph Stanley\" . National Public Radio . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Robertson, Barbara (May 1, 2006). \"CGSociety — The Colorists\" . The Colorists . The CGSociety. p. 3 . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . Filmed near locations in Canton, MS; Florence, SC; and Wardville, LA. ^ Jump up to: a b \"2001 Grammy Awards — Infoplease.com\" . 2001 Grammy Award Winners . Infoplease.com. February 27, 2000 . Retrieved November 8, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Flensted-Jensen, Pernille (2002), \"Something old, something new, something borrowed: the Odyssey and O Brother, Where Art Thou\" , Classica Et Mediaevalia: Revue Danoise De Philologie , 53 : 13–30 Jump up ^ \"The real king of delta blues - Tommy Johnson\" . Erinharpe.com . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Blues Singers\" . University of Virginia . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Sorin, Hillary (August 4, 2010), \"Today in Texas History: Gov. Pappy O'Daniel resigns\" , The Houston Chronicle , retrieved August 2, 2011 , Many cultural and political historians think the character Gov. Menelaus \"Pappy\" O'Daniel of Mississippi is based on the notorious Texas politician, Wilbert Lee \"Pappy\" O'Daniel. Jump up ^ Conard, Mark T. The Philosophy of the Coen Brothers (2009) Jump up ^ Datlow, Ellen; Howard Waldrop (2003). \"Howard Waldrop Interviewed\" . Readercon 15 . Retrieved November 9, 2007 . Jump up ^ Michel Ciment , Hubert Niogret. (1998). The Logic of Soft Drugs . Positive. Jump up ^ Tim Blake Nelson Biography Archived June 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Kari Molvar, \" \" Q&A: Tim Blake Nelson \" \" . Archived from the original on December 26, 2001 . Retrieved December 26, 2001 . , Brown Alumni Magazine (March/April 2001). Jump up ^ Romney, Jonathan (May 18, 2000). \"Double Vision\" . The Guardin . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Sullivan's Travels (1941)\" . Retrieved November 8, 2007 . Jump up ^ Hochman, Steve. \"George Clooney: O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 8, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Sharf, Zach. \"The Coen Brothers and George Clooney Uncover the Magic of 'O Brother, Where Art Thou?' at 15th Anniversary Reunion\" . Indiewire . Retrieved 19 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Allen, Robert. \"Digital Domain\" . The Digital Domain: A brief history of digital film mastering — a glance at the future . Retrieved May 14, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"O Brother, Where Art Thou: Box office / business\" . IMDb . Archived from the original on January 30, 2012 . Retrieved February 13, 2012 . Jump up ^ Fisher, Bob (October 2000). \"Escaping from chains\" . American Cinematographer . Jump up ^ Crawford, Bill (2004). Please Pass the Biscuits, Pappy: Pictures of Governor W. Lee \"Pappy\" O'Daniel . University of Texas Press . p. 19. ISBN 978-0-292-70575-3 . Jump up ^ \"Pappy O'Daniel\" . Texas Treasures . Texas State Library . March 11, 2003 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b Walker, Jesse (August 19, 2003). \"Pass the Biscuits – We're living in Pappy O'Daniel's world\" . Reason . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b Boulard, Garry (February 5, 2002). \"Following the Leaders\" . Gambit Weekly . Gambit Weekly. p. 1 . Retrieved November 9, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"River of Song: The Artists\" . Louisiana: Where Music is King . The Filmmakers Collaborative & The Smithsonian Institution . 1998 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"O Brother, why art thou so popular?\" . BBC News . February 28, 2002 . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . Jump up ^ Romney, Jonathan (May 18, 2000). \"Double Vision\" . The Guardian . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . Jump up ^ Ridley, Jim (May 22, 2000). \"Talking with Joel and Ethan Coen about 'O Brother, Where Art Thou? ' \" . Nashville Scene . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . Jump up ^ McClatchy, Debbie (June 27, 2000). \"A Short History of Appalachian Traditional Music\" . Appalachian Traditional Music — A Short History . Retrieved November 8, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Soggy Bottom Boys Hit the Top at 35th CMA Awards\" . Retrieved November 8, 2007 . Jump up ^ Long, Roger J. (April 9, 2006). \" \" O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" entry page\" . Archived from the original on November 3, 2007 . Retrieved November 9, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"O Brother, why art thou so popular\" . BBC News. February 28, 2002. p. 1 . Retrieved November 8, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Top Music Charts — Hot 100 — Billboard 200 — Music Genre Sales\" . p. 1. Archived from the original on December 23, 2007 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"O Kossoy Sisters, Where Art Thou Been?\" . Retrieved January 8, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000)\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved January 11, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Reviews for O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved November 9, 2015 . Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (December 29, 2000). \"O Brother, Where Art Thou? Review\" . The Chicago Sun Times . Rogerebert.com . Retrieved February 14, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Festival de Cannes: O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" . festival-cannes.com . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Jump up ^ Temple Kirby, Jack (2006). Mockingbird Song: Ecological Landscapes of the South . UNC Press . p. 314. ISBN 978-0-8078-3057-4 . Jump up ^ Rowell, Erica (2007). The Brothers Grim: The Films of Ethan and Joel Coen . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 276 n.59. ISBN 978-0810858503 . Excerpts available at Google Books . Jump up ^ Johnson, Zac. \"The Soggy Bottom Boys\" . AllMusic . Jump up ^ \"Man of Constant Sorrow (trad./The Stanley Brothers/Bob Dylan)\" . Man of Constant Sorrow . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: O Brother, Where Art Thou? O Brother, Where Art Thou? on IMDb O Brother, Where Art Thou? at AllMovie O Brother, Where Art Thou? at Box Office Mojo O Brother, Where Art Thou? at Rotten Tomatoes \"Coenesque: The Films of the Coen Brothers\" . Archived from the original on November 19, 2003. \"American Myth Today: O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" . American Studies at the University of Virginia [ show ] v t e Works by the Coen brothers Filmography Awards and nominations Frequent collaborators Films directed Blood Simple (1984) Raising Arizona (1987) Miller's Crossing (1990) Barton Fink (1991) The Hudsucker Proxy (1994) Fargo (1996) The Big Lebowski (1998) O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) The Man Who Wasn't There (2001) Intolerable Cruelty (2003) The Ladykillers (2004) No Country for Old Men (2007) Burn After Reading (2008) A Serious Man (2009) True Grit (2010) Inside Llewyn Davis (2013) Hail, Caesar! (2016) Written only Crimewave (1985) The Naked Man (1998) Gambit (2012) Unbroken (2014) Bridge of Spies (2015) Suburbicon (2017) Television The Ballad of Buster Scruggs (2018) [ show ] v t e Homer 's Odyssey (8th century BC) Characters Characters House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Others Achilles Aeolus Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Helen Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Melantho Mentes Old Man of the Sea Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea (1911 Italian) Ulysses (1954 Italian) Ulysses' Gaze (1995 Greek) O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) Keyhole (2012) TV L'Odissea (1968) Ulysses 31 (1981 Japanese anime) The Odyssey (1997) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists (2007) Star Trek: Odyssey (2007) Literature True History (2nd century AD) Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) The World's Desire (1890) Ulysses (1922) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Human Comedy (1943) Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) Trojan Odyssey (2003) The Penelopiad (2005) The Lost Books of the Odyssey (2010) Poems Ulysses (1842) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Cantos (1962) Pagan Operetta (1998) Stage Current Nobody (play) Cyclops (play) Ithaka (play) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (opera) The Golden Apple (musical) Glam Slam Ulysses (musical) Home Sweet Homer (musical) Song \" Tales of Brave Ulysses \" (song) \" The Odyssey \" (song) The Odyssey (symphony) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer The Baltic Origins of Homer's Epic Tales \" Odysseus' scar \" Hermoniakos' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations \" On First Looking into Chapman's Homer \" On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey: The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain (novel) Cold Mountain (film) Homer's Daughter [ show ] v t e Works based on Faust Folk legend Faust Johann Georg Faust Deal with the Devil in popular culture Simon Magus Theophilus of Adana Erdgeist Mephistopheles Pan Twardowski Stingy Jack Seminal works Historia von D. Johann Fausten (1587 chapbook) Cenodoxus (1602, play) Doctor Faustus (1604 play) Goethe's Faust (1808 play) Faust, Part One Faust, Part Two Prose \" Bearskin \" \" Daniel and the Devil \" Melmoth the Wanderer (1820) \" The Devil and Tom Walker \" (1824) St. John's Eve (1830) Auriol (1844) Chasse-galerie (1892) The Sorrows of Satan (1896) Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician (1898) The Master and Margarita (1929–40) Mephisto (1936) The Devil and Daniel Webster (1937) None but Lucifer (1939) Doktor Faustus (1947) The Devil in Velvet (1951) The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant (1954) Gimmicks Three (1956) The Devil to Pay in the Backlands (1956) That Hell-Bound Train (1958) For a Breath I Tarry (1966) The Damnation Game (1986) Eric (1990) The Devil's Own Work (1991) Jack Faust (1997) Johannes Cabal the Necromancer (2009) Plays Gretchen (1879) Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1955) The Black Bonspiel of Wullie MacCrimmon (1965) Temptation (1986) Operas Faust (1816, Spohr) La damnation de Faust (1846, Berlioz) Faust (1859, Gounod) Mefistofele (1868, Boito) Faust and Marguerite (1855, Lutz) Faust up to Date (1888, Lutz) Doktor Faust (1916–25, Busoni) Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights (1938) The Rake's Progress (1951, Stravinsky) Reuben, Reuben (1955) Historia von D. Johann Fausten (1994) Faustus, the Last Night (2006) Classical music Gretchen am Spinnrade (1814, Schubert) Faust Overture (1840, Wagner) Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' 2nd movement \"Quasi-Faust\" (1847, Alkan) Scenes from Goethe's Faust (1853, Schumann) Part II of Symphony No. 8 (1906–07, Mahler) Faust Symphony (1854–57, Liszt) Mephisto Waltzes (Liszt) Gothic Symphony (Brian) Bagatelle sans tonalité (Liszt) Other music Albums Epica Saga Epica The Black Halo Beethoven's Last Night The Black Rider Songs \" Mephisto Polka \" (1859–85) \" Cross Road Blues \" (1936) \" Sympathy for the Devil \" (1968) \" Friend of the Devil \" (1970) \" Bohemian Rhapsody \" (1975) \" The Devil Went Down to Georgia \" (1979) \" Faustian Echoes \" (2012) \" The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles \" (2015) Films Faust and Marguerite (1900) The Damnation of Faust (1903) Faust and Marguerite (1904) The Student of Prague (1913) The Student of Prague (1926) Faust (1926) The Devil and Daniel Webster (1941) Alias Nick Beal (1949) Beauty and the Devil (1950) Marguerite de la nuit (1955) Damn Yankees (1958) Faust (1960) Bedazzled (1967) Doctor Faustus (1967) El extraño caso del doctor Fausto (1969) Mephisto (1981) Doctor Faustus (1982) Faust (1994) The Master and Margarita (1994) Bedazzled (2000) Faust: Love of the Damned (2001) Fausto 5.0 (2001) I Was a Teenage Faust (2002) Shortcut to Happiness (2003) Faust (2011) Television Episodes \" The Devil's Hands Are Idle Playthings \" (2003) Other The Devil and Daniel Mouse (1978) Musicals Damn Yankees (1955) Randy Newman's Faust (1993) Success! (1993) Faust (2003) Other Paintings Faust (ballet) (1848) Gods' Man (1929) Faust (manga) (1950) Doctor Faustus (comics) (1968) Faust (Avatar Press) (1987) Category Mississippi portal Film portal Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 208718696 LCCN : no2001087856 GND : 4703030-6 SUDOC : 179445588 BNE : XX4034610 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F&oldid=832887034 \" Categories : 2000 films English-language films 2000s adventure films 2000s criminal comedy films 2000s musical comedy films 2000s road movies American films American adventure comedy films American buddy films American criminal comedy films American musical comedy films American road movies Americana Country music films Films about music and musicians Films based on the Odyssey Films set in the 1930s Films set in 1937 Films set in Mississippi Films shot in Mississippi Great Depression films Slapstick films Treasure hunt films Working Title Films films Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films directed by the Coen brothers Cultural depictions of Baby Face Nelson Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from November 2013 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 24 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2018, at 14:40. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "O Brother, Where Art Thou?", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F&amp;oldid=832887034" }

{ "text": "Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 - Wikipedia Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Other short titles William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act Long title An Act to combat trafficking in persons, especially into the sex trade, slavery, and involuntary servitude, to reauthorize certain Federal programs to prevent violence against women, and for other purposes. Nicknames Trafficking Victims Protection Act Enacted by the 106th United States Congress Effective October 28, 2000 Codification Acts amended 2003, 2006, 2008 Legislative history Introduced in the House as H.R.3244 by Christopher H. Smith on November 8, 1999 Passed the House on May 9, 2000 (Voice Vote) Passed the Senate on July 27, 2000 (Unamious consent) Signed into law by President Bill Clinton on October 28, 2000 The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 is a federal statute passed into law in 2000 by the U.S. Congress and signed by President Clinton. The law was later reauthorized by Presidents Bush and Obama. It has the ability to authorize protections for undocumented immigrants who are victims of severe forms of trafficking and violence. [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Amendments 2.1 Proposed 3 Determinations 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History [ edit ] The Trafficking Victims Protection Act was subsequently renewed in 2003, 2006, 2008 (when it was renamed the William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008). The law lapsed in 2011. In 2013, the entirety of the Trafficking Victims Protection was attached as an amendment to the Violence Against Women Act and passed. [2] There are two stipulations an applicant has to meet in order to receive the benefits of the T-Visa . First, a victim of trafficking must prove/admit to being a victim of a severe form of trafficking and second must be a part of the prosecution of his or her trafficker. This law does not apply to immigrants seeking admission to the United States for other immigration purposes. Since the law requires the applicant to become part of the prosecution of his or her trafficker, trafficked persons may be fearful of retaliation upon the self or the family and thus serves as a major deterrent to individuals even considering application. The law contains provisions for protection of those who are categorized as victims of human trafficking, primarily for sex, smuggling, and forced labor forms of exploitation. The TVPA allowed for the establishment of the Department of State's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons , which coordinates with foreign governments to protect trafficking victims, prevent trafficking, and prosecute traffickers. [3] Amendments [ edit ] Proposed [ edit ] Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2013 (H.R. 3530; 113th Congress) - this bill would establish in the Treasury the Domestic Trafficking Victims' Fund into which such penalties shall be deposited and which shall be used in FY2015-FY2019 to award grants or enhance victims' programming under the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005 , and the Victims of Child Abuse Act of 1990 . [4] The bill would also amend the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 to direct the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to make a determination, based on credible evidence, that a covered individual (i.e., a U.S. citizen or a permanent resident) has been a victim of a severe form of trafficking. [4] It was scheduled to be voted on in the House on May 20, 2014 under a suspension of the rules . [5] Human Trafficking Prevention Act (H.R. 4449; 113th Congress) - this bill would require regular training and briefings for some federal government personnel to raise awareness of human trafficking and help employees spot cases of it. [6] [7] Determinations [ edit ] On September 30, 2017, President Donald Trump made a Presidential determination under 22 U.S.C. § 7107 ( Respect to the Efforts of Foreign Governments Regarding Trafficking in Persons ). [8] [9] See also [ edit ] Bureau of International Labor Affairs Child Soldiers Prevention Act Human trafficking in the United States Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons United States Department of State References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Siskin, Alison; Wyler, Liana Sun (Feb 2013). \"Trafficking in Persons: US Policy and Issues for Congress\". Congressional Research Service . Jump up ^ \"Breaking News: Violence Against Women Act & Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorisation Act Passed\" . Not For Sale . Retrieved 23 May 2013 . Jump up ^ \"About Us.\" U.S. Department of State. Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2013. ^ Jump up to: a b \"H.R. 3530 - Summary\" . United States Congress . Retrieved 19 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Marcos, Cristina (16 May 2014). \"Next week: Lawmakers to debate defense and drones\" . The Hill . Retrieved 19 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Marcos, Cristina (24 July 2014). \"House passes bills to prevent human trafficking\" . The Hill . Retrieved 24 July 2014 . Jump up ^ \"H.R. 4449 - Summary\" . United States Congress . Retrieved 24 July 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Presidential Determination With Respect to the Efforts of Foreign Governments Regarding Trafficking in Persons\" . JURIST . United States: JURIST Legal News & Research Services, Inc. University of Pittsburgh School of Law . October 27, 2017 . Retrieved November 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Presidential Determination for the Secretary of State with Respect to the Efforts of Foreign Governments Regarding Trafficking in Persons\" (PDF) . Federal Register . Washington, D.C. : National Archives and Records Administration . September 30, 2017. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017 . Retrieved November 1, 2017 . External links [ edit ] Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE, FORCED LABOR, and SEX TRAFFICKING STATUTES ENFORCED at the Department of Justice National Geographic September 2003 pp 23. List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victims_of_Trafficking_and_Violence_Protection_Act_of_2000&oldid=811938833 \" Categories : United States federal criminal legislation United States federal immigration and nationality legislation Human trafficking in the United States 2000 in American law Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 24 November 2017, at 22:36. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Victims_of_Trafficking_and_Violence_Protection_Act_of_2000&amp;oldid=811938833" }

{ "text": "Show Me the Way to Go Home - Wikipedia Show Me the Way to Go Home From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \" Show Me the Way to Go Home \" is a popular song written in 1925 by the pseudonymous \"Irving King\" (the English songwriting team James Campbell and Reginald Connelly ). The song is said to have been written on a train journey from London by Campbell and Connelly. They were tired from the traveling and had a few alcoholic drinks during the journey, hence the lyrics. The song is in common use in England , Ireland , Scotland , Wales and North America . Contents 1 Publication 2 Popular culture 2.1 Literature 2.2 Film 2.3 Television 2.4 Football 3 Recordings 4 References Publication [ edit ] The music and lyrics were written in 1925 by Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly . They self-published the sheet music and it became their first big success, selling 2 million copies and providing the financial basis of their publishing firm, Campbell, Connelly & Co. [1] Campbell and Connelly published the sheet music and recorded the song under the pseudonym \"Irving King\". [2] The song was recorded by several artists in the 1920s, including radio personalities The Happiness Boys , [2] Vincent Lopez and his Orchestra, [2] and the California Ramblers . [3] Throughout the twentieth into the twenty-first century it has been recorded by numerous artists. Popular culture [ edit ] A parody popular on Midwest American campuses in the 1950s went Indicate the way to my abode I'm fatigued and I want to retire I imbibed a few about sixty minutes ago And it percolated right through my cerebellum Wherever I may perambulate O'er land or sea or atmospheric vapor You will always hear me rendering this melody Indicate the way to my abode\" or Indicate the way to my abode I'm fatigued and I want to retire I had a spot of beverage sixty minutes ago And it went right to my cranium Wherever I may perambulate On land, or sea or atmospheric vapour You can always hear me crooning the melody Indicate the way to my abode Some similar versions substitute \"terra firma\" for land and/or \"aqueous precipitate\" for foam. Literature [ edit ] Referenced several times in Norman Mailer 's 1948 novel The Naked and the Dead . George Orwell references the song in his 1934 novel Burmese Days . Brick, a main character of the Tennessee Williams play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof , sings this song toward the end while drinking liquor, leaving out the line \"And it's gone right to my head\" and the last two lines due to dialogue between other characters. Albert Wendt references the song, slightly and purposefully revising it in his first novel, Sons For the Return Home (1973) In the Truman Capote short story, A Christmas Memory (1956), the character, Miss Sook, sings the line \"Show me the way to go home.\" In Terry Pratchett 's novel Maskerade , the witches hear this song being sung by a neighbour taking an evening bath, and are surprised when he switches from English to Italian when he thinks he is being overheard. When he believes the coast is clear, he switches back to English. Film [ edit ] The first two lines of the song are shown on screen in King Vidor's silent film, The Crowd (1928) after a scene where John goes to borrow some liquor from Bert but decides to stay and drink and dance with Bert and the two women at Bert's house instead of going home to spend Christmas Eve with his wife and her family. This song was the basis for a 1932 Screen Songs animated short by Fleischer Studios . In the movie Hell Below (1933), it is sung by Lt. JG \"Brick\" Walters, played by Robert Young . On a street scene in Beauty for Sale (1933), a strolling trio of youths sing it. Sung by the cast in Husbands (1970) Famously used in the popular 1975 thriller film Jaws , the song was sung by the three principal characters Brody ( Roy Scheider ), Quint ( Robert Shaw ), and Hooper ( Richard Dreyfuss ), and their rhythmic thumping of the table prevents them from hearing the shark ramming the boat before it has severely damaged the hull. Oliver Statham sings it as he completes a record-breaking cave dive in The Underground Eiger (1979), a British documentary. In a stolen car scene from Eat My Dust! (1976) starring Ron Howard . It is sung by an old man in the jail in A River Runs Through It (1992) when Paul is picked up by his brother. In the Woody Allen film Cassandra's Dream (2007), Terry ( Colin Farrell ) and Ian ( Ewan McGregor ) sing this song on the maiden voyage of their boat. In the opening scene of Piranha 3D (2010), Richard Dreyfuss (reprising/spoofing his character of Matt Hooper from Jaws ) listens to this song as well as singing along. Television [ edit ] In the premiere episode of the World War II TV show Combat! , \"Forgotten Front\", Albert Paulsen plays a captured German soldier who shows his love for American music by singing this song. In an episode of Family Guy (\" Mind Over Murder \"), where Stewie is intoxicated and singing this song. The character Harry Hewitt sings a portion of this song in a drunken stupor in an early episode of Coronation Street , transmitted in early 1961. Davy Jones sings this during the \"Listen To The Band/Chaos\" segment of The Monkees TV special 33⅓ Revolutions per Monkee (NBC, 1968.) In an episode of Red Dwarf (\" Thanks for the Memory \"), the main characters get drunk after finding a planet with a breathable atmosphere, afterwards singing the song while piloting a shuttle back to the ship, altering the words \"And it's gone right to my head\" with \"To celebrate Rimmer's death\" (BBC2, 1988.) In the Babylon 5 episode \" Meditations on the Abyss \", Garibaldi is singing this to himself while he is very drunk. In the English dub version of Ghost Stories , one of the main characters uses this song as a chant to trap a ghost . In a season 3 episode of Lost (\" Stranger in a Strange Land \"), Sawyer sings this while paddling a boat with Kate back to the main island. In the final episode of The Heavy Water War , Julie sings this song at a farewell party for the Norwegians. In the English dub of the Pokémon episode \"Showdown at the Po-ké Corral\", James says \"Show me the way to go home. I'm tired and I want to go to bed.\" In the NCIS episode “Third Wheel”, the song is repeated many times by a guest character named Philip Brooks. At the end of the episode, Brooks finally convinced Fornell and Gibbs to join in. Football [ edit ] Supporters of Wimbledon FC / AFC Wimbledon have sung an adapted version reflecting their team spending 25 years away from their Plough Lane home stadium: 'Show Me The Way To Plough Lane' Theme Parks At Universal Studios Florida, in the WIzarding World of Harry Potter Diagon Alley, there is a window of animated shrunken heads. They banter with each other and often break into \"Show Me The Way To Go Home\". It is also one of the spots where you can use an interactive wand and use the Silencio wand movement to make them stop singing and make muffled sounds as if they suddenly can't move their lips. It is located across from Borgin & Burke's gift shop and next to the Dystal Phaelanges skeleton display. This along with several other design details throughout the Harry Potter themed section are a tribute to the former Jaws attraction which closed on January 2, 2012 and was replaced by Diagon Alley in 2014. Recordings [ edit ] Frank Crumit recorded a version of the song in 1926. [4] Julie London recorded a version of the song for her 1968 album Easy Does It . Jefferson Starship covered the song live during shows of their Acoustic Explorer / Acoustic Shuttlecraft incarnation in 1996–1998. Emerson, Lake & Palmer included their version of the song on their 1977 album Works Volume II . Shai Hulud sings the song as a group as the hidden track on their album Hearts Once Nourished with Hope and Compassion . Bono , the lead singer of the band U2 , used the song several times whilst in the guise of the stage character Macphisto in the band's Zoo TV Tour in 1992-93. Squalus covered the song on their 2017 album The Great Fish References [ edit ] Jump up ^ J. J. Kennedy (4 November 2011). The Man Who Wrote the Teddy Bears' Picnic: How Irish-Born Lyricist and Composer Jimmy Kennedy Became One of the Twentieth Century's Finest Songwriters . AuthorHouse. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-4678-8569-0 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Marvin E. Paymer; Don E. Post (1999). Sentimental Journey: Intimate Portraits of America's Great Popular Songs, 1920-1945 . Noble House Publishers. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-881907-09-1 . Jump up ^ Howard T. Weiner (6 November 2008). Early Twentieth-Century Brass Idioms: Art, Jazz, and Other Popular Traditions . Scarecrow Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-8108-6246-3 . Jump up ^ \"Frank Crumit Collection 1925-1934 (COMPLETE)\" . 78 RPMs and Cylinder Recordings . Internet Archive . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Show_Me_the_Way_to_Go_Home&oldid=864408919 \" Categories : Folk songs Songs about alcohol Emerson, Lake & Palmer songs Songs written by Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly 1925 songs Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 17 October 2018, at 01:05 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Show Me the Way to Go Home", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Show_Me_the_Way_to_Go_Home&amp;oldid=864408919" }

{ "text": "The Secret Scripture (film) - Wikipedia The Secret Scripture (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search The Secret Scripture Theatrical release poster Directed by Jim Sheridan Produced by Noel Pearson Written by Jim Sheridan Johnny Ferguson Starring Vanessa Redgrave Rooney Mara Eric Bana Theo James Aidan Turner Jack Reynor Music by Brian Byrne Cinematography Mikhail Krichman Edited by Dermot Diskin Production company Ingenious Senior Film Fund Voltage Pictures Ferndale Films Distributed by Vertigo Releasing Release date 10 September 2016 ( 2016-09-10 ) ( TIFF ) 19 May 2017 ( 2017-05-19 ) (Ireland) Running time 108 minutes [1] Country Ireland Language English The Secret Scripture is an Irish film, directed by Jim Sheridan , from a screenplay by Sheridan and Johnny Ferguson, which is based on the 2008 novel of the same name The Secret Scripture by Sebastian Barry. The film stars Vanessa Redgrave , Rooney Mara , Eric Bana , Theo James , Aidan Turner , and Jack Reynor . The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival . It was released in the Republic of Ireland and the UK by Vertigo Releasing on 19 May 2017. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Filming 4 Release 5 Critical response 6 References 7 External links Plot [ edit ] The film alternates between the early years of World War II and the end of the 20th century. Rose McNulty ( Vanessa Redgrave ) has been a patient in the Sligo Regional Mental Hospital for over 60 years since being accused of murdering her baby in 1942. The facility is scheduled for demolition. Dr. William Grene ( Eric Bana ) is a psychiatrist who, at the request of local Catholic Church, is evaluating whether Rose should be transferred or released. He grew up in the area and has returned to sell his parents' home. Rose is adamant that she did not kill her baby and tells her story to William using the pages of a Bible on which she has written and drawn an account of her life before her incarceration. Around 1940, Rose ( Rooney Mara ), an orphaned young woman, evacuates from Northern Ireland to live with her aunt in the Irish Republic, which is a neutral country. There, seemingly without any intent, she attracts the interest of many of the local men. She has a brief flirtation with Michael McNulty ( Jack Reynor ), a Protestant who sympathizes with the British war effort and soon leaves to join the RAF. She tries to avoid the inappropriate attention of the local Catholic priest, Father Gaunt ( Theo James ). She dances with Jack Conroy ( Aidan Turner ), one of a group of anti-British Catholics. After a fight between Father Gaunt and Jack, to prevent trouble her aunt sends Rose to live in a deserted farmhouse outside the village. One day a plane crashes nearby and Rose discovers the pilot hanging from a tree, trapped in his parachute. She cuts him down, discovers it is Micheal and shelters him while he recovers, hiding him from the anti-British locals. They grow close and just as he is about to leave they confess their love, have sex, and are quickly married by the local Protestant pastor. Before Michael can leave, the anti-British locals seize him from Rose's cottage and later kill him. Father Gaunt, knowing that Rose had slept with Michael, writes a damning report of Rose's mental health, stating she suffers from \"nymphomania\". With the permission of her aunt, her only living relative, she is incarcerated in a local mental hospital and where subjected to both insulin shock treatment (insulin coma therapy) and later, electric shock therapy (ECT or electroconvulsive therapy). She discovers that she is pregnant and learns that babies born to single women are given up for adoption or spend heir entire lives within the institution. She escapes to the beach. Pursued by Father Gaunt, she swims to a cove where she gives birth. The policeman in pursuit in a boat with Gaunt can see Rose striking the ground with a rock and believes that she is killing her newborn son. In the present William reveals to Rose's nurse ( Susan Lynch ) that his own father tried to tell him something about his parentage on his deathbed. He reads a passage from Rose's writing that suggests the baby was born in spring and an official document states 1 May 1942, the same day he was born. Searching his parents' papers, he finds a letter to him from his father revealing that he was indeed adopted and his real parents are Rose and Michael McNulty. William returns to the mental asylum and shows Rose the letter. William takes Rose to his family home. Cast [ edit ] Vanessa Redgrave as Old Roseanne McNulty Rooney Mara as Young Roseanne McNulty Eric Bana as Dr. William Grene Theo James as Father Gaunt Aidan Turner as Jack Conroy Jack Reynor as Michael McNulty Susan Lynch as Nurse Tom Vaughan-Lawlor as McCabe Production [ edit ] In January 2014, it was revealed that Jessica Chastain and Vanessa Redgrave had been cast in the film, with Noel Pearson producing the film, and Thaddeus O'Sullivan directing the film from a screenplay by Johnny Ferguson. [2] In March 2014, Jonathan Rhys Meyers , and Jeremy Irons , were cast in the film. [3] In July 2014, it was revealed that Rooney Mara had been cast in the film, replacing Chastain with Jim Sheridan replacing O'Sullivan as director. [4] In August 2014, it was revealed that Theo James , Eric Bana , Jack Reynor were in talks to co-star in the film. [5] In August 2015, it was revealed that Brian Byrne had composed the score for the film. [6] Filming [ edit ] Filming was originally slated to begin in May and September 2014. [7] [8] Principal photography began on 13 January 2015 and concluded on 6 March. [9] During production of the film, Rooney Mara , Theo James , Eric Bana , Susan Lynch , Antony Acheampong and Vanessa Redgrave , were spotted filming. [10] [11] [12] Release [ edit ] In February 2014, Voltage Pictures began selling distribution rights to the film at the Berlin Film Festival . [13] In November 2014, Relativity Media acquired U.S distribution rights to the film. [14] In January 2016, the first image of Rooney Mara and Jack Reynor was released. [15] In May 2016, Sheridan announced the film had been removed from Relativity Media , and it would be sold to a different distributor. [16] The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival . [17] The film was scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on 24 March 2017. [18] It was later pushed back to 19 May 2017. [19] It was released in the United States on 13 October 2017, in a limited release and through video on demand by Vertical Entertainment . [20] Critical response [ edit ] On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , reviews of the film have generally been mixed to negative. It currently has an approval rating of 33%, based on 36 reviews, with an average rating of 4.3/10. [21] On Metacritic the film has a score of 42 out of 100 score, based on 7 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". [22] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"The Secret Scripture\" . Toronto International Film Festival . Retrieved 26 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (31 January 2014). \"Berlin: Jessica Chastain's 'Secret Scripture' Finds a Director (Exclusive)\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Henderson, Luke (27 March 2014). \"Two more names added to 'Secret Scripture ' \" . Sligoweekender.ie . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Yamato, Jen (23 July 2014). \"Rooney Mara Signs on For Jim Sheridan's 'Secret Scripture ' \" . Deadline.com . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (6 August 2014). \"Theo James, Eric Bana and Jack Reynor Join Rooney Mara in 'Secret Scripture' (EXCLUSIVE)\" . Variety . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Brian Byrne Scoring Jim Sheridan's 'The Secret Scripture ' \" . FilmMusicreporter.com. 19 August 2015 . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (31 January 2014). \"Berlin: Jessica Chastain's 'Secret Scripture' Finds a Director (Exclusive)\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Yamato, Jen (23 July 2014). \"Rooney Mara Signs on For Jim Sheridan's 'Secret Scripture ' \" . Deadline.com . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ White, Tom (13 January 2015). \"Jim Sheridan's The Secret Scripture Begins Shooting\" . TheMovieBit.com . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Secret Scripture' Movie Photos: Theo James, Rooney Mara And Cast Bring Characters To Life For Jim Sheridan Film\" . Fashionnstyle.com. 20 June 2015 . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ \"If you thought the American Sniper 'baby' was freaky, check out the one Rooney Mara uses in new suspense thriller The Secret Scripture!\" . Daily Mail . 27 January 2015 . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Vanessa Redgrave and Eric Bana wrap up warm in quilted jackets as they film scenes for upcoming thriller The Secret Scripture\" . Daily Mail . 12 February 2015 . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (1 February 2014). \"Berlin: Jessica Chastain's 'Secret Scripture' Set to Shoot in May in Ireland\" . Variety . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Kay, Jermey (5 November 2014). \"Relativity, Voltage privy to The Secret Scripture\" . Screendaily.com . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Murphy, Niall (14 January 2016). \"IRISH FILM PREVIEW – JIM SHERIDAN'S THE SECRET SCRIPTURE\" . Scannian.com . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ McCarthy, Esther (25 May 2016). \"Internet forcing filmmakers like Jim Sheridan to adapt\" . Irish Examiner . Retrieved 31 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Raup, Jordan (26 July 2016). \"TIFF 2016 Line-Up Includes 'Nocturnal Animals,' 'La La Land,' 'American Pastoral,' and More\" . The Film Stage . Retrieved 26 July 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Secret Scripture to go on nationwide cinema release in March following ADIFF Irish Premiere\" . Irish Film Board . 20 January 2017 . Retrieved 22 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Secret Scripture\" . Launching Films . Retrieved 10 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Nolfi, Joey (18 September 2017). \"Rooney Mara is suspected of murder in the haunting Secret Scripture trailer\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 13 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Secret Scripture (2016)\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 30 January 2018 . Jump up ^ \"The Secret Scripture reviews\" . Metacritic . Retrieved 20 September 2016 . External links [ edit ] The Secret Scripture on IMDb [ hide ] v t e Films directed by Jim Sheridan My Left Foot (1989) The Field (1990) In the Name of the Father (1993) The Boxer (1997) In America (2002) Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2005) Brothers (2009) Dream House (2011) The Secret Scripture (2016) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Secret_Scripture_(film)&oldid=823982823 \" Categories : 2016 films English-language films Irish films Films based on Irish novels Films shot in Ireland Films directed by Jim Sheridan Vertigo Films films Voltage Pictures films Vertical Entertainment films Hidden categories: EngvarB from September 2017 Use dmy dates from September 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 February 2018, at 16:54. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Secret Scripture (film)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Secret_Scripture_(film)&amp;oldid=823982823" }

{ "text": "Moving (1988 film) - Wikipedia Moving (1988 film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Moving Theatrical release poster Directed by Alan Metter Produced by Stuart Cornfeld Written by Andy Breckman Starring Richard Pryor Beverly Todd Dave Thomas Dana Carvey Randy Quaid Music by Howard Shore Cinematography Donald McAlpine Edited by Alan Balsam Distributed by Warner Bros. Release date March 4, 1988 ( 1988-03-04 ) Running time 89 minutes Language English Box office $10,815,378 Moving is a 1988 American comedy film starring Richard Pryor as Arlo Pear, a father moving his family cross-country. Other notable appearances in the film include Randy Quaid as an annoying neighbor, Dana Carvey as a man with multiple personalities hired to drive Pryor's car, Rodney Dangerfield as an embezzling loan officer, musician Morris Day , and WWF wrestler King Kong Bundy as a monstrous mover. The movie is also the film debut of Stacey Dash , as Arlo's daughter Casey. Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Reception 3.1 Box office 4 DVD 5 References 6 External links Plot [ edit ] Arlo Pear (Pryor) is a transportation engineer living in the New Jersey suburbs. One day he goes to work and meets a new female co-worker, and when both of them attempt to enter their keys in the same office doorknob, Arlo guesses what has happened and confronts his boss, Roy Hendersen. He learns that his company has merged with another, and now Arlo is out of a job. He ends the meeting by telling off his boss and in his state of anger, he flips Roy off using his index, rather than his middle, finger. Arlo's wife Monica tries to defuse the situation by telling her husband that she can get him a job at her father's mustard plant, at least until something better comes along. Knowing a job in his own field would better suit him, Arlo refuses. His attempts to find work are futile until he receives a phone call from another engineering firm, due to Roy's influence. The firm all but hires him over the phone, and Arlo is excited – until he finds out that his new job will be in Boise, Idaho . With some hesitation, Arlo takes the job. Arlo breaks the news to his family first over dinner by telling them he has a new job, but holds off until telling them of the move until towards the end of the conversation, prompting angry responses from both his wife and his daughter Casey. The family uses a \" swear jar \" to collect cash penalties for the use of obscenities in the house, and Casey puts cash in the jar as she makes her feelings known. Shortly afterwards, Monica retrieves her purse and withdraws a large sum of cash, ordering their twin sons Randy and Marshall to leave the room, implying that her own use of profanity will cost her dearly. However, Monica calms down later that evening and agrees to the move, but Casey is much less willing to concede, even going so far as to sabotage their attempts to sell their home. Casey relents after offering her parents a solution: she will agree to the move if they let her finish out the school year and graduate at her present school. They agree, the house sells, and they make arrangements for her to stay with family friends until then. Monica and Arlo find a suitable house owned by retirees in Boise and agree to buy it, even though the retirees jest with the Pears that they are \"taking everything with us\", when referring to the appliances and fixtures in the house. They hire a moving company, but find the moving team shady and decide to go with another company. To their surprise, the same shady movers from the first company show up, revealing to the Pears that they now work for the second company. They hire the initially squeaky-clean Brad Williams to drive Arlo's black Saab 900 to Boise. More disaster follows for the Pears. They arrive in Boise to find their new house stripped of not only its cabinetry and appliances, but its doors, stairs, and swimming pool - revealing that the sellers were indeed serious when they said that they were \"taking everything with us\". The movers made an unscheduled stop in New Orleans for Mardi Gras. Brad reveals himself to have multiple personality disorder and delivers the Saab in a stripped and wrecked heap. Arlo's job is eliminated on his first day in a highly publicized news conference. To top it all off, his new neighbor is revealed to be the twin brother of Frank Crawford, the shell-shocked Vietnam War veteran who lived next door to them in New Jersey. Like Frank, Cornell Crawford has the same anti-social tendencies as his brother, including mowing his grass with a monstrous contraption powered by a V8 engine. Arlo snaps. He threatens the sellers of his new home with violence if they do not restore it. He tracks down the moving team on the highway and makes short work of them physically after they arrive at his home. He finds his new boss and manages to save his job. He orders Brad to leave after delivering the Saab or face certain death. And when Cornell Crawford gets ready to mow his grass , he is interrupted by Pear, who tells him to put his contraption back in the garage and invest in a \"human-sized mower\". As Cornell says \"who's going to make me\", he is answered with ferocious barking from Flipper, the Pears' normally hopelessly lazy dog, apparently at the end of his own rope from all the moving mess. Cornell immediately backs off, obviously alarmed, and expresses his admiration for his new neighbors. The film ends with Arlo replying to his new neighbor by flipping him his index finger, and the surprise arrival of Casey, who was tired of being separated from her family and joined them out West. Cast [ edit ] Richard Pryor as Arlo Pear Beverly Todd as Monica Pear Stacey Dash as Casey Pear Randy Quaid as Frank and Cornell Crawford Dave Thomas as Gary Marcus Dana Carvey as Brad Williams King Kong Bundy as Gorgo Ji-Tu Cumbuka as Edwards Robert LaSardo as Perry Morris Day as Rudy Rodney Dangerfield as Loan Broker Reception [ edit ] The film received mixed reviews. A negative one came from the Los Angeles Times , which stated that the film \"is pretty flat as a comedy but is of interest as a case study in sociology, as the Pears could just as easily be white as black. There's a certain irony that a comedy of errors, even a disappointing one, is set against the perfection of an idealized backdrop of a fully and harmoniously racially integrated society.\" [1] The newspaper also noted that, due to its heavy language, \"[the film's] R rating is appropriate.\" [1] Janet Maslin , The New York Times ' film critic, provided a positive notice and stated that \"Pryor presides over Moving with Cosbyesque geniality\" and that he \"does a lot to make [the film] funny.\" [2] As of May 17, 2014, the film has no official score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 3 reviews (one of three reviews on the site was positive, while the other two reviews were negative). Box office [ edit ] The film debuted at No. 4. [3] It was a failure at the box office, grossing US$ 10,815,378. DVD [ edit ] The film was released on DVD as of August 22, 2006, as part of a double feature, packaged with Greased Lightning . Both movies are on the same side of a single disc. References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Thomas, Kevin (March 7, 1988). \"MOVIE REVIEW: All Packed Up, 'Moving' Goes Nowhere, Despite Richard Pryor\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2012-06-05 . Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (March 5, 1988). \"Film: 'Moving,' With Richard Pryor\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2012-06-05 . Jump up ^ Caulfield, Deborah (March 8, 1988). \"WEEKEND BOX OFFICE: Disney Loses One to 'Moving ' \" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2012-06-05 . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Moving (1988 film) Moving on IMDb Moving at AllMovie Moving at Rotten Tomatoes Moving at Box Office Mojo hide v t e Films directed by Alan Metter The Winds of Whoopie (1983) Girls Just Want to Have Fun (1985) Back to School (1986) Moving (1988) Cold Dog Soup (1990) Working Tra$h (1990) Police Academy: Mission to Moscow (1994) Billboard Dad (1998) Passport to Paris (1999) The Growing Pains Movie (2000) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moving_(1988_film)&oldid=845195588 \" Categories : 1988 films English-language films 1980s comedy films 1980s road movies American comedy films American films American road movies Films scored by Howard Shore Films set in Idaho Films set in New Jersey Films shot in Idaho Screenplays by Andy Breckman Warner Bros. films Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages Deutsch Italiano Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2018, at 03:11 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Moving (1988 film)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Moving_(1988_film)&amp;oldid=845195588" }

{ "text": "Social inhibition - Wikipedia Social inhibition From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Social inhibition is a conscious or subconscious avoidance of a situation or social interaction . With a high level of social inhibition, situations are avoided because of the possibility of others disapproving of their feelings or expressions. Social inhibition is related to behavior, appearance, social interactions, or a subject matter for discussion. Related processes that deal with social inhibition are social evaluation concerns, anxiety in social interaction, social avoidance, and withdrawal. Also related are components such as cognitive brain patterns, anxious apprehension during social interactions, and internalizing problems. It also describes those who suppress anger, restrict social behavior, withdraw in the face of novelty, and have a long latency to interact with strangers. [1] Individuals can also have a low level of social inhibition, but certain situations may generally cause people to be more or less inhibited. Social inhibition can be reduced by the use of drugs including alcohol. Major signs of social inhibition in children are cessation of play, long latencies to approaching the unfamiliar person, signs of fear and negative affect, and security seeking. [2] Also in high level cases of social inhibition, other social disorders can emerge through development, such as social anxiety disorder and social phobia . [3] [4] Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Over the lifespan 2.1 Infants and children 2.2 Adolescence 2.3 Adulthood 3 In different contexts 3.1 In schools 3.2 In the workplace 4 In psychological disorders 4.1 Depression 4.2 Fear 4.3 Social phobia 4.4 Social anxiety disorder 5 Reduction 5.1 Alcohol consumption 5.2 Power 6 Increase 6.1 Power 6.2 Biological factors 6.3 Personality traits 7 Clinical levels 7.1 Measures 7.2 Treatments 8 See also 9 References Background [ edit ] Social inhibition can range from normal reactions to social situations to a pathological level, associated with psychological disorders like social anxiety or social phobia. Life events are important and are related to our well-being and inhibition levels. [5] In a lab study conducted by Buck and colleagues, social inhibition in everyday life was reviewed. Researchers observed how individuals interacted and communicated about different stimuli. In this study, there were female participants called \"senders\" who viewed twelve emotionally loaded stimuli. There were also participants in the study called \"received\" who had to guess which stimuli was viewed by the senders. The senders were either alone, with a friend, or with a stranger while viewing the slides. The results of the study revealed that being with a stranger had inhibitory effects on communication, whereas being with a friend had facilitative effects with some stimuli and inhibitory effects with others. [6] The results show how anyone can be inhibited in daily life, with strangers or even friends. Inhibition can also be determined by one's sensitivity levels to different social cues throughout the day. Gable and colleagues conducted a study in which they examined different events participants would record at the end of their day. Participants were also measured on the behavioral activation system and the behavioral inhibition system. The results revealed that individuals with more sensitivity on the behavioral inhibition system reported having more negative effects from daily events. [5] Expression can also be inhibited or suppressed because of anxiety to social situations or simple display rules . Yarczower and Daruns' study about social inhibition of expression defined inhibition of expression as a suppression of one's facial behavior in the presences of someone or a perceived anxious situation. They addressed the display rules we all learn as children; we are told what expressions are suitable for what situations. Then as age increases we are socialized into not expressing strong facial emotions. However, leaving the face with a reduced expression hinders communication. In turn this makes the face a less reliable social cue during social interactions. [7] Friedmen and Miller-Herringer bring these nonverbal expressions to the next level by studying individuals that have a greater level of emotional suppression. They state that without proper emotional expression social interactions can be much more difficult because others may not understand another individual's emotional state. [8] This being said, there are also four commonly seen irrational cognitive patterns involved in social inhibition. The first pattern centers on self-esteem and perfectionism. In these cases, an individual would inhibit themselves though self-criticism; they want to do everything the \"right\" way. The second pattern deals with unrealistic approval needs; here individuals want to gain the approval of others and will fear rejection if they express too much. In the third pattern, unrealistic labeling of aggressive and assertive behavior depicts how many individuals that inhibit themselves may feel as though aggression or assertiveness is bad. They believe if they express these behaviors they will receive a negative label. The last pattern discusses criticism of others, this pattern is a spin-off from the first. They will be highly critical of others much like they are to themselves. [9] Shyness is another factor that is a part of social inhibition. Shyness is associated with low emotional regulations and high negative emotions. In many cases shy individuals have a greater change of social inhibition. [10] Although social inhibition is a common part of life, individuals can also have high levels of inhibition. Social Inhibition on higher levels can sometimes be a precursor to disorders such as Social Anxiety Disorder. Essex and colleagues found that some early risk factors may play a role in having chronically high inhibition. In this study, mothers, teachers, and the child reported on the child's behavioral inhibition. The factors that were found to be contributors to social inhibition were female gender, exposure to maternal stress during infancy and the preschool period, and early manifestation of behavioral inhibition. [11] In severe cases, clinical treatment, such as therapy, may be necessary to help with social inhibition or the manifesting social disorder. [9] Over the lifespan [ edit ] Social inhibition can develop over a lifespan. Children can be withdrawn, adolescents can have anxiety to social situations, and adults may have a hard time adjusting to social situations which they have to initiate on their own. To be inhibited can change and be different for many. In many cases, inhibition can lead to other social disorders and phobias. [3] Infants and children [ edit ] In infants and children, social inhibition is characterized by a temperament style that will have children responding negatively and withdrawing from unfamiliar people, situations and objects. [3] In addition to cessation of play, inhibited children may display long latencies to approaching an unfamiliar person, signs of fear and negative affect, and security seeking. [2] Avoiding behavior can be seen at a very young age. In one study, Fox and colleagues found that even at four months of age some infants had negative responses to unfamiliar visual and audio stimuli. The study was longitudinal; therefore, follow ups revealed that half the infants who had high negative responses continued to show behavioral inhibition through the age of two. Fox's longitudinal study reported that the expression of behavioral inhibition showed a small degree of continuity. Over time, the toddlers who were quiet and restrained continued the trend into childhood by being cautious, quiet, and socially withdrawn. The uninhibited control group of the same ages continued to interact easily with unfamiliar people and situations. [12] There has also been a link between inhibition at childhood age with social disorders in adolescents and adulthood. [3] Schwartz and Kagan found that in a longitudinal study from ages two to thirteen, sixty- one percent of teens who had inhibitor traits as toddlers reported social anxiety symptoms as adolescents, compared to twenty-seven percent of adolescents who were uninhibited in earlier life. [13] However, not every child that has some withdrawn or inhibited behavior will be inhibited as an adolescent or manifest a social disorder. [11] The caregiver alone is not solely responsible for inhibition in children; however, in some cases it can be a factor. Caregivers can affect the inhibition levels of their child by exposing the child to maternal stress during infancy and the preschool period. In addition, in some situations the child may simply have early manifestation of behavioral inhibition. [11] There seems to be no parenting style that researchers agree on to be the best to combat social inhibition. Park and Crinic say that a sensitive, accepting, overprotective parenting is best to reduce the negative behaviors because it will allow the child to be themselves without judgment. [14] However, Kagan hypothesized that firm parenting styles are better suited for socially inhibited children. [15] Researchers supporting sensitive parenting believe that too firm of a parenting style will send a message to children that says they need to change. [14] Adolescence [ edit ] Social inhibition has been widely studied in children; however, research on how it develops through adolescence and adulthood is not as prevalent, [11] [16] although anxiety-related social problems are most commonly seen in adolescents. [17] Many of the behavioral traits are the same in adolescence as they are in childhood: withdrawing from unfamiliar people, situations and objects. [11] However, it has been tested that adolescents are more aware of their social situations and are more likely to be inhibited in public settings. Researchers found younger individuals to be more likely to differentiate between public and private settings when inquiring about potentially embarrassing issues. [18] It is also thought that inhibition is in many ways addressed in childhood and adolescence simply because schools facilitate interactions with others. As an adult, the same facilitating circumstance may not occur unless the individual prompts them on their own. Gest states that adults do not have as may casual peer interactions and friendship opportunities that guide and support relationships unless they facilitate them on their own. [19] Adolescent research has also shown that social inhibition is associated with a more negative emotional state in young men than women. [19] This is in contrast to a study that measured inhibition levels through self reports from the adolescent and their parents. West and Newman found that young American Indian women and their parents reported higher levels of inhibition than young American Indian men; in addition, the parental reports also predicted social anxiety in young American Indian women over young American Indian men. In this same study, relationship development with peers was investigated over time. West and Newman stated that low levels of behavioral inhibition had an association with early social and school situations and that were related to greater levels of socially mediated anxiety, especially negative evaluation of fear by peers. [17] This study then speculates about the possibility that adolescents and children who have a generally positive social experience will be more aware of the status of these positive relationships, therefore more anxious about failure in their social domain. [17] Other studies also discussed how in many cases, early behavioral inhibition is a risk factor for the development of chronic high school-age inhibition and possible social anxiety disorder. [11] Although social inhibition can be a predictor of other social disorders there is not an extremely large portion of adolescents who have developed an anxiety disorder and also had a history of inhibition in childhood. [3] Besic and Kerr believes that appearance can be a factor for social inhibition. In their study they hypothesized that a way to handle difficult situations with behavioral inhibition was to present an off-putting appearance. They examined \"radical\" crowds, such as those labeled as goths and punks and if their appearances fulfilled a functions for their inhibition. They state that a radical style could be used to draw away the social boundaries and relieve them of pressures or expectations to interact in unfamiliar situations with unfamiliar peers. Another possibility is that an individual may be self-handicapping to ensure that they will not have to interact with unfamiliar peers. The results revealed that radicals were significantly more inhibited than other groups. However, there are other inhibited individuals in other social classifications. The highest inhibited radical was no more inhibited than the highest inhibited individual in other groups. [20] Adulthood [ edit ] Adult cases of social inhibition are hard to come by simply because many see it as something that happens through development. [11] [16] Although research is lacking, developmental considerations suggest there may be a stronger association between behavioral inhibition and peer relations in adulthood. One researcher says this lack of information may be because adults are not put in as many socially interactive situations that would guide them through the situation. It would seem that adults have an increased responsibility to initiate or structure their own social peer relationships; this is where social inhibition could have a more problematic role in adulthood than in childhood. [19] One study that did contribute to adult research used questionnaires to study both clinical and nonclinical adults. Like in adolescence, behavioral inhibition was also found to be associated with anxiety disorders in adulthood. In addition the study found that childhood inhibition was specifically a factor in a lifetime diagnosis of social phobia. [16] Gest also measured adult peer relations, and to what degree they had a positive and active social life. For example, researchers wanted to know if they participated in any recreational activities with others, how often they met with others, and if they had any close confiding relationships. The participants were rated on a 5-point scale on each peer relationship they disclosed. The results revealed that social inhibition had nothing to do with popularity, however it was correlated with peer relations in both genders and emotional stress in only men. [19] A similar study found that some shy men had a low occupational status at age forty because they entered their career later in life. [21] However, another researcher has commented on this giving this example, perhaps remaining at home longer allows young adults to accumulate educational and financial resources, before moving out and becoming more independent. [19] Additionally it was found that young adults who were inhibited as children were less likely to move away from their families. [19] There is also some discussion of the inhibition through generations and children mirroring their parents. Results indicated that children whose birth mothers met criteria for the diagnosis of social phobia showed elevated levels of observed behavioral inhibition. [22] Social inhibition can decrease with age due to cognitive deficits that can occur in old age. Age-related deficits have an effect on older adults' ability to differentiate between public and private settings when discussing potentially embarrassing issues, leading them to discuss personal issues in inappropriately public situations. This suggests that deficits in inhibitory ability that lead to inappropriateness are out of the individual's control. [18] In different contexts [ edit ] In schools [ edit ] Schools can be a place for children to facilitate different social interactions; however, it can also uncover social and school adjustment problems. [19] [23] Coplan claims that Western children with inhibition problems may be at a higher risk of developmental problems in school. [24] Although social inhibition may be a predictor of social and school adjustment problems in children, Chen argues that the effect of social inhibition on school adjustment differs between Western cultures and Chinese culture. Chen found that in Chinese children, behavioral inhibition was associated with greater peer liking, social interaction, positive school attitudes, and school competence and fewer later learning problems, which is also different from western cultures. [23] In other studies, researchers such as Oysterman found there to be difficulties in adjustment in children that were experiencing inhibition. In Western cultures, these difficulties are seen more because of the emphasis on social assertiveness and self-expression as traits that are valued in development. [25] In other cultures children are sometimes expected to be inhibited. This does not contrast other cultures in which other cultures were children are socialized and assert themselves. [26] Despite these differences there are also similarities between gender. Boys were more antagonistic in peer interaction and seemed to have more learning problems in school. Girls were more cooperative in peer interaction and had a more positive outlook on school. They formed more affiliations with peers, and performed more completely in school. [27] [23] [24] Other researchers like Geng have looked to understand social inhibition, effortful control, and attention in school. In Geng's study, gender came in to play with high socially inhibited girls being extremely aware of their surroundings, possibly paying too much attention to potentially anxious situations. [28] It is well known in a large number of research studies social inhibition had been linked to other anxiety disorders. However Degnan and colleagues believe that being able to regulate your effortful control may serve to reduce the anxiety the comes from inhibition. [29] Nesdale and Dalton investigated inhibition of social group norms in school children between the ages of seven and nine. In schools there becomes an increase in social in-groups and out-groups as children increase in age. This study created different in-groups or exclusive groups and out-groups or inclusive groups. The results showed that students in the inclusive group liked all students more, while students in the exclusive group like their group over other groups. This study could help in the future to facilitate school peer groups more efficiently. [30] In the workplace [ edit ] Social inhibition can manifest in all social situations and relationships. One place that we can see the effects of social inhibition is in the workplace. Research has shown that social inhibition can actually affect the way that one completes a given amount of work [31] In one experiment, participants completed a task in a laboratory setting, varying whether or not another individual was present in the room with the participants while they attempted to complete the task. The results showed that when another individual was present in the room the person focused on completing the experimental task decreased their body movements, hand movements, and vocalization, even though the other person did not speak to or even look at the participant. [31] This suggests that just the mere presence of another person in a social situation can inhibit an individual. However, although the individual in charge of completing the experimental task was socially inhibited by the presence of another person in the laboratory, there were no significant links between their social inhibition when completing the task and improved performance on said task. [31] These findings suggest that an individual may socially inhibit themselves in the work place if another person is also in the room, however, such inhibition does not suggest that the inhibited individual is actually performing the duties assigned to them with more accuracy or focus. In psychological disorders [ edit ] Depression [ edit ] Links between social inhibition and depression can be found in individuals who experienced social inhibited behaviors during childhood. Researchers from the United Kingdom conducted a study in an attempt to explain possible links between social inhibition in infancy and later signs of depression. [32] The researchers based their study on previous information from literature acknowledging that there are social and non-social forms of inhibition, and that social inhibition is significantly related to early social fears. [32] [33] The researchers hypothesized that social inhibition in childhood would be linked to higher levels of depression in later years. [32] Participants completed a number of questionnaires about their experiences if social inhibition in childhood and their current levels of depression. Results showed a significant relationship between depression and recalled social fears, or, social inhibitions during childhood. [32] Furthermore, the researchers related their findings to another study conducted by Muris et al., in 2001 which found that there is an association between social inhibition and depression in adolescents. The study compared adolescents who were not inhibited to those who are, and found that \"adolescents experiencing high levels of behavioral inhibition were more depressed than their counterparts who experienced intermediate or low levels of behavioral inhibition\". [32] [34] Another study set out to examine the link between social inhibition and depression, with the basis for their study being that social inhibition (which they explain as a part of type D personality, or distressed personality) is related to emotional distress [35] The researchers explain that a major factor related to social inhibition is the inhibited individual not expressing their emotions and feelings, [35] a factor that the researchers cite in relation to the link between social inhibition and depression. Overall, the results of the study show that social inhibition (as a factor of type D personality) predicts depression, regardless of the baseline depression level of the individual. [35] Significantly, this study was conducted with young, healthy adults, as opposed to working with those in self-help groups or with individuals who have a preexisting medical or psychological condition. Fear [ edit ] Social inhibition can be effected by fear responses that one has in the early \"toddler years\" of their lives. [36] In 2011, researchers Elizabeth J. Kiel and Kristin A. Buss examined \"how attention toward an angry-looking gorilla mask in a room with alternative opportunities for play in 24-month-old toddlers predicted social inhibition when children entered kindergarten\". [36] In the study, the researchers specifically looked at the toddlers' attention to threat and their fear of novelty in other situations. [36] The researchers paid special attention to these two factors due to previous research suggesting that \"sustained attention to putatively threatening novelty relates to anxious behavior in the first 2 years of life\". [36] [37] Also, it has been found in earlier research conducted by Buss and colleagues that no matter the differences, individual responses to novelty during early childhood can be related to later social inhibition. [36] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] These results already link fear responses, particularly in children, to social inhibition, mainly such inhibition that manifests later on in the individual's life. Overall, the researchers based their experiment on the notion that the more time a toddler spends being attentive towards a novel potential threat the greater the chance that they will experience issues with the regulation of distress, which can predict anxious behavior such as social inhibition. [36] Through a study intended to further connect and understand links between fear and late social inhibitions, the researchers conducted a study where they worked with 24-month-old toddlers. They placed the toddlers in a room called the \"risk room\" [36] which is set up with a number of play areas for the toddlers to interact with, with one of those areas being a potentially threatening stimulus, in this case, an angry looking gorilla mask. [36] The children are left alone, with only their primary caregiver sitting in the corner of the room, to explore the play areas for three minutes, and then the experimenter returns and instructs the toddler to interact with each of the play areas. [36] The purpose of this was to allow for other experimenters to code the reactions of the toddler to the stimuli around him or her, paying special attention to their attention to threat, their proximity to the threat, and their fear of novelty. [36] The results of this study indicate that attention to threat (attention given, by the toddler to the feared stimuli) predicts social inhibition in kindergarten. [36] Further, if the child approaches the feared stimuli, the relation to later social inhibition is not significant. When a child's behavior is to keep more than two feet away from the threatening stimulus, their behavior can be seen as linked to later social inhibition. [36] Another important factor that the researchers found when looking at the prediction of social inhibition is the child paying a significant amount of attention to a feared or threatening stimuli in the presence of other, enjoyable activities. [36] Mainly, if the child's duration of attention to the threatening stimuli is significant even when there are other enjoyable activities available for them to interact with, the link to later social inhibition is stronger due to the fact that \"toddler-aged children have increased motoric skill and independence in exploring their environments; so they are capable of using more sophisticated distraction techniques, such as involvement with other activities\" (Kopp, 1982 PG 199). [36] In another study looking at social inhibition and fear, the researchers made the distinction between different forms of inhibition. Mainly looking at behavioral inhibition the researchers separated the category into two subcategories, social behavioral inhibition and non-social behavioral inhibition. [45] The researchers cite an experiment conducted by Majdandzic and Van den Boom where they used a laboratory setting to attempt to elicit fear in the children. They did this by using both social and non-social stimuli. [45] [46] What Majdandizic and Van der Boom found was a variability in the way that fear was elicited in the children when using either the social or non-social stimuli. Essentially, this study realized that there is a correlation between social stimuli producing fear expressions in children, whereas non-social stimuli is not correlated to fear. [45] [46] This can be evidence of social inhibition due to the social stimuli that result in fear expressions in children. The researchers of the current study took the results from the Majdandizic and Van der Boom study and expanded on their work by looking at variability in fear expressions in both socially inhibited children and non-socially inhibited children. What they found was that mainly socially inhibited children have effects such as shyness and inhibition with peers, adults, and in performance situations, as well as social phobia and separation anxiety. [45] The stronger link with fear reactions comes mainly from those children who were non-socially behaviorally inhibited. While these results go against previous findings, what the researchers were eager to stipulate was that \"the normative development of fear in children have indicated that many specific fears (e.g., fear of animals) decline with age, whereas social fears increase as children get older\". [45] Social phobia [ edit ] Social inhibition is linked to social phobia, in so much as social inhibition during childhood can be seen as a contributing factor to developing social phobia later on in life. While social inhibition is also linked to social anxiety, it is important to point out the difference between social anxiety and social phobia. Social anxiety is marked by a tendency to have high anxiety before a social interaction, but not experience the avoidance of the social activity that is associated with social phobia. [47] [48] Social phobia and social inhibition are linked in a few different ways, one being physiologically. When one is experiencing extreme levels of inhibition they can suffer from symptoms such as accelerated heart rate, increased morning salivary cortisol levels, and muscle tension in their vocal cords. [47] These symptoms are also reported by those with social phobia, which indicates that both social inhibition and social phobia interact with the sympathetic nervous system when the individual encounters a stressful situation. [47] Further, it is suggested throughout literature that social inhibition during childhood is linked to later social phobia. [47] [49] Beyond that research has indicated that continuity in inhibition plays an important role in the later development of social phobia. [47] Continuity of social inhibition means someone experiencing social inhibition for a number of year continuously. The research explains work done with young teenagers, which found that the teenagers who had been classified as inhibited 12 years earlier were significantly more likely to develop social phobia than young teenagers who were not classified as inhibited. [47] This research pertains to the link between social inhibition and generalized social phobia, rather than specific phobias. When looking at continuity in social inhibition some research offers reasoning as to why the social inhibition may continue long enough to be a predictor of social phobia. Researchers have suggested that if the early childhood relationships are not satisfactory they can influence the child to respond to situations in certain inhibitory ways. [47] When this happens it is often then associated with poor self-evaluation for the child, which can lead to increased social inhibition and social phobia. [47] Also, if a child is neglected or rejected by their peers, rather than by their caregiver, they often develop a sense of social failure, which often extends into social inhibition, and later social phobia. [47] Interestingly, the link between social inhibition and social phobia is somewhat exclusive, when testing for a possible link between non-social inhibition and social phobia no predictive elements were found. [47] It is particularly social inhibition that is linked to social phobia. The research also suggests that social inhibitions can be divided between different kinds of social fears, or different patterns of inhibition can be seen in individuals. The researchers suggest that certain patters, or certain social fears, can be better predictors of social phobia than others. [47] Mainly, the researchers suggest that there can be different patterns of social inhibition in relation to an unfamiliar object or encounter. [47] These specific patterns should be looked at in conjunction with motivation and the psychophysiological reaction to the object or encounter to determine the specific patterns that are the better predictors of social phobia. [47] Another study aimed to examine the link between social inhibition and social phobia also found that social phobia is linked to the social phobic being able to recall their own encounters with social inhibition during childhood. [32] The social phobic participants were able to recall social and school fears from their childhood, but they also were able to recall sensory-processing sensitivity [32] which indicates that the social phobic participants in the study were able to recall having increased sensitivity to the situations and behaviors around them. Another study explains that social phobia itself has a few different ways it can manifest. The study aims at understanding the link between social inhibition and social phobia, as well as depression in social phobia. [50] What the study found was an important link connecting the severity of social inhibition during childhood to the severity of social phobia and factors of social phobia in later years. [50] Severe social inhibition during childhood can be related to lifetime social phobia. [50] Further, the researchers point out that inhibition during childhood is significantly linked to avoidant personality disorder in social phobia [50] as well as childhood inhibition linked with major depressive disorder in social phobia that spans across the individual's lifetime. [50] A major suggestion related to the results of the study suggested that while inhibition can be a general predictor of risk factors related to social phobia, it may not be a specific predictor of social phobia alone. [50] Social anxiety disorder [ edit ] Social anxiety disorder is characterized by a fear of scrutiny or disapproval from others. Individuals believe this negative reaction will bring about rejections. Individuals with social anxiety disorder have stronger anxious feeling over a long period of time and are more anxious more often. [51] In many cases, researchers have found that social inhibition can be a factor in developing other disorders such as social anxiety disorder. [3] [11] Being inhibited does not mean that an individual will develop another disorder; however, Clauss and colleagues conducted a study to measure the association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety disorder. The results of the study discovered that 15% of all children have behavioral inhibition and about half of those children will eventually develop social anxiety disorder. [52] This is why behavioral inhibition is seen as a larger risk factor. That being said, Lim and colleagues researched the differences between early and late onset of social anxiety disorder and its relation to social inhibition. Through the duration of their study, they found those diagnosed as early onset had complaints other than ones about social anxiety symptoms. Early onset individuals would frequently have more severe symptoms and higher levels of behavioral inhibition. Additional behavioral inhibition was more severe especially in social and school situations with only the early onset cases. [53] Lorian and Grisham researched the relationship between behavioral inhibition, risk-avoidance, and social anxiety symptoms. They found that all three factors correlated with each other and risk avoidance is potentially a mechanism linked to an anxiety pathology. [54] Reduction [ edit ] Alcohol consumption [ edit ] Social inhibition can be lowered by a few different factors, one of them being alcohol. Alcohol consumption can be seen to lower inhibitions in both men and women. Social inhibitions generally act to control or affect the way that one conducts themselves in a social setting. By lowering inhibitions alcohol can work to increase social behaviors either negatively or positively. Importantly, one must remember that the higher the dosage of alcohol, the greater the damage it will cause to inhibitory control. [55] By lowering inhibitions, alcohol can cause social behaviors such as aggression, self disclosure, and violent acts. [55] Researchers have suggested that situational cues used to inhibit social behaviors are not perceived the same way after someone consumes enough alcohol to qualify them as drunk: \"interacting parties who are impaired by alcohol are less likely to see justifications for the other's behavior, are thus more likely to interpret the behavior as arbitrary and provocative, and then, having less access to inhibiting cues and behavioral standards, are more likely to react extremely.\" [55] This idea of increased extreme social behaviors is believed to come as a result of lowered inhibitions after consuming alcohol. Alcohol can lower inhibitions for a number of reasons, it can reduce one's self-awareness, impair perceptual and cognitive functioning, allows for instigator pressures to have more influence over an individual, and can reduce one's ability to read inhibitory social cues and standards of conduct. [55] When attempting to examine the effects that alcohol consumption has on social inhibition researchers found that after being provoked sober individuals used inhibiting cues, such as the innocence of the instigator and the severity of the retaliation to control their response to the aggressive provocation. [55] However, the researchers found that an intoxicated individual did not have these same inhibitions and, as a result, exhibited more extreme behaviors of retaliated aggression to the provocation without processing information they would normally consider about the situation. On average, drunken individuals exhibited more aggression, self-disclosure, risk taking behaviors, and laughter than sober individuals. [55] Extreme behaviors are not as common in sober individuals because they are able to read inhibitory cues and social conduct norms that drunken individuals are not as inclined to consider. These negative social behaviors, then, are a result of lowered social inhibitions. Alcohol consumption also has the ability to lower inhibitions in a positive way. Research has been conducted looking at the way an intoxicated person is more inclined to be helpful. [55] Researchers were of the same opinion that alcohol lowers inhibitions and allows for more extreme behaviors, however, they tested to see if this would be true for more socially acceptable situations, such as helping another person. The researchers acknowledged that, generally, an impulse to help another is initiated but then inhibitions will cause the potential helper to consider all factors going into their decision to help or not to help such as, lost time, boredom, fatigue, monetary costs, and possibility of personal harm. [55] The researchers suggest that while one may be inhibited and therefore less likely to offer help when completely sober, after consuming alcohol enough damage will be done to their inhibitory functioning to actually increase helping. [55] While this suggestion differs from socially negative behaviors that are seen after social inhibitions have been lowered, it is consistent with the idea that alcohol consumption can lower inhibitions and, as a result, produce more socially extreme behaviors when compared to a sober counterpart. Alcohol consumption can lower social inhibitions in both men and women, producing social behaviors not typical in the individuals' day-to-day sober lives. For example, in social settings women will tend to be uncomfortable with sexual acts and provocations as well as feeling uncomfortable in social settings that are generally male dominated such as strip clubs or bars. However, consumption of alcohol has been seen to lower these inhibitions, making women feel freer and more ready to participate socially in events and behaviors that they would normally feel inhibited from participating in if they were sober. [56] As an example, women participating in bachelorette parties generally consume copious amounts of alcohol for the event. [56] As a result, the females feel less inhibited and are more likely to then engage in behavior that they would normally view as deviant or inappropriate. [56] In an examination of bachelorette parties it was found that when those attending the party consumed only a couple of drinks behavior minimally reflected any alcohol consumption, assuming that the party guests were still socially inhibited and less inclined to perform deviant behaviors. [56] Similarly, \"levels of intoxication were correlated with the atmosphere of the party, such that parties with little or no alcohol were perceived as less 'wild' than parties a lot of alcohol consumption.\" [56] Conceivably, the bachelorette parties show tendencies of \"wild\" behavior after excessive alcohol consumption, which consequently lowers the inhibitions of the consumers. When surveyed a number of women who had attended a bachelorette party, or had one in their honor, in the past year reported that their behavior when under the influence of alcohol was different from their behavior when sober. [56] One party guest reported: \"People drink … to lose inhibitions and stuff that is done… I would never do sober. It lowers inhibitions - that is the main point of it.\" [56] These reports suggest that \"alcohol was used to lower inhibitions about being too sexual, about the risk of being perceived as promiscuous, or about being sexual in public. Women commented that they felt freer to talk about sex while under the influence of alcohol, to flirt with male strangers, or to dance with a male stripper.\" [56] The research collected surrounding women and their alcohol consumption in these settings provide examples of the reduction of social inhibitions in relation to excess alcohol consumption Power [ edit ] Social inhibitions can also be reduced by means unrelated to an actual substance. Another way that social inhibition can be decreased is by the attainment of power. [57] Research has examined the way that having either elevated or reduced power effects social interactions and well-being in social situations. Such research has shown a relationship between elevated power and decreased social inhibitions. [57] This relationship of those with elevated power and those with reduced power can be seen in all forms of social interactions, and is marked by elevated power individuals often having access to resources that the reduced power individuals do not have. [57] Decreased social inhibition is seen in those with elevated power for two main reasons, one being that they have more access to resources, providing them with comforts and stability. [57] The second reason is that their status as a high power individual often provides the powerful individual a sense of being above social consequences, allowing them to act in ways that a reduced power individual may not. [57] The elevated power individuals will experience reduced social inhibition in various ways, one being that they are more likely to approach, rather than avoid, another person. [57] Also, with the reduced inhibition associated with high power individuals, they are more likely to initiate physical contact with another person, enter into their personal space, and they are more likely to indicate interest in intimacy. [57] High power people tend to be socially disinhibited when it comes to sexual behavior and sexual concepts. [57] Consistent with this expectation, a study working with male and female participants found that when the male and female felt equally powerful they tended to interact socially with one another in a disinhibited manner. [57] Further, the research suggests that as a result of their reduced social inhibition, powerful individuals will be guided to behave in a way that fits with their personality traits in a social situation in which they feel powerful. [57] Similarly, in a laboratory study it was found that when one person in a group feels powerful their reduced social inhibition can result in decreased manners. [57] The study found that, when offered food, the powerful individual is more likely to take more than the other individuals in the room. [57] This can be seen as the powerful individual exhibiting reduced social inhibitions, as they reduce their attention to common social niceties such as manners and sharing. Increase [ edit ] Power [ edit ] Certain factors can increase social inhibition in individuals. Increased inhibitions can occur in different situations and for different reasons. One major factor that contributes to the increase of social inhibition is power. Reduced power is linked to an array of negative affect, one of which being increased social inhibitions. [57] Power, in this instance, can be defined as a fundamental factor in social relationships that is central to interactions, [58] influencing behavior and emotional display. [57] [59] [60] Further, power is such an essential factor in social relationships because power determines who is the giver and who is the receiver in the exchange of rewards and resources. [57] Power is present in all social relationships, not just typical hierarchical establishments such as in employment or school settings. Power, then, is related to increased social inhibitions when an individual feels that they are in a powerless or diminished power position. [57] Those who are deemed to be high in power are generally richer in resources and freedom, as well as decreased levels of social inhibition, [57] whereas those who are deemed to be low in power are generally low in resources, constrained, and prone to experiencing increased social inhibition. [57] Research shows that individuals who are considered to be low in power experience more social threats and punishments, and generally have less access to social resources. [57] As a result of this these individuals are prone to developing more sensitivity to criticism from others, and are more susceptible to accepting when someone constrains them. [57] [61] [62] These factors contribute to increasing social inhibition in those individuals. Similarly, studies have shown that the absence of power can heighten the processes associated with social inhibition. [57] Experiments on the interaction between power and inhibition have shown that when participants are in a situation where they perceive more punishments and threats their cognition and behavior will show more signs of social inhibition related affect. [57] Environments which distinguish the differences between the powerful and the powerless can lead to the social inhibition of the power reduced individuals as a response to their social interactions with the heightened power individuals. Some of the social inhibited behaviors that a low-power individual will experience in these social situations will be embarrassment and fear [57] and they may even go on to feel guilt, sadness, and shame [57] (C. Anderson, Langner, & Keltner). Further, low power individuals can be seen socially inhibiting themselves in ways that can, in the end, favor the high-power individuals. These can include inhibiting themselves from providing input on ideas, hesitating in normal speech, and even increasing their facial muscle actions in order to keep themselves from displaying emotions. [57] When the low-power individuals are in a social situation with a high-power individual they will also commonly exhibit social inhibition by inhibiting their postural constriction and reducing their gestures [57] (Ellyson & Dovidio). Researchers have generalized these suggestions of interaction between a high-power individual and low-power individuals to say that these expressions of social inhibition are expected to carry over into all areas of social interaction for the low-power individual. [57] That is to say that low-power individuals will not only exhibit social inhibition when in the presence of a high-power individual. They will continue to be socially inhibited in all social aspects of their lives as a result of their low-power status. Further, low-power individuals tend to devote increased attention to the actions and behaviors of others. [57] Biological factors [ edit ] Another possible explanation for increased social inhibition has to do with biological factors. A study of brain activity in those who rate high on the scale for social inhibition showed a number of brain areas that are related to the heightened inhibitions. [63] In their study the researchers aimed to find the link between socially inhibited individuals and an over activation of the cortical social brain network. [63] The researchers did this by examining the brain activity of individuals who rate high in social inhibition as they respond to video clips of facial and bodily expressions that were potentially threatening. [63] What the researchers found was that those who rate high in social inhibition show an overactive orbitofrontal cortex , left temporo-parietal junction , and right extrastriate body area . [63] When the threat -related activity was being presented to the participants, these areas of the brain showed increased activity in comparison to those who do not rate high for social inhibition. [63] What the researchers speculate is that, in this instance, hyperactivity in these brain structures does not mean better functioning. [63] Further, \"the orbitofrontal cortex is connected with areas that underlie emotional function and empathy\". [63] [64] This relates to one's ability to stimulate how another person feels in their own facial displays. [63] [65] The over activity and decreased function of these brain structures can affect individuals by increasing social inhibition and behaviors related to social inhibition. Personality traits [ edit ] Further, there is speculation that social inhibition can also be increased by the type of personality an individual has and behaviors that those individuals inherently display. Namely, those who are dependent and reassurance seeking are more commonly likely to display increased social inhibition. [66] Clinical levels [ edit ] Although social inhibition can occur as part of ordinary social situations, a chronically high level of social inhibition may lead some individuals to develop other social or anxiety disorders that would also need to be handled clinically. Through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, clinical levels of social inhibition can be measured. Social inhibition can be a precursors for other social disorders that can develop in adolescence or adulthood. [11] Measures [ edit ] There are many implications for the diagnoses of social inhibition, however there are many cost-efficient ways to measure and treat this social disorder. One measure that has reliably assess the traits of social inhibition is the seven-item inhibition scale of the Type D Scale–14. [1] Another measure is the Behavioral Inhibition Observation System (BIOS). In clinical trials this measure is to be used for children completed by parents, teachers, and clinicians. Other scales are the Behavioral Inhibition Questionnaire (BIQ), Behavioral Inhibition Instrument (BII), the Behavioral Inhibition Scale (BIS), The Preschool Behavioral Inhibition Scale (P-BIS), and the Behavioral Inhibition Scale for children ages 3–6. There are also many versions of these scales that are specifically for parents, teachers, or even the child or possibly an inhibited individual to take. [2] There are also times when these measures are grouped together; in many cases the Behavioral Inhibition System scale and Behavioral Activation System scale are used together. These two measure are the most widely used and together they consist of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation scales that deal with reward response and fun seeking. [67] [68] The Behavioral Paradigm System is an observation system that allows measurements of behavioral inhibition in systematic natural environments. With this system researchers will observe cessation of play and vocalization, long latencies to approaching the unfamiliar person, signs of fear and negative affect, and security seeking in environments such as classrooms, playgrounds, and in home settings. [2] This paradigm was followed by many adaptations, one specifically was the adaptation of the Observational Paradigm. In an additional study by Ballespi and colleagues the paradigm was changed to be more suitable for a school environment. The adapted paradigm met three important criteria, the tests were suitable for a school environment, there had to be materials for the test that could be transported easily, and the observation of behavioral inhibition signs had to have the potential to be seen in a short period of time. [69] Ballespi and colleagues discussed one of the most recent measurement systems in the Behavioral Inhibition Observation System. This new system will allow clinicians to provide a quick measure for behavioral inhibition. This system is used during the first meeting with the child. In this first meeting, the child will be exposed to a strange, unfamiliar situation. The scale will then be completed after the therapist has time to observe the child in an interview setting. Researchers want to find a way to have an actual measure for inhibition, however this is difficult. There is a difference in observations, a parent or teachers is going to observe the child over long periods of time in several natural situations. The parents do not actually observe the child but instead rate the behavior inhibition on the ideas they have formed about the child. The clinician will not have all this information and will base his or her first measure on observation alone; they measure state while parents and teachers measure traits. This is where the differences come up in measure however after several visits the measures of the clinicians, teachers, and parents become more similar. [2] Treatments [ edit ] Treatments used for social inhibition are primarily assertive trainings introduced by therapies. These treatments are about teaching the inhibited individual to express and assert their feeling instead of inhibiting them. [9] [70] Assertiveness training is an important operation for behavioral therapist because it can help with behavioral issues, as well as interpersonal inadequacies, and anxiety in adults. In some cases this training can go by a different name because assertiveness is sometimes categorized by aggression therefore it can also be called appropriate expression training. [71] In one study discussing assertive training Ludwig and Lazarus found irrational cognitive patterns that inhibited individuals have to deal with and how to overcome them. The four patterns are self-criticism/Perfectionism, unrealistic approval needs, unrealistic labeling of aggression/assertive behavior, and criticism of others. There are three different phases that work to combat the irrational cognitive patterns and inhibitory actions during social situations. These phases are meant to be actively practiced. The individual will receive homework assignments , and have to do role-playing exercises to overcome their inhibitions. [9] The first phase discussed was about talking more. Ludwig states that there cannot just be an increase in talking but also an increase in expressing and talking about how one feels. The point of this phase is to get an individual talking no matter how ridiculous or trivial it may seem. Phase two is about dealing with the responses that come from talking more. When an inhibited individual starts talking more they may become embarrassed. However, with positive reactions from others they will learn that being embarrassed about some of the comments made is not devastating, and in turn the individual may talk and act more freely. In addition to the positive feedback the individual will review particularly embarrassing moment to assess why they were embarrassed to help combat those thoughts. If the inhibited person can understand the irrational thoughts they will eventually feel less embarrassed and act more freely. Role playing is also a way to help the individual understand different social behaviors. Mirroring is a way some therapist will show the client their own behavior. The last phase deals with additional strategies that can help through social situation such as expressing disagreement, dealing with interruptions, initiating more conversations topics, and more self-disclosure. Ludwig and colleagues also make sure to explain that no one should compulsively apply these behavioral techniques in all situations. An individual should not go over board using them; additionally there are times when initiating some conversation topics and talking more are inappropriate. [9] Group therapies are also used in the treatment using assertiveness. Hedquist and Weinhold investigated two group counseling strategies with socially anxious and unassertive college students. The first strategy is a behavioral rehearsal group, which aims to assist members to learn more efficient responses in social situations. This was to be accomplished by rehearsing several difficult social situations. The second strategy was a social learning group that was about honesty about everything; any withholding behaviors were seen as being dishonest. Another rule was every individual had to take responsibility for everything that said. The results of this study showed that both strategies helped significantly in treating the anxiety and unassertiveness. [70] See also [ edit ] Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Avoidant personality disorder Sexual inhibition Social anxiety Social facilitation References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Denollet, J. (2013). Interpersonal sensitivity, social inhibition, and Type D personality: How and when are they associated with health? Comment on Marin and Miller (2013). Psychological Bulletin, 139(5), 991-997. doi:10.1037/a0033537 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ballespí, S., Jané, M., & Riba, M. (2013). Reliability and validity of a brief clinician-report scale for screening behavioral inhibition. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(3), 321-334. doi:10.1007/s10862-013-9344-7 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lewis-Morrarty, E., Degnan, K. A., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Rubin, K. H., Cheah, C. L., Pine, D. S., & ... Fox, N. A. (2012). Maternal over-control moderates the association between early childhood behavioral inhibition and adolescent social anxiety symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(8), 1363-1373. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9663-2 Jump up ^ Ordoñez-Ortega, A., Espinosa-Fernandez, L., Garcia-Lopez, LJ, & Muela-Martinez, JA (2013). Inhibición Conductual y su Relación con los Trastornos de Ansiedad Infantil/Behavioral Inhibition and Relationship with Childhood Anxiety Disorders . Terapia Psicologica, 31, 355-362. ^ Jump up to: a b Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., & Elliot, A. J. (2000). Behavioral activation and inhibition in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(6), 1135-1149. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1135 Jump up ^ Buck, R., Losow, J. I., Murphy, M. M., & Costanzo, P. (1992). Social facilitation and inhibition of emotional expression and communication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(6), 962-968. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.962 Jump up ^ Yarczower, M., & Daruns, L. (1982). Social inhibition of spontaneous facial expressions in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(4), 831-837. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.4.831 Jump up ^ Friedman, H. S., & Miller-Herringer, T. (1991). Nonverbal display of emotion in public and in private: Self-monitoring, personality, and expressive cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(5), 766-775. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.5.766 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ludwig, L. D., & Lazarus, A. A. (1972). A cognitive and behavioral approach to the treatment of social inhibition. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 9(3), 204-206. doi:10.1037/h0086749 Jump up ^ Eisenberg, Nancy; Fabes, Richard A.; Murphy, Bridget C. (1995). \"Relations of shyness and low sociability to regulation and emotionality\". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 68 (3): 505–517. doi : 10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.505 . ISSN 0022-3514 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Slattery, M. J., Goldsmith, H., & Kalin, N. H. (2010). Early risk factors and developmental pathways to chronic high inhibition and social anxiety disorder in adolescence. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(1), 40-46. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.07010051 Jump up ^ Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Marshall, P. J., Nichols, K. E., & Ghera, M. M. (2005). Behavioral Inhibition: Linking Biology and Behavior within a Developmental Framework. Annual Review Of Psychology, 56235-262. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141532 Jump up ^ Schwartz CE, Snidman N, Kagan J. 1999. Adolescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited temperament in childhood. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 38:1008–15 ^ Jump up to: a b Park S, Belsky J, Putnam S, Crnic K. 1997. Infant emotionality, parenting, and 3-year inhibition: exploring stability and lawful discontinuity in a male sample. Dev.Psychol. 33:218–27 Jump up ^ Kagan J. 1994. Galen's Prophecy. New York: Basic Books ^ Jump up to: a b c Gladstone, G. (2004). Behavioral inhibition: Measurement and assessment of aetiology and outcome in adults. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, ^ Jump up to: a b c West, A. E., & Newman, D. L. (2007). Childhood behavioral inhibition and the experience of social anxiety in American Indian adolescents. Cultural Diversity And Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(3), 197-206. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.197 ^ Jump up to: a b von Hippel, W., & Dunlop, S. M. (2005). Aging, Inhibition, and Social Inappropriateness. Psychology And Aging, 20(3), 519-523. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.3.519 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gest, S. D. (1997). Behavioral inhibition: Stability and associations with adaptation from childhood to early adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2), 467-475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.467 Jump up ^ Bešić, N., & Kerr, M. (2009). Punks, goths, and other eye-catching peer crowds: Do they fulfill a function for shy youths?. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(1), 113-121. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00584.x Jump up ^ Caspi, A., Elder, G. H., Jr., & Bern, D. J. (1988). Moving away from the world: Life-course patterns of shy children. Developmental Psychology. 24, 824-831. Jump up ^ Natsuaki, M. N., Leve, L. D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Scaramella, L. V., Ge, X., & Reiss, D. (2013). Intergenerational transmission of risk for social inhibition: The interplay between parental responsiveness and genetic influences. Development And Psychopathology, 25(1), 261-274. doi:10.1017/S0954579412001010 ^ Jump up to: a b c Chen, X., Chen, H., Li, D., & Wang, L. (2009). Early childhood behavioral inhibition and social and school adjustment in Chinese children: A 5-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 80(6), 1692-1704. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01362.x ^ Jump up to: a b Coplan, R. J., Prakash, K., O'Neil, K., & Armer, M. (2004). \"Do you want to play? Distinguishing between conflicted-shyness and social disinterest in early childhood\". Developmental Psychology , 40, 244–258. Jump up ^ Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psycho- logical Bulletin, 128, 3–72. Jump up ^ Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, C. N. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent–child interaction. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality and social development (pp. 1–102). New York: Wiley. Jump up ^ Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Proso- cial development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 646–718). New York: Wiley. Jump up ^ Geng, F., Hu, Y., Wang, Y., & Chen, F. (2011). Two types of behavioral inhibition: Relations to effortful control and attention in school children. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(6), 662-669. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.09.005 Jump up ^ Degnan, K. A., & Fox, N. A. (2007). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders: Multiple levels of a resilience process. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 729–746. Jump up ^ Nesdale, D., & Dalton, D. (2011). Children's social groups and intergroup prejudice: Assessing the influence and inhibition of social group norms. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 895-909. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.2010.02017.x ^ Jump up to: a b c Guerin, B. (1989). \"Social Inhibition of Behavior\". Journal of Social Psychology , 129(2), 225 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Neal, J., Edelmann, R. J., & Glachan, M. (2002). Behavioural inhibition and symptoms of anxiety and depression: Is there a specific relationship with social phobia?. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41(4), 361. Jump up ^ Van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., & Oakman, J. M. (1998). The relationship of behavioural inhibition and shyness to anxiety disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 425-431 Jump up ^ Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Schmidt, H., Gadet, B., & Bogie, N. (2001). \"Anxiety and depression as correlates of self-reported behavioural inhibition in normal adolscents\". Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1051-1061 ^ Jump up to: a b c Svansdottir, E., van den Broek, K. C., Karlsson, H. D., Olason, D. T., Thorgilsson, H., & Denollet, J. (2013). The distressed (Type D) and Five-Factor Models of personality in young, healthy adults and their association with emotional inhibition and distress.Personality And Individual Differences, 55(2), 123-128. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.02.008. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Kiel, E J.; Buss, K A. (March 2011). \"Toddlers' Duration of Attention Toward Putative Threat\". Infancy . 16 (2): 198–210. doi : 10.1111/j.1532-7078.2010.00036.x . Jump up ^ Crockenberg, S. C., & Leerkes, E. M. (2006). Infant and maternal behavior moderate reactivity to novelty to predict anxious behavior at 2.5 years. Development and Psychopathology, 18 ,17-34. Jump up ^ Buss, K. A., Davidson, R. J., Kalin, N. H., & Goldsmith, H.H. (2004). Context-specific freezing and associated physiological reactivity as a dysregulated fear response. Developmental Psychology, 40, 583-595 Jump up ^ Buss, K. A., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1998). Fear and anger regulation in infancy: Effects on the temporal dynamics of affective expression. Child Development, 69 , 359-374 Jump up ^ Calkins, S. D., & Fox, N. A., (1992). The relations among infant temperament, security of attachment, and behavioral inhibition at twenty-four months. Child Development, 63, 1456-1472 Jump up ^ Crockenberg, S. C., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004). Infant and maternal behaviors regulate infant reactivity to novelty at 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 40 , 1123-1132 Jump up ^ Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Gibbons, J. (1989). Inhibited and uninhibited types of children. Child Development, 60 , 838-845 Jump up ^ Kagan, J., Snidman, N., Zentner, M., & Peterson, E. (1999). Infant temperament and anxious symptoms in school age children. Development and Psychopathology, 11 , 209-224 Jump up ^ Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., & Hastings, P. D. (2002). Stability and social-behavioral consequences of toddlers' inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors. Child Development, 73, 483-495 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dyson, M., Klein, D., Olino, T., Dougherty, L., & Durbin, C. C. (2011). Social and Non-Social Behavioral Inhibition in Preschool-Age Children: Differential Associations with Parent-Reports of Temperament and Anxiety. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 42(4), 390-405. doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0225-6 ^ Jump up to: a b Majandzic M, van den Boom D (2007) Multimethod longitudinal assessment of temperament in early childhood. J Pers 75:121-167 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Neal, J., & Edelmann, R. J. (2003). The etiology of social phobia: Toward a developmental profile. Clinical Psychology Review,23(6), 761-786. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00076-X Jump up ^ Ordoñez-Ortega, A., Espinosa-Fernandez, L., Garcia-Lopez, LJ, & Muela-Martinez, JA (2013). Behavioral Inhibition and Relationship with Childhood Anxiety Disorders/Inhibición Conductual y su Relación con los Trastornos de Ansiedad Infantil. Terapia Psicologica, 31, 355-362. Jump up ^ Hayward, C., Killen, J. D., Kraemer, H. C., & Taylor, C. B. (1998). Linking self-reported childhood behavioral inhibition to adolescent social phobia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1308-1316 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Rotge, J., Grabot, D., Aouizerate, B., Pélissolo, A., Lépine, J., & Tignol, J. (2011). Childhood history of behavioral inhibition and comorbidity status in 256 adults with social phobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 129(1-3), 338-341. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.07.031 Jump up ^ Kashdan, T. B., Farmer, A. S., Adams, L. M., Ferssizidis, P., McKnight, P. E., & Nezlek, J. B. (2013). Distinguishing healthy adults from people with social anxiety disorder: Evidence for the value of experiential avoidance and positive emotions in everyday social interactions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(3), 645-655. doi:10.1037/a0032733 Jump up ^ Clauss, J. A., & Blackford, J. (2012). \"Behavioral inhibition and risk for developing social anxiety disorder: A meta-analytic study\". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 51(10), 1066-1075. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.002 Jump up ^ Lim, S., Ha, J., Shin, Y., Shin, D., Bae, S., & Oh, K. (2013). \"Clinical differences between early‐ and late‐onset social anxiety disorders\". Early Intervention In Psychiatry , 7(1), 44-50. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7893.2012.00341.x Jump up ^ Lorian, C. N., & Grisham, J. R. (2010). \"The safety bias: Risk-avoidance and social anxiety pathology\". Behaviour Change , 27(1), 29-41. doi:10.1375/bech.27.1.29 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Steele, C. M., & Southwick, L. (1985). Alcohol and social behavior: I. The psychology of drunken excess. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 18-34. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.18 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Montemurro, B., & McClure, B. (2005). Changing Gender Norms for Alcohol Consumption: Social Drinking and Lowered Inhibitions at Bachelorette Parties. Sex Roles, 52(5-6), 279-288. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-2672-7 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110(2), 265-284. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265 Jump up ^ Russell, B. (1938). Power: A new social analysis. London: Allen and Unwin Jump up ^ Clark, C. (1990). Emotions and micropolitics in everyday life: Some patterns and paradoxes of \"place.\" In: T. D. Kemper (Ed.), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp. 305-333). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Jump up ^ Kemper, T. D. (1991). Predicting emotions from social relations. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54 , 330-342 Jump up ^ Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48 , 621-628 Jump up ^ Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 , 797-811 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Kret, M., Denollet, J., Grèzes, J., & de Gelder, B. (2011). The role of negative affectivity and social inhibition in perceiving social threat: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 49(5), 1187-1193. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.007 Jump up ^ Hynes, C. A., Baird, A. A., & Gratton, S. T. (2006). \"Differential role of the orbital frontal lobe in emotional versus cognitive perspective-taking\". Neuropsychologia, 44 , 374-383 Jump up ^ Adolphs, R. (2002b). \"Neural systems for recognizing emotion\". Current Opinion Neurobiology, 12 , 169-177 Jump up ^ The Effect of Behavioral Inhibition and Approach on Normal Social Functioning. (2010). Individual Differences Research, 8(4), 246-256. Jump up ^ Levinson, C. A., Rodebaugh, T. L., & Frye, T. (2011). An examination of the factor, convergent, and discriminant validity of the Behavioral Inhibition System and Behavioral Activation System Scales. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33(1), 87-100. doi:10.1007/s10862-010-9202-9 Jump up ^ Bjørnebekk, G. (2009). Behavioral Inhibition and Activation Scales--Norwegian Version. doi:10.1037/t05759-000 Jump up ^ Ballespí, S., Jané, M., & Riba, M. (2012). \"The Behavioural Inhibition Scale for children aged 3 to 6 (BIS 3-6): Validity based on its relation with observational measures\". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment , 34(4), 487-496. doi:10.1007/s10862-012-9305-6 ^ Jump up to: a b Hedquist, F. J., & Weinhold, B. K. (1970). Behavioral group counseling with socially anxious and unassertive college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 17(3), 237-242. doi:10.1037/h0029245 Jump up ^ Phillips, D. R., & Groves, G. A. (1979). Assertive training with children. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 16(2), 171-177. doi:10.1037/h0086044 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_inhibition&oldid=808311860 \" Categories : Shyness Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 2 November 2017, at 03:01. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Social inhibition", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Social_inhibition&amp;oldid=808311860" }

{ "text": "Continental collision - Wikipedia Continental collision From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) For general context, see Plate tectonics . Cartoon of a tectonic collision between two continents Continental collision is a phenomenon of the plate tectonics of Earth that occurs at convergent boundaries . Continental collision is a variation on the fundamental process of subduction , whereby the subduction zone is destroyed, mountains produced, and two continents sutured together. Continental collision is known only to occur on Earth. Continental collision is not an instantaneous event, but may take several tens of millions of years before the faulting and folding caused by collisions stops. The collision between India and Asia has been going on for about 50 million years already and shows no signs of abating. Collision between East and West Gondwana to form the East African Orogen took about 100 million years from beginning (610 Ma) to end (510 Ma). Collision between Gondwana and Laurasia to form Pangea occurred in a relatively brief interval, about 50 million years long. Contents [ hide ] 1 Subduction zone: the collision site 2 Deep subduction of continental crust 3 Orogeny and collapse 4 Far-field effects 5 Fossil collision zones 6 References 7 External links Subduction zone: the collision site [ edit ] The process begins as two continents (different bits of continental crust ), separated across a tract of ocean (and oceanic crust ), approach each other, while the oceanic crust is slowly consumed at a subduction zone . The subduction zone runs along the edge of one of the continents and dips under it, raising volcanic mountain chains at some distance behind it, such as the Andes of South America today. Subduction involves the whole lithosphere , the density of which is largely controlled by the nature of the crust it carries. Oceanic crust is thin (~6 km thick) and dense (about 3.3 g/cm³), consisting of basalt , gabbro , and peridotite . Consequently, most oceanic crust is subducted easily at an oceanic trench . In contrast, continental crust is thick (~45 km thick) and buoyant, composed mostly of granitic rocks (average density about 2.5 g/cm³). Continental crust is subducted with difficulty, but is subducted to depths of 90-150 km or more, as evidenced by ultra- high pressure (UHP) metamorphic suites . Normal subduction continues as long as the ocean exists, but the subduction system is disrupted as the continent carried by the downgoing plate enters the trench. Because it contains thick continental crust, this lithosphere is less dense than the underlying asthenospheric mantle and normal subduction is disrupted. The volcanic arc on the upper plate is slowly extinguished. Resisting subduction, the crust buckles up and under, raising mountains where a trench used to be. The position of the trench becomes a zone that marks the suture between the two continental terranes . Suture zones are often marked by fragments of the pre-existing oceanic crust and mantle rocks, known as ophiolites . Deep subduction of continental crust [ edit ] The continental crust on the downgoing plate is deeply subducted as part of the downgoing plate during collision, defined as buoyant crust entering a subduction zone. An unknown proportion of subducted continental crust returns to the surface as ultra- high pressure (UHP) metamorphic terranes, which contain metamorphic coesite and/or diamond plus or minus unusual silicon -rich garnets and/or potassium -bearing pyroxenes . The presence of these minerals demonstrate subduction of continental crust to at least 90–140 km deep. Examples of UHP terranes are known from the Dabie–Sulu belt of east-central China , the Western Alps , the Himalaya of India , the Kokchetav Massif of Kazakhstan , the Bohemian Massif of Europe, the North Qaidam of Northwestern China , the Western Gneiss Region of Norway , and Mali . Most UHP terranes consist of an imbricated sheets or nappes . The fact that most UHP terranes consist of thin sheets suggests that much thicker, volumetrically dominant tracts of continental crust are more deeply subducted. Orogeny and collapse [ edit ] Mountain formation by a reverse fault movement An orogeny is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important. Rainfall and snowfall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone). River systems form, and glaciers may grow on the highest peaks. Erosion accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of sediment are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in sedimentary basins in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are thrust faulted over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by isostasy ; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming rifts near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially melt , forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming granite intrusions . Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and the two continents are completely sutured. Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent. The pace of mountain building associated with the collision is measured by radiometric dating of igneous rocks or units that have been metamorphosed during the collision and by examining the record of sediments shed from the rising mountains into the surrounding basins. The pace of ancient convergence can be determined with paleomagnetic measurements, while the present rate of convergence can be measured with GPS . Far-field effects [ edit ] The effects of the collision are felt far beyond the immediate site of collision and mountain-building. As convergence between the two continents continues, the region of crustal thickening and elevation will become broader. If there is an oceanic free face, the adjacent crustal blocks may move towards it. As an example of this, the collision of India with Asia forced large regions of crust to move south to form modern Southeast Asia . Another example is the collision of Arabia with Asia , which is squeezing the Anatolian Plate (present day Turkey ). As a result, Turkey is moving west and south into the Mediterranean Sea and away from the collision zone. These far-field effects may result in the formation of rifts, and rift valleys such as that occupied by Lake Baikal , the deepest lake on Earth. Fossil collision zones [ edit ] Continental collisions are a critical part of the supercontinent cycle and have happened many times in the past. Ancient collision zones are deeply eroded but may still be recognized because these mark sites of intense deformation, metamorphism, and plutonic activity that separate tracts of continental crust having different geologic histories prior to the collision. Old collision zones are commonly called \"suture zones\" by geologists, because this is where two previous continents are joined or sutured together. References [ edit ] Ernst, W.G. (2006). \"Preservation/exhumation of ultrahigh-pressure subduction complexes\". Lithos . 92 (3–4): 321–335. Bibcode : 2006Litho..92..321E . doi : 10.1016/j.lithos.2006.03.049 . Ernst, W.G.; Maruyama, S. Wallis; Wallis, S. (1997). \"Buoyancy-driven, rapid exhumation of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphosed continental crust\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 94 (18): 9532–9537. Bibcode : 1997PNAS...94.9532E . doi : 10.1073/pnas.94.18.9532 . O'Brien, P.J. (2001). \"Subduction followed by collision; Alpine and Himalayan examples\". Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors . 127 (1–4): 277–291. Bibcode : 2001PEPI..127..277O . doi : 10.1016/S0031-9201(01)00232-1 . Toussaint, G.; Burov, E.; Avouac, J.-P. (2004). \"Tectonic evolution of a continental collision zone: A thermomechanical numerical model\". Tectonics . 23 (6): TC6003. Bibcode : 2004Tecto..23.6003T . doi : 10.1029/2003TC001604 . Song, S.G. (2014). \"Continental orogenesis from ocean subduction, continent collision/subduction, to orogen collapse, and orogen recycling: The example of the North Qaidam UHPM belt, NW China\". Earth-Science Reviews . 129 (3–4): 59–84. Bibcode : 2014ESRv..129...59S . doi : 10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.010 . External links [ edit ] Where Continents Collide Dynamics of Continental Collision Zones The Wilson Cycle Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Continental_collision&oldid=804803860 \" Categories : Plate tectonics Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from July 2017 All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Brezhoneg Català Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 October 2017, at 07:36. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Continental collision", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Continental_collision&amp;oldid=804803860" }

{ "text": "Los Angeles County, California - Wikipedia Los Angeles County, California From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \"LA County\" redirects here. For the equivalent of counties in Louisiana, see List of parishes in Louisiana . County in California , United States Los Angeles County, California County County of Los Angeles Images, from top down, left to right: Downtown Los Angeles in Winter of 2016, Venice, Los Angeles during sunset, Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills, CA , Satellite picture of Santa Catalina Island , the Santa Monica Pier , Angeles National Forest , Vasquez Rocks , Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve , and the Hollywood Sign Flag Seal Nickname(s): \"L.A. County\" Location of the county in California California's location in the contiguous United States Coordinates: 34°3′N 118°15′W  /  34.050°N 118.250°W  / 34.050; -118.250 Coordinates : 34°3′N 118°15′W  /  34.050°N 118.250°W  / 34.050; -118.250 Country United States State California Region Southern California Metro area Greater Los Angeles Formed February 18, 1850 [1] Named for The Los Angeles , which was named for Our Lady, Queen of the Angels County seat Los Angeles Largest city Los Angeles Incorporated cities 88 Government • Type Council–manager • Body Board of Supervisors • Board of Supervisors [2] Supervisors [show] Hilda Solis Mark Ridley-Thomas Sheila Kuehl Janice Hahn Kathryn Barger • Chief executive officer Sachi A. Hamai Area • Total 4,751 sq mi (12,310 km 2 ) • Land 4,058 sq mi (10,510 km 2 ) • Water 693 sq mi (1,790 km 2 ) Highest elevation [3] 10,068 ft (3,069 m) Lowest elevation [4] 0 ft (0 m) Population ( April 1, 2010 ) [5] • Total 9,818,605 • Estimate (2017) [5] 10,163,507 • Density 2,100/sq mi (800/km 2 ) Time zone Pacific Time Zone ( UTC−8 ) • Summer ( DST ) Pacific Daylight Time ( UTC−7 ) ZIP codes 90001–90899, 91001–93599 Area codes 213 , 310/424 , 323 , 562 , 626 , 661 , 747/818 , 909 FIPS code 06-037 GNIS feature ID 277283 GDP $664 billion [6] Primary Airport Los Angeles International Airport LAX (Major/International) Secondary Airport Hollywood Burbank Airport - BUR (Regional) Van Nuys Airport - VNY (Regional) Long Beach Airport - LGB (Regional) Interstates U.S. Routes State Routes Rapid Transit (under construction) Commuter Rail (planned) Website www .lacounty .gov Chamber of Commerce brochure, c. 1920 Los Angeles County, officially the County of Los Angeles , [7] ( Spanish : Condado de Los Ángeles ) is the most populous county in the United States , with more than 10 million inhabitants as of 2017. [8] Its population is larger than that of 41 individual U.S. states . It is the third-largest metropolitan economy in the world, with a Nominal GDP of over $700 billion — larger than the GDPs of Belgium, Saudi Arabia, Norway and Taiwan. [9] It has 88 incorporated cities and many unincorporated areas and at 4,083 square miles (10,570 km 2 ), it is larger than the combined areas of Delaware and Rhode Island . The county is home to more than one-quarter of California residents and is one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the U.S. [10] Its county seat , Los Angeles , is also its most populous city at about four million. Contents 1 History 2 Geography 2.1 Lakes and reservoirs 2.2 Major divisions of the county 2.3 National protected areas 3 Demographics 3.1 Race and ancestry 3.2 2000 3.3 Income 3.4 Religion 4 Law, government and politics 4.1 Government 4.2 Politics 4.2.1 Voter registration 4.2.2 Overview 4.3 Legal system 5 Crime 5.1 Cities by population and crime rates 5.2 Other statistics 6 Economy 7 Education 7.1 Colleges 7.2 Universities 8 Sites of interest 8.1 Museums 8.2 Entertainment 8.3 Music venues 8.4 Amusement parks 8.5 Other attractions 8.6 Other areas 9 Transportation 9.1 Major highways 9.2 Air 9.3 Rail 9.4 Sea 10 Communities 10.1 Cities 10.2 Unincorporated areas 10.2.1 Census designated places 10.2.2 Other communities 10.3 Population ranking 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links History [ edit ] Changes in the borders of Los Angeles County over the years (click on image for larger image) See also: History of Los Angeles Los Angeles County is one of the original counties of California, created at the time of statehood in 1850. [11] The county originally included parts of what are now Kern , San Bernardino , Riverside and Orange counties. In 1851 and 1852, Los Angeles County strechted from the coast to the border of Nevada . [12] As the population increased, sections were split off to organize San Bernardino County in 1853, Kern County in 1866, and Orange County in 1889. Geography [ edit ] Los Angeles Ventura Kern San Bernardino Orange Pacific Ocean Los Angeles and adjacent counties According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the county has an area of 4,751 square miles (12,310 km 2 ), of which 4,058 square miles (10,510 km 2 ) is land and 693 square miles (1,790 km 2 ) (15%) is water. [13] Los Angeles County borders 70 miles (110 km) of coast on the Pacific Ocean and encompasses mountain ranges, valleys, forests, islands, lakes, rivers, and desert. The Los Angeles River , Rio Hondo , the San Gabriel River and the Santa Clara River flow in Los Angeles County, while the primary mountain ranges are the Santa Monica Mountains and the San Gabriel Mountains . The western extent of the Mojave Desert begins in the Antelope Valley , in the northeastern part of the county. Los Angeles at night. Aerial photo taken from San Pedro, looking North. Most of the population of Los Angeles County is located in the south and southwest, with major population centers in the Los Angeles Basin , San Fernando Valley and San Gabriel Valley . Other population centers are found in the Santa Clarita Valley , Pomona Valley , Crescenta Valley and Antelope Valley . The county is divided west-to-east by the San Gabriel Mountains , which are part of the Transverse Ranges of southern California, and are contained mostly within the Angeles National Forest . Most of the county's highest peaks are in the San Gabriel Mountains, including Mount San Antonio 10,068 feet (3,069 m)) at the Los Angeles- San Bernardino county lines, Mount Baden-Powell 9,399 feet (2,865 m), Mount Burnham 8,997 feet (2,742 m) and Mount Wilson 5,710 feet (1,740 m). Several lower mountains are in the northern, western, and southwestern parts of the county, including the San Emigdio Mountains , the southernmost part of Tehachapi Mountains and the Sierra Pelona Mountains . Los Angeles County includes San Clemente Island and Santa Catalina Island , which are part of the Channel Islands archipelago off the Pacific Coast . Lakes and reservoirs [ edit ] Baldwin Lake Bouquet Reservoir Castaic Lake Crystal Lake Elizabeth Lake Holiday Lake Hollywood Reservoir Hughes Lake Jackson Lake Las Virgenes Reservoir. Malibou Lake Morris Reservoir Munz Lakes Lake Palmdale Puddingstone Reservoir Pyramid Lake Quail Lake Silver Lake Reservoir Stone Canyon Reservoir Tweedy Lake Westlake in City of Westlake Village Lake Lindero Major divisions of the county [ edit ] East: Eastside , San Gabriel Valley , portions of the Pomona Valley West: Westside , Beach Cities South: South Bay , South Los Angeles , Palos Verdes Peninsula , Gateway Cities , Los Angeles Harbor Region North: San Fernando Valley , Crescenta Valley , portions of the Conejo Valley , portions of the Antelope Valley and Santa Clarita Valley Central: Downtown Los Angeles , Mid-Wilshire , Northeast Los Angeles National protected areas [ edit ] Angeles National Forest (part) Los Padres National Forest (part) Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area (part) Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of Los Angeles County Los Angeles County had a population of 9,818,605 in the 2010 United States Census . The racial makeup of Los Angeles County was 4,936,599 (50%) White , 1,346,865 (13.7%) Asian , 856,874 (9%) African American , 72,828 (0.7%) Native American , 26,094 (0.3%) Pacific Islander , 2,140,632 (21.8%) from other races , and 438,713 (4.5%) from two or more races. Non-Hispanic whites numbered 2,728,321, or 28% of the population. [14] Hispanic or Latino residents of any race numbered 4,687,889 (48%); 36% of Los Angeles County's population was of Mexican ancestry; 3.7% Salvadoran, and 2.2% Guatemalan heritage. [15] The county has a large population of Asian Americans , being home to the largest concentration of immigrants who are Burmese , Cambodian , Chinese , Filipino , Indian , Indonesian , Korean , Sri Lankan , Taiwanese , and Thai in the world. [16] The largest Asian groups of the 1,346,865 (13.7%) Asians in Los Angeles County are 4.0% Chinese, 3.3% Filipino, 2.2% Korean, 1.0% Japanese, 0.9% Vietnamese, 0.8% Indian, and 0.3% Cambodian. Historical population Census Pop. %± 1850 3,530 — 1860 11,333 221.0% 1870 15,309 35.1% 1880 33,381 118.0% 1890 101,454 203.9% 1900 170,298 67.9% 1910 504,131 196.0% 1920 936,455 85.8% 1930 2,208,492 135.8% 1940 2,785,643 26.1% 1950 4,151,687 49.0% 1960 6,038,771 45.5% 1970 7,041,980 16.6% 1980 7,477,421 6.2% 1990 8,863,164 18.5% 2000 9,519,338 7.4% 2010 9,818,605 3.1% Est. 2017 10,163,507 [8] 3.5% U.S. Decennial Census [17] 1790–1960 [18] 1900–1990 [19] 1990–2000 [20] 2010–2015 [21] Race and ancestry [ edit ] Population, race, and income (2011) Total population [22] 9,787,747 White [22] 5,126,367 52.4% Black or African American [22] 844,048 8.6% American Indian or Alaska Native [22] 49,329 0.5% Asian [22] 1,347,782 13.8% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander [22] 26,310 0.3% Some other race [22] 2,064,759 21.1% Two or more races [22] 329,152 3.4% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) [23] 4,644,328 47.5% Per capita income [24] $27,954 Median household income [25] $56,266 Median family income [26] $62,595 The racial makeup of the county is 48.7% White , [27] 11.0% African American , 0.8% Native American , 10.0% Asian , 0.3% Pacific Islander , 23.5% from other races , and 4.9% from two or more races. 44.6% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. The largest European-American ancestry groups are German (6%), Irish (5%), English (4%) and Italian (3%). 45.9% of the population reported speaking only English at home; 37.9% spoke Spanish, 2.22% Tagalog , 2.0% Chinese, 1.9% Korean , 1.87% Armenian , 0.5% Arabic , and 0.2% Hindi . [28] The county has the largest Native American population of any county in the nation: according to the 2000 census, it has more than 153,550 people of indigenous descent, and most are from Latin America . As estimated by the Public Policy Institute of California in 2008, Los Angeles County is home to more than one-third of California's undocumented immigrants , who make up more than ten percent of the population. [29] 2000 [ edit ] Map of Los Angeles County showing population density in 2000 by census tract At the census [30] of 2000, there were 9,519,338 people, 3,133,774 households, and 2,137,233 families residing in the county. The population density was 2,344 people per square mile (905/km 2 ). There were 3,270,909 housing units at an average density of 806 per square mile (311/km 2 ). There were 3,133,774 households out of which 37% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48% were married couples living together, 15% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32% were non-families. 25% of all households were made up of individuals and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.98 and the average family size was 3.61. In the county, the population was spread out with 28% under the age of 18, 10% from 18 to 24, 33% from 25 to 44, 19% from 45 to 64, and 10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males. Income [ edit ] Percent of households with incomes above $150k across LA County census tracts. The median personal earnings for all workers 16 and older in Los Angeles County are $30,654, slightly below the US median; earnings, however vary widely by neighborhood, race and ethnicity, and gender. [31] The median income for a household in the county was $42,189, and the median income for a family was $46,452. Males had a median income of $36,299 versus $30,981 for females. The per capita income for the county was $20,683. There are 14.4% of families living below the poverty line and 17.9% of the population, including 24.2% of under 18 and 10.5% of those over 64.\nLos Angeles County has the highest number of millionaires of any county in the nation, totaling 261,081 households as of 2007. [32] The homeownership rate is 47.9%, and the median value for houses is $409,300. 42.2% of housing units are in multi-unit structures. Los Angeles County has the largest number of homeless people , with \"48,000 people living on the streets, including 6,000 veterans .\", in 2010. [33] As of 2017 [update] the number of homeless in the county of Los Angeles increased to nearly 58,000. [34] Religion [ edit ] In 2000, there were hundreds of Christian churches , 202 Jewish synagogues , 145 Buddhist temples, 48 Muslim mosques , 44 Bahai worship centers, 37 Hindu mandirs , 28 Tenrikyo churches and fellowships, 16 Shinto worship centers, and 14 Sikh gurdwaras in the county. [35] The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles has approximately 5 million members and is the largest diocese in the United States. Law, government and politics [ edit ] Government [ edit ] Main article: Government of Los Angeles County The Government of Los Angeles County is defined and authorized under the California Constitution , California law and the Charter of the County of Los Angeles. [36] Much of the Government of California is in practice the responsibility of local governments such as the Government of Los Angeles County. The county's voters elect a governing five-member Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors . The small size of the board means each supervisor represents over 2 million people. The board operates in a legislative, executive, and quasi-judicial capacity. As a legislative authority, it can pass ordinances for the unincorporated areas (ordinances that affect the whole county, like posting of restaurant ratings, must be ratified by the individual city). As an executive body, it can tell the county departments what to do, and how to do it. As a quasi-judicial body, the Board is the final venue of appeal in the local planning process, and holds public hearings on various agenda items. As of 2008, the Board of Supervisors oversees a $22.5 billion annual budget and approximately 100,000 employees. [37] The county government is managed on a day-to-day basis by a Chief Executive Officer and is organized into many departments, each of which is enormous in comparison to equivalent county-level (and even many state-level) departments anywhere else in the United States. Some of the larger or better-known departments include: The Grand Avenue entrance of the Stanley Mosk Courthouse. Los Angeles County Department of Consumer and Business Affairs – offers consumers in the county a variety of services including: consumer and real estate counseling, mediation, and small claims counseling investigates consumer complains, real estate fraud and identity theft issues. The department also provides small business certifications and helps entrepreneurs navigate the process of opening a business. Los Angeles County Department of Children and Family Services – administers foster care Los Angeles County Fire Department – provides firefighting services for the unincorporated parts of Los Angeles County, as well as 58 cities. Los Angeles County Department of Health Services – operates several county hospitals and a network of primary care clinics, Los Angeles County Department of Public Health - administers public health programs including STD programs, smoking cessation, and restaurant inspection. In the majority of the county LACDPH puts letter grades relating to the food cleanliness and safety of a restaurant in the front window of restaurants. Los Angeles County Department of Public Social Services – administers many federal and state welfare programs Los Angeles County Department of Public Works – operates countywide flood control system, constructs and maintains roads in unincorporated areas Los Angeles County District Attorney – prosecutes criminal suspects. Los Angeles County Office of the Public Defender – Defends indigent people accused of criminal offenses. Los Angeles County Probation Department Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department – provides law enforcement services for the unincorporated parts of Los Angeles County, as well as 42 cities. The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority , despite its name, is not a County department. Technically it is a state-mandated county transportation commission that also operates bus and rail. Politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of Los Angeles County Los Angeles County vote by party in presidential elections [38] Year GOP DEM Others 2016 22.41% 769,743 71.76% 2,464,364 5.83% 200,201 2012 27.83% 885,333 69.69% 2,216,903 2.48% 78,831 2008 28.82% 956,425 69.19% 2,295,853 1.99% 65,970 2004 35.60% 1,076,225 63.10% 1,907,736 1.30% 39,319 2000 32.35% 871,930 63.47% 1,710,505 4.19% 112,719 1996 30.96% 746,544 59.34% 1,430,629 9.70% 233,841 1992 29.04% 799,607 52.54% 1,446,529 18.43% 507,267 1988 46.88% 1,239,716 51.89% 1,372,352 1.23% 32,603 1984 54.50% 1,424,113 44.35% 1,158,912 1.14% 29,889 1980 50.18% 1,224,533 40.15% 979,830 9.67% 235,822 1976 47.78% 1,174,926 49.69% 1,221,893 2.53% 62,258 1972 54.75% 1,549,717 42.04% 1,189,977 3.20% 90,676 1968 47.65% 1,266,480 46.02% 1,223,251 6.33% 168,251 1964 42.52% 1,161,067 57.43% 1,568,300 0.06% 1,551 1960 49.45% 1,302,661 50.25% 1,323,818 0.30% 8,020 1956 55.38% 1,260,206 44.29% 1,007,887 0.32% 7,331 1952 56.21% 1,278,407 42.71% 971,408 1.09% 24,725 1948 46.51% 804,232 47.00% 812,690 6.48% 112,160 1944 42.68% 666,441 56.75% 886,252 0.57% 8,871 1940 40.58% 574,266 58.13% 822,718 1.29% 18,285 1936 31.62% 357,401 67.00% 757,351 1.39% 15,663 1932 38.55% 373,738 57.19% 554,476 4.27% 41,380 1928 70.22% 513,526 28.71% 209,945 1.07% 7,830 1924 65.51% 299,675 7.33% 33,554 27.16% 124,228 1920 69.10% 178,117 21.59% 55,661 9.31% 23,992 1916 50.59% 135,554 42.58% 114,070 6.83% 18,297 1912 1.32% 2,181 33.34% 55,110 65.34% 108,005 1908 56.77% 41,483 30.21% 22,076 13.02% 9,518 1904 66.50% 32,507 20.52% 10,030 12.98% 6,346 1900 55.10% 19,200 37.76% 13,158 7.15% 2,490 1896 49.62% 16,891 47.13% 16,043 3.25% 1,108 1892 44.89% 10,226 35.64% 8,119 19.47% 4,434 Voter registration [ edit ] Population and registered voters Total population [22] 9,787,747 Registered voters [39] [note 1] 4,865,403 49.7% Democratic [39] 2,486,479 51.1% Republican [39] 1,048,507 21.6% Democratic–Republican spread [39] +1,437,972 +29.5% Independent [39] 109,055 2.2% Green [39] 24,534 0.5% Libertarian [39] 25,808 0.5% Peace and Freedom [39] 24,950 0.5% Americans Elect [39] 2,583 0.1% Other [39] 262,180 5.4% No party preference [39] 881,307 18.1% Overview [ edit ] Los Angeles County has voted for the Democratic candidate in most of the presidential elections in the past four decades, and has gone Democratic in every election since 1988. However, it did vote twice for Dwight Eisenhower (1952, 1956), Richard Nixon (1968, 1972), and Ronald Reagan (1980, 1984) the latter two of whom were Californians. From 1920 to 1984 it was a bellwether county that always voted for the eventual national winner. It voted against the national popular vote winner in 1988 and 2004. In 2008 and 2012 approximately 69% of the electorate voted for Democrat Barack Obama . In 2016, Democrat Hillary Clinton won 71% of the vote, marking the largest percentage of the electorate ever won by a single candidate in the county. [ citation needed ] In the United States House of Representatives , Los Angeles County is split between 18 congressional districts: [40] In the California State Senate , Los Angeles County is split between 15 legislative districts: [41] In the California State Assembly , Los Angeles County is split between 24 legislative districts: [42] On November 4, 2008, Los Angeles County was almost evenly split over Proposition 8 which amended the California Constitution to ban same-sex marriages. The county voted for the amendment 50.04% with a margin of 2,385 votes. [43] Legal system [ edit ] Further information: Superior Court of Los Angeles County The Los Angeles Superior Court , is the county's court of general jurisdiction, while the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California may hear cases where federal jurisdiction is present. Both are headquartered in a large cluster of government buildings in the city's Civic Center. Historically, the courthouses were county-owned buildings that were maintained at county expense, which created significant friction since the trial court judges, as officials of the state government, had to lobby the county Board of Supervisors for facility renovations and upgrades. In turn, the state judiciary successfully persuaded the state Legislature to authorize the transfer of all courthouses to the state government in 2008 and 2009 (so that judges would have direct control over their own courthouses). Courthouse security is still provided by the county government under a contract with the state. Unlike the largest city in the United States, New York City , all of the city of Los Angeles and most of its important suburbs are located within a single county. As a result, both the county superior court and the federal district court are respectively the busiest courts of their type in the nation. [44] [45] Many celebrities like O. J. Simpson have been seen in Los Angeles courts. In 2003, the television show Extra (based in nearby Glendale ) found itself running so many reports on the legal problems of local celebrities that it spun them off into a separate show, Celebrity Justice . State cases are appealed to the Court of Appeal for the Second Appellate District, which is also headquartered in the Civic Center , and then to the California Supreme Court , which is headquartered in San Francisco but also hears argument in Los Angeles (again, in the Civic Center). Federal cases are appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , which hears them at its branch building in Pasadena . The court of last resort for federal cases is the U.S. Supreme Court in Washington, D.C. Crime [ edit ] The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense. show Population and crime rates Population [22] 9,787,747 Violent crime [46] 54,747 5.59 Homicide [46] 699 0.07 Forcible rape [46] 2,114 0.22 Robbery [46] 24,528 2.51 Aggravated assault [46] 27,406 2.80 Property crime [46] 155,583 15.90 Burglary [46] 50,558 5.17 Larceny-theft [46] [note 2] 144,589 14.77 Motor vehicle theft [46] 46,710 4.77 Arson [46] 2,815 0.29 Cities by population and crime rates [ edit ] show Cities by population and crime rates City Population [47] Violent crimes [47] Violent crime rate per 1,000 persons Property crimes [47] Property crime rate per 1,000 persons Agoura Hills 20,667 12 0.58 236 11.42 Alhambra 84,469 149 1.76 1,919 22.72 Arcadia 57,295 57 0.99 1,388 24.23 Artesia 16,793 60 3.57 262 15.60 Avalon 3,795 13 3.43 64 16.86 Azusa 47,111 220 4.67 1,204 25.56 Baldwin Park 76,644 261 3.41 1,585 20.68 Bell 36,062 225 6.24 662 18.36 Bellflower 77,886 304 3.90 1,802 23.14 Bell Gardens 42,769 125 2.92 728 17.02 Beverly Hills 34,677 89 2.57 1,081 31.17 Bradbury 1,067 0 0.00 10 9.37 Burbank 105,057 243 2.31 2,493 23.73 Calabasas 23,442 13 0.55 238 10.15 Carson 93,233 520 5.58 2,709 29.06 Cerritos 49,856 120 2.41 1,870 37.51 Claremont 35,469 40 1.13 901 25.40 Commerce 13,035 112 8.59 1,010 77.48 Compton 98,057 1,218 12.42 2,399 24.47 Covina 48,588 151 3.11 1,651 33.98 Cudahy 24,201 151 6.24 347 14.34 Culver City 39,528 179 4.53 1,760 44.53 Diamond Bar 56,470 55 0.97 952 16.86 Downey 113,628 381 3.35 3,537 31.13 Duarte 21,673 71 3.28 507 23.39 El Monte 115,356 395 3.42 2,230 19.33 El Segundo 16,931 38 2.24 595 35.14 Gardena 59,802 287 4.80 1,321 22.09 Glendale 194,902 233 1.20 3,043 15.61 Glendora 50,903 59 1.16 1,293 25.40 Hawaiian Gardens 14,493 69 4.76 193 13.32 Hawthorne 85,692 637 7.43 2,181 25.45 Hermosa Beach 19,830 54 2.72 678 34.19 Hidden Hills 1,887 0 0.00 4 2.12 Huntington Park 59,079 373 6.31 1,917 32.45 Industry 222 68 306.31 1,110 5,000.00 Inglewood 111,488 780 7.00 2,673 23.98 Irwindale 1,447 15 10.37 243 167.93 La Canada Flintridge 20,584 12 0.58 324 15.74 La Habra Heights 5,413 6 1.11 44 8.13 Lakewood 81,382 227 2.79 2,062 25.34 La Mirada 49,312 98 1.99 776 15.74 Lancaster 159,155 859 5.40 3,498 21.98 La Puente 40,479 121 2.99 521 12.87 La Verne 31,575 50 1.58 823 26.06 Lawndale 33,312 167 5.01 397 11.92 Lomita 20,591 95 4.61 391 18.99 Long Beach 469,893 2,705 5.76 14,131 30.07 Los Angeles 3,855,122 18,547 4.81 87,478 22.69 Lynwood 70,908 541 7.63 1,373 19.36 Malibu 12,854 15 1.17 329 25.60 Manhattan Beach 35,719 62 1.74 855 23.94 Maywood 27,850 175 6.28 286 10.27 Monrovia 37,199 81 2.18 948 25.48 Montebello 63,538 146 2.30 1,775 27.94 Monterey Park 61,270 75 1.22 1,022 16.68 Norwalk 107,295 433 4.04 2,609 24.32 Palmdale 155,294 812 5.23 3,393 21.85 Palos Verdes Estates 13,661 6 0.44 136 9.96 Paramount 54,997 244 4.44 1,536 27.93 Pasadena 139,382 433 3.11 3,379 24.24 Pico Rivera 63,988 261 4.08 1,780 27.82 Pomona 151,511 1,021 6.74 5,055 33.36 Rancho Palos Verdes 42,335 35 0.83 498 11.76 Redondo Beach 67,856 190 2.80 1,596 23.52 Rolling Hills 1,891 0 0.00 27 14.28 Rolling Hills Estates 8,202 9 1.10 129 15.73 Rosemead 54,656 143 2.62 913 16.70 San Dimas 33,923 51 1.50 668 19.69 San Fernando 24,039 77 3.20 380 15.81 San Gabriel 40,376 88 2.18 550 13.62 San Marino 13,364 13 0.97 183 13.69 Santa Clarita 179,248 342 1.91 2,742 15.30 Santa Fe Springs 16,492 99 6.00 1,272 77.13 Santa Monica 91,215 395 4.33 3,398 37.25 Sierra Madre 11,098 4 0.36 112 10.09 Signal Hill 11,198 43 3.84 536 47.87 South El Monte 20,452 88 4.30 399 19.51 South Gate 95,966 553 5.76 2,545 26.52 South Pasadena 26,045 27 1.04 443 17.01 Temple City 36,148 38 1.05 354 9.79 Torrance 147,851 190 1.29 2,690 18.19 Vernon 114 27 236.84 311 2,728.07 Walnut 29,658 37 1.25 382 12.88 West Covina 107,861 281 2.61 3,224 29.89 West Hollywood 34,971 338 9.67 1,642 46.95 Westlake Village 8,406 3 0.36 154 18.32 Whittier 86,740 247 2.85 2,502 28.84 Other statistics [ edit ] Crime in 2008 (reported by the sheriff's office or police) [48] Assaults: 5452 Auto thefts: 7727 Burglaries: 5254 Murders: 568 (5.7 per 100,000) Rapes: 582 Robberies: 2210 Thefts: 9682 Crime in 2013 Homicides: 386 [49] Thefts: 54,971 [50] Burglaries: 17,606 Car Thefts: 15,866 [50] Robberies: 10,202 Violent Crimes: 20,318 [50] Rapes: 843 Assaults: 8,976 [50] Murders: 297 Economy [ edit ] See also: Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce Employment by industry in Los Angeles County (2015) Los Angeles County is commonly associated with the entertainment and digital media industry; all six major film studios— Paramount Pictures , 21st Century Fox , Sony , Warner Bros. , Universal Pictures , and Walt Disney Studios —are located within the county. Numerous other major industries also define the economy of Los Angeles County, including international trade supported by the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach , music recording and production, aerospace and defense, fashion, and professional services such as law, medicine, engineering and design services, financial services and more. High-tech sector employment within Los Angeles County is 368,500 workers, [51] and manufacturing employment within Los Angeles County is 365,000 workers. [52] [ citation needed ] The following major companies have headquarters in Los Angeles County: Burbank Walt Disney Co Cerritos CareMore Isuzu Motors America Memorex RazorUSA Beverly Hills Live Nation Entertainment, Inc El Segundo Konami Mattel, Inc Glendale Avery Dennison Corp . Hawthorne Space X La Mirada Makita Los Angeles AECOM CBRE Group Dollar Shave Club Fandango, Inc. Farmers Insurance Group The Honest Company ICANN Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Reliance Steel & Aluminum Co. Snapchat Universal Pictures Long Beach Molina Healthcare Monrovia Trader Joe's Palmdale Delta Scientific Rosemead Edison International Santa Clarita Princess Cruise Lines Honda Racing Santa Monica Activision Blizzard Hulu Riot Games TrueCar Torrance American Honda Motor Co. Toyota Motor Sales U.S.A. Inc. Westlake Village Dole Food Company [53] Woodland Hills Farmers Insurance Exchange Health Net Inc. Education [ edit ] The Los Angeles County Office of Education provides a supporting role for school districts in the area. The county office also operates two magnet schools, the International Polytechnic High School and Los Angeles County High School for the Arts . There are a number of private schools in the county, most notably those operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese . Colleges [ edit ] Antelope Valley College , Lancaster Art Center College of Design , Pasadena The Art Institute of California - Los Angeles (AICALA), Santa Monica California Institute of the Arts , Santa Clarita Cerritos College , Norwalk Citrus College , Glendora Claremont McKenna College , Claremont Claremont School of Theology , Claremont College of the Canyons , Santa Clarita DeVry University , Long Beach and West Hills (Los Angeles) East Los Angeles College , Monterey Park El Camino College , Torrance Fuller Theological Seminary , Pasadena Glendale Community College , Glendale Harvey Mudd College , Claremont Hebrew Union College , Los Angeles ITT Technical Institute , Culver City , San Dimas , Sylmar (Los Angeles), Torrance, and West Covina Life Pacific College , San Dimas Long Beach City College , Long Beach Los Angeles City College (LACC), Los Angeles Los Angeles Harbor College , Los Angeles Los Angeles Mission College , Sylmar (Los Angeles) Los Angeles Music Academy College of Music , Pasadena Los Angeles Pierce College (Pierce), Woodland Hills Los Angeles Southwest College , Los Angeles Los Angeles Trade Technical College (LATTC), Los Angeles Los Angeles Valley College , Valley Glen (Los Angeles) The Master's College , Santa Clarita Mount St. Mary's College , Los Angeles Mt. San Antonio College , Walnut Mt. Sierra College , Monrovia Occidental College (Oxy), Eagle Rock (Los Angeles) Otis College of Art and Design , Westchester (Los Angeles) Pacific Oaks College , Pasadena Pasadena City College , Pasadena Pepperdine University , Malibu Pitzer College , Claremont Pomona College , Claremont Rio Hondo College , Whittier Santa Monica College (SMC), Santa Monica Scripps College , Claremont West Los Angeles College , Culver City Whittier College , Whittier Wyoming Technical Institute (WyoTech) , Long Beach Universities [ edit ] Abraham Lincoln University (ALU), Los Angeles Alliant International University (AIU), Alhambra American Jewish University (AJULA), Los Angeles Azusa Pacific University , Azusa Biola University , La Mirada California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena California State Polytechnic University, Pomona , (Cal Poly Pomona), Pomona California State University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH), Carson California State University, Long Beach (CSULB), Long Beach California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA), Los Angeles California State University, Northridge (CSUN), Northridge (Los Angeles) Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science (Los Angeles) Claremont Graduate University (CGU), Claremont Loyola Law School , (Downtown Los Angeles) Loyola Marymount University (LMU), Westchester (Los Angeles) National University , Los Angeles and Woodland Hills Pepperdine University , Malibu Southern California University of Health Sciences , Whittier Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc), Los Angeles Southwestern University School of Law , Los Angeles University of Antelope Valley (UAV), Lancaster University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Westwood (Los Angeles) University of La Verne , La Verne University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles University of the West (UWest), Rosemead Western University of Health Sciences (WesternU), Pomona Woodbury University , Burbank Sites of interest [ edit ] L.A. County Fair at dusk, 2008 Photo of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art during its 2005 Ancient Egypt exhibit. The county's most visited park is Griffith Park , owned by the city of Los Angeles. The county is also known for the annual Rose Parade in Pasadena, the annual Los Angeles County Fair in Pomona, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art , the Los Angeles Zoo , the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County , the La Brea Tar Pits , the Arboretum of Los Angeles , and two horse racetracks and two car racetracks ( Pomona Raceway and Irwindale Speedway ), also the RMS Queen Mary located in Long Beach, and the Long Beach Grand Prix , and miles of beaches—from Zuma to Cabrillo. Venice Beach is a popular attraction where its Muscle Beach used to find throngs of tourists admiring \"hardbodies\". Today, it is more arts-centered. Santa Monica's pier is a well known tourist spot, famous for its ferris wheel and bumper car rides, which were featured in the introductory segment of the television sitcom Three's Company . Further north in Pacific Palisades one finds the beaches used in the television series Baywatch . [ citation needed ] The fabled Malibu , home of many a film or television star, lies west of it. In the mountain, canyon, and desert areas one may find Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park , where many old Westerns were filmed. Mount Wilson Observatory in the San Gabriel Mountains is open for the public to view astronomical stars from its telescope, now computer-assisted. Many county residents find relaxation in water skiing and swimming at Castaic Lake Recreation Area – the county's largest park by area – as well as enjoying natural surroundings and starry nights at Saddleback Butte State Park in the eastern Antelope Valley – California State Parks' largest in area within the county. The California Poppy Reserve is located in the western Antelope Valley and shows off the State's flower in great quantity on its rolling hills every spring. Museums [ edit ] Armory Center for the Arts , Pasadena, California Battleship USS Iowa , Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro SS Lane Victory , Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro , just south of the USS Iowa California African American Museum California Science Center , Los Angeles (formerly the Museum of Science and Industry) The Broad Hammer Museum Huntington Library , San Marino Long Beach Museum of Art in the historic Elizabeth Milbank Anderson residence Los Angeles Children's Museum Los Angeles County Fire Museum , in Bellflower [54] Los Angeles County Museum of Art , Mid-City, Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art , Downtown Los Angeles (founded in 1950); The Geffen Contemporary at MOCA , Downtown Los Angeles (founded in 1980) Museum of Jurassic Technology , Culver City Museum of Latin American Art in Long Beach Museum of Neon Art Museum of the American West (Gene Autry Museum), in Griffith Park Museum of Tolerance Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Pasadena Museum of California Art , in Pasadena J. Paul Getty Center , Brentwood (Ancient Roman , Greek , and European Renaissance Art) J. Paul Getty Villa , Pacific Palisades , Getty's original house George C. Page Museum at La Brea Tar Pits Santa Monica Museum of Art , Santa Monica (Contemporary art) Norton Simon Museum , Pasadena (19th- and early 20th-century art) Skirball Cultural Center , Los Angeles Southwest Museum Entertainment [ edit ] Pacific Park Six Flags Magic Mountain Raging Waters Six Flags Hurricane Harbor Universal Studios Hollywood Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Descanso Gardens Dodger Stadium Exposition Park Farmers Market The Forum Griffith Park Griffith Observatory Huntington Botanical Gardens La Brea Tar Pits Music Center Olvera Street Staples Center Third Street Promenade Venice Beach Los Angeles Zoo Music venues [ edit ] Disney Concert Hall California Plaza, comprising One California Plaza and Two California Plaza Cerritos Center for the Performing Arts The Forum Disney Concert Hall Greek Theatre House of Blues Sunset Strip Pantages Theatre Hollywood Bowl Hollywood Palladium John Anson Ford Amphitheatre The Orpheum Theatre The Roxy Theatre Royce Hall (UCLA) The Music Box El Rey Theatre Staples Center The Troubadour The Wiltern Whisky a Go Go Amusement parks [ edit ] Universal Studios Hollywood Raging Waters Six Flags Magic Mountain Six Flags Hurricane Harbor Pacific Park Other attractions [ edit ] U.S. Bank Tower Wilshire Grand Tower Central Los Angeles Library Watts Towers Wayfarers Chapel Fo Guang Shan Hsi Lai Temple Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels Queen Mary Other areas [ edit ] Angeles National Forest Ridge Route Angeles National Forest Mount Wilson Observatory Malibu Creek State Park Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park Plant 42's Blackbird Airpark and Heritage Airpark Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve Cortes Bank Santa Catalina Island Mojave Desert Saddleback Butte State Park Antelope Valley Indian Museum State Historic Park Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland State Park Transportation [ edit ] Main article: Transportation in Los Angeles Major highways [ edit ] I-5 I-5 Bus. I-10 I-105 I-110 I-210 I-405 I-605 I-710 US 101 SR 1 SR 2 SR 14 SR 18 SR 19 SR 22 SR 23 SR 27 SR 39 SR 47 SR 57 SR 60 SR 66 SR 71 SR 72 SR 90 SR 91 SR 103 SR 107 SR 110 SR 118 SR 126 SR 134 SR 138 SR 170 SR 210 SR 213 SR 710 Air [ edit ] Los Angeles International Airport Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), located in the Westchester district, is the primary commercial airport for commercial airlines in the county and the Greater Los Angeles Area. LAX is operated by Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA), an agency of the City of Los Angeles. Other important commercial airports in Los Angeles County include: Long Beach Municipal Airport operated by the City of Long Beach. Bob Hope Airport in Burbank, operated by the Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority. The following general aviation airports also are located in Los Angeles County: County operated airports ( Department of Public Works, Aviation Division ) Compton/Woodley Airport in Compton . San Gabriel Valley Airport in El Monte . Brackett Field in La Verne . Whiteman Airport in Pacoima . General William J. Fox Airfield in Lancaster . City operated airports Van Nuys Airport in Van Nuys , also operated by LAWA . Van Nuys Airport sees significant executive jet air traffic. LA/Palmdale Regional Airport in Palmdale . The airport is a separate facility on the grounds of Air Force Plant 42 . Santa Monica Airport in Santa Monica , which has major executive jet traffic. Hawthorne Municipal Airport , also known as Jack Northrop Field, in Hawthorne . Zamperini Field in Torrance . The U.S. Air Force operates three airports in Los Angeles County: Portions of Edwards Air Force Base , located at the northern edge of the county. Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, sharing runways with LA/Palmdale Regional. The non-flying Los Angeles Air Force Base in El Segundo. Rail [ edit ] Los Angeles is a major freight-railroad transportation center, largely due to the large volumes of freight moving in and out of the county's sea port facilities. The ports are connected to the downtown rail yards and to the main lines of Union Pacific and Burlington Northern Santa Fe headed east via a grade-separated, freight rail corridor known as the Alameda Corridor . Passenger rail service is provided in the county by Amtrak , Los Angeles Metro Rail and Metrolink . Amtrak has the following intercity Amtrak service at Union Station in the city of Los Angeles: The Pacific Surfliner to Santa Barbara , San Luis Obispo , and San Diego . The Coast Starlight to Seattle . The Southwest Chief to Chicago. The Sunset Limited to New Orleans and Orlando . Union Station is also the primary hub for Metrolink commuter rail, which serves much of the Greater Los Angeles Area . Light rail, subway (heavy rail), and long-distance bus service are all provided by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro). Sea [ edit ] The county's two main seaports are the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach . Together they handle over a quarter of all container traffic entering the United States, making the complex the largest and most important port in the country, and the third-largest port in the world by shipping volume. The Port of Los Angeles is the largest cruise ship center on the West Coast , handling more than 1 million passengers annually. The Port of Long Beach is home to the Sea Launch program, which uses a floating launch platform to insert payloads into orbits that would be difficult to attain from existing land-based launch sites. Ferries link the Catalina Island city of Avalon to the mainland. Communities [ edit ] Cities [ edit ] Main article: List of cities in Los Angeles County, California There are 88 incorporated cities in Los Angeles County. According to the 2016 Estimate, the most populous are: [55] Largest cities, 2016 Estimate City Population Los Angeles 3,976,322 Long Beach 470,130 Glendale 200,831 Santa Clarita 181,972 Lancaster 160,106 Palmdale 157,356 Pomona 152,494 Torrance 147,195 Pasadena 142,059 El Monte 115,807 Downey 113,267 West Covina 107,847 Norwalk 106,178 Burbank 104,447 Unincorporated areas [ edit ] Census designated places [ edit ] Acton Agua Dulce Alondra Park Altadena Avocado Heights Castaic Charter Oak Citrus Del Aire Desert View Highlands East Los Angeles East Pasadena East Rancho Dominguez East San Gabriel East Whittier Elizabeth Lake Florence-Graham Green Valley Hacienda Heights Hasley Canyon La Crescenta-Montrose Ladera Heights Lake Hughes Lake Los Angeles Lennox Leona Valley Littlerock Marina del Rey Mayflower Village North El Monte Quartz Hill Rose Hills Rowland Heights San Pasqual South Monrovia Island South San Gabriel South San Jose Hills South Whittier Stevenson Ranch Sun Village Topanga Val Verde Valinda View Park-Windsor Hills Vincent Walnut Park West Athens West Carson West Rancho Dominguez West Puente Valley West Whittier-Los Nietos Westmont Willowbrook Other communities [ edit ] Agoura Antelope Acres Athens Bassett Big Mountain Ridge Big Pines Big Rock Boiling Point Bouquet Canyon Castaic Junction City Terrace Del Sur Del Valle Florence Gorman Juniper Hills Kinneloa Mesa Llano Pearblossom Two Harbors Universal City Valyermo Centennial (planned for 70,000). [56] See: Los Angeles Almanac MAP: Unincorporated Areas and Communities of Los Angeles County See also: List of districts and neighborhoods of Los Angeles Population ranking [ edit ] The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Los Angeles County. [57] † county seat Rank City/Town/etc. Municipal type Population (2010 Census) 1 † Los Angeles City 3,792,621 2 Long Beach City 462,257 3 Glendale City 191,719 4 Santa Clarita City 176,320 5 Lancaster City 156,633 6 Palmdale City 152,750 7 Pomona City 149,058 8 Torrance City 145,438 9 Pasadena City 137,122 10 East Los Angeles CDP 126,496 11 El Monte City 113,475 12 Downey City 111,772 13 Inglewood City 109,673 14 West Covina City 106,098 15 Norwalk City 105,549 16 Burbank City 103,340 17 Compton City 96,455 18 South Gate City 94,396 19 Carson City 91,714 20 Santa Monica City 89,736 21 Whittier City 85,331 22 Hawthorne City 84,293 23 Alhambra City 83,089 24 Lakewood City 80,048 25 Bellflower City 76,616 26 Baldwin Park City 75,390 27 Lynwood City 69,772 28 Redondo Beach City 66,748 29 Florence-Graham CDP 63,387 30 Pico Rivera City 62,942 31 Montebello City 62,500 32 Monterey Park City 60,269 33 Gardena City 58,829 34 Huntington Park City 58,114 35 South Whittier CDP 57,156 36 Arcadia City 56,364 37 Diamond Bar City 55,544 38 Paramount City 54,098 39 Hacienda Heights CDP 54,038 40 Rosemead City 53,764 41 Glendora City 50,073 42 Cerritos City 49,041 43 Rowland Heights CDP 48,993 44 La Mirada City 48,527 45 Covina City 47,796 46 Azusa City 46,361 47 Altadena CDP 42,777 48 Bell Gardens City 42,072 49 Rancho Palos Verdes City 41,643 50 La Puente City 39,816 51 San Gabriel City 39,718 52 Culver City City 38,883 53 Monrovia City 36,590 54 Willowbrook CDP 35,983 55 Temple City City 35,558 56 Bell City 35,477 57 Manhattan Beach City 35,135 58 Claremont City 34,926 59 West Hollywood City 34,399 60 Beverly Hills City 34,109 61 San Dimas City 33,371 62 Lawndale City 32,769 63 Westmont CDP 31,853 64 La Verne City 31,063 65 Walnut City 29,172 66 Maywood City 27,395 67 South Pasadena City 25,619 68 West Whittier-Los Nietos CDP 25,540 69 Cudahy City 23,805 70 San Fernando City 23,645 71 Calabasas City 23,058 72 Valinda CDP 22,822 73 Lennox CDP 22,753 74 West Puente Valley CDP 22,636 75 West Carson CDP 21,699 76 Duarte City 21,321 77 South San Jose Hills CDP 20,551 78 Agoura Hills City 20,330 79 Lomita City 20,256 80 La Cañada Flintridge City 20,246 81 South El Monte City 20,116 82 La Crescenta-Montrose CDP 19,653 83 Hermosa Beach City 19,506 84 Castaic CDP 19,015 85 Stevenson Ranch CDP 17,557 86 El Segundo City 16,654 87 Artesia City 16,522 88 Santa Fe Springs City 16,223 89 Walnut Park CDP 15,966 90 Vincent CDP 15,922 91 Avocado Heights CDP 15,411 92 East Rancho Dominguez CDP 15,135 93 East San Gabriel CDP 14,874 94 Hawaiian Gardens City 14,254 95 Palos Verdes Estates City 13,438 96 San Marino City 13,147 97 Commerce City 12,823 98 Malibu City 12,645 99 Lake Los Angeles CDP 12,328 100 Sun Village CDP 11,565 101 View Park-Windsor Hills CDP 11,075 102 Signal Hill City 11,016 103 Sierra Madre City 10,917 104 Quartz Hill CDP 10,912 105 Citrus CDP 10,866 106 Del Aire CDP 10,001 107 East Whittier ( formerly East La Mirada until 2012 ) CDP 9,757 108 Charter Oak CDP 9,310 109 Marina del Rey CDP 8,866 110 West Athens CDP 8,729 111 Alondra Park CDP 8,592 112 Topanga CDP 8,289 113 Westlake Village City 8,270 114 South San Gabriel CDP 8,070 115 Rolling Hills Estates City 8,067 116 Acton CDP 7,596 117 South Monrovia Island CDP 6,777 118 Ladera Heights CDP 6,498 119 East Pasadena CDP 6,144 120 West Rancho Dominguez CDP 5,669 121 Mayflower Village CDP 5,515 122 La Habra Heights City 5,325 123 Avalon City 3,728 124 North El Monte CDP 3,723 125 Agua Dulce CDP 3,342 126 Rose Hills CDP 2,803 127 Val Verde CDP 2,468 128 Desert View Highlands CDP 2,360 129 San Pasqual CDP 2,041 130 Rolling Hills City 1,860 131 Hidden Hills City 1,856 132 Elizabeth Lake CDP 1,756 133 Leona Valley CDP 1,607 134 Irwindale City 1,422 135 Littlerock CDP 1,377 136 Hasley Canyon CDP 1,137 137 Bradbury City 1,048 138 Santa Susana ( mostly in Ventura County ) CDP 1,037 139 Green Valley CDP 1,027 140 Lake Hughes CDP 649 141 Industry City 219 142 Vernon City 112 See also [ edit ] Greater Los Angeles portal List of museums in Los Angeles List of museums in Los Angeles County, California List of school districts in Los Angeles County, California List of schools in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles National Register of Historic Places listings in Los Angeles County, California Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Percentage of registered voters with respect to total population. Percentages of party members with respect to registered voters follow. Jump up ^ Only larceny-theft cases involving property over $400 in value are reported as property crimes. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Chronology\" . California State Association of Counties . Retrieved February 6, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Board of Supervisors\" . County of Los Angeles . Retrieved December 1, 2014 . Jump up ^ Mount San Antonio in the San Gabriel Mountains , on border with San Bernardino County . Jump up ^ Sea level at the Pacific Ocean. ^ Jump up to: a b \"American FactFinder\" . Retrieved April 6, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Why LA County\" . Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation. 2014-06-02 . Retrieved 2018-01-21 . Jump up ^ \"Los Angeles County\" . lacounty.gov . ^ Jump up to: a b \"QuickFacts: Los Angeles County, California; UNITED STATES\" . U.S. Census Bureau . Retrieved 2018-01-21 . Jump up ^ http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-galperin-gop-tax-plan-20171129-story.html Jump up ^ \"Newsroom: Population: Census Bureau Releases State and County Data Depicting Nation's Population Ahead of 2010 Census\" . Census.gov. Archived from the original on August 24, 2012 . Retrieved August 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ Coy, Owen C.; Ph.D. (1923). California County Boundaries . Berkeley: California Historical Commission. p. 140. ASIN B000GRBCXG . Jump up ^ https://www.mapofus.org/california/ Jump up ^ \"2010 Census Gazetteer Files\" . United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012 . Retrieved September 26, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Los Angeles County, California\" . State & County QuickFacts . U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011 . Retrieved December 18, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"2010 Census P.L. 94-171 Summary File Data\" . United States Census Bureau . Jump up ^ Trinidad, Elson (27 September 2013). \"L.A. County is the Capital of Asian America\" . KCET . Retrieved 27 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"U.S. Decennial Census\" . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved September 26, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Historical Census Browser\" . University of Virginia Library . Retrieved September 26, 2015 . Jump up ^ Forstall, Richard L., ed. (March 27, 1995). \"Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990\" . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved September 26, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000\" (PDF) . United States Census Bureau. April 2, 2001 . Retrieved September 26, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"State & County QuickFacts\" . United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011 . Retrieved April 4, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B02001. American FactFinder . Retrieved October 26, 2013. Jump up ^ U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B03003. American FactFinder . Retrieved October 26, 2013. Jump up ^ U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19301. American FactFinder . Retrieved October 21, 2013. Jump up ^ U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19013. American FactFinder . Retrieved October 21, 2013. Jump up ^ U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19113. American FactFinder . Retrieved October 21, 2013. Jump up ^ This included over 65,000 Arabs and 75,000 Iranian, who many people would not count as White. See \"2000 Census fact sheet table\" . Census.gov . Archived from the original on December 5, 2008. . For a clear discussion of Arabs being counted as white, see Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin Archived December 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ., 2000 Census. Jump up ^ \"Language Map Data Center\" . Mla.org. July 17, 2007 . Retrieved August 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ Johnson, Hans; Hill, Laura (July 2011). \"Illegal Immigration\" (PDF) . Publications . Public Policy Institute of California . Retrieved January 15, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"American FactFinder\" . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved May 14, 2011 . Jump up ^ Kristen Lewis and Sarah Burd-Sharps, A Portrait of Los Angeles County: Los Angeles County Human Development Report 2017-2018 . Measure of America of the Social Science Research Council. Jump up ^ Frank, Robert (May 5, 2008). \"California Boasts Most Millionaires\" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved September 29, 2011 . Jump up ^ Nagourney, Adam (December 12, 2010). \"Los Angeles Confronts Homelessness Reputation\" . New York Times . Retrieved December 14, 2010 . Jump up ^ Segal, Elizabeth; Emerling, Jennifer (9 May 2018). \"A Haven for the Homeless\" . U.S. New & World Report . Retrieved 9 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Selected Non-Christian Religious Traditions in Los Angeles County: 2000 Prolades.com Jump up ^ California Government Code § 23004 Jump up ^ William T Fujioka, \"Department Section,\" County of Los Angeles, Annual Report 2007-2008 , 4. Jump up ^ David Leip. \"Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections\" . Uselectionatlas.org . Retrieved 2018-01-21 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k California Secretary of State. February 10, 2013 - Report of Registration . Retrieved October 31, 2013. Archived July 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"Counties by County and by District\" . California Citizens Redistricting Commission . Retrieved September 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Communities of Interest — County\" . California Citizens Redistricting Commission . Retrieved September 28, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Communities of Interest — County\" . California Citizens Redistricting Commission . Retrieved September 28, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Statement of Vote: 2008 General Election\" Archived October 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ A look at your Superior Court , Public Information Office, Los Angeles Superior Court Jump up ^ \"LA Court\" . lasuperiorcourt.org . Archived from the original on February 19, 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Office of the Attorney General, Department of Justice, State of California. Table 11: Crimes – 2009 . Retrieved November 14, 2013. Archived December 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to: a b c United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States, 2012, Table 8 (California) . Retrieved November 14, 2013. Jump up ^ \"City data – Los Angeles County, CA\" . analyzed data from numerous sources . Retrieved April 18, 2009 . Jump up ^ Kator, Zabi. \"Is Security in Los Angeles getting better or worse\" . guardNOW Security Services . guardNOW Security Services . Retrieved August 28, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Kator, Zabi. \"Los Angeles Security & Crime Statistics\" . guardNOW Security Services . guardNOW Security Services . Retrieved August 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ Lawren (2014-10-06). \"LA Tech Report examines the regional high tech ecosystem\" . Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation . Retrieved 2016-11-09 . Jump up ^ Lawren (2014-07-15). \"Manufacturing employment & competitiveness in CA - New LAEDC report\" . Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation . Retrieved 2016-11-09 . Jump up ^ Encyclopedia.com , \"Dole gets ready to turn first shovel of headquarters dirt: plans are set to go to Westlake Village City Council\". (Dole Food Co. Inc. Los Angeles Business Journal . January 31, 1994. Retrieved on September 27, 2009. \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on January 18, 2012 . Retrieved 2009-09-28 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Home, LOS ANGELES FIRE DEPARTMENT MUSEUM\" . LOS ANGELES FIRE DEPARTMENT MUSEUM . Retrieved 2017-01-11 . Jump up ^ \"Los Angeles County QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau\" . Quickfacts.census.gov. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011 . Retrieved August 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ Jon Gertner (2007-03-18). \"Playing Sim City for Real\" . New York Times Magazine . Retrieved 2018-01-21 . Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on December 21, 2013 . Retrieved 2014-05-25 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Los Angeles County, California . Wikisource has the text of an 1879 American Cyclopædia article about Los Angeles County, California . County government website show Places adjacent to Los Angeles County, California Kern County Kern County San Bernardino County Ventura County Los Angeles County San Bernardino County Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean Orange County show v t e County of Los Angeles Board of supervisors Hilda Solis, 1st Dist. Mark Ridley-Thomas, 2nd Dist. Sheila Kuehl, 3rd Dist. Janice Hahn, 4th Dist. Kathryn Barger, 5th Dist. Departments Assessor's Office Chief Executive Office Children and Family Services County Counsel District Attorney's Office Fire Health Agency Health Services Mental Health Public Health Internal Services Lifeguards Medical Examiner-Coroner Military and Veterans Affairs Parks and Recreation Probation Public Defender Public Library Public Works Sheriff's Superior Court Airports Fox Field Brackett Field Whiteman Airport Compton/Woodley Airport El Monte Airport County hospitals LAC+USC Medical Center Harbor–UCLA Medical Center High Desert Regional Health Center Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center Olive View-UCLA Medical Center Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center Culture Ahmanson Theatre Arboretum and Botanic Garden Bob Hope Patriotic Hall Descanso Gardens Dorothy Chandler Pavilion Grand Park John Anson Ford Amphitheatre Hollywood Bowl La Brea Tar Pits Mark Taper Forum Museum of Art Music Center Natural History Museum South Coast Botanic Garden Walt Disney Concert Hall Whittier Narrows Others LAC Sheriff's Air Rescue 5 LACMTA Seal Sheriff's Department officers killed in the line of duty LAC Hall of Records show v t e Municipalities and communities of Los Angeles County, California , United States County seat : Los Angeles Cities Agoura Hills Alhambra Arcadia Artesia Avalon Azusa Baldwin Park Bell Bell Gardens Bellflower Beverly Hills Bradbury Burbank Calabasas Carson Cerritos Claremont Commerce Compton Covina Cudahy Culver City Diamond Bar Downey Duarte El Monte El Segundo Gardena Glendale Glendora Hawaiian Gardens Hawthorne Hermosa Beach Hidden Hills Huntington Park Industry Inglewood Irwindale La Cañada Flintridge La Habra Heights La Mirada La Puente La Verne Lakewood Lancaster Lawndale Lomita Long Beach Los Angeles Lynwood Malibu Manhattan Beach Maywood Monrovia Montebello Monterey Park Norwalk Palmdale Palos Verdes Estates Paramount Pasadena Pico Rivera Pomona Rancho Palos Verdes Redondo Beach Rolling Hills Rolling Hills Estates Rosemead San Dimas San Fernando San Gabriel San Marino Santa Clarita Santa Fe Springs Santa Monica Sierra Madre Signal Hill South El Monte South Gate South Pasadena Temple City Torrance Vernon Walnut West Covina West Hollywood Westlake Village Whittier CDPs Acton Agua Dulce Alondra Park Altadena Avocado Heights Castaic Charter Oak Citrus Del Aire Desert View Highlands East Los Angeles East Pasadena East Rancho Dominguez East San Gabriel East Whittier Elizabeth Lake Florence-Graham Green Valley Hacienda Heights Hasley Canyon La Crescenta-Montrose Ladera Heights Lake Hughes Lake Los Angeles Lennox Leona Valley Littlerock Marina del Rey Mayflower Village North El Monte Quartz Hill Rose Hills Rowland Heights San Pasqual South Monrovia Island South San Gabriel South San Jose Hills South Whittier Stevenson Ranch Sun Village Topanga Val Verde Valinda View Park-Windsor Hills Vincent Walnut Park West Athens West Carson West Puente Valley West Rancho Dominguez West Whittier-Los Nietos Westmont Willowbrook Unincorporated communities Agoura Alla Alpine Alsace Altacanyada Andrade Corner Antelope Acres Antelope Center Athens Aurant Bassett Big Pines Boiling Point Castaic Junction City Terrace Cornell Del Sur Del Valle Firestone Park Florence Gorman Hillgrove Hi Vista Indian Springs Juniper Hills Kagel Canyon Kinneloa Mesa Largo Vista Llano Malibu Vista Monte Nido Neenach Ninetynine Oaks Pearblossom Rancho Dominguez Red Box Sand Canyon Sandberg Seminole Hot Springs Three Points Two Harbors Universal City Valyermo Ghost towns Achois Acuragna Ahapchingas Alpine Alyeupkigna Awigna Azucsagna Bairdstown Bartolo Cahuenga Chandler Chokishgna Chowigna Clayton Cow Springs Cucamonga Desert Relief Eldoradoville Evergreen Falling Springs Fort Tejon Gaspur Guirardo Hahamongna Harasgna Holland Summit Hollands Holton Honmoyausha Houtgna Hyperion Isanthcogna Juyubit King's Station Kowanga Las Tunas Lyons Station Machado Malibu Mar Vista Maugna Mentryville Motordrome Mud Spring Nacaugna Oberg Okowvinjha Palisades Del Rey Pasinogna Petroleopolis Pimocagna Pubugna Quapa Savannah Saway-yanga Sibagna Sisitcanogna Soledad Sulphur Springs Sonagna Suangna Takuyumam Toviseanga Toybipet Tuyunga Virgenes Wahoo Walton Place Widow Smith's Station Wilsona show v t e Los Angeles metropolitan area Population - 12,874,797 Counties Los Angeles Orange Major city 3.8 million Los Angeles Cities over 250K Long Beach Santa Ana Anaheim Cities and towns 100k-250k Burbank Costa Mesa Downey East Los Angeles El Monte Fullerton Garden Grove Glendale Huntington Beach Inglewood Irvine Norwalk Orange Pasadena Pomona Santa Clarita Simi Valley South Gate Thousand Oaks Torrance West Covina Bodies of water Arroyo Seco Ballona Creek Coyote Creek Los Angeles River Rio Hondo San Gabriel River San Pedro Bay Santa Ana River Santa Clara River Santa Monica Bay Regions Central Los Angeles Downtown Los Angeles East Los Angeles Gateway Cities Greater Hollywood Harbor Area Northeast Los Angeles Northwest Los Angeles Orange County 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{ "text": "Industrial Revolution - Wikipedia Industrial Revolution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution and mechanized factories, powered by a central water wheel or steam engine , were the new workplace. The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines , new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power , the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system . Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. [1] : 40 The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain , and many of the technological innovations were British. [2] By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation [3] , controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa , and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent , through the activities of the East India Company . [4] The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution. [1] : 15 The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. [5] [6] [7] GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, [8] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. [9] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. [10] The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes . [11] [12] [13] [14] Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, [11] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. [12] Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, [15] with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France. [1] An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph , widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution . These new innovations included new steel making processes, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories. [1] [16] [17] [18] Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 2 Important technological developments 2.1 Textile manufacture 2.1.1 British textile industry statistics 2.1.2 Cotton 2.1.3 Trade and textiles 2.1.4 Pre-mechanized European textile production 2.1.5 Invention of textile machinery 2.1.6 Wool 2.1.7 Silk 2.2 Iron industry 2.2.1 UK iron production statistics 2.2.2 Iron process innovations 2.3 Steam power 2.4 Machine tools 2.5 Chemicals 2.6 Cement 2.7 Gas lighting 2.8 Glass making 2.9 Paper machine 2.10 Agriculture 2.11 Mining 2.12 Transportation 2.12.1 Canals and improved waterways 2.12.2 Roads 2.12.3 Railways 2.13 Other developments 3 Social effects 3.1 Factory system 3.2 Standards of living 3.2.1 Food and nutrition 3.2.2 Housing 3.2.3 Sanitation 3.2.4 Water supply 3.2.5 Increase in literacy 3.3 Clothing and consumer goods 3.4 Population increase 3.5 Urbanization 3.6 Impact on women and family life 3.7 Labour conditions 3.7.1 Social structure and working conditions 3.7.2 Factories and urbanisation 3.7.3 Child labour 3.7.4 Organisation of labour 3.7.5 Luddites 3.7.6 Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc. 3.7.7 Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery 3.8 Impact on environment 4 Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom 4.1 Continental Europe 4.1.1 Belgium 4.1.1.1 Demographic effects 4.1.2 France 4.1.3 Germany 4.1.4 Sweden 4.2 Japan 4.3 United States 5 Second Industrial Revolution 6 Causes 6.1 Causes in Europe 6.2 Causes in Britain 6.3 Transfer of knowledge 6.3.1 Protestant work ethic 7 Opposition from Romanticism 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Sources 10 External links Etymology The earliest recorded use of the term \"Industrial Revolution\" seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto , announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise. [19] In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society , Raymond Williams states in the entry for \"Industry\": \"The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen , between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the [19th] century.\" The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui 's description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle . [20] Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of \"an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society\". However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee , whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term. [21] Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts , have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians. Important technological developments The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, [22] beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies: Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. [23] The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50. [17] Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. [1] Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. [1] : 82 The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation. [24] Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production. [1] : 89–93 Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, [25] [26] resulting in economies of scale . The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge . [27] The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades. Invention of machine tools – The first machine tools were invented. These included the screw cutting lathe , cylinder boring machine and the milling machine . [28] Textile manufacture Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution British textile industry statistics In 1750 Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of which was spun and woven by cottage industry in Lancashire. The work was done by hand in workers homes or occasionally in shops of master weavers. In 1787 raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded and spun on machines. [1] : 41–42 The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6% in 1760, 17% in 1801 and 22.4% in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1% in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760 approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by 1800. In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800 less than 0.1% of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years. [29] Wages in Lancashire , a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about six times those in India in 1770, when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India. [29] Cotton Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle-East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange . In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality. [29] The early Spanish explorers found Native Americans growing a previously unknown species of good quality cotton: Gossypium hirsutum . Cotton plantations were eventually established in the West Indies and the Americas which provided Britain with a source of this difficult to obtain raw material. [29] A strain of cotton seed brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi, USA in 1806 would become the parent genetic material for over 90% of world cotton production today; it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick. Trade and textiles The Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century. Following the discovery of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (abbr. VOC) or Dutch East India Company and the British founded the East India Company , along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid-1760s cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century. [29] European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution. Pre-mechanized European textile production By 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The Moors in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century. [29] British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labor cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's. [30] In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India. [1] [31] The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian , a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft . Flax was used for the warp because wheel-spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100% cotton and was more difficult to sew. [31] On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system . Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel , it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver. [1] [31] [32] : 823 Invention of textile machinery The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay , with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, Robert , invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors. [32] : 821–22 Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham . Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743 a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster , but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill . Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule . Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal . Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution. In 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny , which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles. [33] The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting. [34] It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in 1792, [35] and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft , not warp . [32] : 825–27 The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright. [32] : 827–30 For each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre, which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name. The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton . The mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour. Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule was introduced in 1779. Mule implies \"hybrid\" because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating. [32] : 832 Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities. [32] : 832 Interior of Marshall's Temple Works Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two-man operated loom which was more conventional. [32] : 834 Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers. Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co. [36] The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin . With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day. [17] These advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs , of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay ; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power – first horse power and then water power —which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery. Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories. [37] Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine-woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand-woven Indian cloth, in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high tread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low-wage India, eventually destroying the industry. [29] Wool The earliest European attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant, but was far less that that of cotton. [1] [4] Silk Lombe's Mill site today, rebuilt as Derby Silk Mill Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe 's water-powered silk mill at Derby , operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, since the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London . [38] [39] Iron industry The reverberatory furnace could produce cast iron using mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur and silica. This opened the way to increased iron production. The Iron Bridge , Shropshire , England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron. [40] Horizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single puddling furnace. A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door; F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall UK iron production statistics In the UK in 1720 there were 20,500 tons of cast iron produced with charcoal and 400 tons with coke. In 1750 charcoal iron production was 24,500 and coke iron was 2,500 tons. In 1788 the production of charcoal cast iron was 14,000 tons while coke iron production was 54,000 tons. In 1806 charcoal cast iron production was 7,800 tons and coke cast iron was 250,000 tons. [41] : 125 Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron, with substantial losses. Bar iron was also made by the bloomery process. In 1750 the UK imported 31,200 tons of bar iron and either refined from cast iron or directly produced 18,800 tons of bar iron using charcoal and 100 tons using coke. In 1796 the UK was making 125,000 tons of bar iron with coke and 6,400 tons with charcoal; imports were 38,000 tons and exports were 24,600 tons. In 1806 the UK did not import bar iron but exported 31,500 tons. [41] : 125 Iron process innovations A major change in the iron industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, [42] and coal was much more abundant than wood, supplies of which were becoming scarce before the enormous increase in iron production that took place in the late 18th century. [1] [41] : 122 By 1750 coke had generally replaced charcoal in smelting of copper and lead and was in widespread use in making glass. In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and coke produced inferior iron to that made with charcoal because of the coal's sulfur content. Low sulfur coals were known, but they still contained harmful amounts. Conversion of coal to coke only slightly reduces the sulfur content. [41] : 122–125 A minority of coals are coking. Another factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows. This was solved by the steam engine. [41] Use of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different, and later, innovation.) By 1709 Abraham Darby made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale . [43] However, the coke pig iron he made was not suitable for making wrought iron and was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron until 1755-56, when Darby's son Abraham Darby II built furnaces at Horsehay and Ketley where low sulfur coal was available (and not far from Coalbrookdale). These new furnaces were equipped with water-powered bellows, the water being pumped by Newcomen steam engines . The Newcomen engines were not attached directly to the blowing cylinders because the engines would not produce a steady air blast. Abraham Darby III installed similar steam-pumped, water-powered blowing cylinders at the Dale Company when he took control in 1768. The Dale Company used several Newcomen engines to drain its mines and made parts for engines which it sold throughout the country. [41] : 123–125 Steam engines made the use higher-pressure and volume blast practical; however, the leather used in bellows was expensive to replace. In 1757 iron master John Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine for blast furnaces. [44] The blowing cylinder for blast furnaces was introduced in 1760 and the first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by John Smeaton . [41] : 124, 135 Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping. James Watt had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine. In 1774 John Wilkinson, who built a cast iron blowing cylinder for his iron works, invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders. After Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a Boulton and Watt steam engine in 1776, he was given an exclusive contract for providing cylinders. [17] After Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, they were widely applied to blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting. [41] : 124 The solutions to the sulfur problem were the addition of sufficient limestone to the furnace to force sulfur into the slag and the use of low sulfur coal. Use of lime or limestone required higher furnace temperatures to form a free-flowing slag. The increased furnace temperature made possible by improved blowing also increased the capacity of blast furnaces and allowed for increased furnace height. [41] : 123–125 In addition to lower cost and greater availability, coke had other important advantages over charcoal in that it was harder and made the column of materials (iron ore, fuel, slag) flowing down the blast furnace more porous and did not crush in the much taller furnaces of the late 19th century. [45] As cast iron was became cheaper and widely available, it began being a structural material for bridges and buildings. A famous early example was the Iron Bridge built in 1778 with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III . [40] However, most cast iron was converted to wrought iron , which was turned into hardware items such as nails, wire, chains, agricultural implements, tools and wagon tires. Europe relied on the bloomery for most of its wrought iron until the large scale production of cast iron. Conversion of cast iron was done in a finery forge , as it long had been. An improved refining process known as potting and stamping was developed, but this was superseded by Henry Cort 's puddling process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784. [1] : 91 Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost. Puddling was a means of decarburizing molten pig iron by slow oxidation in a reverberatory furnace by manually stirring it with a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob a large enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40. [46] Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke to be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised. Rolling was an important part of the puddling process because the grooved rollers expelled most of the molten slag and consolidated the mass of hot wrought iron. Rolling was 15 times faster at this than a trip hammer . A different use of rolling, which was done at lower temperatures than that for expelling slag, was in the production of iron sheets, and later structural shapes such as beams, angles and rails. The puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with iron oxide. [47] In 1838 John Hall patented the use of roasted tap cinder (iron silicate) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom. The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorous, but this was not understood at the time. [41] : 166 Hall's process also used iron scale or rust, which reacted with carbon in the molten iron. Hall's process, called wet puddling , reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%. [1] : 93 Puddling became widely used after 1800. Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of iron imported from Sweden and Russia to supplement domestic supplies. Because of the increased British production, imports began to decline in 1785 and by the 1790s Britain eliminated imports and became a net exporter of bar iron. Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke; [48] however, the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved. [49] Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive; [50] however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably. Shortly before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel , which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process . The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and other hardware items. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries. Steam power Main article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution A Watt steam engine . James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine. The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp. [51] The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its \"brand name\", The Miner's Friend ). Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century. The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a significant amount of capital to build, and produced upwards of 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800. [52] Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution. A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt . With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton , he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine , which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder, thereby making the low-pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20–25% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen's. Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795. By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces , and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (3.7 to 7.5 kW). Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine , built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine . Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats . The development of machine tools , such as the engine lathe , planing , milling and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines. Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century. These included crank -powered, treadle -powered and horse-powered workshop and light industrial machinery. [53] Machine tools Main article: Machine tool See also: Interchangeable parts Maudslay 's famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800 The Middletown milling machine of circa 1818, associated with Robert Johnson and Simeon North Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen – millwrights built water and windmills, carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners. The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools . They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve. [28] [17] The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. Wilkinson's boring machine differed from earlier cantilevered machines used for boring cannon in that the cutting tool was mounted on a beam that ran through the cylinder being bored and was supported outside on both ends. [17] The planing machine , the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century. [28] [17] Henry Maudslay , who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich . He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of Jan Verbruggen . In 1774 Jan Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size Lathe in the UK. Maudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template. [17] [32] : 392–95 The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions. Although it was not entirely Maudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest and change gears. [17] : 31, 36 Maudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills . These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability . The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts , Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth . [17] James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement. The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century. [28] In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added. [54] Chemicals The large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck ( James Watt 's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead . Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase. The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate . The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid . The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone ( calcium carbonate ) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide . Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants ( barilla ) or from kelp , which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, [55] and also to potash ( potassium carbonate ) produced from hardwood ashes. These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth. The development of bleaching powder ( calcium hypochlorite ) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet , revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow , became the largest chemical plant in the world. After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs , and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry. [56] Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860–1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead, the practice was to hire German-trained chemists. [57] Cement The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843). Cement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin , a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete . Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel . [58] Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later. Gas lighting Main article: Gas lighting Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting . Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch , an employee of Boulton & Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before. Glass making Main article: Glass production The Crystal Palace held the Great Exhibition of 1851 A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process , was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure. Paper machine Main article: Paper machine A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint-Léger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier , who were stationers in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today. The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes. [59] Agriculture Main article: British Agricultural Revolution The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy. [60] However, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century. [61] Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill , the Dutch plough , which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine. Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century. [62] Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough. [63] [64] [65] [66] The threshing machine , invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail , a laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour. [67] : 286 It took several decades to diffuse [68] and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots . Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders and combine harvesters. [28] Mining Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales , started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton 's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The Cornish engine , developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine . Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson . However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions , so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls. Transportation Main article: Transport during the British Industrial Revolution See also: Productivity improving technologies (economic history) § Infrastructures At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed 50% between 1750 and 1830. [69] The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly. Canals and improved waterways Main article: History of the British canal system The Bridgewater Canal , famous because of its commercial success, crossing the Manchester Ship Canal , one of the last canals to be built. Before and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening and building navigation locks . Britain had over 1000 miles of navigable rivers and streams by 1750. [1] : 46 Canals and waterways allowed bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart. [32] [70] Building of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand Canal in China, \"the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence,\" parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804 km) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing. [71] In the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West England , which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater . From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost £168,000 (£22,589,130 as of 2013 [update] ), [72] [73] but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half. [74] This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania . [75] New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively. By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal , which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world, [76] and opened Manchester as a port . However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper. Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain. Roads Construction of the first macadam road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones \"so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring\". [77] France was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution. [70] [78] Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust . New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf , Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam , with the first ' macadamised ' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. [79] The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse . Stagecoaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts . Railways Main article: History of rail transport in Great Britain Painting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its success. Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England. “A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.” [80] Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800. Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill Trials , which demonstrated Robert Stephenson 's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of Hot blast , which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the blast furnace . On 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened, the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington . [81] The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson , linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool . The opening was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania . Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories. Other developments Other developments included more efficient water wheels , based on experiments conducted by the British engineer John Smeaton [82] the beginnings of a machine industry [17] [83] and the rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar ) by John Smeaton , which had been lost for 1300 years. [84] Social effects Main article: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution Factory system Main article: Factory system Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants, or as landless agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India, China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods. In Britain by the 16th century the putting-out system , by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes, often described as cottage industry , was being practiced. Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece , and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system. [85] Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers. [86] Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories. The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers. [29] Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: British Agricultural Revolution , Threshing machine ) The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx , however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology. [87] Standards of living Some economists, such as Robert E. Lucas, Jr. , say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that \"for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.\" [5] Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s. [6] [7] During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829. [88] The effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s. [89] A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards. [89] During 1813–1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages. [90] [91] [92] Food and nutrition Main article: British Agricultural Revolution Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45–50 years although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century. [93] Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the Corn Laws (1815-1846). The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the Great Irish Famine . The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices. [61] In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by Thomas Malthus . [1] [67] [94] [95] This condition is called the Malthusian trap , and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships. [96] Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution. [67] Housing The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London. [97] The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms. [98] [99] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. [100] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low-income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s. [101] [102] [103] A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high. [104] Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions. Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house . Sanitation In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described how untreated sewage created awful odors and turned the rivers green in industrial cities. In 1854 John Snow traced a cholera outbreak in Soho to fecal contamination of a public water well by a home cesspit. Snow's findings that cholera could be spread by contaminated water took some years to be accepted, but his work led to fundamental changes in the design of public water and waste systems. Water supply Pre-industrial water supply relied on gravity systems and pumping of water was done by water wheels. Pipes were typically made of wood. Steam powered pumps and iron pipes allowed the widespread piping of water to horse watering troughs and households. [78] Increase in literacy The invention of the paper machine and the application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which contributed to rising literacy and demands for mass political participation. Clothing and consumer goods Wedgwood tea and coffee service Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe. Watches and household clocks became popular consumer items. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood , founder of Wedgwood fine china and porcelain, created goods such as tableware , which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables. [105] Population increase The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income. [106] According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore , the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. [107] Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s. [108] [109] Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900. [110] Urbanization The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities, [111] compared to nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century). [112] Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million. [113] Impact on women and family life Women's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women. [114] [115] Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th-century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women. [116] In a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation. [117] Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the \"family wage economy\" of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the \"family consumer economy,\" in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption. [118] Labour conditions Social structure and working conditions In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20% to 40% less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life; [119] however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children. [29] Also, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel – child labour , dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution. [120] Factories and urbanisation Main article: Factory system Manchester, England (\" Cottonopolis \"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory chimneys Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory . The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed \" Cottonopolis \", and the world's first industrial city. [121] Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford was actually born there. [122] For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water-powered and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler. In other industries, the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen , known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills , and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement . By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol . Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system. Child labour See also: Child labour § The Industrial Revolution A young \"drawer\" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery. [123] In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions. The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly. [88] [124] There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. [125] Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, [126] 10–20% of an adult male's wage. [127] Children as young as four were employed. [127] Beatings and long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm. [127] Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions. [127] Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25. [127] Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as \"pauper apprentices\", working without wages for board and lodging. [127] Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape. [127] Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated. [127] Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw . [127] Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust. [127] Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines [128] and textile factories, [129] and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare. Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation , and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts , were passed in Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult. [127] About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century. [130] Organisation of labour See also: Trade union § History The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining. The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action . Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted. In 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne , to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs . In the 1830s and 1840s, the Chartist movement was the first large-scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration. Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class. Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain. [131] Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party . Luddites Main article: Luddite Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812 The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers, and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd , a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures, using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life. Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions , and further pressure for reform. Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc. The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine-made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved. [29] Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, cotton was grown in small plots in the Old World — the uncrowned Americas were far better able to recruit available land with the potential for new cotton production. Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies, particularly in Hispaniola , but Haitian cotton production was halted by the Haitian Revolution in 1791. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable, leading to the widespread growth of cotton plantations in the United States and Brazil. The Americas, particularly the U.S., had labor shortages and high priced labor, which made slavery attractive. America's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable, and able to keep up with demand. [132] The U.S. Civil war created a \"cotton famine\" that lead to increased production in other areas of the world, including new colonies in Africa. Impact on environment Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century. The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. [133] The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts , passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution ( gaseous hydrochloric acid ) given off by the Leblanc process , used to produce soda ash . An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke , grit, dust and fumes under supervision. The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812–1820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity. [134] The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits. [135] In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. [136] Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond , frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations. [137] Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom Continental Europe The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron ), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted. Belgium Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: Wallonia (French speaking southern Belgium) was the first region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi . The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill . His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825. [138] Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word \"houille\" was coined in Wallonia), [139] the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel , 'Especially in the Haine , Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège , (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...'. [140] Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: \"It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain.\" [141] \"The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent .\" [142] Michel De Coster, Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: \"The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated.\" [143] Demographic effects Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel , which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say: The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine , Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège , where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows. [144] France Main article: Economic history of France The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take-off . [145] Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer: French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789–1815), industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860), economic slowdown (1860–1905), renewal of the growth after 1905. Germany Main article: Economic history of Germany Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical. [146] Germany's political disunity – with three dozen states – and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France [147] Sweden This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Main article: Economic history of Sweden During the period 1790–1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation , with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s. During 1815–1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen , textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in Norrland . Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848. During 1850–1890, Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. During 1890–1930, Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution. New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile. Japan Main articles: Meiji Restoration and Economic history of Japan The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan ( Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan ). In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan , founded in 1882, [148] used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west. Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas. [149] United States Main articles: American system of manufacturing , Interchangeable parts , Economic history of the United States , Technological and industrial history of the United States , and Industrial Revolution in the United States See also: History of Lowell, Massachusetts Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island . During the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy. [150] The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period. [151] [152] Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts , the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century. Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production . [28] The United States originally used horse-powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States , which has fast-moving rivers. The newer water-powered production lines proved more economical than horse-drawn production. In the late 19th century steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest. Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era, [153] and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill. [154] In 1793, Samuel Slater (1768–1835) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island . He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire , England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills. [155] Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut , and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts .) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of \"America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island , was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's Industrial and Technological Development. Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company . Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts , second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory . After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering , one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts , using 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River , is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like Waltham-Lowell system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine , the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour. A major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The milling machine , a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by Eli Whitney , who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by Thomas Blanchard . The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing . [28] Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry. [156] and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company , with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches. Second Industrial Revolution Main article: Second Industrial Revolution Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz , Germany, 1868 Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a \"Second Industrial Revolution\", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality. [32] [157] Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century. This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical industries , petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive industry , and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany. The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation. A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries . The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel , General Electric , Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's stock markets . Causes Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution. The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self-sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry , for example weaving , and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories . [158] The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. [159] A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development. [160] Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. [161] However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution. [162] Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages , much earlier than most estimates. [163] He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that \"the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock\". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine. The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them. [164] Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England , they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain. Governments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors. [165] Watt's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick , William Murdoch , or Jonathan Hornblower , whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power. [166] [167] Causes in Europe Main article: Great Divergence Interior of the London Coal Exchange , c. 1808. European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth. One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India , and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity [168] or the Middle Ages . [169] Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes [170] (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), \"modern\" government, \"modern\" work attitudes, ecology, and culture. [171] China was the world's most technological advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society. [172] [173] Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars [174] ) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe. [175] Historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. [176] The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius , Mencius , Han Feizi ( Legalism ), Lao Tzu ( Taoism ), and Buddha ( Buddhism ), resulting in very different worldviews. [177] Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea. [178] Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: \"The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain.\" [179] In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire , with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas , Sikhs , Bengal Subah , and Kingdom of Mysore . In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors – agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over. [ citation needed ] Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that political fragmentation (the presence of a large number of European states) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India. China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an \"integrated market for ideas\" where Europe's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters . [180] Causes in Britain As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies. Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution. [181] Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland; (2) no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint-stock companies (corporations); (5) absence of tolls, which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century, but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world, and (6) a free market (capitalism). [1] \"An unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself.\" – British historian Jeremy Black on the BBC's Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here . [105] Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe. [1] : 332 There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self-interest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution. [105] These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions. [182] The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution. [183] Even though slavery accounted for so little, Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12% of Britain's industrial output. [184] William Bell Scott Iron and Coal , 1855–60 Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy [185] ). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position – an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe , 1716, Sir James Thornhill . Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals William III and Mary II who had taken the throne after the Glorious Revolution and signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king Louis XIV . [186] Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England , the English Midlands , South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands . Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution , and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism. [187] (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc 's The Servile State .) The French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, Letters on the English (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. \"Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London , a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan [Muslim], and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker’s word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another’s throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.\" [188] Britain's population grew 280% 1550–1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50–80%. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750–1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 ha ) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy. In 1700, 5/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s. [189] Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur. [190] These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies. [190] Transfer of knowledge A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766). Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods. Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham , in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' ( i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, \"They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution\". [191] Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions . There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris 's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Abraham Rees 's Cyclopaedia (1802–1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates. Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines , published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours. Protestant work ethic Main article: Protestant work ethic Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work. [192] The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber ) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War . Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England , contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures. Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities ). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act , they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians , in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences – areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies. Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class , such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Opposition from Romanticism Main article: Romanticism During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes. [193] Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , John Keats , Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley . The movement stressed the importance of \"nature\" in art and language, in contrast to \"monstrous\" machines and factories; the \"Dark satanic mills\" of Blake's poem \" And did those feet in ancient time \". Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry. [194] See also General Automation Capitalism in the nineteenth century Capitalist mode of production Carboniferous period Coal Deindustrialization Digital Revolution Division of labour Dual revolution Economic history of the United Kingdom Hydraulics Human timeline Industrial Age Industrial society Information revolution Laissez-faire Law of the handicap of a head start – Dialectics of progress Machine Age Steam The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Other Chinese industrialization Petroleum Revolution Science and invention in Birmingham References ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r David S. 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ISBN 0-393-96315-2 . Jump up ^ Coren, Michael J. (31 January 2018). \"The speed of Europe's 18th-century sailing ships is revamping history's view of the Industrial Revolution\" . Quartz . Retrieved 31 January 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Grübler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport (PDF) . Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. Jump up ^ Donald Langmead. Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats . ABC-CLIO. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-57607-112-0 . Retrieved 15 February 2013 . Jump up ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). \"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)\" . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 6 November 2017 . 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Railroads of the United States, Their History and Statistics . Philadelphia: John. E. Potter and Co. pp. 12, 13. Jump up ^ Herbert L. Sussman (2009). \"Victorian Technology: Invention, Innovation, and the Rise of the Machine\". p. 2. ABC-CLIO, 2009 Jump up ^ Rosen, William (2012). The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention . University Of Chicago Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-226-72634-2 . Jump up ^ Musson; Robinson (1969). Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution . University of Toronto Press. p. 477. Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) \"Building construction: the reintroduction of modern concrete\" Jump up ^ Landes & year-1969 , pp. 57–59 Jump up ^ Landes & year-1969 , p. 59 Jump up ^ Hunt, E. K.; Lautzenheiser, Mark (2014). History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective . PHI Learning. ISBN 978-0765625991 . ^ Jump up to: a b Mabel C. 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Although the survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the average Briton was about as old in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, p. 28). Population size statistics from mortality.org put the mean age at about 26. Jump up ^ \" Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills \". Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST. Jump up ^ The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England , Laura Del Col, West Virginia University. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Venning, Annabel (17 September 2010). \"Britain's child slaves: They started at 4am, lived off acorns and had nails put through their ears for shoddy work. Yet, says a new book, their misery helped forge Britain\" . dailymail.co.uk . London . Retrieved 19 September 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Testimony Gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission\" . 2008 . 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Jump up ^ Morison, Elting E. (1966). Men, Machines and Modern Times . Cambridga, Ma and London, UK: The M.I.T Press. Jump up ^ Steven Kreis (11 October 2006). \"The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England\" . Historyguide.org . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ \" Scientific Revolution \". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 28 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine . 31 October 2009. Jump up ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present . Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–16. ISBN 9781107507180 . Jump up ^ Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution , Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-7131-6531-6 Jump up ^ Fullerton, Ronald A. (January 1988). \"How Modern Is Modern Marketing? Marketing's Evolution and the Myth of the \"Production Era \" \". The Journal of Marketing . New York City, NY: American Marketing Association . 52 (1): 108–25. doi : 10.2307/1251689 . JSTOR 1251689 . Jump up ^ \"Technics & Civilization\" . Lewis Mumford . Retrieved 8 January 2009 . Jump up ^ Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution , Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29609-9 Read it Jump up ^ Eric Schiff, Industrialisation without national patents: the Netherlands, 1869–1912; Switzerland, 1850–1907 , Princeton University Press, 1971. Jump up ^ Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, Against Intellectual Monopoly , \"Chapter 1, final online version January 2, 2008\" (PDF) . (55 KB) , p. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-87928-6 Jump up ^ Mott-Smith, Morton (1964) [Unabridged and revised version of the book first published by D. Appleton-Century Company in 1934 under the former title: The Story of Energy]. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained . New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 13–14. ISBN 0-486-21071-5 . Jump up ^ Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece? J. Bradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Retrieved January 2007. Jump up ^ The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England |The History Guide, Steven Kreis, 11 October 2006 – Accessed January 2007 Jump up ^ Jackson J. Spielvogel (2009). \" Western Civilization: Since 1500 \". p.607. Jump up ^ Eric Bond; Sheena Gingerich; Oliver Archer-Antonsen; Liam Purcell; Elizabeth Macklem (17 February 2003). \"The Industrial Revolution – Causes\" . Industrialrevolution.sea.ca . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Temple, Robert (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention . New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham> Jump up ^ Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World . Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. ISBN 0-87951-397-7 <A companion to the PBS Series “The Genius That Was China”> Jump up ^ \"Cobb-Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 – Simulating early modern growth\" (PDF) . (254 KB) Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History/University of Utrecht. May 2005. Retrieved January 2007. Jump up ^ Landes, David (1999). The Wealth and Poverty of Nations . W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393318883 . Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus . Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 20–32. ISBN 0-521-09418-6 . Jump up ^ Merson 1990 , pp. 34–35 Jump up ^ How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor Iain Stewart Jump up ^ South Asian History Archived 27 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine . – Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation. Rajni-Palme Dutt India Today (Indian Edition published 1947). Retrieved January 2007. Jump up ^ \"Mokyr, J.: A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy. (eBook and Hardcover)\" . press.princeton.edu . Retrieved 9 March 2017 . 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With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced every 4 to 5 years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be seen as a similar factor. Jump up ^ Old Naval College Archived 26 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Barrington Moore, Jr. , Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World , pp. 29–30, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966. Jump up ^ Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de. (1909–14) [1734]. \"Letter VI – On the Presbyterians. Letters on the English\" . www.bartleby.com . The Harvard Classics . Retrieved 22 July 2017 . Jump up ^ E A Wrigley, Continuity chance and change . ^ Jump up to: a b Crafts, Nicholas (2011-04-01). \"Explaining the first Industrial Revolution: two views\" . European Review of Economic History . 15 (1): 153–168. doi : 10.1017/S1361491610000201 . ISSN 1361-4916 . Jump up ^ \"The Lunar Society\" . Archived from the original on 7 February 2008 . Retrieved 7 February 2008 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) at Moreabout, the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide, Bob Miles. Jump up ^ Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation . Northwich: Arley Hall Press. ISBN 0-9518382-4-5 . Argues that capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible, for example. Jump up ^ Michael Löwy and Robert Sayre, eds., Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity (Duke University Press, 2001). Jump up ^ AJ George, The development of French romanticism: the impact of the industrial revolution on literature (1955) Sources Ashton, Thomas S. (1948). \"The Industrial Revolution (1760–1830)\" . Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Berlanstein, Lenard R., ed. (1992). The Industrial Revolution and work in nineteenth-century Europe . London and New York: Routledge. Clapham, J. H. (1926). \"An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820–1850\" . Cambridge University Press. Clapham, J. H. The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914 (1921) online , a famous classic, filled with details. Clark, Gregory (2007). A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World . Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12135-4 . Daunton, M. J. (1995). \"Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700–1850\" . Oxford University Press. Dunham, Arthur Louis (1955). \"The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815–1848\" . New York: Exposition Press. Gatrell, Peter (2004). \"Farm to factory: a reinterpretation of the Soviet industrial revolution\". The Economic History Review . 57 (4): 794. doi : 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x . Griffin, Emma (2010). Short History of the British Industrial Revolution . Palgrave. Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1958). The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America . Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1971). The Chemical Industry: 1900–1930: International Growth and Technological Change . Jacob, Margaret C. (1997). \"Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West\". Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Kindleberger, Charles Poor (1993). A Financial History of Western Europe . Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-507738-5 . Kisch, Herbert (1989). \"From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the Rhineland Textile Districts\" . Oxford University Press. Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997) Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present . Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-09418-6 . McNeil, Ian, ed. (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology . London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1 . Maddison, Angus (2003). \"The World Economy: Historical Statistics\". Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Mantoux, Paul (1961) [1928]. \"The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century\" (First English translation 1928 ed.). McLaughlin Green, Constance (1939). \" Holyoke, Massachusetts: A Case History of the Industrial Revolution in America\" . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914 (1977) Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870 (1973) Mokyr, Joel (1999). \"The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective\" . More, Charles (2000). \"Understanding the Industrial Revolution\" . London: Routledge. Olson, James S. Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America (2001) Pollard, Sidney (1981). \"Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760–1970\" . Oxford University Press. Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920 (2 vol. 2007) Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders , New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 ( LCCN 27-24075 ); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, ( ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7 ). Smelser, Neil J. (1959). \"Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry\" . University of Chicago Press. Staley, David J. ed. Encyclopedia of the History of Invention and Technology (3 vol 2011), 2000pp Stearns, Peter N. (1998). \"The Industrial Revolution in World History\" . Westview Press. Smil, Vaclav (1994). \"Energy in World History\" . Westview Press. Archived from the original on 18 July 2007. Snooks, G.D. (2000). \"Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary?\". London: Routledge. Szostak, Rick (1991). \"The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of England and France\" . Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. Timbs, John (1860). Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts: A Book for Old and Young . Harper & Brothers. Toynbee, Arnold (1884). Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England . ISBN 1-4191-2952-X . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . Uglow, Jenny (2002). \"The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future 1730–1810\". London: Faber and Faber. Usher, Abbott Payson (1920). \"An Introduction to the Industrial History of England\" . University of Michigan Press. Chambliss, William J. (editor), Problems of Industrial Society , Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, December 1973. ISBN 978-0-201-00958-3 Hawke, Gary. \"Reinterpretations of the Industrial Revolution\" in Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault, eds. The Industrial Revolution and British Society (1993) pp 54–78 McCloskey, Deirdre (2004). \"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson)\" . Times Higher Education Supplement . 15 (January) . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Industrial revolution . Wikiquote has quotations related to: Industrial Revolution Wikiversity quiz on this Industrial Revolution article Industrial Revolution at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution – Articles, Video, Pictures, and Facts \"The Day the World Took Off\" Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question \"Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did.\" [ show ] v t e The Industrial Revolution Themes Coal Coal mining Coke Cotton Industry Invention Iron Machinery , Manufacturing Metallurgy Sociology Steam power Steel Technology Textiles , Water power Workforce People/ groups Richard Arkwright Thomas Boulsover Matthew Boulton James Brindley Isambard Kingdom Brunel Edmund Cartwright Henry Cort Thomas and George Cranege 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{ "text": "James Worthy - Wikipedia James Worthy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the record producer, see James Worthy (producer) . James Worthy Worthy in 2007 Personal information Born ( 1961-02-27 ) February 27, 1961 (age 57) Gastonia, North Carolina Nationality American Listed height 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m) Listed weight 225 lb (102 kg) Career information High school Ashbrook (Gastonia, North Carolina) College North Carolina (1979–1982) NBA draft 1982 / Round: 1 / Pick: 1st overall Selected by the Los Angeles Lakers Playing career 1982–1994 Position Small forward Number 42 Career history 1982 – 1994 Los Angeles Lakers Career highlights and awards 3× NBA champion ( 1985 , 1987 , 1988 ) NBA Finals MVP ( 1988 ) 7× NBA All-Star ( 1986 – 1992 ) 2× All-NBA Third Team ( 1990 , 1991 ) NBA All-Rookie First Team ( 1983 ) NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time Team No. 42 retired by Los Angeles Lakers NCAA champion ( 1982 ) NCAA Final Four Most Outstanding Player (1982) Consensus first-team All-American ( 1982 ) No. 52 retired by the University of North Carolina Career NBA statistics Points 16,320 (17.6 ppg) Rebounds 4,708 (5.1 rpg) Steals 1,041 (1.1 spg) Stats at Basketball-Reference.com Basketball Hall of Fame as player College Basketball Hall of Fame Inducted in 2006 Medals [hide] Men's basketball Representing United States FIBA U19 World Championship 1979 Salvador National team James Ager Worthy (born February 27, 1961) is an American former professional basketball player who is currently a commentator , television host, and analyst. [1] Named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History , \" Big Game James \" was a seven-time NBA All-Star , three-time NBA champion , and the 1988 NBA Finals MVP with the Los Angeles Lakers in the National Basketball Association (NBA). A standout at the University of North Carolina , the 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m) small forward shared College Player of the Year honors [2] en route to leading the Tar Heels to the 1982 NCAA Championship . Named the tournament's Most Outstanding Player , he was No. 1 pick of the 1982 NBA draft of the defending NBA champion Lakers. Contents [ hide ] 1 Early life 2 College career 3 NBA career 3.1 Number 1 pick 3.2 \"Big Game James\" 4 NBA career statistics 4.1 NBA 4.1.1 Regular season 4.1.2 Playoffs 5 Post NBA 5.1 TV career 5.2 Coaching career 5.3 Philanthropy 6 Personal life 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Early life [ edit ] Worthy was born in Gastonia, North Carolina . His 21.5 points, 12.5 rebounds and 5.5 assists per game during his senior season at Ashbrook High led the team to the state championship game. Named both a Parade Magazine and McDonald's All-American, he was selected to play in the 1979 McDonald's All-American Game that featured future NBA Hall of Famers Isiah Thomas , Dominique Wilkins and Ralph Sampson . College career [ edit ] After graduating high school, Worthy attended the University of North Carolina (UNC). An immediate standout, his freshman year was cut short near mid-season by a broken ankle. As a sophomore, he was a key member of that school's 1981 NCAA runner-up team, starring alongside Al Wood and Sam Perkins . As a junior power forward, Worthy was the leading scorer (15.6 points per game) of a Tar Heels NCAA championship team that featured one of the greatest collections of talent in collegiate basketball history, [2] including future NBA stars Sam Perkins and freshman Michael Jordan . A consensus first team All-American, [3] Worthy shared College Player of the Year honors with Virginia Cavalier Ralph Sampson . [2] He dominated the 1982 championship game against the Georgetown Hoyas , sealing the Tarheels' 63–62 victory by intercepting an inadvertent pass thrown by Hoya point guard Fred Brown with just seconds remaining. His 13–17 shooting, 28 point, 4 rebound finale capped a standout performance throughout the NCAA tournament, earning him its Most Outstanding Player award. A tip dunk in front of Patrick Ewing captioned \"James Worthy slams the door on Georgetown\" made the cover of Sports Illustrated . [4] In the wake of this success Worthy elected to forgo his senior year and enter the NBA draft. He completed his degree later, via summer school. He is one of eight UNC players to have their numbers retired. [3] NBA career [ edit ] Number 1 pick [ edit ] The Los Angeles Lakers had received the Cleveland Cavaliers ' 1982 first-round draft pick in a 1979 exchange for Don Ford . [5] The Cavaliers finished with the NBA's worst record in the 1981–82 season , leaving a coin toss to decide whether they or the worst record runner-up San Diego Clippers would get the number one pick in the upcoming draft. The Lakers won the flip, the first and only time for a reigning league champion. They chose Worthy. The lanky small forward immediately made an impact as a rookie, averaging 13.4 points per game and shooting a Laker rookie record .579 field goal percentage. With his speed, dynamic ability to score with either hand, and dazzling play above the rim, Worthy thrived in the Lakers' high-octane \" Showtime \" offense. When not finishing fast breaks with his trademark Statue of Liberty dunks or swooping finger rolls, Worthy was also one of the best post players at his position, with a quick spin move and a deadly turnaround jumpshot. His rookie year ended just when he was hitting his stride, breaking his leg on April 10, 1983, while landing improperly after trying to tap in a missed shot against the Phoenix Suns . [6] He was still named to the 1983 All-Rookie First Team but missed the rest of the season and playoffs. This section possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2015) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Back and healthy for the opening of the 1983–84 season , Worthy's effective play soon had him replacing All-Star and fan favorite Jamaal Wilkes in the starting line-up. The Lakers dominated throughout the Western Conference Playoffs and faced the Boston Celtics in the Finals . Late in Game 2 Worthy made an errant cross-court pass that was picked off and taken in for the game-tying score. The Lakers dropped the game in overtime, but pushed the series to the limit before being bested in seven games. \"Big Game James\" [ edit ] This section possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2015) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) With hard driving coach Pat Riley demanding nothing but a championship ring, the Lakers were on a mission of redemption in 1985. Once again they met the Celtics in the Finals, this time decided in LA's favor on the famed parquet floor of the Boston Garden . During the play-off run to title Worthy emerged as a feared clutch performer. He averaged 21.5 points per game on 62.2% shooting in the playoffs, and his play and 23.7 points per game against the Celtics in the Finals [7] confirmed him as one of the league's premier players. A scratched cornea in a March game against the Utah Jazz forced Worthy to wear goggles the rest of his career. The 1985–86 season held tremendous promise for the Lakers, which all disappeared in a preternatural tip in 1986 NBA Playoffs by 7' 4\" Houston Rockets star Ralph Sampson . Worthy, however, continued to improve, averaging 20 points per game on 58% shooting and was named to the first of seven consecutive All-Star appearances. It was during the 1986 offseason that rumors were floated about a Worthy trade to the Mavericks for Roy Tarpley. Lakers GM Jerry West held his ground in favor of keeping Worthy and the trade never materialized. However the Lakers knew that they needed to address the aging Kareem's need for frontcourt support. During the 1986–1987 regular season the Lakers added Mychal Thompson to address this need for frontcourt help. The team also transitioned from Kareem's team to Magic and the result was a 65-17 record and what many regard as one of the NBA's all-time great teams [8] sprinting to another NBA title over the Celtics. Worthy was at the top of his game, averaging 23.6 points per game in the playoffs . Once again Riley drove the Lakers hard in 1987–88 , and once again they celebrated a championship, the first back-to-back titles in the NBA since '68-'69 Celtics. During the regular season Worthy averaged 19.7 points and scored a career-high 38 points against the Atlanta Hawks . During the Finals against the Pistons Worthy once again excelled, picking up the slack for an aging Jabbar and averaged 22 ppg, 7.4 rebounds, and 4.4 assists in the series. [9] A 28-point, 9 rebound Game 6 and explosive 36/16/10 triple double that sealed victory in Game 7 of the Finals earned him the NBA Finals MVP award. A fourth ring beckoned in 1988–89 , but it was not to be. With Riley clamoring for a \"Three-peat\", the Lakers marched through the regular season and met the Pistons for an encore in the Finals. With Abdul-Jabbar playing his last games and Magic Johnson and Byron Scott missing three due to injuries even Worthy at his play-off best was not nearly enough. In spite of averaging a career Finals high 25.5 ppg, [10] including a career high 40 points trying to stave off elimination in Game 4, the Lakers were swept in four. Even on Lakers teams dominated by fellow Hall of Fame and NBA Top 50 teammates Jabbar and Magic Johnson, Worthy stood out during their years together. Unmatched on the fast break, he electrified \"Showtime\"-era audiences with his dunks, and his lightning-quick first step in the paint was the Lakers' #2 offensive option. His highlight reel contributions to the team's 1985, 1987, and 1988 championships were an exclamation point on LA's 1980s basketball dynasty. The Lakers ran hot again in 1989–90 , their 63-19 record the NBA's best. In spite of stepped up performances by both Johnson (25.2 ppg) and Worthy (24.2 ppg) in the play-offs, LA fell in the Conference semifinals to a hot Phoenix Suns. It was back to the Finals again 1991, thanks to Worthy's team-leading and career high 21.4 ppg and the addition of former Tarheel star Sam Perkins. Worthy suffered a high ankle sprain in Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals against the Blazers and was very limited heading into the Finals against the Bulls. Despite LA pulling out a Game 1 victory in Chicago, it ultimately wasn't enough against a hot Chicago Bulls squad led by Michael Jordan . The Lakers fell in five games. Worthy sat out Game 5 after re-injuring the ankle in Game 4. It would be Worthy's last chance at a fourth ring. Magic Johnson's sudden retirement in November 1991 threw the Lakers franchise for a loop. Injuries and high mileage spelled the end for Worthy. The high ankle injury during the 1991 playoffs and season-ending knee surgery in 1992 had robbed much of his quickness and leaping ability. After struggling with knee pain in the 1994–95 preseason, Worthy announced his retirement in November 1994, after 12 seasons in the NBA. Worthy played in 926 NBA regular season games, averaging 17.6 points, 5.1 rebounds and three assists per game. [11] He played in 143 play-off games and averaged 21.1 points, 5.2 rebounds and 3.2 assists per game and had a 54.4 field goal percentage. In 34 NBA Finals games he averaged 22.2 pts per game on 53% shooting. Worthy played in 4 Game 7s in his career and averaged 27 pts 8.2 rebs on 60% shooting in these contests. He ranks sixth all-time in Lakers team scoring (16,320), third all-time in team steals (1,041) and seventh all-time in team field goal percentage (.521). Voted one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996, Worthy was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2003. His jersey No. 42 was retired by the Lakers . NBA career statistics [ edit ] Legend GP Games played GS Games started MPG Minutes per game FG% Field goal percentage 3P% 3-point field goal percentage FT% Free throw percentage RPG Rebounds per game APG Assists per game SPG Steals per game BPG Blocks per game PPG Points per game Bold Career high † Denotes seasons in which Worthy won an NBA championship NBA [ edit ] Regular season [ edit ] Year Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG 1982–83 L.A. Lakers 77 1 25.6 .579 .250 .624 5.2 1.7 1.2 .8 13.4 1983–84 L.A. Lakers 82 53 29.5 .556 .000 .759 6.3 2.5 .9 .9 14.5 1984–85 † L.A. Lakers 80 76 33.7 .572 .000 .776 6.4 2.5 1.1 .8 17.6 1985–86 L.A. Lakers 75 73 32.7 .579 .000 .771 5.2 2.7 1.1 1.0 20.0 1986–87 † L.A. Lakers 82 82 34.4 .539 .000 .751 5.7 2.8 1.3 1.0 19.4 1987–88 † L.A. Lakers 75 72 35.4 .531 .125 .796 5.0 3.9 1.0 .7 19.7 1988–89 L.A. Lakers 81 81 36.5 .548 .087 .782 6.0 3.6 1.3 .7 20.5 1989–90 L.A. Lakers 80 80 37.0 .548 .306 .782 6.0 3.6 1.2 .6 21.1 1990–91 L.A. Lakers 78 74 38.6 .492 .289 .797 4.6 3.5 1.3 .4 21.4 1991–92 L.A. Lakers 54 54 39.0 .447 .209 .814 5.6 4.7 1.4 .4 19.9 1992–93 L.A. Lakers 82 69 28.8 .447 .270 .810 3.0 3.4 1.1 .3 14.9 1993–94 L.A. Lakers 80 2 20.0 .406 .288 .741 2.3 1.9 .6 .2 10.2 Career 926 717 32.4 .521 .241 .769 5.1 3.0 1.1 .7 17.6 Playoffs [ edit ] Year Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG 1984 L.A. Lakers 21 0 33.7 .599 .500 .609 5.0 2.7 1.3 .5 17.7 1985 † L.A. Lakers 19 19 32.9 .622 .500 .676 5.1 2.2 .9 .7 21.5 1986 L.A. Lakers 14 14 38.5 .558 .000 .681 4.6 3.2 1.1 .7 19.6 1987 † L.A. Lakers 18 18 37.8 .591 .000 .753 5.6 3.5 1.6 1.2 23.6 1988 † L.A. Lakers 24 24 37.3 .523 .111 .758 5.8 4.4 1.4 .8 21.1 1989 L.A. Lakers 15 15 40.0 .567 .375 .788 6.7 2.8 1.2 1.1 24.8 1990 L.A. Lakers 9 9 40.7 .497 .250 .837 5.6 3.0 1.6 .3 24.2 1991 L.A. Lakers 18 18 40.7 .465 .167 .736 4.1 3.9 1.1 .1 21.1 1993 L.A. Lakers 5 0 29.6 .372 .250 .600 3.4 2.6 1.0 .0 13.8 Career 143 117 37.0 .544 .209 .727 5.2 3.2 1.2 .7 21.1 Post NBA [ edit ] TV career [ edit ] Worthy was a studio analyst for Time Warner Cable SportsNet and Time Warner Cable Deportes and co-host of Access SportsNet , the networks' pregame and postgame show for Lakers game telecasts on in Los Angeles; he also served as an NBA analyst for KCBS-TV in Los Angeles. Worthy has acted in several television shows. He portrayed the Klingon Koral in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode \" Gambit, Part II \". [12] He also guest starred as himself on Everybody Loves Raymond [13] and Webster . Coaching career [ edit ] On September 28, 2015, Worthy was hired to work with the Lakers coaching staff with a focus on the team's big men. [14] [15] Philanthropy [ edit ] Worthy is the founder of the James Worthy Foundation, [16] and dedicates a substantial amount of his time and resources to support non-profit community organizations such as Boys & Girls Clubs, Big Brothers of America, YMCA, and others. Personal life [ edit ] Worthy was married to Angela Wilder from 1984 to 1996; they have two daughters, Sable and Sierra Worthy. See also [ edit ] National Basketball Association portal List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"worthy-others-join-team-120911\" . Twcsportsnet.com. 2012-09-12. Archived from the original on 2013-10-20 . Retrieved 2014-06-28 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"James Worthy Bio\" . NBA.com . Retrieved 2014-06-28 . ^ Jump up to: a b UNC Men's Basketball Media Guide , 2007, p. 95. Jump up ^ Finally, its Carolina. (1982) Sports Illustrated Jump up ^ \"No. 6: James Worthy\" . latimes.com . Archived from the original on April 28, 2014. Jump up ^ Worthy injures leg, April 10, 1983 on YouTube Jump up ^ \"1985 NBA Finals Composite Box Score\" . basketballreference.com. Jump up ^ The 7 Greatest NBA Offenses of All Time: \"The best offensive team of the Showtime Lakers era — and the best offense in NBA history\" Jump up ^ \"1988 NBA Finals Composite Box Score\" . basketballreference.com. Jump up ^ \"1989 NBA Finals Composite Box Score\" . basketballreference.com. Jump up ^ \"James Worthy Career Stats\" . basketballreference.com. Jump up ^ Star Trek - The Next Generation, Episode 157: Gambit, Part 2 . Paramount Home Video ( VHS ). Hollywood, California : Paramount Pictures . February 2, 1999. ASIN B000003K5M . Retrieved March 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ James Worthy on IMDb Jump up ^ \"Lakes Hire James Worthy to Work with Coaching Staff\" . NBA.com . September 28, 2015 . Retrieved October 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Lakers hire James Worthy to work with coaching staff, player development\" . SilverScreenAndRoll.com . September 28, 2015 . Retrieved September 28, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"James Worthy – Foundation | The official website of NBA player and analyst James Worthy\" . Jamesworthy42.com . Retrieved 2014-06-28 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to James Worthy . Official website Career statistics and player information from Basketball-Reference.com James Worthy at the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame [ show ] Links to related articles [ show ] v t e North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball 1981–82 NCAA champions 21 Jimmy Black 22 Buzz Peterson 23 Michael Jordan 32 John Brownlee 41 Sam Perkins 44 Matt Doherty 50 Cecil Exum 52 James Worthy ( MOP ) Head coach Dean Smith Assistant coaches Bill Guthridge Eddie Fogler Roy Williams [ show ] v t e 1982 NCAA Men's Basketball Consensus All-Americans First Team Terry Cummings Quintin Dailey Sleepy Floyd Ralph Sampson James Worthy Second Team Dale Ellis Kevin Magee John Paxson Sam Perkins Paul Pressey [ show ] v t e 1982 NBA Draft First round James Worthy Terry Cummings Dominique Wilkins Bill Garnett LaSalle Thompson Trent Tucker Quintin Dailey Clark Kellogg Cliff Levingston Keith Edmonson Fat Lever John Bagley Sleepy Floyd Lester Conner David Thirdkill Terry Teagle Brook Steppe Ricky Pierce Rob Williams Paul Pressey Eddie Phillips Mark McNamara Darren Tillis Second round Oliver Robinson Bryan Warrick Ricky Frazier Fred Roberts Dave Magley Scott Hastings Wallace Bryant Rod Higgins Richard Anderson Linton Townes Vince Taylor Derek Smith Mitchell Anderson Audie Norris Wayne Sappleton Kevin Magee Guy Morgan Dwight Anderson Jeff Taylor Jose Slaughter Mike Gibson Russ Schoene Tony Guy [ show ] v t e NBA first overall draft picks 1947 : McNeely 1948 : Tonkovich 1949 : Shannon 1950 : Share 1951 : Melchiorre 1952 : Workman 1953 : Felix 1954 : Selvy 1955 : Ricketts 1956 : Green 1957 : Hundley 1958 : Baylor 1959 : Boozer 1960 : Robertson 1961 : Bellamy 1962 : McGill 1963 : Heyman 1964 : Barnes 1965 : Hetzel 1966 : Russell 1967 : Walker 1968 : Hayes 1969 : Alcindor 1970 : Lanier 1971 : Carr 1972 : L. Martin 1973 : Collins 1974 : Walton 1975 : D. Thompson 1976 : Lucas 1977 : Benson 1978 : M. Thompson 1979 : E. Johnson 1980 : Carroll 1981 : Aguirre 1982 : Worthy 1983 : Sampson 1984 : Olajuwon 1985 : Ewing 1986 : Daugherty 1987 : D. Robinson 1988 : Manning 1989 : Ellison 1990 : Coleman 1991 : L. Johnson 1992 : O'Neal 1993 : Webber 1994 : G. Robinson 1995 : Smith 1996 : Iverson 1997 : Duncan 1998 : Olowokandi 1999 : Brand 2000 : K. Martin 2001 : Brown 2002 : Yao 2003 : James 2004 : Howard 2005 : Bogut 2006 : Bargnani 2007 : Oden 2008 : Rose 2009 : Griffin 2010 : Wall 2011 : Irving 2012 : Davis 2013 : Bennett 2014 : Wiggins 2015 : Towns 2016 : Simmons 2017 : Fultz [ show ] v t e Los Angeles Lakers 1984–85 NBA champions 4 Scott 11 McAdoo 12 Lester 21 Cooper 25 Kupchak 31 Rambis 32 Johnson 33 Abdul-Jabbar ( Finals MVP ) 35 Spriggs 40 McGee 42 Worthy 43 Nevitt Head coach Riley Assistant coaches Bertka Wohl Regular season Playoffs [ show ] v t e Los Angeles Lakers 1986–87 NBA champions 1 Matthews 4 Scott 21 Cooper 24 Branch 31 Rambis 32 Johnson ( Finals MVP ) 33 Abdul-Jabbar 42 Worthy 43 M. Thompson 45 Green 52 Smrek 55 B. Thompson Head coach Riley Assistant coaches Bertka Pfund Regular season Playoffs [ show ] v t e Los Angeles Lakers 1987–88 NBA champions 1 Matthews 3 Lamp 4 Scott 19 Campbell 20 Wagner 21 Cooper 31 Rambis 32 Johnson 33 Abdul-Jabbar 42 Worthy ( Finals MVP ) 43 M. Thompson 45 Green 52 Smrek 55 B. Thompson Head coach Riley Assistant coaches Bertka Pfund Regular season Playoffs [ show ] v t e Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Class of 2003 Players Dino Meneghin Robert Parish James Worthy Coach Leon Barmore Contributors Chick Hearn Meadowlark Lemon Earl Lloyd [ show ] v t e Members of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Players Guards R. Allen Archibald Beckman Belov Bing Blazejowski Borgmann Brennan Cervi Cheeks Clayton Cooper-Dyke Cousy Dampier Davies Drexler Dumars Edwards Frazier Friedman Galis Gervin Goodrich Greer Guerin Hanson Haynes Holman Hyatt Isaacs Iverson Jeannette D. Johnson E. Johnson K. Jones S. Jones Jordan Kidd Lieberman Maravich Marcari Marčiulionis Martin McDermott McGrady D. McGuire Meyers R. Miller Monroe C. Murphy Nash Page Payton Petrović Phillip Posey Richmond Robertson Rodgers Roosma J. Russell Schommer Scott Sedran Sharman K. Smith Staley Steinmetz Stockton Swoopes Thomas Thompson Vandivier Wanzer West J. White Wilkens Woodard Wooden Forwards Arizin Barkley Barry Baylor Bird Bradley R. Brown Cunningham Curry Dalipagić Dantley DeBusschere Dehnert Endacott English Erving Foster Fulks Gale Gates Gola Hagan Havlicek Hawkins Hayes Haywood Heinsohn Hill Howell G. Johnson King Lucas Luisetti K. Malone McClain B. McCracken J. McCracken McGinnis McHale Mikkelsen C. Miller Mullin Pettit Pippen Pollard Radja Ramsey Rodman Schayes E. Schmidt O. Schmidt Stokes C. Thompson T. Thompson Twyman Walker Washington N. White Wilkes Wilkins Worthy Yardley Centers Abdul-Jabbar Barlow Beaty Bellamy Chamberlain Ćosić Cowens Crawford Daniels DeBernardi Donovan Ewing Gallatin Gilmore Gruenig Harris-Stewart Houbregs Issel W. Johnson Johnston M. Krause Kurland Lanier Leslie Lovellette Lapchick Macauley M. Malone McAdoo Meneghin Mikan Mourning S. Murphy Mutombo Olajuwon O'Neal Parish Pereira Reed Risen Robinson B. Russell Sabonis Sampson Semjonova Thurmond Unseld Wachter Walton Yao Coaches Alexeeva P. Allen Anderson Auerbach Auriemma Barmore Barry Blood Boeheim L. Brown Calhoun Calipari Cann Carlson Carnesecca Carnevale Carril Case Chancellor Chaney Conradt Crum Daly Dean Díaz-Miguel Diddle Drake Driesell Ferrándiz Gaines Gamba Gardner Gaze Gill Gomelsky Gunter Hannum Harshman Haskins Hatchell Heinsohn Hickey Hobson Holzman Hughes Hurley Iba Izzo P. Jackson Julian Keaney Keogan Knight Krzyzewski Kundla Lambert Leonard Lewis Litwack Loeffler Lonborg Magee McCutchan McGraw A. McGuire F. McGuire McLendon Meanwell Meyer Miller Moore Nelson Nikolić Novosel Olson Pitino Ramsay Richardson Riley Rubini Rupp Rush Sachs Self Sharman Shelton Sloan D. Smith Stringer Summitt Tarkanian Taylor Teague J. Thompson VanDerveer Wade Watts Wilkens G. Williams R. Williams Wooden Woolpert Wootten Yow Contributors Abbott Barksdale Bee Biasone H. Brown W. Brown Bunn Buss Clifton Colangelo Cooper Davidson Douglas Duer Embry Fagan Fisher Fleisher Gavitt Gottlieb Granik Gulick Harrison Hearn Henderson Hepp Hickox Hinkle Irish M. Jackson Jernstedt Jones Kennedy Knight J. Krause Lemon Liston Lloyd McLendon Lobo Mokray Morgan Morgenweck Naismith Newell Newton J. O'Brien L. 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Johnson 1980: E. Johnson 1981: Maxwell 1982: E. Johnson 1983: Malone 1984: Bird 1985: Abdul-Jabbar 1986: Bird 1987: E. Johnson 1988: Worthy 1989: Dumars 1990: Thomas 1991: Jordan 1992: Jordan 1993: Jordan 1994: Olajuwon 1995: Olajuwon 1996: Jordan 1997: Jordan 1998: Jordan 1999: Duncan 2000: O'Neal 2001: O'Neal 2002: O'Neal 2003: Duncan 2004: Billups 2005: Duncan 2006: Wade 2007: Parker 2008: Pierce 2009: Bryant 2010: Bryant 2011: Nowitzki 2012: James 2013: James 2014: Leonard 2015: Iguodala 2016: James 2017: Durant [ show ] v t e NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player 1939: Hull 1940: Huffman 1941: Kotz 1942: Dallmar 1943: Sailors 1944: Ferrin 1945: Kurland 1946: Kurland 1947: Kaftan 1948: Groza 1949: Groza 1950: Dambrot 1951: Spivey 1952: Lovellette 1953: Born 1954: Gola 1955: Russell 1956: Lear 1957: Chamberlain 1958: Baylor 1959: West 1960: Lucas 1961: Lucas 1962: Hogue 1963: Heyman 1964: Hazzard 1965: Bradley 1966: Chambers 1967: Alcindor 1968: Alcindor 1969: Alcindor 1970: Wicks 1971: Porter * 1972: Walton 1973: Walton 1974: Thompson 1975: Washington 1976: Benson 1977: Lee 1978: Givens 1979: Johnson 1980: Griffith 1981: Thomas 1982: Worthy 1983: Olajuwon 1984: Ewing 1985: Pinckney 1986: Ellison 1987: Smart 1988: Manning 1989: Rice 1990: Hunt 1991: Laettner 1992: Hurley 1993: Williams 1994: Williamson 1995: O'Bannon 1996: Delk 1997: Simon 1998: Sheppard 1999: Hamilton 2000: Cleaves 2001: Battier 2002: Dixon 2003: Anthony 2004: Okafor 2005: May 2006: Noah 2007: Brewer 2008: Chalmers 2009: Ellington 2010: Singler 2011: Walker 2012: Davis 2013: Hancock 2014: Napier 2015: Jones 2016: Arcidiacono 2017: Berry II 2018: DiVincenzo * Ruled ineligible after tournament [ show ] v t e ACC Athlete of the Year Athlete of the Year 1954: Joel Shankle 1955: Dickie Hemric 1956: Dave Sime 1957: Lennie Rosenbluth 1958: Dick Christy 1959: Lou Pucillo 1960: Mike McGee 1961: Roman Gabriel 1962: Len Chappell 1963: Art Heyman 1964: Jeff Mullins 1965: Brian Piccolo 1966: Danny Talbott 1967: Bobby Bryant 1968: Larry Miller 1969: Frank Quayle 1970: Charlie Scott 1971: Don McCauley 1972: Barry Parkhill 1973: David Thompson 1974: Tony Waldrop 1975: David Thompson 1976: John Lucas 1977: Phil Ford 1978: Phil Ford 1979: Renaldo Nehemiah 1980: Julie Shea 1981: Julie Shea 1982: James Worthy 1983: Ralph Sampson 1984: Michael Jordan 1985: B. J. Surhoff 1986: Len Bias 1987: Riccardo Ingram 1988: Danny Ferry 1989: Danny Ferry Male Athlete of the Year 1990: Clarkston Hines 1991: Christian Laettner 1992: Christian Laettner 1993: Charlie Ward 1994: Charlie Ward 1995: Randolph Childress 1996: Kris Benson 1997: Tim Duncan 1998: Antawn Jamison 1999: Elton Brand 2000: Joe Hamilton 2001: Shane Battier 2002: Juan Dixon 2003: Chris Rotelli 2004: Philip Rivers 2005: Sean May 2006: J. J. Redick 2007: Walter Dix 2008: Tyler Hansbrough 2009: Matt Hill 2010: Ned Crotty 2011: Ngoni Makusha 2012: Luke Kuechly 2013: Jarmere Jenkins 2014: Jameis Winston 2015: Laken Tomlinson 2016: Deshaun Watson 2017: Deshaun Watson Female Athlete of the Year 1990: Shannon Higgins 1991: Dawn Staley 1992: Dawn Staley 1993: Mia Hamm 1994: Beverly Smith 1995: Tisha Venturini 1996: Kelly Amonte Hiller 1997: Sarah Forbes 1998: Vanessa Webb 1999: Cindy Parlow 2000: Jen Adams 2001: Jen Adams 2002: Bea Bielik 2003: Alana Beard 2004: Alana Beard 2005: Kelly Dostal 2006: Paula Infante 2007: Lindsey Harding 2008: Angela Tincher 2009: Casey Nogueira 2010: Whitney Engen 2011: Katie O'Donnell 2012: Rebecca Ward 2013: Crystal Dunn 2014: Alyssa Thomas 2015: Morgan Brian 2016: Molly Seidel 2017: Kenzie Kent [ show ] v t e Los Angeles Lakers Founded in 1947 Played in Minneapolis (1947–1960) Based in Los Angeles, California Franchise Franchise Team history All-time roster Draft history Seasons Records Head coaches Current season Arenas Minneapolis Auditorium Minneapolis Armory Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena The Forum Staples Center G League affiliate South Bay Lakers Administration Jeanie , Jim , and Johnny Buss (majority owners) Anschutz Entertainment Group (minority owner) Ed Roski Jr. (minority owner) Patrick Soon-Shiong (minority owner) Magic Johnson (President of Basketball Operations) Rob Pelinka (General manager) Luke Walton (Head coach) Retired numbers 8 13 22 24 25 32 33 34 42 44 52 Chick Hearn (Microphone) Minneapolis Lakers Hall of Famers Mikan Mikkelsen Martin Lovellette Pollard Coach Kundla NBA Championships (16) 1949 1950 1952 1953 1954 1972 1980 1982 1985 1987 1988 2000 2001 2002 2009 2010 Western Conference Championships (31) 1949 1950 1952 1953 1954 1959 1962 1963 1965 1966 1968 1969 1970 1972 1973 1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 1987 1988 1989 1991 2000 2001 2002 2004 2008 2009 2010 Rivalries Los Angeles Clippers San Antonio Spurs Boston Celtics Detroit Pistons Culture and lore Jack Kent Cooke Jerry Buss Showtime Chick Hearn Shaq–Kobe feud Lawrence Tanter Jack Nicholson \" I Love L.A. \" Laker Girls Laker Band Dancing Barry Celtics/Lakers: Best of Enemies Media TV Spectrum SportsNet (Los Angeles) Radio 710 ESPN Radio 1330 ESPN Deportes Announcers Bill Macdonald Stu Lantz John Ireland Mychal Thompson Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 16770744 LCCN : no00053053 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Worthy&oldid=831173557 \" Categories : 1961 births Living people African-American basketball players All-American college men's basketball players Basketball players at the 1981 NCAA Men's Division I Final Four Basketball players at the 1982 NCAA Men's Division I Final Four Basketball players from North Carolina College basketball announcers in the United States Los Angeles Lakers assistant coaches Los Angeles Lakers draft picks Los Angeles Lakers players McDonald's High School All-Americans Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association players with retired numbers National Basketball Association broadcasters National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame inductees North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball players Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) People from Gastonia, North Carolina Small forwards Hidden categories: Articles that may contain original research from November 2015 All articles that may contain original research Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latviešu Malagasy Монгол 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Volapük 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 19 March 2018, at 04:45. 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{ "text": "Empire State Building - Wikipedia Empire State Building From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Empire State Building Seen from the air, 2012 Record height Tallest in the world from 1931 to 1970 [I] Preceded by Chrysler Building Surpassed by 1 World Trade Center (North Tower) General information Status Complete Type Office building ; observation deck Architectural style Art Deco Location 350 Fifth Avenue Manhattan , New York 10118 [a] Construction started March 17, 1930 ; 87 years ago ( 1930-03-17 ) [1] Completed April 11, 1931 ; 86 years ago ( April 11, 1931 ) [2] Opening May 1, 1931 ; 86 years ago ( May 1, 1931 ) [3] Cost $ 40,948,900 [4] ($645 million in 2016 dollars [5] ) Owner Empire State Realty Trust Height Architectural 1,250 ft (381.0 m) [6] Tip 1,454 ft (443.2 m) [6] Roof 1,250 ft (381.0 m) [6] Top floor 1,224 ft (373.1 m) [6] Observatory 1,224 ft (373.1 m) (102nd floor) 1,050 feet (320 m) (86th floor) [6] Dimensions Other dimensions 424 ft (129.2 m) east–west by 187 ft (57.0 m) north–south [7] Technical details Floor count 102 [6] [7] [8] [b] Floor area 2,248,355 sq ft (208,879 m 2 ) [6] Lifts/elevators 73 [6] Design and construction Architect Shreve, Lamb and Harmon Developer Empire State Inc., including John J. Raskob and Al Smith Structural engineer Homer Gage Balcom Main contractor Starrett Brothers and Eken Empire State Building U.S. National Register of Historic Places U.S. National Historic Landmark NYC Landmark Show map of Manhattan Show map of New York City Show map of New York Show all Location in New York City [9] Coordinates 40°44′54.36″N 73°59′08.36″W  /  40.7484333°N 73.9856556°W  / 40.7484333; -73.9856556 Coordinates : 40°44′54.36″N 73°59′08.36″W  /  40.7484333°N 73.9856556°W  / 40.7484333; -73.9856556 NRHP reference # 82001192 Significant dates Added to NRHP November 17, 1982 Designated NHL June 24, 1986 Designated NYCL May 19, 1981 References I. ^ Empire State Building at Emporis [6] [10] [11] The Empire State Building is a 102-story [b] Art Deco skyscraper on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets in Midtown Manhattan , New York City . Designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon , the building has a roof height of 1,250 feet (380 m), and with its antenna included, it stands a total of 1,454 feet (443.2 m) tall. Its name is derived from \" Empire State \", the nickname for New York . As of 2017 [update] the Empire State Building is the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States and the 28th-tallest in the world . It is also the sixth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas . When measured by pinnacle height, it is the fifth-tallest building in the United States. The site of the Empire State Building was first developed as part of John Thompson's farm in the early 18th century. In the late 1820s, it came into the possession of the prominent Astor family , with John Jacob Astor's descendants building the Waldorf–Astoria Hotel on the site in the 1890s. By the 1920s, the family sold the outdated hotel, and the site indirectly ended up under the ownership of Empire State Inc., a business venture that included businessman John J. Raskob and former New York governor Alfred E. Smith . The Empire State Building, as it was then dubbed, was originally supposed to be a standard 50-story office building. However, the original plans were revised fifteen times, with the tower ultimately being expanded to a 1,250-foot building with 86 stories and an airship mast on top. This ensured the Empire State Building would be the world's tallest building , beating out the Chrysler Building and 40 Wall Street , two other Manhattan skyscrapers under construction at the time that were also vying for that honor. Demolition of the Waldorf–Astoria began in October 1929, and the foundation of the Empire State Building was excavated before demolition was even complete. Construction on the building itself started on March 17, 1930, with an average construction rate of one floor per day. A well-coordinated schedule meant that the 86 stories were topped out by September 19 of the same year, with the mast completed by November 21. From that point, interior work proceeded at a quick pace, and the Empire State Building was opened on May 1, 1931, thirteen and a half months after the first steel beam was erected. Despite the publicity surrounding the building's construction, the building's owners failed to make a profit until the early 1950s. However, it has been a popular tourist attraction since opening, with around 4 million visitors to the building's 86th and 102nd floor observatories every year. The Empire State Building stood as the world's tallest building for nearly 40 years, from its completion until the topping out of the original World Trade Center 's North Tower in Lower Manhattan in late 1970. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was again the tallest building in New York, until One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. The Empire State Building is an American cultural icon , having been featured in dozens of TV shows and movies since King Kong was released in 1933. A symbol of New York City, it has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers . The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission , and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate . It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it was ranked number one on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture . Contents [ hide ] 1 Location 2 History 2.1 Site 2.2 Planning process 2.3 Construction 2.4 Opening and early years 2.5 Profitability 2.6 Loss of \"tallest building\" title 2.7 After 9/11 3 Architecture 3.1 Exterior 3.2 Interior 3.2.1 Lobby 3.2.2 Major renovations 3.3 Features 3.3.1 Above the 102nd floor 3.3.2 Broadcast stations 3.3.3 Observation decks 3.3.4 New York Skyride 3.3.5 Lights 3.4 Height records 4 Notable tenants 5 Incidents 5.1 1945 plane crash 5.2 2000 elevator plunge 5.3 Suicide attempts 5.4 Shootings 6 Importance 6.1 As icon 6.2 In popular culture 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Notes 8.2 Citations 8.3 Bibliography 8.4 Further reading 9 External links Location The Empire State Building is located at 350 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan , on the street's west side between 33rd and 34th Streets. [14] Although physically located in South Midtown, [15] a mixed residential and commercial area, [16] the building is so large that it uses its own ZIP code of 10118, [17] [18] being one of 43 buildings in New York City that has its own zip code. [19] [a] The area to the south and west features other major Manhattan landmarks as well, including Macy's at Herald Square on Sixth Avenue and 34th Street, [22] Koreatown on 32nd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues, [22] [23] Penn Station and Madison Square Garden on Seventh Avenue between 32nd and 34th Streets, [22] and the Flower District on 28th Street between Sixth and Seventh Avenues. [24] The nearest New York City Subway stations are 34th Street–Herald Square at Sixth Avenue and Broadway, one block west, and 33rd Street at Park Avenue, two blocks east. There is also a PATH station at 33rd Street and Sixth Avenue. [25] To the east of the Empire State Building is Murray Hill , [25] a mixed-use neighborhood with residential, commercial, and entertainment uses. [26] One block east of the Empire State Building, on Madison Avenue at 34th Street, is the New York Public Library 's Science, Industry and Business Library , which is located on the same block as the CUNY Graduate Center . The library also has its main and Mid-Manhattan branches at Fifth Avenue and 40th Street, six blocks north. [25] The Morgan Library & Museum is located four blocks away, at Madison Avenue and 36th Street. [26] [25] History Site The earliest recorded major action on the site was during the American Revolutionary War . [27] According to one account, shots rang out on what is now Fifth Avenue from \"the battle of the cornfield\". Some 3,500 of George Washington 's troops were in the city and in danger of being trapped by the British Army . [28] [29] At the time, Mary and John Murray owned a farm on Murray Hill , within the area from present-day Madison Avenue to Lexington Avenue between 34th and 38th streets. [30] Mary invited the British officers into her home for food and drink, while General Putnam was able to lead the 3,500 men out of the city and into Harlem Heights . [28] In 1799, John Thompson (or Thomson; accounts vary [29] ) bought a 20-acre (8 ha) tract of land roughly bounded by Madison Avenue , 36th Street, Sixth Avenue , and 33rd Street, immediately north of the Caspar Samler farm , for 482 British pounds (roughly US$2400 at the time). [31] [c] At the time, a stream called t'Oude Wrack (Dutch for \"Old Wreck\") ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located at the present-day Park Avenue South and 31st Street in Kips Bay . The stream originated at what is now Broadway and 44th Street in the middle of Times Square . [34] A glue factory polluted Sunfish Pond heavily during the 1820s, and it was infilled in 1839 after most of its water was used to extinguish a fire at the New York House of Refuge . [34] Thompson was said to have sold the farm to Charles Lawton for $10,000 on September 24, 1825, [33] although details of this sale are unclear, as details of the deed that certified the sale were later lost. [29] In 1826, John Jacob Astor of the prominent Astor family bought the land from Lawton for $20,500. [30] [35] [d] The Astors also purchased a parcel from the Murrays. [30] John Jacob's son William Backhouse Astor Sr. bought a half interest on July 28, 1827, for $20,500, [32] [38] [33] for a tract of land on Fifth Avenue from 32nd to 35th streets. [37] The Astors had intended to simply reserve the land for possible future development, but the deadly Astor Place Riot in 1849 forced the Astor family to flee to their Midtown tracts. [39] William built an unpretentious square red brick house on the southwest corner of 34th Street and Fifth Avenue in 1859, while his brother John Jacob Astor Jr. erected a home at the northwest corner of 33rd Street in 1862. [32] [37] The Waldorf Hotel (1893), which stood on the site of the Empire State Building until 1929 In 1890, William Waldorf Astor , the grandson of John Sr. and son of John Jr., inherited his father's mansion at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 33rd Street, and started building the Waldorf Hotel on the site. This decision originated in part from a dispute with his aunt Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor , the wife of John Jacob Astor III who lived next door, and whether Caroline or Mary Dahlgren Paul Astor, William's wife, would be known in society as \"the\" Mrs. Astor. [39] [40] [41] The planned hotel was supposed to be an 11-story building, as per the specifications of founding proprietor George Boldt , but his wife Louise believed that 13 was a lucky number and persuaded her husband to add two floors to the construction. [42] William Astor's construction of a hotel next to his aunt's house caused both Astors to threaten to demolish their home and build a stable on the property, [43] but with Boldt's assistance, John Astor persuaded his mother to move uptown. [44] The Waldorf Hotel, named after the Astors' ancestral home in the little German town of Walldorf , was opened for business March 13, 1893. [39] [45] When a decision was made to build a second hotel next to the Waldorf, truce provisions were developed between the Astors, including the use of corridors between the buildings that could be bricked up if needed. [46] On November 1, 1897, Waldorf's cousin, John Jacob Astor IV , opened the 16-story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site. [47] [39] [48] The Astoria, named after the Oregon town of Astoria that had been founded by John Sr. in 1811, stood on the site of William Sr's house, and was leased to Boldt. [49] [47] The two hotels, under one management, were renamed the Waldorf–Astoria. [50] [51] The hotel became, according to author Sean Dennis Cashman, \"a successful symbol of the opulence and achievement of the Astor family\". [52] The hotel was frequented by The Four Hundred , the social elite of New York. [38] The combined hotel had 1,300 bedrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time. [53] Of these, the Astoria portion contained 25 public rooms and 550 guest rooms, [54] while the Waldorf portion contained 15 public rooms, 450 guest rooms, and 100 rooms for servants. [55] It was designed specifically to cater to the needs of socially prominent \"wealthy upper crust\" of New York and distinguished foreign visitors to the city. [56] It was the first hotel to offer complete electricity and private bathrooms. [57] [58] The Waldorf gained world renown for its fundraising dinners and balls. [59] Boldt died in early 1918, and Coleman du Pont bought the hotel's lease soon after Boldt's death. [60] [61] By the 1920s, the hotel was becoming dated, and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north than 34th Street. [62] The Astor family decided to build a replacement hotel further uptown, [39] and sold the hotel to the Bethlehem Engineering Corporation in 1928 for $14–16 million. [62] [32] They closed the hotel on May 3, 1929. [47] The Waldorf–Astoria Hotel records of 1893–1929 are held by the New York Public Library 's Archives & Manuscripts division. [63] Planning process The Bethlehem Engineering Corporation originally wanted to build a 25-story office building on the Waldorf–Astoria's site. The company's president, Floyd De L. Brown, paid $100,000 of the $1 million down payment required to start construction on the tower, with the promise that the difference would be paid later. [39] Brown borrowed $900,000 from a bank, but then defaulted on the loan. [64] [65] The building plans went through fifteen versions before the current plan was approved. [66] The land was then resold to Empire State Inc., a group of wealthy investors that included Louis G. Kaufman , Ellis P. Earle , John J. Raskob , Coleman du Pont, and Pierre S. du Pont . [64] [65] The name came from the state nickname for New York. [67] Alfred E. Smith , a former Governor of New York and a former U.S. presidential candidate whose 1928 campaign had been managed by Raskob, [68] was appointed as the head of the company. [64] [65] [32] The Empire State Inc. consortium became public in August 1929. [69] [70] The group also purchased nearby land plots so they would have the 2 acres (1 ha) needed for the tower's base, with the combined plot measuring 425 feet (130 m) wide by 200 feet (61 m) long. [70] Empire State Inc. hired William F. Lamb , from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon , to design the building. [1] [71] Lamb produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using the firm's earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina , as a basis. [67] Meanwhile, Lamb's partner Richmond Shreve created \"bug diagrams\" of what needed to be done simultaneously, coordinating tasks to the hour. [72] Because of the 1916 Zoning Act , Lamb could not build a structure with walls that ascended straight up from the street; instead, they were required to incorporate setbacks , making the lower floors much larger than the upper floors. As a result, the tower was designed from the top down, [73] which gave it a \"pencil\"-like shape. [74] During the design process, Raskob put a large pencil on a table and asked Lamb, \"How high could you make it so it won't fall down?\" [66] [75] The original plan for the building was slated to be 50 stories, [66] but the height was later increased to 60 and then 80 stories. [70] The planned 80-story building, [76] with a height of about 1,000 feet (300 m), [77] would have height limits on nearby buildings ensuring that the top fifty floors would get expansive views of the city. [70] The New York Times lauded the site's proximity to transportation, with the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit's 34th Street station and the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad's 33rd Street terminal one block away, as well as Penn Station two blocks away and the Grand Central Terminal nine blocks away at its closest. It also praised the 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m 2 ) of proposed floor space near \"one of the busiest sections in the world\". [70] While plans for the Empire State Building were being finalized, there was an intense competition in New York for the title of \" world's tallest building \", and the 40 Wall Street (then the Bank of Manhattan Building) and the Chrysler Building in Manhattan were both under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. [76] The \"Race into the Sky\", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, fueled by the building boom in major cities. [78] The 40 Wall Street tower was revised from 840 feet (260 m) to 925 feet (282 m) in April 1929, making it the world's tallest. [79] The Chrysler Building added its 185-foot (56 m) steel tip to its roof in October 1929, bringing it to a height of 1,046 feet (319 m) and greatly exceeding 40 Wall Street's height. [76] The Chrysler Building's developer, Walter Chrysler , realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having ordered his architect William Van Alen to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to the narrow steel spire. [79] Raskob, wishing to have the Empire State Building be the world's tallest, reviewed the plans and realized that he could add five more floors and a spire of his own; however, the new floors would need to be set back because of projected wind pressure on the extension. [80] On November 18, 1929, Smith acquired a lot at 27–31 West 33rd Street, adding 75 feet (23 m) to the width of the proposed office building's site. [81] [82] Two days later, Smith announced the updated plans for the skyscraper, with an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of 1,050 feet (320 m), higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck. [80] The 1,050-foot Empire State Building would only be 4 feet (1.2 m) taller than the Chrysler Building, [80] [83] and Raskob was afraid that Chrysler might try to \"pull a trick like hiding a rod in the spire and then sticking it up at the last minute.\" [66] [84] [83] The plans were revised one last time in December 1929, with a 16-story, 200-foot (61 m) metal \"crown\" and an additional 222-foot (68 m) dirigible mooring mast. The roof height was now 1,250 feet (380 m), making it the tallest building in the world by far, even without the antenna. [85] [66] [86] The addition of the dirigible station meant that another floor, the now-enclosed 86th floor, would have to be built below the crown; [86] however, unlike the Chrysler's spire, the Empire State's mast would serve a practical purpose. [84] By this time the blueprints for the building had gone through up to fifteen versions before they were approved. [66] [75] [87] Lamb described the other specifications he was given for the final, approved plan: The program was short enough—a fixed budget, no space more than 28 feet from window to corridor, as many stories of such space as possible, an exterior of limestone, and completion date of [May 1], 1931, which meant a year and six months from the beginning of sketches. [88] [66] The general contractors were named as Starrett Brothers and Eken , composed of Paul and William A. Starrett and Andrew J. Eken , [89] who also constructed other New York City buildings and developments such as the original Stuyvesant Town , Starrett City and Trump Tower . [90] The project was financed primarily by Raskob and Pierre du Pont, [91] while James Farley 's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. [1] John W. Bowser was the project's construction superintendent, [92] and the structural engineer of the building was Homer G. Balcom. [71] [93] The plans were worked out such that construction started on one task before plans for others were finalized. [94] Construction Demolition of the old Waldorf–Astoria began on October 1, 1929. [95] Stripping the building's materials was an arduous process, as the hotel was made of stiffer material than earlier buildings had, and the granite, precious metals, and wood chips used in the old hotel were not in high demand. [96] Most of the wood eventually either went into a woodpile on nearby 30th Street or was burned in a swamp elsewhere. A lot of the other materials that made up the old hotel, including the granite and bronze, were dumped into the Atlantic Ocean off the shore of Sandy Hook , New Jersey. [97] [98] By the time the hotel's demolition started, Raskob had secured all of the investors that he needed to fund the construction of the building. [99] The plan was to start construction later that year, but on October 24, the New York Stock Exchange started a steep and sudden crash , sparking what would become the decade-long Great Depression . Even so, Raskob refused to cancel the project because of the progress that had been made up to that point. [69] Neither Raskob nor Smith lost much money in the crash: Raskob because he had stopped his speculation about the stock market the previous year, Smith because he had never invested a great amount of money in the market. [99] However, most of their investors did lose money, and as a result, in December of that year, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company loaned Empire State Inc. some $27.5 million so the group could start construction. [100] Even though the stock market crash obviated the need for any new office space, Raskob and Smith proceeded to start construction anyway, [101] since canceling the project would cause investors to incur great losses. [69] A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background. A structural steel contract was awarded on January 12, 1930, [102] and excavation of the site began ten days later on January 22, [103] before the old hotel had been completely demolished. [104] Two twelve-hour shifts, consisting of 300 men each, worked continuously to dig the 55-foot (17 m) foundation. [103] Small pier holes were sunk into the ground to house the concrete footings that would support the steelwork. [105] Excavation was nearly complete by early March, [106] and construction on the building itself started on March 17, [107] [1] with the builders placing the first steel columns on the completed footings before the rest of the footings had been finished. [108] Around this time, Lamb held a press conference on the building plans. He described the reflective steel panels parallel to the windows, the large-block Indiana Limestone facade that was slightly more expensive than smaller bricks, and the tower's lines and rise. [85] Four colossal columns, intended for installation in the center of the building site, were delivered; they would support a combined 10,000,000 pounds (4,500,000 kg) when the building was finished. [109] The building's structural steel was pre-ordered and pre-fabricated in anticipation of a revision to the city's building code that would have allowed the Empire State Building's structural steel to carry 18,000 pounds per square inch (124,106 kPa), up from 16,000 pounds per square inch (110,316 kPa), thus reducing the amount of steel needed for the building. Although the 18,000-psi regulation had been safely enacted in other cities, Mayor Jimmy Walker did not sign the new codes into law until March 26, 1930, just before the steel was about to be laid. [107] [110] The first steel framework was put into place on April 1, 1930. [111] From there, construction proceeded at a fast pace. During one stretch of 10 working days, the builders erected fourteen floors. [112] [1] This was made possible due to the extremely precise coordination of the building's planning, as well as the mass production of common materials such as windows and spandrels . [113] For instance, after a supplier of dark Hauteville marble could not deliver enough material on time, Starrett switched to using Rose Famosa marble from a German quarry that was purchased specifically to provide the project with sufficient marble. [105] The scale of the project was massive, with trucks carrying \"16,000 partition tiles, 5,000 bags of cement, 450 cubic yards [340 m 3 ] of sand and 300 bags of lime\" arriving at the construction site every day. [114] There were also cafes and concession stands on five of the incomplete floors so workers did not have to descend to the ground level to eat lunch. [2] [115] Temporary water taps were also built so that workers did not waste time buying water bottles from the ground level. [2] [116] Additionally, small railway systems carried materials from the basement storage spaces [2] to elevators that brought the carts to the desired floors, where the carts then delivered the materials across that level directly by using another set of tracks on that floor. [114] [117] [115] The 57,480 short tons (51,320 long tons) of steel ordered for the project was the largest-ever single order of steel at the time, comprising more steel than was ordered for the Chrysler Building and 40 Wall Street combined. [118] [119] According to historian John Tauranac , the materials for the building came from far and wide, with \"limestone from Indiana, steel girders from Pittsburgh, cement and mortar from upper New York State, marble from Italy, France, and England, wood from northern and Pacific Coast forests, [and] hardware from New England.\" [112] By June 20, the steel structure had risen to the 26th floor, and by July 27, half of the steel skeleton had been completed. [114] Starrett Bros. and Eken endeavored to build one floor a day in order to speed up construction, a goal that they almost reached with their pace of 4 1 ⁄ 2 stories per week; prior to this, the fastest pace of construction for a building of similar height had been 3 1 ⁄ 2 stories per week. [120] In the meantime, the final designs for the floors were being designed from the ground up (as opposed to the general design, which had been from the roof down). Some of the levels were still undergoing final approval, with several orders placed within an hour of a plan's being finalized. [120] On September 10, as steelwork was nearing completion, Smith laid the building's cornerstone during a ceremony attended by thousands. The stone contained a box with contemporary artifacts such as the previous day's New York Times ; a U.S. currency set containing all denominations of notes and coins minted in 1930; a history of the site and building; and photographs of the people involved in construction. [121] [122] The steel structure was topped out at 1,048 feet (319 m) on September 19, twelve days ahead of schedule and 23 weeks after the start of construction. [123] Workers raised a flag atop the 86th floor to signify this milestone. [120] [124] Afterward, work on the building's interior and crowning mast commenced. [124] The mooring mast topped out on November 21, two months after the steelwork had been completed. [122] [125] Meanwhile, work on the walls and interior was progressing at a quick pace, with exterior walls built up to the 75th floor by the time steelwork had been built to the 95th floor. [126] The majority of the facade was already finished by the middle of November. [2] Because of the building's height, it was deemed infeasible to have many elevators or large elevator cabins, so the builders contracted with the Otis Elevator Company to make 66 cars that could speed at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min), which represented the largest-ever elevator order at the time. [127] In addition to the time constraint builders had, there were also space limitations because construction materials had to be delivered quickly, and trucks needed to drop off these materials without congesting traffic. This was solved by creating a temporary driveway for the trucks between 33rd and 34th Streets, and then storing the materials in the building's first floor and basements. Concrete mixers , brick hoppers, and stone hoists inside the building ensured that materials would be able to ascend quickly and without endangering or inconveniencing the public. [126] At one point, over 200 trucks made material deliveries at the building site every day. [2] A series of relay and erection derricks , placed on platforms erected near the building, lifted the steel from the trucks below and installed the beams at the appropriate locations. [128] The Empire State Building was structurally completed on April 11, 1931, twelve days ahead of schedule and 410 days after construction commenced. [2] Al Smith shot the final rivet, which was made of solid gold. [129] Photograph of a cable worker taken by Lewis Hine The project involved more than 3,500 workers at its peak, [1] including 3,439 on a single day, August 14, 1930. [130] Many of the workers were Irish and Italian immigrants, [131] with a sizable minority of Mohawk ironworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal . [131] [132] [133] According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction, [134] [135] although the New York Daily News gave reports of 14 deaths [2] and a headline in the socialist magazine The New Masses spread unfounded rumors of up to 42 deaths. [136] [135] Lewis Hine took a myriad of photographs providing not only a documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era. [103] [137] [138] Hine's images provided much fodder for the media, with many news sources publishing daily press releases that featured one of Hine's pictures. [139] According to Jim Rasenberger, Hine \"climbed out onto the steel with the ironworkers and dangled from a derrick cable hundreds of feet above the city to capture, as no one ever had before (or has since), the dizzy work of building skyscrapers\". In Rasenberger's words, Hine turned what might have been an assignment of \"corporate flak\" into \"exhilarating art\". [140] These images were later organized into their own collection. [141] The steelworkers' sheer height enraptured onlookers, with New York magazine writing of the steelworkers: \"Like little spiders they toiled, spinning a fabric of steel against the sky\". [128] Opening and early years The Empire State Building was officially opened on May 1, 1931, in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. . [142] [143] [3] The tower had been completed forty-five days earlier than its projected opening. [1] Jimmy Walker, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Al Smith were also in attendance. After the ceremonial button pressing, they and about 350 other guests proceeded to attend a luncheon on the 86th floor. [3] An account from that day stated that the view from the luncheon was obscured by a fog, with other landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty being \"lost in the mist\". [144] The building officially opened the next day. [144] [92] Advertisements for the observatories were placed in local newspapers, while nearby hotels also released ads that lauded their proximity to the newly opened tower. [145] Builders and real estate speculators predicted that the 1,250-foot-tall (380 m) Empire State Building would be the world's tallest building \"for many years\", thus ending the great New York City skyscraper rivalry. At the time, most engineers agreed that it would be much harder to build a building taller than 1,200 feet (370 m), even with the hardy Manhattan bedrock . [146] (Technically, it was possible to build a tower of up to 2,000 feet (610 m), but it was deemed uneconomical to do so, especially given the fact that the Great Depression was ongoing at the time. [117] [147] ) As the tallest building in the world and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building became an icon of the city, and ultimately, of the entire country. [148] View of the building from the north The Empire State Building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States , and as a result much of its office space was vacant. [141] In the first year, 23% of the available space was rented; [149] [150] by contrast, during the 1920s, the average building would be 52% rented upon opening and 90% rented within five years. [151] The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the \"Empty State Building\". [149] [141] [152] Jack Brod , the building's longest-lasting original tenant, [153] [154] co-established the Empire Diamond Corporation with his father in the building in mid-1931 [155] and rented space in the building until he died in 2008. [155] Brod later recalled that there were only about 20 tenants at the time of opening, including him, [154] and that Al Smith was the only real tenant in the space above his seventh-floor offices. [153] Generally, during the early 1930s, it was rare for an entity to rent more than a single office in the building, despite Smith's and Raskob's aggressive marketing efforts in the newspapers and to anyone they knew. [156] The building's lights were continuously left on, even in the unrented spaces, to give the impression of occupancy. This was exacerbated by competition from the Rockefeller Center [149] as well as from buildings on 42nd Street , which, combined with the Empire State Building, provided excessive space in a slow market. [157] Aggressive marketing efforts served to reinforce the Empire State Building's status as the world's tallest. [158] The observatory was advertised in local newspapers as well as on railroad tickets. [159] The building became a popular tourist attraction, with one million people each paying one dollar to ride elevators to the observation decks in 1931. [160] In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. [149] [141] By 1936, the top of the building was consistently crowded from sunset to midnight, with people heading to the top to eat leisurely $1.25 dinners with a \"wide selection of long, chill drinks\". [161] NBC also took advantage of the building, leasing space on the 85th floor for radio broadcasts from 1931 on. [162] [163] On the whole, however, the building was in debt from the outset, losing $1 million per year by 1935. Real estate developer Seymour Durst recalled that the building was so underused in 1936 that there was no elevator service above the 45th floor, as the building above the 41st floor was empty except for the NBC offices and the Raskob/Du Pont offices on the 81st floor. [164] As originally planned, the Empire State Building's spire was supposed to be used as an airship docking station. Raskob and Smith proposed dirigible ticketing offices and passenger waiting rooms on the 86th floor, while the airships themselves would be tied to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. [165] [166] An elevator between the 86th and 101st floors [e] would carry passengers after they checked in on the 86th floor, [168] with steep ladders leading to the airship's entrance. [165] The idea was impractical and dangerous, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, [169] the wind currents across Manhattan, [165] and the spires of nearby skyscrapers, [170] Furthermore, even if the airship were to successfully navigate all these obstacles, its crew would have to jettison some ballast by releasing water onto the streets below in order to maintain stability, and then tie the craft's nose to the spire with no mooring lines tying the other end of the craft to the ground. [13] [165] [170] On September 15, 1931, in the first and only instance of an airship using the building's mast, a small commercial United States Navy airship circled 25 times in 45 miles per hour (72 km/h) winds. [171] The airship then attempted to dock at the mast, but its ballast spilled and the craft itself was roiled by capricious eddies . [172] [173] The near-disaster scuttled plans to make the building's spire into an airship terminal, although one blimp did manage to make a single newspaper delivery afterward. [165] In 1932, the Fifth Avenue Association gave the tower its 1931 \"gold medal\" for architectural excellence, signifying that the Empire State had been the best-designed building on Fifth Avenue to open in 1931. [174] A year later, on March 2, 1933, the movie King Kong was released. The movie, which depicted a large stop motion ape named Kong climbing the Empire State Building, made the still-new building into a cinematic icon. [175] [176] To save the building from bankruptcy, the management company of the building opened an observatory on the 86th floor and allowed public access to a large terrace on the eighty-first floor. A wedding chapel was also added to the building's 80th floor. This made the tower one of the city's major tourist attractions, and during the first years of operation, revenues from tourism equaled the total amount of rent paid by all tenants. [177] The tower received its 5 millionth tourist in 1944. [178] On July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors. [179] One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block, while the other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. [180] [87] However, the building was not severely damaged or structurally compromised, and it reopened two days later. [180] [181] Profitability View from Macy's Night view from the same street-corner The Empire State Building only became profitable in the 1950s, when it was finally able to break even for the first time. [141] [182] Despite the lack of nearby transportation centers, the Empire State Building started to attract renters due to its reputation. [183] A 222-foot (68 m) radio antenna was erected on top of the tower starting in 1950, [184] allowing the area's television stations to broadcast from the building. [185] However, Raskob felt that the tower had been unprofitable for too long, and he put the tower on sale in 1951 [186] with a minimum asking price of $50 million. [187] The property was purchased by business partners Roger L. Stevens , Henry Crown , Alfred R. Glancy and Ben Tobin . [188] [189] [190] The sale was brokered by the Charles F. Noyes Company, a prominent real estate firm in upper Manhattan, [187] for $51 million, the highest price paid for a single structure at the time. [191] By this time, the Empire State had been fully leased \"for several years\", with a \"waiting list\" to lease space in the building. [192] That year, six news companies started a combined $600,000 annually for use of the tower's antenna . [187] The antenna was completed by 1953. [185] Crown bought out his partners' ownership stakes in 1954, becoming the sole owner. [193] The next year, the American Society of Civil Engineers named the building one of the \"Seven Modern Civil Engineering Wonders\". [194] [195] In 1961, the building was bought by Harry B. Helmsley , Lawrence A. Wien , and Wien's son-in-law Peter L. Malkin , for $65 million, [196] [188] which became the new highest price for a single structure. [196] Over 3,000 people paid $10,000 for one share each in a company called Empire State Building Associates, that subletted the building to another company headed by Helmsley and Wein, raising $33 million of the funds used to pay for the change of ownership. [196] [188] The land itself was sold to Prudential Insurance for $29 million. [197] [188] The new owners quickly started a program of minor improvement projects, including the first-ever full-building facade refurbishment and window-washing in 1962; [198] [199] the installation of new flood lights on the 72nd floor in 1964; [200] [201] and replacement of the manually operated elevators with automatic units in 1966. [202] The little-used western end of the second floor was used as a storage space until 1964, at which point it received escalators to the first floor as part of its conversion into a highly-sought retail area. [203] [204] Loss of \"tallest building\" title In 1961, the same year that Helmsley, Wien, and Malkin had purchased the Empire State Building, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey formally backed plans for a new World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan . [205] The plan originally included 66-story twin towers with column-free open spaces. The Empire State's owners and real estate speculators were worried that the twin towers' 7,600,000 square feet (710,000 m 2 ) of office space would create an excess of rentable space in Manhattan as well as take away the Empire State Building's profits from lessees. [206] A revision in the World Trade Center's plan brought the twin towers to 1,370 feet (420 m) each or 110 stories, taller than the Empire State. [207] Opponents of the new project included prominent real-estate developer Robert Tishman , as well as Wien's Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center. [207] In response to Wein's opposition, Port Authority executive director Austin J. Tobin said that Wein was only opposing the project because it would overshadow his Empire State Building as the world's tallest building. [208] The World Trade Center 's Twin Towers surpassed the Empire State Building in height by 1970. [209] [210] The World Trade Center's twin towers started construction in 1966. [211] The next year, the Ostankino Tower succeeded the Empire State Building as the tallest freestanding structure in the world . [212] The Empire State also lost the title of world's tallest building in 1970, [213] as the taller North Tower surpassed the Empire State's height on October 19 of that year, [209] [210] and topped out on December 23, 1970. [210] [214] The Twin Towers opened their 110th-floor observatory in December 1975, which meant that the Empire State Building did not even have the tallest observatory in the city anymore. [87] The Empire State Building also lost income during this time, as many of the broadcast stations moved to the World Trade Center in 1971, although the Port Authority continued to pay the broadcasting leases for the Empire State until 1984. [215] By 1980, there were nearly two million annual visitors, [160] [216] although official estimates the previous year had placed the figure closer to between 1.5 million and 1.75 million. [217] The building received its own ZIP code in May 1980 as part of the addition of 63 new postal codes in Manhattan. At the time, the tower's tenants received a collective 35,000 pieces of mail every day. [21] The Empire State Building celebrated its 50th anniversary on May 1, 1981, with a much-publicized laser light show that failed to impress many viewers, [218] as well as an \"Empire State Building Week\" that ran through May 8. [219] [220] The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted to make the lobby a city landmark on May 19, 1981, citing the historic nature of the first and second floors, as well as \"the fixtures and interior components\" of the upper floors. [221] The building became a National Historic Landmark in 1986 [10] for very similar reasons to the New York City Landmarks report. [222] That year, the Plaza Hotel and Metropolitan Museum of Art further uptown were also designated as National Historic Landmarks. [223] The Empire State Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places the next year due to its architectural significance. [224] In the early and mid-1990s, the alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning were replaced; the 86th floor observation deck was made accessible to disabled visitors; and the facade was again refurbished [225] at a cost of $55 million. [226] Prudential sold the land under the building in 1991 for $42 million to a buyer representing hotelier Hideki Yokoi , who was at the time imprisoned in connection with a deadly fire at the Hotel New Japan hotel in Tokyo . [227] The land was bought jointly by Donald Trump and Hideki Yokoi in 1994. [228] Having secured a half-ownership of the land, Trump devised plans to take ownership of the building itself so he could renovate it, even though Helmsley and Malkin had already started their refurbishment project. [226] He sued Empire State Building Associates in February 1995, claiming that the latter had caused the building to become a \"high-rise slum\" [188] and a \"second-rate, rodent-infested\" office tower. [229] Trump had aimed to get Empire State Building Associates evicted by breaking their lease, [229] but that action was denied, [230] and Helmsley's companies sued Trump in May of that year. [231] This sparked a round of lawsuits and countersuits that lasted several years, [188] which partially arose from Trump's desire to obtain the building's master lease by taking it from Empire State Building Associates. [225] Upon Harry Helmsley's death in 1997, the Malkins sued Helmsley's widow Leona Helmsley for ownership of the building. [232] After 9/11 A night view from the observatory, looking south The World Trade Center was destroyed in the September 11 attacks in 2001. The Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City , but was now only the second-tallest building in the Americas , surpassed by the Willis Tower in Chicago. [233] [212] [234] Because of the September 11 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial television and FM radio broadcast stations started transmitting again from the top of the Empire State Building. [235] In the aftermath of the attacks, security measures at the Empire State Building were also increased due to persistent terror threats against New York City landmarks. [236] In 2002, Trump and Yokoi sold their claim to the land to the Empire State Building Associates, now headed by Malkin in a $57.5 million sale. [237] [188] This action merged the building's title and lease for the first time in a half-century. [237] Despite the lingering threat posed by the 9/11 attacks, the Empire State Building remained popular, with 3.5 million visitors to the observatories in 2004 compared to about 2.8 million in 2003. [238] Leona Helmsley's remaining share in the building was bought by Peter Malkin's company in 2006. [239] [188] In 2008 the building was temporary “stolen” by the New York Daily News to show how easy it is to transfer the deed on a property, since city clerks were not required to validate the submitted information, as well as to help demonstrate how fraudulent deeds could be used to obtain large mortgages and then have individuals disappear with the money. The paperwork submitted to the city included the names of Fay Wray , the famous star of King Kong , and Willie Sutton , a notorious New York bank robber. The newspaper then transferred the deed back over to the legitimate owners, who at that time were Empire State Land Associates. [240] The building's public areas received a $550 million renovation in 2009 (see § Major renovations ). The building received new air conditioning, waterproofing, a renovated observation deck and lobby, and a relocated 80th-floor gift shop. [241] [242] This included $120 million of energy efficient upgrades, [242] [243] [244] which allowed the building to receive a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating in September 2011. [245] [246] The new One World Trade Center surpassed the Empire State Building as the tallest LEED-certified building when it opened in 2014. [244] As of 2014 [update] the building is owned by the Empire State Realty Trust with Anthony Malkin as Chairman, CEO, and President. [247] Details on the trust's profits are scarce, but it gained significantly more revenue from tourism than from leasing the office space in 2011. [248] In August 2016, the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) gained a 10% share in the Empire State Building through a $622 million investment to the Empire State Realty Trust. The trust’s president John Kessler called it an “endorsement of the company’s irreplaceable assets”. [249] The investment has been described as “an unusual move for a sovereign wealth fund”, as they typically buy direct stakes in buildings rather than real estate companies. [250] Other foreign entities that have a stake in the Empire State Building include investors from Norway , Japan , and Australia . [249] Architecture The Empire State Building as seen across the East River , from Brooklyn The Empire State Building rises to 1,250 ft (381 m) at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, its full height reaches 1,453 feet 8 9 ⁄ 16 inches (443.092 m). [76] At that distance, the tower is visible from the ocean up to 50 miles (80 km) away, from upstate up to 70 miles (110 km) away, and from an airplane up to 100 miles (160 km) away. [251] The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2,158,000 sq ft (200,500 m 2 ) of rentable space. It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor, the highest floor within the actual tower. [76] The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco spire, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. The spire is hollow, and there are no floors between levels 86 and 102. [76] Atop the tower is the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top. [179] The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build, including demolition of the Waldorf-Astoria (equivalent to $644,878,000 in 2016). This was lower than the $60 million budgeted for construction. [4] Official fact sheets cite building statistics thusly: an ascent of 1,860 steps from the first to the 102nd floor; a weight of 365,000 short tons (331,122 t); a volume of 37,000,000 cubic feet (1,000,000 m 3 ); and an exterior with 200,000 cubic feet (5,700 m 3 ) of limestone and granite, along with ten million bricks and 370 short tons (330 long tons) of steel. [252] Other oft-cited statistics include 1,172 miles (1,886 km) of elevator cable and 2,000,000 feet (609,600 m) of electrical wires, [253] as well as capacity for 20,000 tenants and 15,000 visitors. [251] The building has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers . [254] The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission , and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate . [255] It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. [10] [222] [256] In 2007, it was ranked number one on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture . [257] Exterior A series of setbacks causes the building to taper with height. The Empire State Building's art deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two-story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. [255] The riveted steel frame of the building was originally designed to handle all of the building's gravity stresses and wind loads. [258] The exterior of the building is clad in Indiana limestone panels, which came from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana , [259] and give the building its signature blonde color. [67] The limestone facade, which is lined with vertically aligned steel mullions parallel to each window, [66] also makes the steel frame even stiffer against the winds. [258] The large amount of material used in the building's construction made it very stiff compared to other skyscrapers, with a structural stiffness of 42 pounds per square foot (2.0 kPa) versus the Willis Tower 's 33 pounds per square foot (1.6 kPa) and the John Hancock Center 's 26 pounds per square foot (1.2 kPa). [260] A December 1930 feature in Popular Mechanics estimated that a building with the Empire State's dimensions would still stand even if hit with an impact of 50 short tons (45 long tons). [251] The Empire State Building contains one major setback and several smaller ones that cause the floors to shrink as the height increases, which make the higher 81 floors much smaller than the lower five floors but allow the top floors to be both illuminated by sunlight and positioned away from the noisy streets below. [74] [261] This design was mandated as per the 1916 Zoning Resolution , which was intended to allow sunlight to reach the streets as well. [f] Normally, a building of the Empire State's dimensions would be permitted to build up to 12 stories on the Fifth Avenue side, and up to 17 stories on the 33rd/34th Streets side, before it would have to utilize setbacks. [265] However, the setbacks were arranged such that the largest setback was on the sixth floor, above the five-floor \"base\", [265] so the rest of the building above the sixth floor would have a facade of uniform shape. [251] [266] [66] Interior The Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. [148] It has 6,500 windows; 73 elevators; [243] a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m 2 ); and a base covering 2 acres (8,094 m 2 ). [267] Its original 64 elevators, built by the Otis Elevator Company , [267] are located in a central core and are of varying heights, with the longest of these elevators reaching from the lobby to the 80th floor. [265] [268] As originally built, there were four \"express\" elevators that connected the lobby, 80th floor, and several landings in between; the other 60 \"local\" elevators connected the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. [266] Of the 64 total elevators, 58 were for passenger use (comprising the four express elevators and 54 local elevators), and eight were for freight deliveries. [66] The elevators were designed to move at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min). At the time of the skyscraper's construction, their practical speed was limited to 700 feet per minute (213 m/min) as per city law, but this limit was removed shortly after the building opened. [267] [66] Additional elevators connect the 80th floor to the six floors above it, as the six extra floors were built after the original 80 stories were approved. [76] [269] The Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. [258] Utilities are grouped in a central shaft. [265] On each floor between levels 6 and 86, the central shaft is surrounded by a main corridor on all four sides. [66] As per the final specifications of the building, the corridor is surrounded in turn by office space 28 feet (8.5 m) deep. [88] Each of the floors has 210 structural columns that pass through it, which provide a structural stability but impede the creation of any significant open space. [66] However, the relative dearth of stone in the building allows for more space overall, with a 1:200 stone-to-building ratio in the Empire State compared to a 1:50 ratio in similar buildings. [117] Lobby Aluminum relief of the building The main lobby is accessed from Fifth Avenue, on the building's east side, and contains an entrance with one set of double doors between a pair of revolving doors . At the top of each doorway is a bronze motif of three of the \"crafts or industries\" used in the building's construction—Electricity, Masonry, and Heating from north to south. [270] The lobby contains two tiers of marble: a lighter marble on the top, above the storefronts, and a darker marble on the bottom, flush with the storefronts. There is a pattern of zigzagging terrazzo tiles on the lobby floor, which leads from the entrance on the east to the aluminum relief on the west. [271] The chapel-like three-story-high lobby, which runs parallel to 33rd and 34th Streets, contains storefronts on both its northern and southern sides. [272] These storefronts are framed by tubes of dark, \"modernistically rounded marble\", and above the storefronts is a vertical band of grooves set into the marble. [271] Immediately inside the lobby is an airport-style security checkpoint. [273] The walls on both the northern and southern sides of the lobby each contain storefronts and escalators to a mezzanine level. [271] At the west end of the lobby is an aluminum relief of the skyscraper as it was originally built (i.e. without the antenna). [274] The relief, which was intended to provide a welcoming effect, [275] contains an embossing of the building's outline \"with the rays of an aluminum sun shining out behind it and mingling with aluminum rays emanating from the spire of the Empire State Building\". In the background is a state map of New York, with the building's location marked by a \"medallion\" in the very southeast portion of the outline. A compass is located in the bottom right, and a plaque to the tower's major developers is on the bottom left. [276] At this point, the lobby feeds into a one-story tall, similarly-designed rectangular-shaped corridor that surrounds the banks of escalators. [277] The rectangular shaped corridor actually consists of two long hallways on the northern and southern sides of the rectangle, [278] as well as a shorter hallway on the eastern side and another long hallway on the western side. [277] At both ends of the northern and southern corridors, there is one bank of four low-rise elevators in between the corridors. [220] The western side of the rectangular elevator-bank corridor extends north to the 34th Street entrance and south to the 33rd Street entrance. It borders three large storefronts and leads to escalators that go both to the second floor and to the basement. Going from west to east, there are secondary entrances to 34th and 33rd Streets from both the northern and southern corridors, respectively, at approximately the two-thirds point of each corridor. [271] [g] Until the 1960s, the ceilings in the lobby had a shiny art deco mural inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age , until it was covered with ceiling tiles and fluorescent lighting. [274] Because the original murals, designed by an artist named Leif Neandross, were damaged, reproductions were installed. Renovations to the lobby alluded to original plans for the building; replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer , as well as installing two chandeliers originally intended to be part of the building when it first opened. [279] The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963 in time for the 1964 World's Fair , which depicts the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World , alongside the traditional seven. [220] [280] The building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. Johnson filed a federal lawsuit in January 2014 under the Visual Artists Rights Act , alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist. [281] As part of the building's 2010 renovation, Denise Amses commissioned a work consisting of \"15,000 stars and 5,000 circles\" superimposed on a 13-by-5-foot (4.0 by 1.5 m) etched-glass installation in the lobby. [282] Major renovations Seen in 2005 Capital improvements were made to the Empire State Building during the early to mid-1990s at a cost of $55 million. [226] These improvements entailed replacing alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning; making the observation deck compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA); and refurbishing the limestone facade. [225] The observatory renovation was added after disability rights groups and the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against the building in 1992, in what was believed to be the first lawsuit filed by an organization under the then-new ADA law. [283] A settlement was reached in 1994, in which the Empire State Building Associates agreed to add ADA-compliant elements, such as new elevators, ramps, and automatic doors, during its ongoing renovation. [284] The building's public areas received a $550 million renovation in 2009, with improvements including new air conditioning, waterproofing, and renovating the observation deck, and moving the gift shop to the 80th floor, [241] [242] as well as refurbishing the main lobby. [279] Of this, $120 million was spent in an effort to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure, with the goal of reducing energy emissions by 38% within five years. [242] [243] For example, all of the windows were refurbished onsite into film-coated \"superwindows\" which block heat but pass light. [285] [243] [244] Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced, saving $17 million of the project's capital cost immediately and partially funding some of the other retrofits. [285] The Empire State Building won a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating in September 2011, [246] [245] as well as the World Federation of Great Towers ' Excellence in Environment Award for 2010. [244] Features Above the 102nd floor The final plan for the building called for the installation of a hollow mast, complete of 158-foot (48 m) steel shaft with elevators and utilities, above the 86th floor. At the top would be a conical roof and the 102nd-floor docking station. [286] The elevators would ascend 167 feet (51 m) from the 86th floor ticket offices to a 33-foot-wide (10 m) 101st-floor [e] waiting room. [168] [165] From there, stairs would lead to the 102nd floor, [e] where passengers would enter the airships. [286] The airships would have been moored to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. [165] [166] On the 102nd floor of the Empire State Building (formerly the 101st floor), there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor (formerly the 102nd). [e] This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. [13] It is now an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment, but celebrities and dignitaries may also be given permission to take pictures there. [287] [288] Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work. [287] The mast's 480 windows were all replaced in 2015. [289] Broadcast stations Antennae for broadcast stations are located at the top of the Empire State Building. Broadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when NBC and RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire, with two separate transmitters for the visual and audio data. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there. [163] In 1934, RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna. [290] [291] This setup, which entailed the installation of the world's first FM transmitter , [291] continued only until October of the next year because of disputes between RCA and Armstrong. [163] [290] Specifically, NBC wanted to install more TV equipment in the room where Armstrong's transmitter was located. [291] Afterward, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, then as commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4) from July 1941 on. NBC's FM station W2XDG, began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. [163] [292] NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the seven extant New York-area television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began on July 27, 1950. [184] Other television broadcasters then joined RCA at the building, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, often along with sister FM stations. [163] Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951, and was completed by 1953. [67] [75] [185] Six broadcasters paid a combined $600,000 for the use of the antenna in 1951 per year. [187] In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna. [163] The Empire State Building as seen from the Top of the Rock The stations' placement in the Empire State Building became a major issue with the construction of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers during the late 1960s and early 1970s. As the towers were taller than the Empire State Building, this would cause waves from the Empire State Building to sometimes bounce off the walls of the taller Twin Towers. As a result, some broadcasters decided that it would be easier to move to the Twin Towers instead, rather than suing the complex's developer, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , to stop construction. [293] Even though the nine stations who were broadcasting from the Empire State Building were leasing their broadcast space until 1984, most of these stations moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed in 1971. The broadcasters obtained a court order stipulating that the Port Authority had to build a mast and transmission equipment in the North Tower , as well as pay the broadcasters' leases in the Empire State Building until 1984. [215] After the leases expired, there were very few broadcasters remaining in the Empire State Building. [294] The September 11 attacks in 2001 destroyed the World Trade Center and the broadcast centers atop it, leaving most of the city's stations without a station for ten days until a temporary tower was built in Alpine, New Jersey . [295] By October 2001, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) were transmitting from the top of the Empire State Building. The stations' placement in the Empire State Building was considered \"problematic\" due to interference from other nearby towers, as contrasted with the former Twin Towers, which had very few buildings of comparable height nearby. [235] In 2003, a few FM stations were relocated to the nearby Condé Nast Building to reduce the number of broadcast stations using the Empire State Building. [296] Eleven television stations and 22 FM stations had signed 15-year leases in the building by May 2003. It was expected that a taller broadcast tower in Bayonne, New Jersey , or Governors Island would be built in the meantime, with the Empire State Building being used as a \"backup\" since signal transmission from the Empire State Building was still of poor quality. [297] As of 2017 [update] , the Empire State Building is home to the following stations: [298] Television: WCBS-2 , WNBC-4 , WNYW-5 , WABC-7 , WWOR-9 Secaucus , WPIX-11 , WNET-13 Newark , WNYE-25 , WPXN-31 , WXTV-41 Paterson , WNJU-47 Linden and WFUT-68 Newark FM: WBMP-92.3 , WPAT-93.1 Paterson , WNYC-93.9 , WPLJ-95.5 , WXNY-96.3 , WQHT-97.1 , WSKQ-97.9 , WEPN-98.7 , WBAI-99.5 , WHTZ-100.3 Newark , WCBS-101.1 , WFAN-101.9 , WNEW-FM-102.7 , WKTU-103.5 Lake Success , WAXQ-104.3 , WWPR-105.1 , WQXR-105.9 Newark , WLTW-106.7 and WBLS-107.5 Observation decks The 86th and 102nd floors contain observatories, [299] [274] which combined see an average of 4 million visitors per year. [248] [300] Since opening, the observatories have been more popular than similar observatories at 30 Rockefeller Plaza , the Chrysler Building, the first One World Trade Center, or the Woolworth Building , despite being more expensive. [248] Tourists must pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. [301] The 86th floor observatory contains both an enclosed section and a wide-open section. [302] The 102nd floor observatory is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one. For several years until 2005, the 102nd floor observatory was closed. [302] The observation decks were redesigned in mid-1979. [217] The lines to enter the observation decks, according to Concierge.com , are \"as legendary as the building itself:\" there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. [303] For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line. [301] The Empire State Building garners significant revenue from ticket sales for its observation decks, making more money from ticket sales than it does from renting office space during some years. [248] [304] A 360° panoramic view of New York City from the 86th-floor observation deck of the Empire State Building, spring 2005. East River is to the left, Hudson River to the right, south is near center. New York Skyride The Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction located on the 2nd floor, opened in early 1994. [305] It was built as a complement to the observation deck. [306] The cinematic presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes, while the simulation is about eight minutes. [307] As of October 2017 [update] , tickets are $42 for adults, $32 for children, and $36 for senior citizens. [308] The ride has had two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan , Star Trek's Scotty , as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm. [309] [310] After the World Trade Center terrorist attacks in September 11, 2001, the ride was closed. [306] An updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot, with the new flight also going haywire. [311] This new version served a more informative goal, as opposed to the old version's main purpose of entertainment, and contained details about the 9/11 attacks. [312] The simulator has received mixed reviews, with assessments of the ride ranging from \"great\" to \"satisfactory\" to \"corny\". [313] Lights Lighting at the top of the Empire State Building The building was originally equipped with white searchlights atop the tower. They saw their first use in November 1932 when they lit up to signal Roosevelt's victory over Hoover in the presidential election of that year . [314] They were swapped for four \"Freedom Lights\" in 1956. [314] In February 1964, flood lights were added on the 72nd floor [200] to illuminate the top of the building at night so that the building could be seen from the World's Fair later that year. [201] The lights were shut off from November 1973 to July 1974 because of the severe energy crisis at the time. [47] New red, white, and blue lights were installed in 1976 in time for the country's bicentennial . [47] [315] Since 1976 the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal events and holidays, with organizations able to make requests through the building's website. [316] The building will also be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks , red, white and blue for the New York Rangers , and so on). [317] It was twice lit in scarlet to support New Jersey's Rutgers University : once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006, and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game. [318] There have also been special occasions where the lights are modified from the usual schedule. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra in 1998, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname \"Ol' Blue Eyes\". [319] After actress Fay Wray died in September 2004, who starred in King Kong , the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes. [320] The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. [321] On June 4, 2002, the Empire State Building donned purple and gold (the royal colors of Elizabeth II ), in thanks for the United Kingdom playing the Star Spangled Banner during the Changing of the Guard at Buckingham Palace on September 12, 2001 (a show of support after the September 11 attacks ). [322] On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of NBC 's The Today Show . [323] From June 1 to 3, 2012, the building was lit in blue and white, the colors of the Israeli flag , in honor of the 49th annual Celebrate Israel Parade . [324] During 2012, the building's four hundred metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with 1,200 LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. [325] The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. [326] For instance, on November 6, 2012, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard for the 2012 United States presidential election . When incumbent president Barack Obama had reached the 270 electoral votes necessary to win re-election, the lights turned blue. Had Republican challenger Mitt Romney won, the building would have been lit red. [327] Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first ever synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys . [328] The building's owners adhere to strict standards in using the lights; for instance, they would not use the lights to play advertisements. [326] Height records Height comparison of New York City buildings, with Empire State second from left Empire State Building (gray) compared to large ships and buildings: The Pentagon , 1,414 feet, 431 m RMS Queen Mary 2 , 1,132 feet, 345 m USS Enterprise , 1,123 feet, 342 m Hindenburg , 804 feet, 245 m Yamato , 863 feet, 263 m Empire State Building , 1,454 feet, 443 m Knock Nevis , ex- Seawise Giant , 1,503 feet, 458 m Apple Park , 1,522 feet, 464 m The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in October 1970. [233] [329] [212] The Empire State Building was also the tallest man-made structure in the world before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954, [330] and the tallest freestanding structure in the world until the completion of the Ostankino Tower in 1967. [212] An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected. [331] With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks , the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City , and the second-tallest building in the Americas , surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. The Empire State Building remained the tallest building in New York until the new One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. [233] [212] [234] As of July 2016 [update] , it is the third-tallest building in New York City after the One World Trade Center and 432 Park Avenue , [332] and the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States behind the two other tallest buildings in New York City, as well as the Willis Tower and Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago . [333] The Empire State Building is the 28th-tallest in the world As of October 2017 [update] , the tallest being Burj Khalifa in Dubai. [334] It is also the sixth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas behind the five tallest buildings and the CN Tower . [335] The Empire State Building Run-Up, a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck, has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour. [336] [337] ESRT began trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange on October 2, 2013. [338] The Midtown skyline, as viewed from the observation deck at night in January 2006 Notable tenants The building houses around 1,000 businesses. [339] Current tenants include: Air China [340] Boy Scouts of America , Greater New York Councils [341] Coty [342] Croatian National Tourist Board [343] [344] Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation [345] Filipino Reporter [343] [346] Human Rights Foundation [347] Human Rights Watch [343] [348] Kaplan International Center [349] Li & Fung [350] LinkedIn [351] Media General [352] Noven Pharmaceuticals [353] People's Daily [354] Polish Cultural Institute [343] [355] Qatar Airways [356] Turkish Airlines [357] World Monuments Fund [358] Former tenants include: The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway ) [359] China National Tourist Office [343] (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue) [360] National Film Board of Canada [343] (now located at 1123 Broadway ) [361] Nathaniel Branden Institute [362] Schenley [363] Incidents 1945 plane crash Aftermath of the B-25 Empire State Building crash Main article: B-25 Empire State Building crash At 9:40 am on July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., [364] crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. [179] One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block, where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. [365] The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. [180] [87] Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. [366] Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday, two days later. [180] [181] The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident. [367] Also as a result of the crash, the Civil Aeronautics Administration enacted strict regulations regarding flying over New York City, setting a minimum flying altitude of 2,500 feet (760 m) above sea level regardless of the weather condition. [368] [180] A year later, on July 24, 1946, another aircraft narrowly missed striking the building. The unidentified twin-engine plane had scraped past the observation deck, scaring tourists there. [369] 2000 elevator plunge On January 24, 2000, an elevator in the building suddenly descended 40 stories after a cable that controlled the cabin's maximum speed was severed. [370] The elevator fell from the 44th floor to the fourth floor, where a narrowed elevator shaft provided a second safety system. Despite the 40-floor fall, both of the passengers in the cabin at the time were only slightly injured. [371] Since that elevator had no fourth-floor doors, the passengers were rescued by an adjacent elevator. [372] After the fall, building inspectors reviewed all of the building's elevators. [371] Suicide attempts Because of the building's iconic status, it and other Midtown landmarks are popular locations for suicide attempts. [373] More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building, with most attempts being successful. [374] [375] The first suicide from the building occurred on April 7, 1931, before the tower was even completed, when a carpenter who had been laid-off went to the 58th floor and jumped. [376] The first suicide after the building's opening occurred from the 86th floor observatory on February 1935, when 22-year-old Irma P. Eberhardt fell 1,029 feet (314 m) onto a marquee sign . [377] On December 16, 1943, William Lloyd Rambo, a 22-year-old ex- United States Navy gunner's mate , jumped to his death from the 86th floor, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below. [378] In the early morning of September 27, 1946, shell-shocked 27 year-old Marine Douglas W. Brashear, Jr. jumped from the 76th-floor window of the Grant Advertising Agency after phoning a co-worker to tell her, \"I know now this is the end.\" Police found his shoes 50 feet from his body. [379] On May 1, 1947, 23-year-old Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions that she left on the observation deck: \"He is much better off without me.... I wouldn’t make a good wife for anybody\". The photo ran in the edition of May 12, 1947 of Life magazine [380] and is often referred to as \"The Most Beautiful Suicide\". It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body) . [381] A 7-foot (2.1 m) mesh fence was put up around the 86th floor terrace in December 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span in October and November of that year. [382] [383] By then, sixteen people had died from suicide jumps. [382] Only one person has jumped from the upper observatory. Frederick Eckert of Astoria ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd floor gallery on November 3, 1932 and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. He landed and died on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade. [384] Two people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip . [385] [386] [387] On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation. [388] [389] Shootings Two fatal shootings have occurred in the direct vicinity of the Empire State Building. Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck during the afternoon of February 23, 1997. He killed one person and wounded six others, supposedly in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel , before committing suicide. [390] On the morning of August 24, 2012, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson shot and killed a former co-worker on the building's Fifth Avenue sidewalk. He had been laid off from his job in 2011. Two police officers confronted the gunman, and he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders, most of whom were hit by fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets. [391] [12] Importance As icon Souvenir of the building As the tallest building in the world and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building was immediately an icon of the city and of the entire country. [141] [148] Time magazine called the building a way that \"you know that you’re in New York City\". [392] John Tauranac calls the tower \"'the' twentieth-century New York building\", even despite the existence of taller and more modernist buildings. [393] Early in the building's history, travel companies such as Short Line Motor Coach Service and New York Central Railroad used the building as an icon to symbolize the city. [394] After the construction of the first World Trade Center, architect Paul Goldberger noted that the Empire State Building \"is famous for being tall, but it is good enough to be famous for being good.\" [217] As an icon of the United States, it is also very popular among Americans. In a 2007 survey, the American Institute of Architects found that the Empire State Building was \"America's favorite building\". [395] The building was originally a symbol of hope in a country devastated by the Depression, as well as a work of accomplishment by newer immigrants. [141] Benjamin Flowers writes that the Empire State was \"a building intended to celebrate a new America, built by men (both clients and construction workers) who were themselves new Americans.\" [136] Meanwhile, BBC News ' culture section referred to the building as an \"icon of American design\". [339] The Empire State Building has been hailed as an example of a \" wonder of the world \" due to the massive effort expended during construction. The Washington Star listed it as part of one of the \"seven wonders of the modern world\" in 1931, while Holiday magazine wrote in 1958 that the Empire State's height would be taller than the combined heights of the Eiffel Tower and the Great Pyramid of Giza . [393] The American Society of Civil Engineers also declared the building \"A Modern Civil Engineering Wonder of the United States\" in 1958, and one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World in 1994. [195] Ron Miller, in a 2010 book, also described the Empire State Building as one of the \"seven wonders of engineering\". [396] It has often been called the Eighth Wonder of the World as well, an appellation that it has held since shortly after opening. [75] [397] [172] The panels installed in the lobby in 1963 reflected this, showing the seven original wonders alongside the Empire State Building. [280] In popular culture Main article: Empire State Building in popular culture As an icon of New York City, the Empire State Building has been featured in dozens of films, books, TV shows, and video games. In his book about the Empire State Building, John Tauranac writes that the first documented appearance of the tower in popular culture was Swiss Family Manhattan , a 1932 children's story by Christopher Morley . [398] A year later, the film King Kong depicted Kong , a large stop motion ape, who climbs the Empire State Building. [175] [176] [273] That movie brought the Empire State Building into the popular imagination, [273] with subsequent movies such as An Affair to Remember (1957), Sleepless in Seattle (1993), and Independence Day (1996) showing the building. [399] [400] The building has also been featured in other works, such as \" Daleks in Manhattan \", a 2007 episode of the TV series Doctor Who ; [399] and Empire , an eight-hour black-and-white silent film by Andy Warhol [399] that was later added to the Library of Congress 's National Film Registry . [401] See also New York City portal Architecture portal Empire State Building in popular culture History of the tallest skyscrapers List of buildings with 100 floors or more List of tallest buildings in the world List of tallest buildings in the United States List of tallest buildings in New York City List of tallest buildings by U.S. state List of tallest freestanding structures in the world References Notes ^ Jump up to: a b The Empire State Building is located within the 10001 zip code area, [20] but 10118 has been assigned as the building's own zip code by the United States Postal Service [17] [18] since 1980. [21] ^ Jump up to: a b Most sources state that there are 102 floors, [6] [7] [8] but a few give a figure of 103 floors due to the presence of a balcony above the 102nd floor. [12] [13] See § Opening and early years and § Above the 102nd floor for a detailed explanation. Jump up ^ Some sources say that this purchase was made for $2600. [32] [33] Jump up ^ Some sources say the farm may have been purchased by Charles Lawton for $10,000 in 1825 and purchased by John Jacob Astor's son William Backhouse Astor Sr. in 1827, [32] [33] but others say John Jacob bought Thompson's farm directly in 1826. [36] This conflates John's purchase of the entire parcel with William's subsequent purchase of a half-interest that included the current Empire State Building's land. [37] ^ Jump up to: a b c d The 101st floor was later renamed the 102nd floor and is 101 floors above ground. The former 102nd floor, now the 103rd floor, is now a balcony that is off-limits to the public, and is 102 floors above ground. [167] Jump up ^ As per the 1916 Zoning Act, the wall of any given tower that faces a street could only rise to a certain height, proportionate to the street's width, at which point the building had to be set back by a given proportion. This system of setbacks would continue until the tower reaches a floor level in which that level's floor area was 25% that of the ground level's area. After that 25% threshold was reached, the building could rise without restriction. [66] [262] [263] This law was modified in 1961 . [264] Jump up ^ See Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981 , PDF page 26, for a diagram of the lobby. Citations ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Jackson 2010 , p. 413. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Langmead 2009 , p. 86. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"EMPIRE STATE TOWER, TALLEST IN WORLD, IS OPENED BY HOOVER; THE HIGHEST STRUCTURE RAISED BY THE HAND OF MAN\" . The New York Times . May 2, 1931. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Fodor's; Sinclair, M. (1998). Exploring New York City . Fodor's Exploring Guides. Fodor's Travel Publications. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-679-03559-6 . Retrieved October 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. \"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\" . Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis . Retrieved January 2, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j \"Empire State Building\" The Skyscraper Center Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat website ^ Jump up to: a b c Emporis GmbH. \"Empire State Building, New York City - 114095 - EMPORIS\" . emporis.com . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Empire State Building\" SkyscraperPage Jump up ^ National Geodetic Survey datasheet KU3602. Retrieved July 26, 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Empire State Building\" . National Historic Landmark summary listing . National Park Service. September 11, 2007. Archived from the original on August 28, 2011. Jump up ^ National Park Service (2007-01-23). \"National Register Information System\" . National Register of Historic Places . National Park Service. ^ Jump up to: a b William Branigin (August 24, 2012). \"Gunman shoots former co-worker near Empire State Building, is shot by police\" . Washington Post . Retrieved October 30, 2013 . The 103-floor Empire State Building draws ^ Jump up to: a b c Edward Rothstein (July 15, 2011). \"A View Inside King Kong's Perch\" . The Times . The New York Times Company . Retrieved May 27, 2013 . The walkway circles around the building’s narrow spire, which, in 1930, was envisioned as a mooring mast for dirigibles. Jump up ^ Jackson 2010 , p. 414. Jump up ^ Tarquinio, J. Alex (September 9, 2009). \"South of Midtown Manhattan, Bargain Commercial Rents\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kravitz, Derek (October 23, 2015). \"Midtown South: Living Where the Action Is\" . Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Verrill, Courtney (May 1, 2016). \"14 weird facts that you probably didn't know about the Empire State Building\" . Business Insider . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The plane crash of '45, more Empire State Building secrets\" . am New York . Newsday. April 25, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Sederstrom, Jonathan (September 18, 2012). \"One World Trade Center Won't Get an Exclusive Zip Code: USPS Officials\" . Commercial Observer . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Manhattan Zip Code Map\" . nyc.gov . New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Manhattan Adding 63 ZIP Codes; Empire State Gets Own Code\" . The New York Times . 1980-05-01. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"MTA Neighborhood Maps: Penn Station / Times Square\" (PDF) . mta.info . Metropolitan Transportation Authority . 2015 . Retrieved December 11, 2015 . Jump up ^ Baldwin, Deborah (October 17, 2008). \"Living In Koreatown Exotic Flavor, Beyond Just the Food\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 25, 2011 . Jump up ^ See: Buckley, Cara (February 17, 2015). \"Midtown's Lush Passage\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . The location is five blocks from the Empire State Building. [22] ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"MTA Neighborhood Maps: Herald Square / Murray Hill\" (PDF) . mta.info . Metropolitan Transportation Authority . 2015 . Retrieved December 11, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Jackson 2010 , p. 866. Jump up ^ \"TOWER SITE PART OF $2,400 FARM; 20-Acre Tract in 1799 Was the Scene of Fights With British-- Sold for $10,000 in 1805\" . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b McCarthy and Rutherford 1931 , pp. 6, 7. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"TOWER SITE PART OF $2,400 FARM; 20-Acre Tract in 1799 Was the Scene of Fights With British-- Sold for $10,000 in 1805\" . The New York Times . May 2, 1931. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Craven, Wayne (2009). Gilded Mansions: Grand Architecture and High Society . W.W. Norton & Company. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-393-06754-5 . Jump up ^ McCarthy and Rutherford 1931 , p. 5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Historical Timeline\" . Empire State Building . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Sperling, L.J. (2003). Famous Works of Art in Popular Culture: A Reference Guide . Greenwood Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-313-31808-5 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Sergey Kadinsky (March 7, 2016). Hidden Waters of New York City: A History and Guide to 101 Forgotten Lakes, Ponds, Creeks, and Streams in the Five Boroughs . Countryman Press . pp. 26–28. ISBN 978-1-58157-566-8 . Retrieved January 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ Lewis, N.P. (1916). The Planning of the Modern City: A Review of the Principles Governing City Planning . John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. p. 400 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Commercial West . Financial Communications. 1911. p. 15-PA17 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Morehouse III 1991 , p. 20. ^ Jump up to: a b \"NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK NOMINATION: EMPIRE STATE BUILDING\" . nps.gov . United States Department of the Interior ; National Park Service . April 26, 1985 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Douglas 2004 , p. 108. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 113. Jump up ^ \"Astor Families Bury Hatchet\" . San Francisco, California: San Francisco Chronicle. July 4, 1905. p. 1 . Retrieved April 28, 2015 – via Newspapers.com . Jump up ^ McCarthy and Rutherford 1931 , pp. 31-32. Jump up ^ Salzman, Joshua A. T. (March 2007). \"When the Astors Owned New York: Blue Bloods and Grand Hotels in a Gilded Age (review)\" . Enterprise and Society . 8 (1): 208 . Retrieved April 28, 2015 – via Project MUSE . (Subscription required ( help )) . Jump up ^ Mock, Carlos T. (2007). Papi Chulo: A Legend, a Novel, and the Puerto Rican Identity . Floricanto Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-9796457-0-9 . Jump up ^ McCarthy and Rutherford 1931 , p. 23. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 114. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Hotel history\" . Waldorfnewyork.com . Retrieved May 30, 2014 . Jump up ^ McCarthy and Rutherford 1931 , p. 77. Jump up ^ Biggs 1897 , p. 31. Jump up ^ Biggs 1897 , p. 29. Jump up ^ Morrison, William Alan (April 14, 2014). Waldorf Astoria . Arcadia Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4671-2128-6 . Jump up ^ Cashman, Sean Dennis (1988). America in the Age of the Titans: The Progressive Era and World War I . NYU Press. p. 373. ISBN 978-0-8147-1411-9 . Jump up ^ The American Architect and Building News Company (1898). American Architect and Architecture . 59-62 (Public domain ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: The American Architect and Building News Company. p. 3. Jump up ^ Comstock, William T. (1898). Architecture and Building . 28 (Public domain ed.). New York: W.T. Comstock. p. 51. Jump up ^ King, Moses (1893). Kings Handbook of New York City (Public domain ed.). M. King. p. 218. Jump up ^ Morehouse III 1991 , p. 8. Jump up ^ Lashley, Conrad; Lynch, Paul; Morrison, Alison J. (2007). Hospitality: A Social Lens . Elsevier. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-08-045093-3 . Jump up ^ \"Hotel fact sheet\" (PDF) . New York University School of Professional Studies. 2009 . Retrieved January 5, 2015 . Jump up ^ Nasaw, David (October 30, 2007). Andrew Carnegie . Penguin. p. 841. ISBN 978-1-101-20179-4 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 117. Jump up ^ \"COLEMAN DU PONT PURCHASES THE WALDORF-ASTORIA; Sale of Hotel Announced by George C. Boldt, Who Relinquishes Control Today\" . The New York Times . February 3, 1918 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 118. Jump up ^ \"Waldorf–Astoria Hotel records 1893-1929\" . New York Public Library Archives & Manuscripts . Retrieved January 7, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Douglas 2004 , p. 109. ^ Jump up to: a b c Willis & Friedman 1998 , pp. 85–87. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Langmead 2009 , p. 81. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Al-Kodmany 2017 , p. 72. Jump up ^ Langmead 2009 , p. 79. ^ Jump up to: a b c Langmead 2009 , p. 80. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"SMITH TO HELP BUILD HIGHEST SKYSCRAPER; Ex-Governor Heads Group That Will Put 80-Story Office Building on Waldorf Site. COST PUT AT $60,000,000 He Will Be President and Have Executive Control of Concern Yet to Be Incorporated. Directors of New Company. To Be Nearly 1,000 Feet High. SMITH TO HELP BUILD HIGH SKYSCRAPER\" . The New York Times . August 30, 1929. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Langmead 2009 , p. 89. Jump up ^ Bascomb 2004 , pp. 246–247. Jump up ^ Wagner 2003 , p. 12. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 157. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Dupre, Judith (2013). Skyscrapers: A History of the World's Most Extraordinary Buildings . Hachette Books. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-1-57912-942-2 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Willis & Friedman 1998 , p. 14. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 129. Jump up ^ Rasenberger 2009 , pp. 388–389. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 130. ^ Jump up to: a b c Tauranac 2014 , p. 131. Jump up ^ Bascomb 2004 , p. 230. Jump up ^ \"ENLARGES SITE FOR 1,000-FOOT BUILDING; Empire State Adds 75 Feet in 33d Street to the Waldorf Hotel Plot\" . The New York Times . November 19, 1929 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Goldman 1980 , pp. 31–32. ^ Jump up to: a b Bascomb 2004 , p. 235. ^ Jump up to: a b Bascomb 2004 , p. 247. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 185. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Bartlett, Kay (March 14, 1976). \"Empire State Building Challenged\" (PDF) . Utica Observer . Utica, New York : Associated Press . p. 9E . Retrieved October 23, 2017 – via Fultonhistory.com . ^ Jump up to: a b Willis 1995 , p. 95. Jump up ^ Langmead 2009 , p. 90. Jump up ^ Jackson 2010 , p. 1230. Jump up ^ Flowers 2001 , p. 17. ^ Jump up to: a b Willis & Friedman 1998 , p. 46. Jump up ^ \"Homer G. Balcom, Engineer, Is Dead\" . The New York Times . July 5, 1938 . Retrieved August 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ Langmead 2009 , p. 84. Jump up ^ \"RAZING OF WALDORF STARTED BY SMITH; Ceremony on Roof Marks the Beginning of Demolition of Historic Hotel. ITS EARLY DAYS RECALLED Former Governor Tells of \"Digging Out\" Fashionable Guests to Serve on Juries\" . The New York Times . October 2, 1929. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 199–200. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 200. Jump up ^ Douglas 2004 , p. 111. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 268. Jump up ^ \"APPROVES $27,500,000 FOR SMITH PROJECT; Metropolitan Life Grants Loan to the Empire State Building Company\" . The New York Times . December 14, 1929. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Rasenberger 2009 , pp. 394–395. Jump up ^ \"STEEL CONTRACT LET.; Empire State Building to Require Total of 50,000 Tons\" . The New York Times . 1930-01-12 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Langmead 2009 , p. 85. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 203. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 205. Jump up ^ \"EXCAVATING FINISHED FOR SMITH BUILDING; Steel Construction on Empire State Structure Here Will Begin on March 15\" . The New York Times . 1930-03-06 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 207. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 206. Jump up ^ Bascomb 2004 , p. 248. Jump up ^ \"STANDARDS FOR STEEL EASED IN NEW CITY LAW; Bill Signed by Walker Allows 18,000-Pound Stress to the Square Inch\" . The New York Times . 1930-03-26 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . Jump up ^ \"Start Empire State Building Frame\" . The New York Times . 1930-04-01 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 204. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 204–205. ^ Jump up to: a b c Poore, C.G. (July 27, 1930). \"GREATEST SKYSCRAPER RISES ON A CLOCKWORK SCHEDULE; The Empire State Building Soars Upward, as a Modern Army Daily, Defeats Time, Far Above the Throngs on Fifth Avenue Some Staggering Figures. Preliminary Considerations. The Order of Progress. Design Speeds Erection. The Factors of Success\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 222. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 223. ^ Jump up to: a b c Popular Mechanics & December 1930 , p. 922. Jump up ^ Bascomb 2004 , p. 246. Jump up ^ Rasenberger 2009 , p. 396. ^ Jump up to: a b c Tauranac 2014 , p. 212. Jump up ^ \"SMITH LAYS STONE FOR TALLEST TOWER; 5,000 Witness Ceremony as Former Governor Wields Trowel at Empire State Building. RECORDS SEALED IN BLOCK Head of Company Traces History of Site on Which 85-Story Office Structure is Being Erected\" . The New York Times . September 10, 1930 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 213. Jump up ^ Willis & Friedman 1998 , p. 164. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Workers Raise Flag 1,048 Feet Above Fifth Av. As Steel Frame of Smith Building Is Finished\" . The New York Times . 1930-09-20 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . Jump up ^ \"Empire State Tower Mast Up; Steel Workers Raise Flag\" . The New York Times . 1930-11-22 . Retrieved 2017-10-28 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 214. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 215. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 208. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 213–214. Jump up ^ Willis & Friedman 1998 , pp. 130–133. ^ Jump up to: a b Willis & Friedman 1998 , p. 204. Jump up ^ Rasenberger 2009 , pp. 390–391. Jump up ^ Weitzman, D. (2014). Skywalkers: Mohawk Ironworkers Build the City . Roaring Brook Press. pp. 85, 87–88. ISBN 978-1-4668-6981-3 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Rasenberger 2009 , p. 398. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 221. ^ Jump up to: a b Flowers 2001 , p. 72. Jump up ^ \"Lewis Wickes Hine: The Construction of the Empire State Building, 1930–31 (New York Public Library Photography Collection)\" . New York Public Library. Archived from the original on February 21, 2009 . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 283. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 283–284. Jump up ^ Rasenberger 2009 , pp. 398–399. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Young, William H.; Young, Nancy K. (2007). The Great Depression in America: A Cultural Encyclopedia . The Great Depression in America: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Greenwood Press. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-0-313-33522-8 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ Langmead 2009 , p. 87. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 227–228. ^ Jump up to: a b \"EMPIRE STATE BUILDING OPEN\" (PDF) . Cortland Standard . Cortland, New York . May 2, 1931. p. 1 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 – via Fultonhistory.com . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 231. Jump up ^ \"RIVALRY FOR HEIGHT IS SEEN AS ENDED\" . The New York Times . May 2, 1931. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"75-STORY BUILDINGS FOUND ECONOMICAL; Advisable Where Land is $400 a Foot, Says W.C. Clark, S.W. Straus Economist. TESTS MADE BY ENGINEERS Skyscrapers of 150 Stories, 2,000 Feet in Height, Are Held to Be Structurally Possible\" . The New York Times . September 22, 1929. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Willis & Friedman 1998 , p. 56. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Willis & Friedman 1998 , p. 48. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 273. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 271. Jump up ^ \"NYT Travel: Empire State Building\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 19, 2010 . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . Smith, Adam (August 18, 2008). \"A Renters' Market in London\" . Time . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b Winters, Patricia (1994-07-17). \"To Oldest Tenant, Empire State A Jewel\" . New York Daily News . Retrieved 2017-10-31 – via Chicago Tribune. ^ Jump up to: a b Ramirez, Anthony (1996-06-30). \"NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: MIDTOWN;A Fixture at the Empire State\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b Martin, Douglas (2008-01-13). \"Jack Brod, Early Tenant of Skyscraper, Dies at 98\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 273–274, 276, 279–280. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 311. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 286–289. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 290–291. ^ Jump up to: a b Jackson 2010 , p. 1326. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 291. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 294–295. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Haskett, Thomas R. (August 1967). \"BROADCAST ANTENNAS ON THE EMPIRE STATE BUILDING\" . Broadcast Engineering magazine : 24–31. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 295. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Langmead 2009 , p. 82. ^ Jump up to: a b Jackson 2010 , pp. 1344. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 237. ^ Jump up to: a b Hearst Magazines (May 1931). Popular Mechanics . Hearst Magazines. p. 812. Jump up ^ Goldman 1980 , p. 44. ^ Jump up to: a b Reingold, Lester A. (July 2000). \"Airships and the Empire State Building—Fact and Fiction\". Air and Space Smithsonian . Jump up ^ \"Throng Strains Necks as Blimp Tries to Kiss Empire State Mast\" . Brooklyn Daily Eagle . September 15, 1931. p. 3 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 – via Newspapers.com . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Blimp Moored to Tower of Empire State Building\" (PDF) . Daily Sentinel . Rome, New York : Associated Press . September 15, 1931. p. 1 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 – via Fultonhistory.com . Jump up ^ \"MOORS TO EMPIRE STATE.; Small Dirigible Makes Brief Contact While Traffic Is Jammed Below\" . The New York Times . September 16, 1931 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"EMPIRE TOWER WINS 1931 FIFTH AV. PRIZE; Association Gives Its Medal and Diploma for Building's Architectural Excellence. SMITH PRAISES BACKERS Calls Structure Their Expression of Confidence in the Continued Growth of the City\" . The New York Times . February 24, 1932. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 25, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 25. ^ Jump up to: a b Langmead 2009 , p. 72. Jump up ^ Willis & Friedman 1998 , pp. 46–48. Jump up ^ \"British Flier, on Wedding Trip, Gets Bond As 5,000,000th Empire State Tower Visitor\" . The New York Times . September 9, 1944. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Jackson 2010 , pp. 413–414. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Berman & Museum of New York City 2003 , p. 86. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Army Pushes Bomber Crash Investigation\" . Brooklyn Daily Eagle . July 30, 1945. p. 1 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 – via Newspapers.com . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 332. Jump up ^ Jackson 2010 , pp. 1188. ^ Jump up to: a b \"O'Dwyer Starts TV Tower Work\" (PDF) . Buffalo Courier-Express . Associated Press. July 28, 1950 . Retrieved October 27, 2017 – via Fultonhistory.com . ^ Jump up to: a b c Kinney, Harrison; Gill, Brendan (April 1, 1953). \"The Talk of the Town\" . The New Yorker : 19. (Subscription required ( help )) . Jump up ^ \"EMPIRE STATE TOWER REPORTED NEAR SALE\" . The New York Times . December 18, 1951. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Appraiser's 'Inside' Helped Sell Empire State Building\" (PDF) . Jamestown Journal . Jamestown, New York : Associated Press . June 22, 1951. p. 1 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 – via Fultonhistory.com . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Bagli, Charles V. (April 28, 2013). \"Empire State Building Has a Tangled History\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ New York Times: \"Ben Tobin, 92, Investor in Hotels And in Real Estate\" by Wolfgang Saxon June 16, 1996 Jump up ^ Sun Sentinel: \"Ben Tobin, Bought Or Built Notable Broward Buildings - Russian Immigrant Created A Real-estate Empire During Depression\" by David Nitkin June 9, 1996 Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 366. Jump up ^ \"EMPIRE STATE BUILDING WILL CHANGE HANDS\" (PDF) . Cortland Standard . Cortland, New York : Associated Press . May 26, 1951. p. 1 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 – via Fultonhistory.com . Jump up ^ \"DEAL IS CLOSED ON EMPIRE STATE; Col. Henry Crown Increases His Ownership to 100% in Famed Office Structure\" . The New York Times . October 15, 1954. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building Given Special Award\" . Chicago Tribune . 1955-12-29. p. 28 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 – via Newspapers.com . (Subscription required ( help )) . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Empire State Building\" . ASCE Metropolitan Section . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Empire State Sold; Price Is 65 Million; Empire State Building Bought By Syndicate for $65,000,000\" . The New York Times . August 23, 1961. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"New Buyer to Sell Empire State To Prudential in Leaseback Deal\" . The New York Times . August 24, 1961. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 351. Jump up ^ \"Tower at Empire State Getting First Cleaning\" . The New York Times . 1962-08-03 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 353. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Top of the Empire State To Get New Floodlights\" . The New York Times . 1964-01-21 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Lelyveld, Joseph (February 23, 1964). \"The Empire State to Glow at Night\" . The New York Times . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 352–353. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 352. Jump up ^ \"THE EMPIRE STATE GETS ESCALATORS\" . The New York Times . 1964-12-24 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ \"355 Million World Trade Center Backed by Port Authority Study; 355 Million World Trade Center Backed by Port Authority Study\" . The New York Times . 1961-03-12 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , pp. 353–354. ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 354. Jump up ^ Ennis, Thomas W. (1964-02-15). \"CRITICS IMPUGNED ON TRADE CENTER\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"World Trade Center Becomes World's Highest Building By 4 Feet\" . The New York Times . 1970-10-20 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Trade Center 'Topped Out' With Steel Column 1,370 Feet Above Street\" . The New York Times . 1970-12-24 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ \"Jackhammers Bite Pavement to Start Trade Center Job\" . The New York Times . 1966-08-06 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"World Trade Center tower surpasses Empire State\" . CBS News . April 30, 2012 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Berman & Museum of New York City 2003 , pp. 105–106. Jump up ^ \"Timeline: World Trade Center chronology\" . PBS – American Experience. Archived from the original on May 2, 2007 . Retrieved May 15, 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , pp. 356–357. Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building hits the half-century mark\" (PDF) . Finger Lakes Times . Associated Press . April 28, 1981. p. 2 . Retrieved 2017-10-29 – via Fultonhistory.com . ^ Jump up to: a b c Mouat, Lucia (November 28, 1979). \"No Longer The Tallest, 'Most Famous' Building In World\" (PDF) . Olean Times-Herald . Monitor News Service . p. 14 . Retrieved 2017-10-29 – via Fultonhistory.com . Jump up ^ Phelps, Timothy M. (1981-05-01). \"LIGHT SHOW MORE LIKE A FLICKER\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-29 . Jump up ^ \"Empire State celebrates 50th year\" (PDF) . Auburn Citizen-Advertiser . United Press International . April 30, 1981. p. 1 . 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(1994-07-08). \"Trump Plans Revitalization Of Empire State Building\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . Jump up ^ \"COMPANY NEWS; Empire State Buyer Found\" . The New York Times . November 1, 1991. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Trump Owns Half of Empire State Building\" . Los Angeles Times . July 8, 1994 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Gilpin, Kenneth N. (February 17, 1995). \"COMPANY NEWS; Trump Sues Empire State Building Management Company\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Trump Loses Round in Empire State Suit\" . The New York Times . March 22, 1995. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Johnston, David Cay (May 31, 1995). \"Helmsley, in a Countersuit Against Trump, Alleges a Conspiracy as Big as the Empire State\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Bagli, Charles V. (1997). \"With Helmsley Death, Wife Faces Battle for Empire\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Dunlap, David W. (April 30, 2012). \"1 World Trade Center Will Reclaim the Sky in Lower Manhattan\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"It's official: 1 WTC is New York's new tallest building\" . NY Daily News. April 30, 2012 . Retrieved April 30, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b Guerrero et al. 2002 , p. 37. Jump up ^ Rashbaum, William K. (2002-07-15). \"Terror Makes All the World A Beat for New York Police\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b Bagli, Charles V. (March 19, 2002). \"Partnership in Deal for Empire State Building\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Collins, Glenn (2004-08-14). \"Making Sense of New York, From 86 Stories Up; Views From the Empire State Building, Mapped Out in Steel\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . Jump up ^ \"HELMSLEY CAVES IN – EMPIRE STATE BLDG. WAR ENDS\" . New York Post . August 30, 2006 . Retrieved September 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"It took 90 minutes to 'steal' the Empire State Building\" . NY Daily News. December 2, 2008 . Retrieved June 16, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Cortese, Amy (2008-10-05). \"The Empire State Building Gets a Makeover\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"2009 ULI Fall Meeting & Urban Land Expo — Green Retrofit: What Is Making This the Wave of the Future?\" (PDF) . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Navarro, Mireya (2009-04-07). \"Empire State Building Plans Environmental Retrofit\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Tauranac 2014 , p. 368. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Empire State Building Achieves LEED Gold Certification | Inhabitat New York City\" . Inhabitat.com . Retrieved October 12, 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Bloomfield, Craig (September 13, 2011). \"Empire State Building Achieves LEED Gold\" (Press release). U.S. Green Building Council . Retrieved October 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Empire State Realty Trust\" . Retrieved March 7, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Bagli, Charles V. (December 24, 2011). \"Empire State Building Observation Decks Generate Startling Profits\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Egan, Matt (August 24, 2016). \"Qatar buys chunk of Empire State Building\" . CNNMoney . Retrieved January 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ Putzier, Konrad (August 25, 2016). \"Qatar's Empire State Building investment is rare move for foreign fund\" . The Real Deal New York . Retrieved January 18, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Popular Mechanics & December 1930 , p. 920. Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building Fact Sheet\" (PDF) . Empire State Realty. p. 1. Jump up ^ Nash, Eric (August 1999). Manhattan Skyscrapers . Princeton Architectural Press. p. 75. ISBN 9781568981819 . Jump up ^ \"American Society of Civil Engineers Seven Wonders\" . Asce.org. July 19, 2010. Archived from the original on August 2, 2010 . Retrieved August 30, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b White, Norval & Willensky, Elliot (2000), AIA Guide to New York City (4th ed.), New York: Three Rivers Press, ISBN 978-0-8129-3107-5 Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building—Accompanying 7 photos, exterior and interior, from 1978\" (PDF) . National Register of Historic Places Inventory . National Park Service. April 26, 1985. Jump up ^ \"America's FavoriteArchitecture\" (PDF) . NPR . The American Institute of Architects; Harris Interactive. 2007 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Taranath 2016 , p. 459. Jump up ^ Peterson, Iver (November 10, 1981). \"LIMESTONE CENTER TURNS TO TOURISM\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on May 24, 2015 . Retrieved September 5, 2016 . Jump up ^ Taranath 2016 , p. 527. 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Jump up ^ Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981 , pp. 12–13. ^ Jump up to: a b c Fodor's 2010 , p. 153. ^ Jump up to: a b c Lepik, Andres (2008). Skyscrapers . Prestel. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-3-7913-3992-4 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981 , p. 1. Jump up ^ Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981 , p. 14. ^ Jump up to: a b Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981 , pp. 12, 15. Jump up ^ Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981 , p. 12. ^ Jump up to: a b Barron, James (September 22, 2009). \"Overhead, a Lobby Is Restored to Old Glory\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on March 6, 2014 . Retrieved September 10, 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Bosworth, Patricia (1984). Diane Arbus: A Biography . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 215. ISBN 9780393326611 . Jump up ^ \"Artist Files Suit Over Missing Empire State Building Paintings\" . New York Times . January 31, 2014 . Retrieved February 1, 2014 . Jump up ^ Barron, James (2011-02-13). \"Restored Lobby's Crowning Touch\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-11-06 . Jump up ^ Andrews, Edmund L. (1992-01-28). \"Advocates of Disabled File Complaint About the Empire State Building\" . New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . Jump up ^ \"US v. Empire State Building of NYC\" (TXT file) (Press release). United States Department of Justice. March 3, 1994 . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b Lovins, Amory (March–April 2012). \"A Farewell to Fossil Fuels\" . Foreign Affairs . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 186. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Inaccessible New York: Up To The 103rd Floor Of The Empire State Building\" . CBS New York . June 6, 2011 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Carlson, Jen (February 2, 2016). \"Here's The View From The Private 103rd Balcony Of The Empire State Building\" . Gothamist . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Morris, Keiko (2015-08-31). \"Raising the Glass at the Empire State Building\" . Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . ^ Jump up to: a b Zarkin, K.; Zarkin, M.J. (2006). The Federal Communications Commission: Front Line in the Culture and Regulation Wars . Understanding our government. Greenwood Press. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0-313-33416-0 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Lessing, L. (1956). Man of High Fidelity: Edwin Howard Armstrong: A Biography . Lippincott. p. 20 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Radio Corporation of America (1943). Radio Age . Radio Corporation of America. p. 6 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 356. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 357. Jump up ^ Guerrero et al. 2002 , p. 36. Jump up ^ Cianci, P.J. (2013). High Definition Television: The Creation, Development and Implementation of HDTV Technology . McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-7864-8797-4 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Bagli, Charles V. (2003-05-12). \"Broadcasters Put Antennas In Midtown\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ \"Radio stations in New York, NY\" . World Radio Map . Retrieved October 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ Al-Kodmany 2017 , p. 71. Jump up ^ Bagli, Charles V. (May 28, 2016). \"3.3 Million Were Expected at Trade Center Attraction; a Million Haven't Shown Up\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . the Empire State Building, whose two observatories are a veritable cash machine, drawing more than 4 million tourists annually ^ Jump up to: a b \"ESB Tickets\" . Empire State Building . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b Fodor's 2010 , p. 154. Jump up ^ \"Ten Things Not to Do in New York\" . Concierge.com . Retrieved October 23, 2010 . Jump up ^ David Robertson (April 23, 2012). \"No threat from large gorillas\" . The Times . Retrieved April 21, 2012 . According to details prepared for the proposed initial public offering of Empire State Realty Trust, the skyscraper earned $62.9 million from its observation deck in nine months last year, compared with $62.6 million from the rental of office space. Jump up ^ Trucco, Terry (1995-01-01). \"TRAVEL ADVISORY: EMPIRE STATE BUILDING; New York on One Floor\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"A Curious Flight Path\" . The New Yorker . November 5, 2001 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg, A.; Dunford, M. (2011). The Rough Guide to New York . Rough Guides. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-84836-590-2 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Group Tour Info and Pricing\" . New York Skyride . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ VR World . Mecklermedia. 1994. p. 32 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Michelin Tire Corporation (2002). New York City . Michelin green guides. Michelin Tire Corporation. p. 82. ISBN 978-2-06-100408-1 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Fodor's New York City . Fodor's Travel Guides. Fodor's Travel. 2016. ISBN 978-0-8041-4370-7 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Quay, Sara E.; Damico, Amy M. (2010). September 11 in Popular Culture: A Guide . Greenwood. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-313-35505-9 . Retrieved 2017-10-31 . Jump up ^ Kleinfield, N. R. (June 16, 2011). \"Feud Over Views From the Empire State Building\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Melina, Remy (2010-08-24). \"What Do the Empire State Building's Lights Mean?\" . Live Science . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ Berman & Museum of New York City 2003 , p. 108. Jump up ^ \"Tower Lights\" . Empire State Building . Retrieved October 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ See, for example: \"ESB to light up with NYCFC, Red Bulls colors\" . am New York . 2016-05-20 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Peters, Chris (2016-04-25). \"LOOK: Empire State Building lights up blue and orange for Islanders win\" . CBSSports.com . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ Schlabach, Mark (November 10, 2006). \"Rutgers finds new level of success with win\" . ESPN . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building turns blue as silent tribute\" . BBC News . May 15, 1998 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Tallmer, Jerry (September 29, 2004). \"Whatever Happened to Fay Wray?\" . The Villager . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Lighting Schedule\" . Empire State Building. Archived from the original on September 20, 2001 . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"The Tallest Buildings in the World\" . The Washington Post . January 4, 2010 . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"TODAY celebrates 60 years!\" . NBC News . 2012-01-13 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ Benhorin, Yitzhak (June 3, 2012). \"NYC celebrates Israel with annual parade\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved November 27, 2012 . Jump up ^ Taub, Eric A. (May 8, 2012). \"Bathed in New Lights, Empire State Building Will Star in More Vivid Show\" . City Room . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Santora, Marc (July 6, 2013). \"The Empire State Building, Now in 16 Million Colors\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Wells, Charlie (November 6, 2012). \"Empire State Building lights up to broadcast election results\" . Daily News . New York . Retrieved November 27, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building Light Show: LED Display Synchronized To Two Alicia Keys Songs Over Manhattan\" . Huffington Post. November 27, 2012 . Retrieved November 27, 2012 . Jump up ^ History of the Twin Towers , archived from the original on December 28, 2013 , retrieved January 26, 2014 Jump up ^ McWhirter, N.; McWhirter, R. (1994). The Guinness Book of Records . Guinness Superlatives. p. 101 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Carmody, Deirdre (October 11, 1972). \"11 Floors May Be Added to the Empire State\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ \"12 tallest skyscrapers in New York City\" . am New York . July 6, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"100 Tallest Buildings in the United States\" . The Skyscraper Center . April 7, 2016. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"100 Tallest Completed Buildings in the World\" . The Skyscraper Center . April 7, 2016. Archived from the original on October 18, 2017 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"100 Tallest Towers in the World\" . The Skyscraper Center . April 7, 2016. Archived from the original on October 22, 2017 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"NYRR Empire State Building Run-Up Crowns Dold and Walsham as Champions\" . New York Road Runners . February 6, 2007. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011 . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Past Race Winners\" . Empire State Building. Archived from the original on January 2, 2010 . Retrieved July 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ Yousuf, Hibah (October 2, 2013). \"Empire State Building IPO disappoints\" . CNNMoney . Retrieved January 18, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Glancey, Jonathan (June 13, 2013). \"The Empire State Building: American icon\" . BBC . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" The Americas Archived October 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine ..\" Air China . Retrieved on October 15, 2012. \"New York AIR CHINA Ltd.(New York) Empire State Building 350 Fifth Avenue, Suite 6905 New York, NY 10118\" Jump up ^ Pincus, Adam (2012-04-27). \"Boy Scouts move store out of Empire State Building\" . The Real Deal New York . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ \"UPDATE 2-Coty expands in Empire State Building\" . Reuters . April 18, 2012 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \" Foreigners flocking to 350 Fifth Avenue Archived October 14, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ..\" Real Estate Weekly . June 30, 2004. Jump up ^ Home page . Croatian National Tourist Board . Retrieved September 4, 2008. Jump up ^ Rubenstein, Dana (2009-07-07). \"FDIC Signs Lease for Empire State Building\" . Observer . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ \" Contact .\" Filipino Reporter . Retrieved September 4, 2008. Jump up ^ \"About Us - HRF.org\" . HRF.org . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ \" Contact .\" Human Rights Watch . Retrieved September 4, 2008. Jump up ^ Kaplan International school at ESB Jump up ^ Weiss, Lois (2011-01-06). \"Empire expansion\" . New York Post . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ David M. Levitt. \"The Tangled Tale Behind the Empire State Building's IPO\" . Businessweek.com . Jump up ^ \"Media General takes lease at Empire State Building\" . The Real Deal . January 28, 2015 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ \"Pharma Firm Bolts Chrysler Building for Empire State\" . Observer . 2010-05-24 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ Reds Go Green: Chinese Communist Party Newspaper Signs Empire State Building Lease Archived December 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine .. Jump up ^ Home Page . Polish Cultural Institute in New York. Retrieved September 4, 2008. Jump up ^ \"25,000 Square Feet Of Pre-Builts Leased At The Empire State Building\" (Press release). Empire State Realty Trust. May 5, 2014 . Retrieved 2017-10-29 . Jump up ^ \"Turkish Airlines moves into Empire State Bldg\" . The Real Deal New York . 2011-02-14 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ \"Dedicated to saving the world's most treasured places\" . World Monuments Fund . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ Buckley, Cara (December 20, 2008). \"An Evangelical College in Manhattan, Where the Sin Is\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" Contact Us Archived September 14, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ..\" China National Tourist Office . Retrieved September 4, 2008. Jump up ^ \" Contact us .\" National Film Board of Canada . Retrieved September 4, 2008. Jump up ^ Cookinham, Frederick (2016-04-16). Man in the Place of the Gods: What Cities Mean . iUniverse. ISBN 9781491794067 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 345. Jump up ^ \"750th Squadron 457th Bombardment Group: Officers – 1943 to 1945\" . Retrieved April 6, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"CRASH FIRE RUINS SCULPTOR'S STUDIO; PHOTO-DIAGRAM OF THE PLANE CRASH\" . The New York Times . July 29, 1945. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Longest Fall Survived In An Elevator\" . Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on March 17, 2006 . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"The Day A Bomber Hit The Empire State Building\" . NPR . Retrieved July 28, 2008 . Eight months after the crash, the U.S. government offered money to families of the victims. Some accepted, but others initiated a lawsuit that resulted in landmark legislation. The Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, for the first time, gave American citizens the right to sue the federal government. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 330. Jump up ^ \"EMPIRE STATE PLANE STILL NOT IDENTIFIED\" . The New York Times . July 26, 1946. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Chivers, C. J. (2000). \"Elevator Cable Failed at Empire State Building, City Finds\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Empire State Elevator Plummets 40 Floors\" . The New York Times . 2000. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Miller, Adam (January 25, 2000). \"2 SURVIVE EMPIRE ST. ELEVATOR PLUNGE\" . New York Post . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Gross, Charles; Piper, Tinka Markham; Bucciarelli, Angela; Tardiff, Kenneth; Vlahov, David; Galea, Sandro (November 2007). \"Suicide Tourism in Manhattan, New York City, 1990–2004\" . Journal of Urban Health : Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine . 84 (6): 755–765. doi : 10.1007/s11524-007-9224-0 . ISSN 1099-3460 . PMC 2232032 . PMID 17885807 . Jump up ^ \"Lawyer dies in Empire suicide horror\" . NY Daily News . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ VanDam, Jeff (April 26, 2006). \"An urban icon where they used to go fishing\" . The Herald Tribune . The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 12, 2009. Jump up ^ \"KILLED IN 57-STORY FALL.; Carpenter's Death at Empire State Building Believed to Be Suicide\" . The New York Times . 1931-04-07 . Retrieved 2017-10-28 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 242. Jump up ^ \"Youth Dives from Empire State Bldg\" . The Schenectady Gazette . December 17, 1943 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . Jump up ^ \"Leaps to Death from 76th Floor\" . Tuscaloosa News . September 27, 1946 . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . Jump up ^ \"Picture of the Week\" . Life : 42–43. May 12, 1947. ISSN 0024-3019 . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ Dillenberger, Jane D. (February 1, 2001). The Religious Art of Andy Warhol . A&C Black. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-8264-1334-5 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"SAFETY GUARD COMPLETED ON THE EMPIRE STATE BUILDING\" . The New York Times . 1947-12-05. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-10-26 . Jump up ^ Reavill, Gil; Zimmerman, Jean (2003). Manhattan . Compass American Guides (4th ed.). New York: Compass American Guides. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-676-90495-6 . Jump up ^ \"Leaps to His Death Off Empire Tower\" . The New York Times . November 4, 1932 . Retrieved October 4, 2011 . Jump up ^ Douglas, George H. (2004). Skyscrapers: A Social History of the Very Tall Building in America . London: McFarland. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-7864-2030-8 . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ Broughton, Geoffrey (1987). Expressions . London: Collins ELT. p. 32. ISBN 0-00-370641-9 . Jump up ^ Goldman 1980 , p. 63. Jump up ^ Stepansky, Joseph; Kemp, Joe; Calcano, Bryan; Beekman, Daniel (April 25, 2013). \"Man tumbles off Empire State Building\" . New York Daily News . Retrieved April 25, 2013 . Jump up ^ Phillips, Jack (2013-04-25). \"Empire State Building Fall: Man Survives Plunge on 86th Floor\" . The Epoch Times . Retrieved 2017-10-27 . Jump up ^ \"Gunman shoots 7, kills self at Empire State Building\" . CNN . February 24, 1997. Archived from the original on April 20, 2010 . Retrieved January 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Police: All Empire State shooting victims were wounded by officers\" . CNN . August 24, 2012 . Retrieved January 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Empire State Building: A City Icon Turns 82 Amid Battle to Go Public\" . TIME . 2013-05-01 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . ^ Jump up to: a b Tauranac 2014 , p. 19. Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 20. Jump up ^ \"Empire State Building is America's Favorite\" . Bloomberg . 2007-02-09 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ Miller, Ron (2010). Seven Wonders of Engineering . Seven Wonders. Ebsco Publishing. pp. 7–15. ISBN 978-0-7613-5989-0 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ Perez, Judith (2012-05-01). \"Empire State Building: The 8th World Wonder - A History in Photos\" . ABC News . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Jump up ^ Tauranac 2014 , p. 24. ^ Jump up to: a b c Langmead 2009 , p. 73. Jump up ^ \"TV & Movies\" . Empire State Building . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . 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Landmarks Preservation Commission. May 19, 1981 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Douglas, George H. (2004). Skyscrapers: A Social History of the Very Tall Building in America . McFarland. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-7864-2030-8 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Flowers, Benjamin (2001). Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century . EBL-Schweitzer. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8122-0260-1 . Retrieved 2017-10-25 . Fodor's Travel Publications (2010). Fodor's See It New York City, 4th Edition . Fodor's See It New York City. Fodor's Travel Publications. ISBN 978-1-4000-0498-0 . Retrieved October 24, 2017 . Goldman, Jonathan (1980). The Empire State Building Book . New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-24455-2 . Guerrero, P.F.; Abramowitz, A.D.; Morrison, F. (2002). Telecommunications: Many Broadcasters Will Not Meet May 2002 Digital Television Dtv Deadline . Diane Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7567-2547-1 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Jackson, Kenneth T. , ed. (2010), The Encyclopedia of New York City (2nd ed.), New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-11465-2 Kayden, Jerold S.; The Municipal Art Society of New York (2000). Privately Owned Public Space: The New York City Experience . Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-36257-9 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Langmead, Donald (2009). Icons of American Architecture: From the Alamo to the World Trade Center . Greenwood icons. Greenwood. pp. 71–92. ISBN 978-0-313-34207-3 . Retrieved October 22, 2017 . \"Man's Mightiest Monument\" . Popular Mechanics . Hearst Magazines: 920–924. December 1930. McCarthy, James Remington; Rutherford, John (1931). Peacock alley : the romance of the Waldorf-Astoria . Harper. Morehouse III, Ward (1991). The Waldorf Astoria: America's Gilded Dream . Xlibris, Corp. ISBN 978-1413465044 . Rasenberger, Jim (2009). High Steel: The Daring Men Who Built the World's Greatest Skyline, 1881 to the Present . HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-174675-8 . Retrieved October 21, 2017 . Taranath, B.S. (2016). Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings: Steel and Composite Construction . CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-5090-9 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Tauranac, John (2014). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark . New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-19678-7 . Wagner, Geraldine B. (2003). Thirteen Months to Go: The Creation of the Empire State Building . San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 978-1-59223-105-8 . Willis, Carol (1995). Form Follows Finance: Skyscrapers and Skylines in New York and Chicago . Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-044-7 . Retrieved October 23, 2017 . Willis, Carol; Friedman, Donald (1998). Building the Empire State . New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-73030-2 . Further reading Aaseng, Nathan (1998). Construction: Building the Impossible . Minneapolis, MN: The Oliver Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-881508-59-5 . James, Theodore, Jr. (1975). The Empire State Building . New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012172-3 . Kingwell, Mark (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10622-0 . Pacelle, Mitchell (2001). Empire: A Tale of Obsession, Betrayal, and the Battle for an American Icon . New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-40394-4 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Empire State Building . Look up Empire State Building in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Empire State Building . Official website Empire State Building on CTBUH Skyscraper Center Empire State Building under construction (1930–1931) at the New York Public Library Empire State Building at Viva 2 – archive of over 500 construction photographs at The Skyscraper Museum Records Preceded by Chrysler Building World's tallest structure 1931–1954 Succeeded by KWTV Mast World's tallest freestanding structure on land 1931–1967 Succeeded by Ostankino Tower Tallest building in the world 1931–1970 Succeeded by World Trade Center (1973–2001) (North Tower) Tallest building in the United States 1931–1970 Tallest building in New York City 1931–1972 Preceded by World Trade Center (1973–2001) (North Tower) Tallest building in New York City 2001–2013 Succeeded by One World Trade Center (current) [ show ] v t e Timeline of tallest buildings in New York City Collegiate Reformed Protestant Dutch Church ( c. 1643) Trinity Church (85 m) (1846) New York World Building (94 m) (1890) Manhattan Life Insurance Building (100 m) (1894) Park Row Building (119 m) (1899) Singer Building (187 m) (1908) Metropolitan Life Tower (213 m) (1909) Woolworth Building (241 m) (1913) 40 Wall Street (283 m) (1930) Chrysler Building (320 m) (1930) Empire State Building (443 m) (1931) World Trade Center (526 m) (1973) Empire State Building (443 m) (2001) One World Trade Center (541 m) (2014) [ show ] v t e Supertall skyscrapers [ hide ] Current North America 432 Park Avenue Aon Center Bank of America Plaza Bank of America Tower Chrysler Building Empire State Building Franklin Center JPMorgan Chase Tower John Hancock Center One World Trade Center One57 The New York Times Building Trump Tower Chicago Two Prudential Plaza U.S. Bank Tower Wells Fargo Plaza Willis Tower Wilshire Grand Center South America Gran Torre Santiago Asia 23 Marina 85 Sky Tower Abenobashi Terminal Building Skyscraper (Abeno Harukas) Abraj Al Bait ADNOC Headquarters Almas Tower Al Hamra Tower Arraya Tower Aspire Tower Baiyoke Tower II Bank of China Tower Burj Al Arab Burj Khalifa Cayan Tower The Center Central Plaza Chang Fu Jin Mao Tower China World Trade Center Tower III Chongqing IFS T1 Chongqing World Financial Center CITIC Plaza Eton Place Dalian Diwang International Fortune Center East Pacific Center Emirates Office Tower Elite Residence Etihad Towers Fortune Center Gate to the East Greenland Puli Center Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre Guangzhou International Finance Center Haeundae Doosan We've the Zenith HHHR Tower International Commerce Centre International Finance Centre Jiangxi Nanchang Greenland Central Plaza Jin Mao Tower Jumeirah Emirates Towers Hotel JW Marriott Marquis Dubai Keangnam Hanoi Landmark Tower Kingdom Centre KK100 Leatop Plaza Longxi International Hotel Lotte World Tower MahaNakhon Minsheng Bank Building Nanjing International Youth Cultural Centre Tower 1 Nina Tower Northeast Asia Trade Tower Ocean Heights Pearl River Tower Petronas Towers Ping An Finance Centre Princess Tower Rose Tower Shanghai Tower Shanghai World Financial Center Shimao International Plaza Shun Hing Square Taipei 101 Telekom Tower Tianjin World Financial Center The Address Downtown Dubai The Index The Landmark The Marina Torch The Pinnacle The Wharf Times Square Wanda Plaza Wenzhou World Trade Center White Magnolia Plaza World Trade Center Abu Dhabi Wuxi Maoye City - Marriott Hotel Suning Plaza 1, Wuxi Zhongzhou Holdings Financial Center Zhuhai St. Regis Hotel & Office Tower Zifeng Tower Europe City of Capitals Eurasia Federation Tower Mercury City Tower OKO Tower The Shard Australia Q1 [ show ] Under construction North America 111 West 57th Street 125 Greenwich Street 3 Hudson Boulevard 30 Hudson Yards 35 Hudson Yards 3 World Trade Center 45 Broad Street 50 Hudson Yards 53W53 9 DeKalb Avenue Central Park Tower Comcast Technology Center Manhattan West Tower 1 One Vanderbilt Salesforce Tower Wanda Vista Asia China Baoneng Center Baoneng Shenyang Global Financial Center Changsha A9 Financial District Changsha IFS Tower T1 Chengdu Greenland Tower China Resources Centre Block A China Resources Headquarters Chongqing Corporate Avenue 1 Concord International Centre Dalian Greenland Center Dalian International Trade Center Deji Plaza Dongguan International Trade Center 1 Eye of Spring Trade Center Gemdale Gangxia Tower 1 Golden Eagle Tiandi Tower A Golden Eagle Tiandi Tower B Goldin Finance 117 Greenland Group Suzhou Center Guangxi Finance Plaza Haikou Tower Hanking Center Heartland 66 Office Tower Hon Kwok City Center Huaguoyuan Tower 1 Huaguoyuan Tower 2 Jin Wan Plaza 1 Jinan Center Financial City Logan Century Center 1 Mandarin Oriental Chengdu Nanjing Olympic Suning Tower Nanjing World Trade Center Tower 1 Ningbo Center One Shenzhen Bay Phoenix Towers Rose Rock International Finance Center Runhua Global Center 1 Shenglong Global Center Shimao Hunan Center Shum Yip Upperhills Tower 1 South Asian Gate Spring City 66 Suning Plaza Tower 1, Zhenjiang Suzhou IFS Suzhou Zhongnan Center Tianjin Chow Tai Fook Binhai Center Tianjin Modern City Office Tower Tianjin R&F Guangdong Tower Wuhan Center Wuhan Greenland Center Xiamen International Centre Yantai Shimao No.1 The Harbour Yuexiu Fortune Center Tower 1 Zhujiang New City Tower India Lokhandwala Minerva Namaste Tower Oasis Tower Orchid Crown Palais Royale, Mumbai World One Saudi Arabia Capital Market Authority Headquarters Diamond Tower Jeddah Tower Lamar Towers South Korea LCT Landmark Tower LCT Residential Tower A LCT Residential Tower B Parc1 Tower UAE Address Boulevard Ahmed Abdul Rahim Al Attar Tower DAMAC Residenze Dubai Pearl Marina 101 Marina 106 The Skyscraper (Dubai) other Abu Dhabi Plaza Gate of Kuwait Gate of Taipei Iconic Tower KL118 Pertamina Energy Tower Ryugyong Hotel The Stratford Residences VietinBank Business Center Office Tower Europe Lakhta Center Australia Australia 108 [ show ] Construction delayed or suspended Al Quds Endowment Tower Barwa Tower Burj Al Alam Busan Lotte Town Tower Doha Convention Center Tower Dubai Towers Doha Forum 66 India Tower JW Marriott International Finance Centre Lighthouse Tower Millennium Tower Orchid Heights Pentominium Plaza Rakyat Qatar National Bank Tower Skycity Signature Tower Jakarta Sino-Steel Tower Square Capital Tower Tameer Commercial Tower The Pinnacle Tour Financial Hub Center Two World Trade Center [ show ] Former World Trade Center (1973–2001) See also Proposed supertall skyscrapers List of architects of supertall buildings [ show ] v t e Popular visitor attractions in New York City Times Square (35M) Central Park (20M) Metropolitan Museum of Art (5.2M) High Line (5M) Statue of Liberty (4.24M) American Museum of Natural History (4M) Empire State Building (4M) Museum of Modern Art (2.67M) See also: Tourism in New York City Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 230439460 LCCN : sh85042848 GND : 4284884-2 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empire_State_Building&oldid=809354851 \" Categories : 1930s architecture in the United States 1931 establishments in New York (state) Art Deco architecture in New York City Art Deco skyscrapers Office buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan Empire State Building Fifth Avenue Former world's tallest buildings Midtown Manhattan National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan Office buildings completed in 1931 Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan Symbols of New York City Radio masts and towers in the United States Tourist attractions in Manhattan Tourist attractions in New York City Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Use mdy dates from October 2017 Use American English from April 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 Articles 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Empire State Building", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Empire_State_Building&amp;oldid=809354851" }

{ "text": "Modus operandi - Wikipedia Modus operandi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Modus operandi (disambiguation) . A modus operandi (often shortened to M.O. ) is someone's habits of working, particularly in the context of business or criminal investigations, but also more generally. It is a Latin phrase, approximately translated as mode of operating . [1] Contents 1 Term 2 Plural 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Term [ edit ] The term is often used in police work when discussing crime and addressing the methods employed by criminals . It is also used in criminal profiling , [2] where it can help in finding clues to the offender's psychology . [3] It largely consists of examining the actions used by the individuals to execute the crime, prevent its detection and facilitate escape. [1] A suspect's modus operandi can assist in their identification, apprehension, or repression, and can also be used to determine links between crimes. [4] In business, modus operandi is used to describe a firm's preferred means of executing business and interacting with other firms. Plural [ edit ] The plural is modi operandi . The word operandi is a gerund in the genitive case, \"of operating\"; gerunds can never be pluralised in Latin, as opposed to gerundives . When a noun with an attribute in the genitive is pluralised, only the head noun normally changes, just as in English with \"of\": \"a fact of life, two facts of life\". See also [ edit ] Criminology John E. Douglas Latin phrases Modus ponens Modus tollens Modus vivendi Signature crime References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Douglas, J. E. and A. W. Burgess, A. G. Burgess, R. K. Ressler. Crime classification manual ( John Wiley & Sons , 2006) ISBN 0-7879-8501-5 , p. 19-21. Jump up ^ Vronsky, R. Serial Killers ( Berkley Books , 2004) ISBN 0-425-19640-2 , p. 412. Jump up ^ Hazelwood, R. R, A. W. Burgess, Practical Aspects of Rape Investigation , ( CRC Press , 2001) ISBN 0-8493-0076-2 , p. 517. Jump up ^ Berg, B.L. Criminal Investigation ( McGraw Hill , 2008) ISBN 978-0-07-340124-9 Further reading [ edit ] Levinson, D. Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment (SAGE, 2002). ISBN 0-7619-2258-X . Carlo, P. The Night Stalker: The Life and Crimes of Richard Ramirez (Pinnacle Books 1996). ISBN 0-7860-1362-1 . External links [ edit ] The dictionary definition of modus operandi at Wiktionary Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modus_operandi&oldid=858277824 \" Categories : Criminal investigation Criminology Latin words and phrases Offender profiling Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Nederlands Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 20 more Edit links This page was last edited on 6 September 2018, at 02:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Modus operandi", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Modus_operandi&amp;oldid=858277824" }

{ "text": "A Little Less Conversation - Wikipedia A Little Less Conversation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"A Little Less Conversation\" The original picture sleeve of the 1968 single. Single by Elvis Presley A-side \" Almost in Love \" Released September 1968 Format 7\" 45 RPM Recorded 7 March 1968, Western Recorders, Hollywood, California Genre Rhythm and blues soul rock and roll Length 2 : 28 Label RCA Records Songwriter(s) Mac Davis , Billy Strange Producer(s) Elvis Presley Elvis Presley singles chronology \" Let Yourself Go \" / \"Your Time Hasn't Come Yet, Baby\" (1968) \" Almost in Love \" / \" A Little Less Conversation \" (1968) \" If I Can Dream \" / \" Edge of Reality \" (1968) \" Let Yourself Go \" / \"Your Time Hasn't Come Yet, Baby\" (1968) \" Almost in Love \" / \" A Little Less Conversation \" (1968) \" If I Can Dream \" / \" Edge of Reality \" (1968) \" A Little Less Conversation \" is a song written by Mac Davis and Billy Strange , originally performed by Elvis Presley for the 1968 film Live a Little, Love a Little . The song became a minor hit in the United States when released as a single with \" Almost in Love \" as the A-side . A 2002 remix by Junkie XL of a later re-recording of the song by Presley became a worldwide hit, topping the singles charts in nine countries and was awarded certifications in ten countries by 2003. The song has made numerous appearances in popular culture and has been covered by several artists. Contents [ hide ] 1 Original recordings 2 1968 television special re-recording 2.1 Chart performance 3 Junkie XL/JXL version 3.1 Chart performance 3.2 Charts and certifications 3.2.1 Weekly charts 3.2.2 Year-end charts 3.2.3 Decade-end positions 3.2.4 Certifications 4 Other covers and remakes 5 In popular culture 6 References 7 External links Original recordings [ edit ] \"A Little Less Conversation\" was first recorded on 7 March 1968 at Western Recorders in Hollywood, California, and released on a single backed by \" Almost in Love \", another song from the movie. The song was not released on an LP until November 1970, when it was included on the RCA Camden budget label LP Almost in Love . There are several different takes that were made of the song in the session on 7 March. The single version used take 16, which was also used for the soundtrack of the film. The version released on the Almost In Love album is take 10, which is 1 second longer in duration. The musicians on the 7 March recording session included Hal Blaine , drums; Al Casey , guitar; Larry Knechtel , bass; and Don Randi , piano. [1] 1968 television special re-recording [ edit ] Presley re-recorded the song in June 1968 for the soundtrack of his 1968 comeback special , with the intent of performing it during the program (in part due to Live a Little, Love a Little being scheduled for release about a month before the special's broadcast date). Ultimately, it was decided not to use this recording, and the song was dropped from the planned special. The newer version transposed the key of A major recording of three months earlier into E major and featured a vocal and heavy reverb with backup vocals from The Blossoms . [2] In the mid-1990s, Joseph A. Tunzi sold this recording to Bertelsmann Music Group and it was initially included on the 1998 release Memories: The '68 Comeback Special . Tunzi had been the first to document this recording in his 1996 book Elvis Sessions II: The Recorded Music of Elvis Aron Presley 1953-1977 . [3] Chart performance [ edit ] Chart (1968) Peak position US Billboard Hot 100 [4] 69 Junkie XL/JXL version [ edit ] \"A Little Less Conversation\" Single by Elvis Presley vs. JXL from the album ELV1S and Radio JXL: A Broadcast from the Computer Hell Cabin Released 1 May 2002 Format CD single Recorded 2002 Genre Big beat Length 3 : 30 (Radio edit) 6:09 (Extended remix) 6:22 (Album version) Songwriter(s) Mac Davis , Billy Strange Producer(s) JXL/Ad Bradley JXL singles chronology \"Beauty Never Fades\" (2002) \" A Little Less Conversation \" (2002) \"Breezer\" (2003) \"Beauty Never Fades\" (2002) \" A Little Less Conversation \" (2002) \"Breezer\" (2003) Audio sample \"A Little Less Conversation\" (JXL Radio Edit Remix) file help Following the song's use in the 2001 film Ocean's Eleven , \"A Little Less Conversation\" was remixed by Dutch musician Tom Holkenborg, better known as Junkie XL (alternatively JXL). The electronic remix featured Elvis with a lower voice, and added emphasis to the 1968 guitars, horns, and a funk drum beat. Holkenborg is the first artist outside the Presley organization to receive authorization from the Elvis Presley estate to remix an Elvis Presley song [5] (in the 1980s, Elvis' longtime producer Felton Jarvis had overseen remixes of a number of Elvis recordings that saw new backing added to Presley's original vocals, the first of which were released as the album Guitar Man in 1981). The electronic version of the song became a number-one hit in the UK in 2002. The song also became a top ten hit in upwards of 17 other countries, reaching number 1 in 13 of them. In 2002, the TV special version of \"A Little Less Conversation\" remixed by Junkie XL was used for Nike 's 2002 FIFA World Cup advertising campaign, titled \" Secret Tournament \" . [5] A single, credited to \"Elvis vs. JXL\", was issued and went on to become a Number 1 hit in over 20 countries. [6] At about the same time, a compilation of Presley's US number-one chart hits, titled ELV1S: 30 No. 1 Hits , was being prepared for release. At the last minute, \"A Little Less Conversation (Junkie's remix Version)\" was added as the album's 31st track just before its release in October 2002. The full 6:09 version was edited slightly and extended to 6:22, and this version was featured on the US version of Junkie XL's 2004 album Radio JXL: A Broadcast from the Computer Hell Cabin . [7] Chart performance [ edit ] In the United States, the song peaked at number 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also spent four consecutive weeks at number one on the UK Singles Chart . [8] Charts and certifications [ edit ] Weekly charts [ edit ] Chart (2002) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) [9] 1 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [10] 3 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [11] 3 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia) [12] 8 Canada ( Nielsen SoundScan ) [13] 1 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) [14] 1 Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) [15] 6 France ( SNEP ) [16] 5 Germany ( Media Control AG ) [17] 8 Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [18] 1 Hungary ( Single Top 40 ) [19] 1 Ireland ( IRMA ) [20] 1 Italy ( FIMI ) [21] 3 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) [22] 1 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) [23] 1 Norway ( VG-lista ) [24] 1 Portugal ( Portuguese Singles Chart ) [25] 1 Romania ( Romanian Top 100 ) [26] 2 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [27] 2 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) [28] 1 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [29] 1 UK Singles (Official Charts Company) [30] 1 US Billboard Hot 100 [31] 50 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [32] 26 Year-end charts [ edit ] Chart (2002) Peak position Australian Top 100 Singles [33] 3 Australian Dance Singles [34] 1 New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ) [35] 20 UK Singles (Official Charts Company) [36] 5 Decade-end positions [ edit ] Chart (2000–2009) Position UK Singles Chart [37] 31 Certifications [ edit ] Region Certification Certified units /Sales Australia ( ARIA ) [38] 2× Platinum 140,000 ^ Austria ( IFPI Austria) [39] Gold 7,500 * Belgium ( BEA ) [40] Gold 25,000 * France ( SNEP ) [41] Silver 125,000 * New Zealand ( RMNZ ) [42] Gold 5,000 * Norway ( IFPI Norway) [43] 2× Platinum 20,000 * Sweden ( GLF ) [44] Platinum 30,000 ^ Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland) [45] Platinum 40,000 ^ United Kingdom ( BPI ) [46] Platinum 894,000 [47] United States ( RIAA ) [48] Gold 500,000 ^ * sales figures based on certification alone ^ shipments figures based on certification alone Preceded by \" Without Me \" by Eminem \"Without Me\" by Eminem Australian Singles Chart number-one single 23 June 2002 – 7 July 2002 28 July 2002 Succeeded by \"Without Me\" by Eminem \" A Thousand Miles \" by Vanessa Carlton Preceded by \" Light My Fire \" by Will Young UK Singles Chart number-one single 16 June 2002 – 13 July 2002 Succeeded by \" Anyone of Us (Stupid Mistake) \" by Gareth Gates Other covers and remakes [ edit ] An uptempo eurodance remix was recorded by CJ Crew , appearing on the 2002 dance compilation Dancemania Speed 10 . [49] There are three very exclusive releases in Spanish, the film Live a Little, Love a Little and two mixes played by Marco T., a Colombian Rockabilly musician. In addition, Dolph Lundgren performed this song at Melodifestivalen 2010. In Glee , Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) sings a combination of a Spanish and English version of the song. The song is covered by Trisha Paytas on her Fat Chicks EP. In popular culture [ edit ] This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture . Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances; add references to reliable sources if possible. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) Presley's original \"A Little Less Conversation\" has been used in several political campaigns as a message of more accomplishment and less talk. The first time the song was used in political campaign was in 2003 by former Vermont Governor Howard Dean . [50] In 2004, Democratic presidential nominee Senator John Kerry used the song during his campaign. [51] George W. Bush also used the song as the anthem of his reelection campaign in 2004. Furthermore, in 2008 in Colorado Springs , Sarah Palin and John McCain emerged while “A Little Less Conversation” was playing in the background. [52] In 2017 in the season 2 episode \"Beached\" of Lily's Driftwood Bay Lord Stag says \"a little less conversation\" prompting Wee Rabbit to follow up with \"and a little more action\" when describing how Bull saved Squirty the whale calf while everyone else argued over who got to do it. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Jorgensen, Ernst, Elvis Presley, A Life in Music: The Complete Recording Sessions St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1998 p. 243 Jump up ^ \"Master & Session\" . elvisrecordings.com . Retrieved 7 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Elvis Sessions II: The Recorded Music of Elvis Aron Presley 1953-1977, JAT Publishing, 1996, ISBN 1-88846401-1 , Joseph A. Tunzi, Introduction by Al Pachucki, Pages 139 and 399 Jump up ^ \"Elvis Presley Album & Song Chart History: Billboard Hot 100\" . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media, Inc . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Elvis Makes Chart History\" . BBC News World Edition . British Broadcasting Corporation. 16 June 2002 . Retrieved 9 April 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Elvis's Legacy —\" . Infoplease.com. 2007 . Retrieved 7 January 2012 . Jump up ^ [1] [ dead link ] Jump up ^ \"Elvis and Oasis enjoy chart success\" . BBC News . July 7, 2002 . Retrieved August 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" Australian-charts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Jump up ^ \" Austriancharts.at – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Jump up ^ \" Ultratop.be – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50 . Jump up ^ \" Ultratop.be – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in French). Ultratop 50 . Jump up ^ \"Canadian Digital Songs : Page 1\" . Billboard . Retrieved April 14, 2016 . Jump up ^ \" Danishcharts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . Tracklisten . Jump up ^ \" Elvis Presley vs. JXL: A Little Less Conversation\" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland . Jump up ^ \" Lescharts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in French). Les classement single . Jump up ^ \"Single – Elvis Presley vs. JXL, A Little Less Conversation\" (in German). Media Control Charts . Jump up ^ \" Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ\" (in Hungarian). Rádiós Top 40 játszási lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége. Jump up ^ \" Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ\" (in Hungarian). Single (track) Top 40 lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége. Jump up ^ \" Chart Track: Week 24, 2002\" . Irish Singles Chart . Jump up ^ \" Italiancharts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . Top Digital Download . Jump up ^ \" Dutchcharts.nl – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in Dutch). Single Top 100 . Jump up ^ \" Charts.org.nz – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . Top 40 Singles . Jump up ^ \" Topp 20 Single uke 25, 2002 – VG-lista. Offisielle hitlister fra og med 1958\" (in Norwegian). VG-lista . Jump up ^ \"Top40-charts.com\" . Retrieved November 24, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Romanian Top 100 - arhiva\" . Web.archive.org. 2004-12-26. Archived from the original on 10 November 2005 . Retrieved 2014-04-02 . Jump up ^ \" Spanishcharts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" Canciones Top 50 . Jump up ^ \" Swedishcharts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . Singles Top 100 . Jump up ^ \" Swisscharts.com – Elvis Presley vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . Swiss Singles Chart . Jump up ^ \"Official Singles Chart Top 100\" . Official Charts Company . Jump up ^ \"Elvis Presley Chart History (Hot 100)\" . Billboard . Jump up ^ \"Elvis Presley Chart History (Adult Pop Songs)\" . Billboard . Jump up ^ \"ARIA Charts – End of Year Charts – Top 100 Singles 2002\" . Australian Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 2 August 2011 . Jump up ^ \"ARIA Charts – End of Year Charts – Dance Singles 2002\" . Australian Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 . Retrieved 2 August 2011 . Jump up ^ \"New Zealand Top Selling Singles of 2002\" . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 21 May 2016 . Jump up ^ \"2002 Year-end Charts\" (PDF) . UKChartsPlus (PDF) . Retrieved 1 December 2015 . Jump up ^ BBC Radio 1 Chart of the Decade, as presented by DJ Nihal on December 29, 2009 Jump up ^ \"ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2002 Singles\" . Australian Recording Industry Association . Jump up ^ \"Austrian single certifications – Elvis vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in German). IFPI Austria. Enter Elvis vs. JXL in the field Interpret . Enter A Little Less Conversation in the field Titel . Select single in the field Format . Click Suchen Jump up ^ \"Ultratop − Goud en Platina – 2002\" . Ultratop . Hung Medien. Jump up ^ \"French single certifications – Elvis vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in French). Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique . Jump up ^ \"New Zealand single certifications – Elvis vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . Recorded Music NZ . Jump up ^ \"Norwegian single certifications – Elvis vs. JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" (in Norwegian). IFPI Norway. Jump up ^ \"Guld- och Platinacertifikat − År 2002\" (PDF) (in Swedish). IFPI Sweden . Jump up ^ \"The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards (Elvis Presley vs. JXL; 'A Little Less Conversation')\" . IFPI Switzerland. Hung Medien. Jump up ^ \"British single certifications – Elvis vs JXL – A Little Less Conversation\" . British Phonographic Industry . Enter A Little Less Conversation in the search field and then press Enter. Jump up ^ Copsey, Rob (August 16, 2017). \"Elvis Presley's Top 50 biggest selling songs revealed\" . Official Charts Company . Retrieved August 16, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"American single certifications – Presley, Elvis – A Little Less Conversation\" . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary, click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ Discogs , Dancemania Speed 10 Jump up ^ Saletan, William ; Zenilman, Avi. \"Profile: Howard Dean\" . Slate . Retrieved 9 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Halbfinger, David (4 October 2004). \"The 2004 Campaign:The Democratic Nominee\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 9 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Bumiller, Elisabeth (6 September 2008). \"Pali Hits 'Change' Theme and Criticizes Biden\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 9 April 2011 . External links [ edit ] Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics [ show ] v t e Elvis Presley singles discography 1954 \" That's All Right \" / \" Blue Moon of Kentucky \" \" Good Rockin' Tonight \" / \" I Don't Care if the Sun Don't Shine \" \" You're a Heartbreaker \" 1955 \" Baby Let's Play House \" \" I Forgot to Remember to Forget \" / \" Mystery Train \" 1956 \" Heartbreak Hotel \" / \" I Was the One \" \" I Want You, I Need You, I Love You \" / \" My Baby Left Me \" \" Don't Be Cruel \" / \" Hound Dog \" \" Blue Suede Shoes \" / \" Tutti Frutti \" \" Money Honey \" \" I Got a Woman \" \" Tryin' to Get to You \" \" Blue Moon \" \" I'll Never Let You Go (Lil' Darlin') \" / \" I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry (Over You) \" \" Shake, Rattle and Roll \" / \" Lawdy Miss Clawdy \" \" Love Me Tender \" 1957 \" Too Much \" / \" Playing for Keeps \" \" All Shook Up \" \" Peace in the Valley \" (Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear \" \" Paralyzed \" (UK) \" Jailhouse Rock \" \" Party \" / \" Got a Lot o' Livin' to Do! \" (UK) 1958 \" Don't \" \" Wear My Ring Around Your Neck \" \" Hard Headed Woman \" / \" Don't Ask Me Why \" \" King Creole \" (UK) \" One Night \" 1959 \" I Need Your Love Tonight \" / \" A Fool Such as I \" \" A Big Hunk o' Love \" 1960 \" Stuck on You \" / \" Fame and Fortune \" \" It's Now or Never \" \" Are You Lonesome Tonight? \" 1961 \" Surrender \" / \" Lonely Man \" \" I Feel So Bad \" / \" Wild in the Country \" \" (Marie's the Name) His Latest Flame \" / \" Little Sister \" \" Can't Help Falling in Love \" / \" Rock-A-Hula Baby \" 1962 \" Good Luck Charm \" / \" Anything That's Part of You \" \" She's Not You \" \" Return to Sender \" / \" Where Do You Come from \" 1963 \" One Broken Heart for Sale \" \" (You're the) Devil in Disguise \" \" Bossa Nova Baby \" / \" Witchcraft \" 1964 \" Kissin' Cousins \" / \" It Hurts Me \" \" What'd I Say \" / \" Viva Las Vegas \" \" Such a Night \" / \" Never Ending \" \" Ask Me \" / \" Ain't That Loving You Baby \" \" Blue Christmas \" 1965 \" Do the Clam \" / \" You'll Be Gone \" \" Crying in the Chapel \" (Such an) Easy Question \" \" I'm Yours \" \" Puppet on a String \" / \" Wooden Heart \" 1966 \" Tell Me Why \" / \" Blue River \" \" Frankie and Johnny \" / \" Please Don't Stop Loving Me \" \" Love Letters \" \" Spinout \" / \" All That I Am \" \" If Every Day Was Like Christmas \" 1967 \" Indescribably Blue \" \" Long Legged Girl (With the Short Dress On) \" / \" That's Someone You Never Forget \" \" There's Always Me \" / \" Judy \" \" Big Boss Man \" / \" You Don't Know Me \" 1968 \" Guitar Man \" \" U.S. Male \" / \" Stay Away \" \" You'll Never Walk Alone \" \" Your Time Hasn't Come Yet, Baby \" / \" Let Yourself Go \" \" Almost in Love \" / \" A Little Less Conversation \" \" If I Can Dream \" / \" Edge of Reality \" 1969 \" Memories \" / \" Charro \" \" How Great Thou Art \" \" In the Ghetto \" / \" Any Day Now \" \" Clean Up Your Own Backyard \" \" Suspicious Minds \" / \" You'll Think of Me \" \" Don't Cry Daddy \" 1970 \" Kentucky Rain \" \" The Wonder of You \" \" I've Lost You \" \" You Don't Have to Say You Love Me \" / \" Patch It Up \" \" I Really Don't Want to Know \" / \" There Goes My Everything \" 1971 \" Rags to Riches \" \" Life \" / \" Only Believe \" \" I'm Leavin' \" \" It's Only Love \" \" Merry Christmas Baby \" / \" O Come All Ye Faithful \" 1972 \" Until It's Time for You to Go \" \" He Touched Me \" \" An American Trilogy \" / \" The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face \" \" Burning Love \" / \" It's a Matter of Time \" \" Separate Ways \" / \" Always on My Mind \" 1973 \" Steamroller Blues \" / \" Fool \" \" Raised on Rock \" / \" For Ol' Times Sake \" 1974 \" I've Got a Thing About You Baby \" \" If You Talk in Your Sleep \" / \" Help Me \" \" Promised Land \" / \" It's Midnight \" 1975 \" My Boy \" / \" Thinking About You \" \" T-R-O-U-B-L-E \" \" Bringing It Back \" / \" Pieces of My Life \" 1976 \" Hurt \" / \"For the Heart\" \" Moody Blue \" 1977 \" Way Down \" \" My Way \" / \" America the Beautiful \" 1978 \" Unchained Melody \" / \" Softly as I Leave You \" Category [ show ] v t e Junkie XL Studio albums Saturday Teenage Kick (1997) Big Sounds of the Drags (2000) Radio JXL: A Broadcast from the Computer Hell Cabin (2003) Today (2006) Booming Back at You (2008) EPs More More (2007) Soundtrack albums Divergent: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (2014) Mad Max: Fury Road (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) (2015) Deadpool (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) (2016) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) (2016) Singles \" A Little Less Conversation \" \" Obsession \" Related Discography [ show ] v t e Music of FIFA World Cup Albums Gloryland Allez! Ola! Ole! The Official Album Voices Listen Up! One Love, One Rhythm Themes \" Hot Hot Hot \" \" Un'estate italiana \" \" Gloryland \" \" The Cup of Life (La Copa de la Vida) \" \" Boom \" \" The Time of Our Lives \" \" Waka Waka (This Time for Africa) \" \" We Are One (Ole Ola) \" Anthems \" Anthem \" \" Let's Get Together Now \" \" Celebrate the Day \" \" Sign of a Victory \" \"Dar um Jeito (We Will Find a Way)\" Other official songs \" Back Home \" \" A Special Kind of Hero \" \" We Are the Champions \" \" World in Motion \" \" Together Now \" \" We're on the Ball \" \" Oh Africa \" \" Vida \" \" Olé \" \" La La La (Brazil 2014) \" Other songs / Non-official songs \" Argentine Melody (Cancion de Argentina) \" \" Nessun dorma \" \" Shibobo \" \" Top of the World (Olé, Olé, Olé) \" \" Vindaloo \" \" Carnaval de Paris \" \" Tema da Vitória \" \" 3 Lions '98 \" \" A Little Less Conversation (JXL version) \" \" Who Do You Think You Are Kidding Jurgen Klinsmann? \" \" We Are the Champions (Ding a Dang Dong) \" \" Allez Ola Olé \" \" Everywhere You Go \" \" Wavin' Flag (Coca-Cola Celebration Mix) \" \" Adrenalina (Univision version) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Little_Less_Conversation&oldid=832330641 \" Categories : Elvis Presley songs 1968 singles 2002 singles Television theme songs Number-one singles in Australia Canadian Singles Chart number-one singles Number-one singles in New Zealand Number-one singles in Denmark Number-one singles in Switzerland Number-one singles in Norway Number-one singles in Sweden UK Singles Chart number-one singles Irish Singles Chart number-one singles Songs written by Mac Davis Songs written by Billy Strange 1968 songs Songs written for films RCA Records singles Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2014 CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no) CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) Use dmy dates from March 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats Audio sample to be checked Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Belgium (Flanders) Singlechart usages for Belgium (Wallonia) Singlechart usages for Denmark Singlechart usages for Finland Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Hungary Singlechart usages for Hungarytop10 Singlechart usages for Ireland Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Norwegian Singlechart usages for Spain Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Swiss Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Austria Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for France Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for Norway Certification Table Entry usages for Sweden Certification Table Entry usages for Switzerland Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Articles with trivia sections from May 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Dansk Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Português Русский Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 March 2018, at 09:38. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "A Little Less Conversation", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=A_Little_Less_Conversation&amp;oldid=832330641" }

{ "text": "Area codes 705 and 249 - Wikipedia Area codes 705 and 249 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Area codes 705 and 249 are telephone area codes that cover most of northeastern and central Ontario in Canada . 705 was initially created in 1957 by the North American Numbering Plan (NANPA) from portions of the area covered by area codes 613 and 519 , and covered nearly all of Ontario north and west of the Golden Horseshoe . Area code 807 , covering northwestern Ontario , was split from area code 705 in early 1962. Although 705 was not close to exhaustion at the time, creating a new area code was thought necessary in order to improve routing of calls from Manitoba and western Canada to northwestern Ontario. Greater routing efficiency has since been achieved with the implementation of highly computerized digital exchanges that were not available in the early 1960s. On March 19, 2011, area code 249 was added as an overlay code . Since this date, all calls require ten-digit dialing. [1] Previously, CNAC had considered \"erasing\" the 807-705 boundary and turning 807 into an overlay for all of northern Ontario--in effect, undoing the 1962 split. However, this was not recommended due to potential confusion. [2] The incumbent local exchange carriers in 705/249 are Bell Canada , Northern Telephone , Bell Aliant ( Ontera ), Eastlink , Nexicom, and some municipally-owned carriers. Contents [ hide ] 1 Communities included 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Communities included [ edit ] These are among the areas that use this area code (as of 2016) with their corresponding phone exchanges: Alliston (249) - 221, 501, 900 (705) - 250, 391, 415, 434, 435, 440, 502, 530, 890 Angus (249) - 227, (705) - 230, 423, 424, 516 Bala (705) - 762 Barrie (249) - 251, 315, 359, 535, 595, 877, 888, (705) - 220, 229, 241, 252, 279, 300, 302, 305, 309, 315, 321, 331, 333, 393, 401, 408, 417, 481, 500, 503, 623, 627, 712, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 725, 726, 727, 728, 730, 733, 734, 735, 737, 739, 770, 780, 790, 791, 792, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 800, 812, 814, 816, 817, 818, 828, 881, 896, 903, 915, 970, 984, 985, 986, 993, 999 Baysville (705) - 767 Beaverton (705) - 217, 426, 504 Blind River (705) - 356, 576 Bobcaygeon (249) - 490, (705) - 213, 392, 731, 738 Bonfield (705) - 776 Bracebridge (249) - 218, 502, (705) - 204, 205, 394, 637, 640, 641, 644, 645, 646, 706, 708, 801, 952 Brechin (705) - 484, 505, 714 Bruce Mines (705) - 785 Burk's Falls (705) - 382 Buckhorn (705) - 657, 659 Callander (705) - 712, 713, 752 Campbellford (249) - 503, (705) - 202, 395, 409, 632, 653, 661, 947 Chapleau (705) - 600, 864, 902, 904 Cobalt (705) - 679 Cochrane (705) - 271, 272, 913 Collingwood (249) - 225, 499, (705) - 293, 351, 416, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 467, 532, 539, 606, 607, 888, 994 Cookstown (705) - 458, 916 Creemore (705) - 466 Desbarats (705) - 782 Dorset (705) - 766 Dunsford (705) - 793 Dwight (705) - 635 Echo Bay (705) - 248 Elliot Lake (705) - 261, 461, 578, 827, 847, 848, 849 Elmvale (705) - 322 Englehart (705) - 544 Espanola (249) - 200, 217, 999, (705) - 480, 501, 583, 601, 862, 863, 869, 936 Fenelon Falls (249) - 998, (705) - 215, 886, 887 Goulais River (705) - 649 Gravenhurst (705) - 687, 703, 710 Greater Sudbury (249) - 266, 269, 350, 360, 377, 431, 805, 878, (705) - 207, 222, 244, 280, 379, 396, 397, 404, 419, 421, 442, 449, 451, 453, 459, 470, 479, 483, 485, 507, 512, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 546, 547, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 556, 560, 561, 562, 564, 566, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 618, 621, 626, 662, 664, 665, 669, 670, 671, 673, 674, 675, 677, 682, 688, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 698, 699, 805, 806, 815, 820, 822, 823, 824, 825, 829, 830, 831, 832, 836, 853, 855, 858, 866, 867, 885, 897, 898, 899, 918, 919, 920, 921, 923, 929, 966, 967, 969, 983, 988 Haliburton (249) - 993, (705) - 286, 306, 447, 448, 488, 489, 455, 457, 754, 809, 854, 935 Hearst (705) - 207, 208, 209, 211, 219, 222, 280, 396, 397, 404, 419 Hastings (705) - 609, 696, 697, 922 Hearst (705) - 362, 372, 960 Honey Harbour (705) - 756, 906 Huntsville (249) - 700, 704, 995, (705) - 224, 349, 380, 388, 535, 571, 704, 783, 784, 787, 788, 789, 825, 909, 990 Innisfil (705) - 290, 291, 294, 431, 436, 456, 458, 615, (905) - 775, 778 Iroquois Falls (705) - 232, 258 Iron Bridge (705) - 509, 843 Kapuskasing (249) - 994, (705) - 319, 332, 335, 337, 347, 371, 557, 577 Kirkfield (705) - 438 Kirkland Lake (249) - 992, (705) - 462, 469, 567, 568, 642, 962 Lakefield (705) - 651, 652 Latchford (705) - 676 Lefroy (705) - 456 Lindsay (249) - 332, (705) - 212, 307, 308, 320, 324, 328, 340, 341, 344, 464, 701, 702, 821, 878, 879, 880, 928, 934, 982 Little Britain (705) - 786 Little Current (249) - 997, (705) - 368, 370, 398, 603, 968 Massey (705) - 602, 865 Mattawa (249) - 996, (705) - 200, 218, 744 McKellar (705) - 389 Midland (249) - 301 492, (705) - 209, 245, 427, 433, 526, 527, 528, 529, 540, 543, 937, 956 Millbrook (705) - 932 Moose Factory (705) - 658 Moosonee (705) - 336, 912 North Bay (249) - 328, 352, 358, 362 (705) - 223, 303, 316, 358, 402, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 482, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 667, 707, 758, 825, 839, 840, 845, 978, 980, 995 Orillia (249) - 385, (705) - 238, 242, 259, 298, 323, 325, 326, 327, 329, 330, 345, 350, 413, 418, 558, 619, 826, 907, 955 Oro-Medonte (705) - 487, 835 Parry Sound (249) - 219, 701, 988, (705) - 203, 346, 378, 746, 751, 771, 773, 774, 901, 938, 996 Pefferlaw (249) -204, (705) - 318, 437, 513 Penetanguishene (705) - 549, 614 Peterborough (249) - 357, 494, (705) - 201, 243, 270, 292, 295, 296, 304, 312, 313, 400, 403, 486, 536, 559, 612, 616, 639, 651, 652, 654, 655, 656, 657, 659, 660, 700, 740, 741, 742, 743, 745, 748, 749, 750, 755, 760, 761, 768, 772, 775, 799, 802, 808, 813, 837, 838, 868, 872, 874, 875, 876, 877, 891, 917, 926, 927, 930, 931, 933, 939, 940, 944, 954, 957, 974, 977, 979, 991 Port Carling (705) - 765 Port Loring/Loring (705) -757 Port McNicoll / Victoria Harbour (705) - 534 Powassan (705) - 724 Restoule (705) - 729 Rosseau (249) - 222, (705) - 732 Sables-Spanish Rivers (Massey) (705) - 865 Sault Ste. Marie (249) - 252, 356, 493, 525, 889, (705) - 206, 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 260, 297, 420, 450, 541, 542, 574, 575, 759, 777, 779, 908, 910, 941, 942, 943, 945, 946, 949, 963, 971, 975, 987, 989, 992, 998 Searchmont (705) - 781 Sebright (705) - 833 Severn Bridge (705) - 689 Smooth Rock Falls (705) - 314, 338 South River (705) - 386 Spanish (705) - 844 St. Joseph Island (705) - 246 Stayner (249) - 220, (705) - 428, 430, 517 Stroud (705) - 431, 436, 615 Sturgeon Falls (705) - 452, 753 Sudbury - see Greater Sudbury above Sundridge (705) - 384 Timmins (249) - 351, 361 (705) - 221, 225, 235, 240, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 274, 288, 360, 363, 365, 399, 406, 412, 465, 531, 579, 620, 625, 709, 951 Temagami (705) - 569 Temiskaming Shores (249) - 991, (705) - 407, 425, 469, 570, 572, 622, 628, 629, 630, 631, 647, 648, 672, 680, 948 Trout Creek (705) - 723 Udora (249) -205, (705) - 228, 317 Wasaga Beach (705) - 352, 422, 429, 617 Wawa (249) - 268, (705) - 414, 804, 856, 914 Premium calls: 1+(249/705) -976. See also [ edit ] List of North American area codes References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Telecom Decision CRTC 2009-622\" . Crtc.gc.ca. 2009-10-06. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010 . Retrieved 2010-12-22 . Jump up ^ NPA 705 Relief Planning . Canadian Numbering Administration. 2009-07-28. p. 14 . Retrieved 2016-04-04 . External links [ edit ] CNA Exchange Codes list for 705 , 249 Area Code Map of Canada Ontario area codes: 226/519/548 , 249/705 , 289/365/905 , 343/613 , 416/437/647 , 807 North : 867 West : 807 , 906 Area codes 705/249 East : 613/343 , 819/873 South : 905/289/365 , 519/226/548 , 906 , 989 Yukon , Northwest Territories and Nunavut area codes: 867 Quebec area codes: 418/581 , 438/514 , 450/579 , 819 Michigan area codes: 231 , 248/947 , 269 , 313 , 517 , 586 , 616 , 734 , 810 , 906 , 989 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Area_codes_705_and_249&oldid=803532705 \" Categories : Area codes in Canada Communications in Ontario Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2017, at 02:19. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Area codes 705 and 249", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Area_codes_705_and_249&amp;oldid=803532705" }

{ "text": "Jon Cryer - Wikipedia Jon Cryer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the British politician, see John Cryer . Jon Cryer Cryer at his Hollywood Walk of Fame ceremony on September 19, 2011 Born Jonathan Niven Cryer ( 1965-04-16 ) April 16, 1965 (age 53) New York City , New York , U.S. Occupation Actor screenwriter television director producer podcaster Years active 1984–present Spouse(s) Sarah Trigger ( m. 1999; div. 2004) Lisa Joyner ( m. 2007) Children 2 Parent(s) Gretchen Cryer David Cryer Jonathan Niven Cryer (born April 16, 1965) [1] is an American actor, screenwriter, television director, and film producer. Born into a show business family, Cryer made his motion picture debut as a teenaged photographer in the 1984 romantic comedy No Small Affair ; his breakout role came in 1986, playing \"Duckie\" Dale in the John Hughes -written film Pretty in Pink . In 1998, he wrote and produced the independent film Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God... Be Back by Five . Although Cryer gained fame with his early film roles, it took several years to find success on television; none of his star vehicles , including The Famous Teddy Z , Partners , and The Trouble with Normal , lasted more than 22 episodes. In 2003, Cryer was cast as Alan Harper on the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men , for which he won two Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009 and 2012. [2] [3] Cryer received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Television in 2011. Cryer's other film appearances include Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987), Hiding Out (1987), Hot Shots (1991), Tortured (2008), Shorts (2009), and Hit by Lightning (2014). He also has a recurring role in the CBS drama series, NCIS , playing Dr. Cyril Taft. After appearing on the podcast Crime Writers On... it was announced Cryer is joining the team at the Undisclosed podcast for their second season. Contents [ hide ] 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Personal life 3.1 Politics 4 Filmography 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 5 References 6 External links Early life [ edit ] Cryer was born in New York City , New York . His mother, Gretchen Cryer (née Kiger; * 1935), is a playwright , songwriter , actress , and singer ; his father, Donald David Cryer (born 1936), is an actor and singer who originally studied to be a minister . [4] [5] [6] Cryer's paternal grandfather, Rev. Dr. Donald W. Cryer (1909–1988), was a well-known Methodist minister. He has two sisters, Robin and Shelly. [7] When Cryer was twelve years old, he decided that he wanted to become an actor. [8] When his mother heard this, she thought he should have a backup plan, and joked: \" Plumbing is a pretty good career.\" [7] Cryer attended Stagedoor Manor Performing Arts Training Center for several summers as a teenager, [9] and is a 1983 graduate of the Bronx High School of Science . He was classmates with screenwriter and film director Boaz Yakin . [10] To his mother's \"great disappointment\", Cryer skipped college and went to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London , United Kingdom for a summer short course in Shakespeare. [11] Career [ edit ] Cryer's first professional acting effort was as David in the Broadway play Torch Song Trilogy , replacing Matthew Broderick , whom he \"closely resembled\". [12] Cryer was later an understudy and replacement for Broderick in Neil Simon 's Brighton Beach Memoirs in 1989. Cryer at the Los Angeles premiere of Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest in 2006 At age 19, Cryer appeared in the 1984 romantic comedy film No Small Affair , in the lead role as Charles Cummings, after the original production with Matthew Broderick was shut down due to a heart attack by director, Martin Ritt . [13] He went on to have small roles in films and television movies , and he made his breakthrough as Phil \"Duckie\" Dale in the John Hughes -scripted film Pretty in Pink . [14] In an interview with the Daily News , Cryer's mother said that after Pretty in Pink , she started getting calls from teenage girls from all over the world, who would leave hysterical, giggling messages on her answering machine. [7] In 1989, he got the lead role in the TV comedy series, The Famous Teddy Z . His performance gained poor reviews [15] and the show was canceled after the first season. [15] A year later, he starred with Charlie Sheen in the Jim Abrahams comedy Hot Shots! , [8] which was received very positively. [16] Cryer is frequently linked to the Brat Pack . [17] In a March 2009 interview on Anytime with Bob Kushell , Cryer stated that he had auditioned for St. Elmo's Fire but was not cast in a role. [18] In 1993, he was asked to audition for the role of Chandler Bing on Friends , while doing a play in London. His reading was videotaped by a British casting agent but the tape failed to arrive in the U.S. before the network had made its final decision. [8] In 1995, he was cast as Bob in the sitcom Partners , which, like his prior show The Famous Teddy Z , was canceled after its first season. In an interview with Time Out New York he stated, \"Hey, every show I'm in goes down. Think about this: George Clooney was in 28 pilots, or something. It means nothing\". [7] After guest starring on shows such as Dharma & Greg and The Outer Limits , he successfully wrote and produced the film, Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God... Be Back by Five . It debuted in 1998 at the Los Angeles Film Festival and gained positive reviews from critics. [19] Leonard Maltin from Playboy Magazine called it \"A breath of fresh air\". [20] That same year, Cryer landed in another TV series, the Fox sitcom Getting Personal , alongside Vivica A. Fox and Duane Martin . Although the show was picked up for a second season after its abbreviated spring run, it was canceled that fall, after airing 17 episodes in total. In 2000, he was cast as the lead in a comedy series called The Trouble With Normal . For the third time, Cryer starred in a show which was canceled after its first season. [21] Cryer's long run of unsuccessful TV projects finally ended three years later. Against the wishes of CBS executives (who were aware of his past failures) and due to a friendship with Charlie Sheen, he was cast in 2003 to portray Alan Harper on the hit comedy series Two and a Half Men . He has earned seven Primetime Emmy Award [22] nominations and two wins [2] for his acting work on the show. [3] In a comment on the show's high ratings, he said: \"When you’re on a show that's fighting for survival every week, you stop trusting your instincts, because you think, ‘My instincts haven't worked so far.’ But when people clearly like the show and are watching it in great numbers, it takes a huge amount of pressure off you. It allows you to trust your instincts and go with what has worked for you before.\" [8] After former co-star Charlie Sheen 's departure from the series, Cryer's character became the show's main protagonist (with Ashton Kutcher being cast as the co-lead) throughout the final four seasons, mainly due to the show's retooled plot. At the end of the series of Two and a Half Men , Cryer is the only actor to have appeared in every episode of the series, since Sheen was fired in March 2011 and his on-screen son Angus T. Jones left the series at the end of season 10, after expressing the show as \"filth\" and that Jones is a \"paid hypocrite\". [23] All appeared to be forgiven, however, as Jones, contrary to Charlie Sheen, appeared to great applause in the finale. Before being cast for Two and a Half Men , Cryer auditioned for the role of Gaius Baltar on the Sci-Fi Channel 's reimagined Battlestar Galactica , but the role went to James Callis . [24] In 2008, Cryer appeared with Laurence Fishburne and James Cromwell in the film Tortured , [25] and in 2009 co-starred with James Spader in the film Shorts . [26] Cryer made a guest appearance on the sitcom series Husbands in its second season. [27] He was initially cast to voice the lead character in DisneyToon Studios ' animated film Planes , a spin-off of Pixar's Cars franchise , [28] but later dropped out and was replaced by Dane Cook . [29] [30] Cryer did however receive a credit on the film for \"additional story material.\" [31] In 2015, Cryer released a book titled So That Happened , a breezy, often comic tale chronicling Cryer's 30-year career on stage, film and television. Cryer currently appears in the highly popular CBS drama series, NCIS where he currently plays Navy Dr. Cyril Taft who treats NCIS Special Agent Leroy Jethro Gibbs ( Mark Harmon ). Cryer had expressed a desire to appear in NCIS since it premiered on September 23, 2003. Pursuing a passion for criminal justice Cryer joined the team of the popular podcast Undisclosed where he will be voicing the weekly addendum episode for the second season. Personal life [ edit ] Cryer with wife Lisa Joyner in September 2011 Cryer married British actress Sarah Trigger in 1999, with whom he has a son, Charlie Austin. [7] The pair divorced in 2004. In February 2007, on an episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , he announced that he would marry entertainment reporter Lisa Joyner ; the couple married in Mexico [7] in June 2007. [32] [33] On September 29, 2009, Jon and Lisa announced that they adopted a baby girl, whom they named Daisy. [34] [35] When Pretty in Pink co-star Molly Ringwald told Out magazine in 2012 that she believed Cryer's character was gay, Cryer defended Duckie and other \"slightly effeminate dorks,\" and said he has had to live with others' \"faulty\" gaydar . [36] Also in 2012, Joyner told Jeff Probst that when she and Cryer started dating, she wondered if he might be gay because \"he never kissed me.\" [37] Cryer was asked in 2014 if he was \"mistaken for gay\"; he again called himself \"an effeminate heterosexual dork\" and cracked a joke about never being propositioned: \"Fellas, you're dropping the ball.\" [38] Politics [ edit ] Prior to the 2008 presidential election , Cryer attended a fundraiser hosted by the McCain campaign and, according to news reports, endorsed Senator John McCain . [39] [40] When Cryer did not make a public endorsement for the 2012 race, his spokeswoman said that the 2008 report aligning him with the Republican Party was a \"mistake\" and that Cryer is \"not really political.\" He had attended events for both Republicans and Democrats \"because he wanted to hear what both sides had to say.\" [41] With regards to presumptive 2016 GOP nominee Donald Trump , Cryer shared his feelings on the May 5, 2016, episode of the podcast Never Not Funny . Cryer stated, \"I have been pointing out, and I have been screaming to the rooftops, that Donald Trump is the Charlie Sheen of politics. [...] I have to tell you, I love Charlie Sheen, I loved working with him when he was sober, but he was, he's full of shit. He has been full of shit, you know, he has serious addiction. You know, his addiction is obviously serious, drugs, and, but, Trump is just addicted to feeling important. You know, and I think if anybody is under the delusion that he cares about, uh, uh, anybody in America besides himself, they are, they are stoned and need to rethink their priorities, 'cause he's, you know, 'cause it's just ridiculous that's he's gotten as far as he has.\" [42] Filmography [ edit ] Film [ edit ] Year Title Role Notes 1984 No Small Affair Charles Cummings 1985 Noon Wine Teenage Herbert O.C. and Stiggs Randall Schwab Jr. 1986 Pretty in Pink Phil \"Duckie\" Dale 1987 Morgan Stewart's Coming Home Morgan Stewart Superman IV: The Quest for Peace Lenny Luthor Dudes Grant Hiding Out Andrew Morenski Max Hauser 1988 Rap Master Ronnie: A Report Card 1989 Penn & Teller Get Killed Frat boy 1991 Hot Shots! Jim \"Wash Out\" Pfaffenbach 1993 The Waiter Tommy Kazdan Heads Guy Franklin 1996 The Pompatus of Love Mark Writer Cannes Man Himself 1997 Plan B Stuart Winer 1998 Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God... Be Back by Five Daniel Writer and producer Holy Man Barry 2000 Clayton 2001 Glam Jimmy Pells 2003 The Metro Chase Mr. Stamm 2008 Unstable Fables: 3 Pigs and a Baby Richard Pig Voice Tortured Brian 2009 Weather Girl Charles Shorts: The Adventures of the Wishing Rock Dad Thompson Stay Cool Javier 2010 Due Date Alan Harper Cameo 2013 Ass Backwards Dean Morris 2014 Hit by Lightning Ricky Miller Television [ edit ] Year Title Role Notes 1986 Amazing Stories Phil Episode: \"Miscalculation\" 1988 Cinemax Comedy Experiment Episode: Rap Master Ronnie: A Report Card 1989–90 The Famous Teddy Z Teddy Zakalokis 1995–96 Partners Bob Producer 1996 The Outer Limits Trevor McPhee Episode: \" Vanishing Act \" 1997 It's Good to Be King Mort 1997 Dharma & Greg Brian Episode: \"Shower the People You Love with Love\" 1998 Getting Personal Sam Wagner Producer Episode: \"Sam I Am\" 1998 Hercules: The Animated Series The Winged Wolves Voice Episode: \"Hercules and the Underworld Takeover\" 1998 Mr. Show with Bob & David Duckie Episode: \"It's Perfectly Understandishable\" 1998 Two Guys, a Girl and a Pizza Place Justin Episode: \"Two Guys, a Girl and a Thanksgiving\" 2000 Family Guy Kevin Swanson Voice Episode: \" A Hero Sits Next Door \" 2000–01 The Trouble With Normal Zack Mango 2002 Andy Richter Controls the Universe Lemuel Praeger Episode: \"Gimme a C\" 2002 Practice, The The Practice Terry Pender Episode: \"Of Thee I Sing\" 2003 Becker Roger Episode: \"Chris' Ex\" 2003 Hey Joel Joel Stein Voice 2003 Stripperella Voice 2003–15 Two and a Half Men Alan Harper 262 episodes; (Season 1–12) Lead role; Directed three episodes Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (2009) Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (2012) Nominated— Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011) Nominated— Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series (2011) 2005 Danny Phantom Freakshow Voice Episode: \"Control Freaks\" 2006 American Dad! Quacky Voice Episode: \"It's Good to Be The Queen\" 2006 Danny Phantom Freakshow Voice Episode: \"Reality Trip\" 2008 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Himself Uncredited Cameo 2010–11 Hannah Montana Kenneth Truscott Episodes: \"The Wheel Near My Bed (Keeps on Turnin')\" \"I Am Mamaw, Hear Me Roar!\" 2012 Husbands Vic Del Rey Episodes: \" The Straightening \" \" A Better Movie of What We’re Like \" 2013, 2016 Mom Customer Episode: \"Pilot\"; also director of 2 episodes: \"Corned Beef and Handcuffs\" and \"Xanax and a Baby Duck\" 2015–16 NCIS Dr. Cyril Taft (Navy Surgeon) 3 episodes 2016-17 The Ranch Bill Jensen 2 Episodes 2016 Lady Dynamite Himself Episode: \"Pilot\" 2017 Justice League Action Felix Faust Episode: Hat Trick References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Jon Cryer: Biography\" . bio.com . A&E . Retrieved November 26, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Silverman, Stephen M. (September 20, 2009). \"Kristin Chenoweth, Jon Cryer Are Emmy Night's First Winners\" . People . Retrieved September 21, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Jon Cryer Wins Emmy\" . Two and a Half Men Fan Site. September 21, 2009. Archived from the original on September 17, 2010 . Retrieved December 8, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Jon Cryer Biography (1965-)\" . Filmreference . Retrieved July 16, 2008 . Jump up ^ Thompson, Donald Eugene (1981). Indiana authors and their books, 1967–1980 . Wabash College. p. 90. ISBN 99904-4-038-7 . Jump up ^ Conn, Suzy (February 20, 2005). \"More on Gretchen Cryer\" . Blogway Baby. Archived from the original on October 20, 2006 . Retrieved November 12, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Jon Cryer: Profile, Latest News and Related Articles\" . Notes . E! Online . Archived from the original on July 25, 2008 . Retrieved August 22, 2008 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Juba, Scott (March 26, 2006). \"Interview: Jon Cryer: Failed Friend Who Became a Man\" . The Trades. Archived from the original on December 6, 2008 . Retrieved August 21, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Alumni\" . Stagedoor Manor Performing Arts Training Center . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"5th Annual Report on Black/Jewish Relations in the United States\" (PDF) . Foundation for Ethnic Understanding. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 11, 2012 . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"In Step With: Jon Cryer\" . Parade . April 18, 2004. Archived from the original on August 7, 2010 . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ Alan Was Matthew BBroderick's Character. David was the Adopted Son Jon Cryer: Bibliography Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (November 9, 1984). \"Jon Cryer In 'No Small Affair ' \" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 14, 2008 . Jump up ^ Bierly, Mandi (August 23, 2006). \"Don't You Forget About Duckie\" . Entertainment Weekly . ew.com . Retrieved September 13, 2008 . To mark a new special-edition DVD of \"Pretty in Pink\", Emmy nominee Jon Cryer chats with Mandi Bierly about the movie's original ending, 'Try a Little Tenderness', and more ^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, Ken (May 25, 1990). \"TV Review: 'The Famous Teddy Z ' \" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 22, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Hot Shots! (1991)\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 13, 2008 . Jump up ^ Lurie, Karen (2002). \"Brat Pack\" . St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture . Gale Group. Archived from the original on December 5, 2008 . Retrieved September 13, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Anytime with Bob Kushell feat. Jon Cryer\". Anytime with Bob Kushell . Season 2. Episode 1. March 17, 2009. Jump up ^ \"Went to Coney Island on a Mission From God... Be Back By Five (1998)\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved June 22, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"The Cover of 'Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God... Be Back by Five ' \" . HD Magazine . Retrieved June 22, 2008 . Jump up ^ Coleridge, Daniel R. (July 23, 2003). \"Sheen and Cryer: Sitcom Survivors\" . TV Guide . Retrieved September 14, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Jon Cryer Emmy Award Nominee\" . emmys.com . Retrieved October 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ Cowell, Maria (November 27, 2012). \"How 'Two and a Half Men' Star Became a 'Paid Hypocrite. ' \" . Christianity Today . Jump up ^ Vary, Adam B. (March 20, 2009). \"The Beginning of the End: A 'Battlestar Galactica' Oral History\" . Entertainment Weekly . ew.com. p. 42 . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (May 15, 2007). \"Cryer, Denton 'Tortured' by thriller\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Reuters . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ Hilton, Beth (May 30, 2008). \"Cryer, Spader join Rodriguez's 'Shorts ' \" . Digital Spy . Retrieved June 22, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Hollywood Stars Drop in on Male Newylweds in 'Husbands ' \" . Tubefilter.com . Retrieved August 18, 2012 . Jump up ^ DeMott, Rick (August 23, 2011). \"Jon Cryer Leads Voice Cast For DisneyToon's Planes\" . DisneyToon Studio . Retrieved November 5, 2011 – via Animation World Network. Jump up ^ \"Disney Sets Theatrical Release Date For 'Planes ' \" . Retrieved January 16, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Dane Cook Leads the Voice Cast for Disney's Planes\" . Retrieved February 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Planes Review\" . Screendaily.com. August 7, 2013 . Retrieved November 20, 2013 . Jump up ^ April MacIntyre (June 17, 2007). \"Jon Cryer marries Lisa Joyner\" . Monstersand Critics. Archived from the original on November 30, 2011 . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ Wang, Cynthia (April 13, 2007). \"Jon Cryer of Two and a Half Men to Wed in Summer\" . People . Retrieved August 21, 2008 . Jump up ^ Everett, Cristina (September 29, 2009). \" ' Two and a Half Men' star Jon Cryer and wife Lisa Joyner adopt baby girl\" . Daily News . New York . Retrieved October 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Two and a Half Men star Jon Cryer wants his ex-wife left homeless, lawyer claims\" . News Limited . May 8, 2010 . Retrieved October 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ James, Diego (May 23, 2012). \"Jon Cryer: Duckie Wasn't Gay\" . Out . Retrieved November 26, 2014 . Jump up ^ The Jeff Probst Show . xfinitytv.comcast.net . September 27, 2012 . Retrieved November 26, 2014 . Jump up ^ Wong, Curtis M. \"Jon Cryer On His Sexuality: I'm Just an 'Effeminate Heterosexual Dork ' \" . The Huffington Post . Retrieved November 16, 2014 . Jump up ^ Dinan, Stephen & Hallow, Ralph Z. (August 22, 2008). \"Hollywood conservatives to rally for McCain\" . The Washington Times . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Celebrity endorsements in the 2012 presidential campaign\" . The Hill . November 17, 2011 . Retrieved October 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ Goodin, Emily (November 17, 2011). \"Conservative celebs mostly not yet committed for 2012 presidential race\" . The Hill . Retrieved December 8, 2011 . Jump up ^ Pardo, Jimmy (May 5, 2016). \"Jon Cryer, NEVER NOT FUNNY #1812\" . Never Not Funny . Retrieved June 1, 2016 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jon Cryer ( category ) Jon Cryer Bio at CBS - Two and a Half Men Jon Cryer on IMDb Jon Cryer at the Internet Broadway Database Jon Cryer at the Internet Off-Broadway Database Jon Cryer at AllMovie Jon Cryer at Emmys.com [ show ] Awards for Jon Cryer [ show ] v t e Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Alan Young (1950) Sid Caesar (1951) Jimmy Durante (1952) Donald O'Connor (1953) Danny Thomas (1954) Phil Silvers (1955) Sid Caesar (1956) Jack Benny (1957) Jack Benny (1959) Dick Van Dyke (1964) Dick Van Dyke (1965) Dick Van Dyke (1966) Don Adams (1967) Don Adams (1968) Don Adams (1969) William Windom (1970) Jack Klugman (1971) Carroll O'Connor (1972) Jack Klugman (1973) Alan Alda (1974) Tony Randall (1975) Jack Albertson (1976) Carroll O'Connor (1977) Carroll O'Connor (1978) Carroll O'Connor (1979) Richard Mulligan (1980) Judd Hirsch (1981) Alan Alda (1982) Judd Hirsch (1983) John Ritter (1984) Robert Guillaume (1985) Michael J. 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Fox (2000) Eric McCormack (2001) Ray Romano (2002) Tony Shalhoub (2003) Kelsey Grammer (2004) Tony Shalhoub (2005) Tony Shalhoub (2006) Ricky Gervais (2007) Alec Baldwin (2008) Alec Baldwin (2009) Jim Parsons (2010) Jim Parsons (2011) Jon Cryer (2012) Jim Parsons (2013) Jim Parsons (2014) Jeffrey Tambor (2015) Jeffrey Tambor (2016) Donald Glover (2017) [ show ] v t e Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Art Carney (1954) Art Carney (1955) Art Carney (1956) Carl Reiner (1957) Carl Reiner (1958) Tom Poston (1959) Don Knotts (1961) Don Knotts (1962) Don Knotts (1963) Don Knotts (1966) Don Knotts (1967) Werner Klemperer (1968) Werner Klemperer (1969) Michael Constantine (1970) Edward Asner (1971) Edward Asner (1972) Ted Knight (1973) Rob Reiner (1974) Edward Asner (1975) Ted Knight (1976) Gary Burghoff (1977) Rob Reiner (1978) Robert Guillaume (1979) Harry Morgan (1980) Danny DeVito (1981) Christopher Lloyd (1982) Christopher Lloyd (1983) Pat Harrington, Jr. (1984) John Larroquette (1985) John Larroquette (1986) John Larroquette (1987) John Larroquette (1988) Woody Harrelson (1989) Alex Rocco (1990) Jonathan Winters (1991) Michael Jeter (1992) Michael Richards (1993) Michael Richards (1994) David Hyde Pierce (1995) Rip Torn (1996) Michael Richards (1997) David Hyde Pierce (1998) David Hyde Pierce (1999) Sean Hayes (2000) Peter MacNicol (2001) Brad Garrett (2002) Brad Garrett (2003) David Hyde Pierce (2004) Brad Garrett (2005) Jeremy Piven (2006) Jeremy Piven (2007) Jeremy Piven (2008) Jon Cryer (2009) Eric Stonestreet (2010) Ty Burrell (2011) Eric Stonestreet (2012) Tony Hale (2013) Ty Burrell (2014) Tony Hale (2015) Louie Anderson (2016) Alec Baldwin (2017) Authority control WorldCat Identities BNF : cb14011263m (data) GND : 140841121 ISNI : 0000 0001 1472 7559 LCCN : no00082445 SNAC : w6mf1zv2 VIAF : 53701091 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jon_Cryer&oldid=839339635 \" Categories : 1965 births 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors Male actors from New York City Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art American male film actors American male screenwriters American male television actors American television directors American television producers American male voice actors Living people Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners The Bronx High School of Science alumni Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from February 2015 Articles with hCards Articles with IBDb links Good articles Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2018, at 20:00. 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{ "text": "2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open - Wikipedia 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open Date 17 – 23 September Edition 35th Category WTA Premier Draw 28S / 16D Prize money $799,000 Surface Hard / indoor Location Tachikawa, Tokyo , Japan Venue Arena Tachikawa Tachihi Champions Singles Karolína Plíšková Doubles Miyu Kato / Makoto Ninomiya ← 2017 · Pan Pacific Open · 2019 → The 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open is a women's tennis tournament played on indoor hard courts . It was the 35th edition of the Pan Pacific Open , and part of the Premier Series of the 2018 WTA Tour . It took place at the Arena Tachikawa Tachihi in Tachikawa, Tokyo , Japan, on 17–23 September 2018. [1] [2] Contents 1 Points and prize money 1.1 Point distribution 1.2 Prize money 2 Singles main draw entrants 2.1 Seeds 2.2 Other entrants 2.3 Withdrawals 2.4 Retirements 3 Doubles main draw entrants 3.1 Seeds 3.2 Other entrants 4 Champions 4.1 Singles 4.2 Doubles 5 References 6 External links Points and prize money [ edit ] Point distribution [ edit ] Event W F SF QF Round of 16 Round of 32 Q Q2 Q1 Singles [3] 470 305 185 100 55 1 25 13 1 Doubles [3] 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A Prize money [ edit ] Event W F SF QF Round of 16 Round of 32 * Q2 Q1 Singles $137,125 $76,063 $39,080 $21,010 $11,265 $7,150 $3,447 $1,750 Doubles $42,850 $22,900 $12,510 $6,365 $3,460 N/A N/A N/A ^* Qualifiers prize money is also the Round of 32 prize money ^† Per team Singles main draw entrants [ edit ] Seeds [ edit ] Country Player Rank Seeds DEN Caroline Wozniacki 2 1 FRA Caroline Garcia 4 2 JPN Naomi Osaka 7 3 CZE Karolína Plíšková 8 4 USA Sloane Stephens 9 5 ESP Garbiñe Muguruza 14 6 AUS Ashleigh Barty 17 7 CZE Barbora Strýcová 25 8 Rankings are as of September 10, 2018 Other entrants [ edit ] The following players received wild cards into the main singles draw: Victoria Azarenka Kurumi Nara Kristýna Plíšková Caroline Wozniacki The following players received entry from the singles qualifying draw: Eugenie Bouchard Gabriela Dabrowski Zarina Diyas Misaki Doi Nao Hibino Alison Riske Withdrawals [ edit ] Mihaela Buzărnescu → replaced by Aliaksandra Sasnovich Angelique Kerber → replaced by Belinda Bencic Madison Keys → replaced by Anett Kontaveit Elise Mertens → replaced by Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova Anastasija Sevastova → replaced by Camila Giorgi Carla Suárez Navarro → replaced by Donna Vekić Retirements [ edit ] Victoria Azarenka Doubles main draw entrants [ edit ] Seeds [ edit ] Country Player Country Player Rank 1 Seed CZE Andrea Sestini Hlaváčková CZE Barbora Strýcová 18 1 CAN Gabriela Dabrowski CHN Xu Yifan 27 2 TPE Chan Hao-ching CHN Yang Zhaoxuan 48 3 USA Raquel Atawo GER Anna-Lena Grönefeld 59 4 Rankings are as of September 10, 2018 Other entrants [ edit ] The following pair received a wildcard into the doubles main draw: Erina Hayashi / Moyuka Uchijima Champions [ edit ] Singles [ edit ] Main article: 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open – Singles Karolína Plíšková def. Naomi Osaka 6–4, 6–4 Doubles [ edit ] Main article: 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open – Doubles Miyu Kato / Makoto Ninomiya def. Andrea Sestini Hlaváčková / Barbora Strýcová , 6–4, 6–4 References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Toray Pan Pacific Open Overview\" . wtatennis.com . Jump up ^ \"Toray Pan Pacific Open Tennis Tournament 2018: Announcing 18 main draw singles players and one wild card player\" . toray.co.jp . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Rankings explained\" . WTA. Archived from the original on 14 December 2012 . Retrieved 21 August 2015 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open . Official website show v t e Tokyo tournaments 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 show v t e 2018 WTA Tour « 2017 2019 » Grand Slam events Australian Open ( S , D , X ) French Open ( S , D , X ) Wimbledon ( S , D , X ) US Open ( S , D , X ) WTA Premier Mandatory tournaments Indian Wells ( S , D ) Miami ( S , D ) Madrid ( S , D ) Beijing ( S , D ) WTA Premier 5 tournaments Doha ( S , D ) Rome ( S , D ) Montreal ( S , D ) Cincinnati ( S , D ) Wuhan ( S , D ) WTA Premier tournaments Brisbane ( S , D ) Sydney ( S , D ) St. Petersburg ( S , D ) Dubai ( S , D ) Charleston ( S , D ) Stuttgart ( S , D ) Birmingham ( S , D ) Eastbourne ( S , D ) San Jose ( S , D ) New Haven ( S , D ) Tokyo ( S , D ) Moscow ( S , D ) WTA International tournaments Auckland ( S , D ) Shenzhen ( S , D ) Hobart ( S , D ) Taipei ( S , D ) Budapest ( S , D ) Acapulco ( S , D ) Monterrey ( S , D ) Bogotá ( S , D ) Lugano ( S , D ) İstanbul ( S , D ) Prague ( S , D ) Rabat ( S , D ) Nuremberg ( S , D ) Strasbourg ( S , D ) Rosmalen ( S , D ) Nottingham ( S , D ) Santa Ponsa ( S , D ) Bucharest ( S , D ) Gstaad ( S , D ) Moscow ( S , D ) Nanchang ( S , D ) Washington D.C. ( S , D ) Hiroshima ( S , D ) Quebec City ( S , D ) Guangzhou ( S , D ) Seoul ( S , D ) Tashkent ( S , D ) Hong Kong ( S , D ) Linz ( S , D ) Tianjin ( S , D ) Luxembourg City ( S , D ) Team events Fed Cup World Group I + World Group II WG I Play-offs WG II Play-offs Americas Asia/Oceania Europe/Africa WTA Finals, Singapore ( S , D ) WTA Elite Trophy, Zhuhai ( S , D ) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_Toray_Pan_Pacific_Open&oldid=862643022 \" Categories : 2018 WTA Tour Pan Pacific Open 2018 in Japanese sport September 2018 sports events in Asia 2018 Toray Pan Pacific Open Hidden categories: Commons category without a link on Wikidata Official website not in Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 5 October 2018, at 18:27 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "List of Cornish saints - Wikipedia List of Cornish saints From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Flag of St Piran, used as a flag of Cornwall St Piran portrayed in a stained glass window in Truro Cathedral This is a list of Cornish saints , including saints more loosely associated with Cornwall : many of them will have links to sites elsewhere in regions with significant ancient British history, such as Wales , Brittany or Devon . The Archangel Michael from Perugino's triptych in the Certosa of Pavia *The Archangel Michael was recognized as the patron saint of Cornwall in medieval times; his cult however was introduced to the land by the Normans Contents [ hide ] 1 List of some of the well-known Cornish saints 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links List of some of the well-known Cornish saints [ edit ] For more information see the works of Canon Doble (1880–1945), [1] Nicholas Orme 's book, The Saints of Cornwall (2000), [2] [3] and the works of Charles Henderson N.B. All these have dedications in Cornwall but not all have legends or traditions associating them with Cornwall. Saint Austell Saint Blaise Saint Breaca Saint Bryvyth (Brevita) Saint Budoc Saint Buriana Saint Cleer [4] Saint Carantoc Saint Constantine Saint Cuby Saint Day Saint Endelienta Saint Erth Saint Euny Saint Felec Saint Gerren Saint Gluvias Saint Gudwal or Gurval Saint Gwinear Saint Gwinnodock [4] Saint Gwithian [4] Saint Hydrock Saint Ia (Ives) Saint Julitta Saint Just Saint Kea Saint Keyne Saint Levan Saint Lide Saint Mabyn Saint Madern of Penzance Saint Materiana (Madryn of Gwent) Saint Mawes Saint Melor Saint Menefrida Saint Meriasek Saint Morwenna Saint Nectan Saint Neot Saint Nonna Saint Padarn Saint Petroc \"the captain of Cornish saints\" according to Thomas Fuller Saint Piran the patron saint of tin miners and of Cornwall Saint Rumonus Saint Samson of Dol Saint Senara Saint Sennen Saint Sidwell Saint Sulien Saint Tallanus Saint Tetha (Teath, Tecla) Saint Tudy Saint Ursula Saint Veep Saint Wenna Saint Winwaloe Wyllow See also [ edit ] Llan place name element List of Welsh saints References [ edit ] Nicholas Roscarrock (d. 1634) left an interesting account of the lives of the saints. [5] Jump up ^ A long series of books on individual saints, and the 5 volumes The Saints of Cornwall which are based on them Jump up ^ Orme, Nicholas (2000). The Saints of Cornwall . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820765-4 . Full text available at GoogleBooks (rather illegibly). Jump up ^ French, Katherine. \"Review of Orme's The Saints of Cornwall \" . Retrieved 2009-09-15 . ^ Jump up to: a b c The Saints of Great Britain and Ireland - a synaxarion Jump up ^ Roscarrock ; Genuki St Petroc's Cross, used as a flag of Devon Further reading [ edit ] Orme, Nicholas (1996) English Church Dedications: With a Survey of Cornwall and Devon , University of Exeter Press ISBN 0-85989-516-5 Ellis, P. B. (1992) The Cornish Saints . Penryn: Tor Mark Press (A brief basic guide giving accounts of 120 saints) Bowen, E. G. (1954) The Settlements of the Celtic Saints in Wales . Cardiff: University of Wales Press Baring-Gould, S.; Fisher, John (1907–13) Lives of the British Saints: the saints of Wales and Cornwall and such Irish saints as have dedications in Britain . 4 vols. London: For the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, by C. J. Clark Rees, W. J. (ed.) (1853) Lives of the Cambro British Saints: of the fifth and immediate succeeding centuries, from ancient Welsh & Latin mss. in the British Museum and elsewhere , with English translations and explanatory notes. Llandovery: W. Rees Wade-Evans, A. W. (ed.) (1944). Vitae Sanctorum Britanniae et Genealogiae . Cardiff: University of Wales Press Board. (Lives of saints: Bernachius, Brynach. Beuno. Cadocus, Cadog. Carantocus (I and II), Carannog. David, Dewi sant. Gundleius, Gwynllyw. Iltutus, Illtud. Kebius, Cybi. Paternus, Padarn. Tatheus. Wenefred, Gwenfrewi.--Genealogies: De situ Brecheniauc. Cognacio Brychan. Ach Knyauc sant. Generatio st. Egweni. Progenies Keredic. Bonedd y saint.) External links [ edit ] A - Z of saints by St Patrick's Washington DC Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Cornish_saints&oldid=801286823 \" Categories : Cornish saints Lists of saints Lists of religious figures Cornwall-related lists Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Edit links This page was last edited on 18 September 2017, at 20:06. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of Cornish saints", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Cornish_saints&amp;oldid=801286823" }

{ "text": "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Wikipedia Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Part of the Pacific War of World War II Atomic bomb mushroom clouds over Hiroshima (left) and Nagasaki (right) Date August 6 and August 9, 1945 Location Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Empire of Japan Result Allied victory Belligerents United States Manhattan Project : United Kingdom Canada Japan Commanders and leaders William S. Parsons Paul W. Tibbets, Jr. Charles Sweeney Frederick Ashworth Shunroku Hata Units involved Manhattan District : 50 U.S., 2 British 509th Composite Group : 1,770 U.S. Second General Army : Hiroshima: 40,000 (5 Anti-aircraft batteries ) Nagasaki: 9,000 (4 Anti-aircraft batteries) Casualties and losses 20 British, Dutch, and American prisoners of war killed Hiroshima: 20,000 soldiers killed 70,000–126,000 civilians killed Nagasaki: 39,000–80,000 killed Total: 129,000–226,000+ killed show v t e Pacific War Central Pacific Hawaii Marshalls-Gilberts raids Doolittle Raid Coral Sea Midway RY Solomons Gilberts & Marshalls Marianas & Palau Volcano & Ryukyu Truk Southeast Asia Indochina (1940) Indian Ocean (1940–45) Philippines 1941–42 Franco-Thai War Thailand Dutch East Indies Malaya Hong Kong Singapore Indochina (1945) Malacca Strait Jurist Tiderace Zipper Strategic bombing (1944–45) Burma Burma (1941–42) Burma (1942–43) Burma (1944) Burma (1944–45) Southwest Pacific Dutch East Indies 1941–42 Portuguese Timor Australia New Guinea Philippines 1944–45 Borneo 1945 North America Ellwood K Aleutian Islands Estevan Point Lighthouse Fort Stevens Lookout Air Raids Fire balloon Project Hula PX Japan Air raids Mariana Islands Volcano & Ryukyu Is Tokyo Starvation Naval bombardments Yokosuka Sagami Bay Kure Downfall Hiroshima & Nagasaki Kurils Karafuto Japanese surrender Manchuria Kantokuen Manchuria (1945) Mutanchiang Sakhalin Island Kuril Islands Shumshu Second Sino-Japanese War During the final stage of World War II , the United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States dropped the bombs after obtaining the consent of the United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec Agreement . The two bombings killed at least 129,000 people, most of whom were civilians. They remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of warfare. In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a bloody invasion of the Japanese mainland . This undertaking was preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities. The war in Europe had concluded when Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. As the Allies turned their full attention to the war in the Pacific War , the Japanese faced the same fate. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945—the alternative being \"prompt and utter destruction\". The Japanese ignored the ultimatum and the war continued. By August 1945, the Allies' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands . Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, one of its B-29s dropped a Little Boy uranium gun-type bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, a Fat Man plutonium implosion-type bomb was dropped by another B-29 on Nagasaki. The bombs immediately devastated their targets. Over the next two to four months, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000–146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000–80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. Large numbers of people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness , and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition, for many months afterward. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison. Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war . On September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender , effectively ending World War II . The ethical and legal justification for the bombings is still debated to this day. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 1.1 Pacific War 1.2 Preparations to invade Japan 1.3 Air raids on Japan 1.4 Atomic bomb development 2 Preparations 2.1 Organization and training 2.2 Choice of targets 2.3 Proposed demonstration 2.4 Leaflets 2.5 Consultation with Britain and Canada 2.6 Potsdam Declaration 2.7 Bombs 3 Hiroshima 3.1 Hiroshima during World War II 3.2 Bombing of Hiroshima 3.3 Events on the ground 3.4 Japanese realization of the bombing 4 Events of August 7–9 5 Nagasaki 5.1 Nagasaki during World War II 5.2 Bombing of Nagasaki 5.3 Events on the ground 6 Plans for more atomic attacks on Japan 7 Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation 8 Reportage 9 Post-attack casualties 9.1 Cancer increases 9.2 Birth defect investigations 9.3 Investigations into brain development 10 Hibakusha 10.1 Double survivors 10.2 Korean survivors 11 Memorials 12 Debate over bombings 13 Legacy 14 Public opinion in the West 15 Notes 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links Background Pacific War Main article: Pacific War Situation of the Pacific War on August 1, 1945. Areas still controlled by Japan (in white and green) included Korea, Taiwan, Indochina , and much of China , including most of the main cities, and the Dutch East Indies . Allied-held areas are in red, with the neutral Soviet Union and Mongolia in grey. In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action . Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive . America's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war-weary, and demanding that long-serving servicemen be sent home. [1] In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines , [2] recaptured Burma , [3] and invaded Borneo . [4] Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville , New Guinea and the Philippines. [5] In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa , where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5:1 in the Philippines to 2:1 on Okinawa. [1] Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner , most fought until they were killed or committed suicide . Nearly 99% of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April–June 1945, 94% were killed; [6] 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedented large number. [7] As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22% of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan's production of 70,000 for the entire war. By the middle of 1944, the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific, far more than Japan's twenty-five for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate. [8] Preparations to invade Japan Main article: Operation Downfall Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall , the Allied invasion of Japan. [9] The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet . Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū . [10] Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain , near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First , Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass. [11] U.S. Army propaganda poster prepares the public for the invasion of Japan after ending war on Germany and Italy Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō , accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. [12] Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, [13] and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. [14] In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff , Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi , predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths. [15] A study from June 15, 1945, by the Joint War Plans Committee, [16] who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff , estimated that Olympic would result in between 130,000 and 220,000 U.S. casualties, of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on June 15, 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army George Marshall , and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate. [17] The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. [18] Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley . Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk , and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million. [19] [20] Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was \"readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives\": [21] poison gas . Quantities of phosgene , mustard gas , tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. [21] Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan. [22] Air raids on Japan Main article: Air raids on Japan A B-29 over Osaka on June 1, 1945 While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long-ranged Boeing B-29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. [23] Operation Matterhorn involved India-based B-29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. [24] This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities. [25] Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam , Tinian , and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B-29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. [26] Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, [27] and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, [28] and B-29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. [29] These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. [30] The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18, 1944. [31] The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China-based B-29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so-called high-altitude precision bombing , aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. [32] These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action. [33] [34] The Operation Meetinghouse firebombing of Tokyo on the night of March 9–10, 1945, was the single deadliest air raid in history; [35] with a greater area of fire damage and loss of life than either of the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima or Nagasaki. [36] [37] Hansell's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay , assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. [38] Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low-level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. [39] Like most strategic bombing during World War II , the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale . [40] [41] Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo , codenamed Operation Meetinghouse , on March 9–10 killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km 2 ) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B-29s shot down by flak and fighters. [42] By May, 75% of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan's \"paper cities\". By mid-June, Japan's six largest cities had been devastated. [43] The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. [44] Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka , the U.S. fire-bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. [45] These raids were devastating. [46] The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. [47] From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. [48] That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. [49] By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B-29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, in order to conserve supplies of fuel. [50] In July 1945, the Japanese had 1,156,000 US barrels (137,800,000 l) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 604,000 US barrels (72,000,000 l) had been consumed in the home islands area in April, May and June 1945. [51] While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids. [52] Atomic bomb development Main article: Manhattan Project The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. [53] Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein-Szilard letter . This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. [54] Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium-235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water . [55] The 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the nuclear weapons projects of the United Kingdom and Canada, Tube Alloys and the Montreal Laboratory , with the Manhattan Project , [56] [57] under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. , of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . [58] Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. [59] Two types of bombs were eventually developed, both named by Robert Serber . Little Boy was a gun-type fission weapon that used uranium-235 , a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee . [60] The other, known as a Fat Man device, was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion-type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington . [61] There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program , but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb. [62] Preparations Organization and training Aircraft of the 509th Composite Group that took part in the Hiroshima bombing. Left to right: Big Stink , The Great Artiste , Enola Gay The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9, 1944, and activated on December 17, 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets . [63] Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a \"composite\" rather than a \"bombardment\" unit. [64] Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas , and Mountain Home, Idaho , because of its remoteness. [65] Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat-ready. [66] The \"Tinian Joint Chiefs\": Captain William S. Parsons (left), Rear Admiral William R. Purnell (center), and Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell (right) The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta , [67] known as the 1st Technical Detachment. [68] The 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B-29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel-injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible-pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements. [69] The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26, 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington. On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C-54 to North Field on Tinian, between May 15 and May 22. [70] There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, [71] who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons , the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the \"Tinian Joint Chiefs\". [72] Choice of targets The mission runs of August 6 and 9, with Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Kokura (the original target for August 9) displayed In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann , Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27; at Los Alamos on May 10, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on May 28, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman . [73] The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura , the site of one of Japan's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima , an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama , an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata , a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto , a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria: The target was larger than 3 mi (4.8 km) in diameter and was an important target in a large city. The blast would create effective damage. The target was unlikely to be attacked by August 1945. [74] These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as \"an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target.\" [74] The Target Committee stated that \"It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released. ... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that a large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value.\" [74] Edwin O. Reischauer , a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service , was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. [74] In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim: ... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier. [75] [76] On May 30, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. [77] Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. [78] Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. [79] [80] On July 25, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance. [80] Proposed demonstration In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy . [81] During the meetings on May 31 and June 1, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. [82] Arthur Compton later recalled that: It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all-too-long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war. [83] The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16, saying that \"we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use.\" Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target. [84] Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device, not an air-dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at the start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive. [85] [86] Leaflets Various leaflets were dropped on Japan, three versions showing the names of 11 or 12 Japanese cities targeted for destruction by firebombing. The other side contained text stating \"...we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked ...\" [87] For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97% destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area-bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. [87] [88] Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice \"to appeal to their compatriots\". [89] In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer-led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership . [90] No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. [91] Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was July 27, [91] and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was July 30. [90] The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30. [88] Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. [91] Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese \"...we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked...\" [87] Hiroshima was not listed. [92] [93] Consultation with Britain and Canada General Thomas Handy 's order to General Carl Spaatz ordering the dropping of the atomic bombs Under the Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom, nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4, 1945. [94] Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. [94] [95] [96] As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , at the upcoming Potsdam Conference , as this also required British concurrence. [94] Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy , the acting Chief of Staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. [97] It read: The 509th Composite Group, 20th Air Force will deliver its first special bomb as soon as weather will permit visual bombing after about 3 August 1945 on one of the targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata and Nagasaki. To carry military and civilian scientific personnel from the War Department to observe and record the effects of the explosion of the bomb, additional aircraft will accompany the airplane carrying the bomb. The observing planes will stay several miles distant from the point of impact of the bomb. Additional bombs will be delivered on the above targets as soon as made ready by the project staff. Further instructions will be issued concerning targets other than those listed above. [98] That day, Truman noted in his diary that: This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop that terrible bomb on the old capital [Kyoto] or the new [Tokyo]. He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one. [99] Potsdam Declaration Main article: Potsdam Declaration The July 16 success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. [100] On July 26, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration , which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in \"the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland\". The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué. [101] On July 28, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash ( yakinaoshi ) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it ( mokusatsu , \"kill by silence\"). [102] The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. [103] Japan's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity ), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands , Korea or Formosa , and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government. [104] At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal to Wilson. [105] Bombs The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. [106] There were two uranium-235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile was completed on June 15, and the target insert on July 24. [107] The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California, on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis , and arrived on Tinian on July 26. [108] The target insert followed by air on July 30, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. [107] Responding to concerns expressed by the 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B-29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight. [106] The first plutonium core , along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator , was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison . Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper . [109] The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26, and arrived at North Field July 28. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B-29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on August 2. [110] Hiroshima Hiroshima during World War II The Enola Gay dropped the \" Little Boy \" atomic bomb on Hiroshima. In this photograph are five of the aircraft's ground crew with mission commander Paul Tibbets in the center. At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army , which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, [111] and was located in Hiroshima Castle . Hata's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. [112] Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army , the 5th Division and the 224th Division , a recently formed mobile unit. [113] The city was defended by five batteries of 7-cm and 8-cm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city. [114] Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. [115] The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. [77] It was a beehive of war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. [116] The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. [117] It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, [118] primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command's priority target. On July 3, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto. [119] The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government . At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000–350,000. [120] Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. [121] Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. [122] More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks . [123] These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6, 1945. [124] Bombing of Hiroshima Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. The 393d Bombardment Squadron B-29 Enola Gay , named after Tibbets' mother and piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian , about six hours' flight time from Japan. Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B-29s. The Great Artiste , commanded by Major Charles Sweeney , which carried instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil , commanded by Captain George Marquardt, which served as the photography aircraft. [125] Strike order for the Hiroshima bombing as posted on August 5, 1945 Special Mission 13, Primary target Hiroshima, August 6, 1945 [125] [126] Aircraft Pilot Call Sign Mission role Straight Flush Major Claude R. Eatherly Dimples 85 Weather reconnaissance (Hiroshima) Jabit III Major John A. Wilson Dimples 71 Weather reconnaissance (Kokura) Full House Major Ralph R. Taylor Dimples 83 Weather reconnaissance (Nagasaki) Enola Gay Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Dimples 82 Weapon delivery The Great Artiste Major Charles W. Sweeney Dimples 89 Blast measurement instrumentation Necessary Evil Captain. George W. Marquardt Dimples 91 Strike observation and photography Top Secret Captain Charles F. McKnight Dimples 72 Strike spare—did not complete mission After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05:55 at 9,200 feet (2,800 m), [127] and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31,060 feet (9,470 m). [128] Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb in flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B-29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B-29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. [129] His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson , removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area. [130] The Hiroshima atom bomb cloud 2–5 minutes after detonation [131] During the night of August 5–6, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi , 261 en route to Nishinomiya , 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all-clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00:05. [132] About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay . It read: \"Cloud cover less than 3/10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary.\" [133] The all-clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07:09. [134] At 08:09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee . [135] The release at 08:15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg (141 lb) of uranium-235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31,000 feet (9,400 m) to a detonation height of about 1,900 feet (580 m) above the city. [136] [137] Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi (18.5 km) before it felt the shock waves from the blast. [138] Due to crosswind , the bomb missed the aiming point , the Aioi Bridge , by approximately 800 ft (240 m) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic . [139] It released the equivalent energy of 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ), ± 2 kt. [136] The weapon was considered very inefficient , with only 1.7% of its material fissioning. [140] The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles (11 km 2 ). [141] Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. \"It was hard to believe what we saw\", Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said \"the whole thing was tremendous and awe-inspiring ... the men aboard with me gasped 'My God'\". He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to \"a close burst of ack-ack fire\". [142] Events on the ground People on the ground reported a pika ( ピカ ) —a brilliant flash of light—followed by a don ( ドン ) —a loud booming sound. [143] Some 70,000–80,000 people, or around 30% of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, [144] [145] and another 70,000 were injured. [146] Perhaps as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed. [147] U.S. surveys estimated that 4.7 square miles (12 km 2 ) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. [148] Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall , now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome. This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel , and was only 150 m (490 ft) from ground zero. The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective. [149] The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes. As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective. [150] The intense fires started gutted everything in a 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) radius. [151] Hiroshima bombing Hiroshima in the aftermath of the bombing Injured civilian casualties The Hiroshima Genbaku Dome after the bombing The clothes pattern, in the tight-fitting areas on this survivor, shown burnt into the skin. Direct, thermal flash burns 22-year old victim Toyoko Kugata being treated at the Hiroshima Red Cross Hospital (October 6, 1945) The air raid warning had been cleared at 07:31, and many people were outside, going about their activities. [152] Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, being in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only 170 metres (560 ft) from ground zero (the hypocenter ) at the time of the attack. [153] [154] He died in 1982, aged 84. [155] Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She was in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters (980 ft) from ground-zero at the time of the attack. [156] For decades this \"Hiroshima strike\" photo was misidentified as the mushroom cloud of the bomb that formed at c. 08:16. [157] [158] However, due to its much greater height, the scene was identified by a researcher in March 2016 as the firestorm-cloud that engulfed the city, [158] a fire that reached its peak intensity some three hours after the bomb. [159] Over 90% of the doctors and 93% of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured—most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. [160] The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki , remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. [150] Nonetheless, by early afternoon, the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library. [161] Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle , barely 900 yards (820 m) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. [162] The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi , when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some 100 kilometres (62 mi) away) that \"Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near-total destruction.\" [163] Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Hata , who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty , Yi Wu , who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army. [164] [165] Hata's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto , who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used suicide boats , intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina . [164] Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city. [166] Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters, about 1,300 feet (400 m) from the hypocenter of the blast. [167] Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai , where they were stoned to death. [168] [169] Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up. [170] Japanese realization of the bombing Hiroshima before the bombing Hiroshima after the bombing and firestorm The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. [171] About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km (10 mi) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff . [172] Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor. [172] The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later. [172] Events of August 7–9 See also: Mokusatsu Truman announcing the bombing of Hiroshima President Truman announces the bombing of Hiroshima, which he describes as \"a military base\". Problems playing this file? See media help . After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, \"We may be grateful to Providence\" that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had \"spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history—and won\". Truman then warned Japan: \"If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware.\" [173] This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies. [174] Leaflet AB12, with information on the Hiroshima bomb and a warning to civilians to petition the Emperor to surrender was dropped over Japan beginning on August 9, by the 509th Composite Group. [175] An AB11 is in the possession of the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum . [176] The 50,000-watt standard wave station on Saipan , the OWI radio station , broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan , which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, [87] had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb. [177] Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government's commitment to ignore the Allies' demands and fight on. [178] Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5. At two minutes past midnight on August 9, Tokyo time , Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation . [179] Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami , in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace. [180] On August 7, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by an atomic bomb. Admiral Soemu Toyoda , the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging \"there would be more destruction but the war would go on\". [181] American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet's messages. [182] Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. [183] Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, [182] they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so. [184] [183] Nagasaki Nagasaki during World War II The Bockscar and its crew, who dropped a Fat Man atomic bomb on Nagasaki The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide-ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance , ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90% of the city's labor force, and accounted for 90% of the city's industry. [185] Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN/APQ-13 radar. [119] Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff's July 3 directive, [119] [186] and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on August 1, a number of conventional high-explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. [185] By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm (2.8 in) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries. [114] In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old-fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber-framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki. [187] Bombing of Nagasaki Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five-day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10. [188] Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F-31, F-32, and F-33 on their exteriors. On August 8, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F-33 was expended testing the components and F-31 was designated for the August 9 mission. [189] Strike order for the Nagasaki bombing as posted August 8, 1945 Special Mission 16, Secondary target Nagasaki, August 9, 1945 [190] Aircraft Pilot Call Sign Mission role Enola Gay Captain George W. Marquardt Dimples 82 Weather reconnaissance (Kokura) Laggin' Dragon Captain Charles F. McKnight Dimples 95 Weather reconnaissance (Nagasaki) Bockscar Major Charles W. Sweeney Dimples 77 Weapon delivery The Great Artiste Captain Frederick C. Bock Dimples 89 Blast measurement instrumentation Big Stink Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Dimples 90 Strike observation and photography Full House Major Ralph R. Taylor Dimples 83 Strike spare—did not complete mission At 03:49 on the morning of August 9, 1945, Bockscar , flown by Sweeney's crew, carried Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B-29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B-29s in Sweeney's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged. [191] During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar , the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 l; 530 imp gal) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission. [192] [193] This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink , flown by the group's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. [191] According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including 9,000 feet (2,700 m) higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock , who was piloting the support B-29 The Great Artiste . Instead, Hopkins was flying 40-mile (64 km) dogleg patterns. [194] Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink for forty minutes. Before leaving the rendezvous point, Sweeney consulted Ashworth, who was in charge of the bomb. As commander of the aircraft, Sweeney made the decision to proceed to the primary, the city of Kokura. [195] Nagasaki before and after the bombing and the fires had long since burnt out After exceeding the original departure time limit by nearly a half-hour, Bockscar , accompanied by The Great Artiste , proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B-29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yawata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar , to produce black smoke. [196] The clouds and smoke resulted in 70% of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses around Kokura, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser , who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands. [197] After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, Bockscar and The Great Artiste headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. [191] Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa , which had become entirely Allied-occupied territory only six weeks earlier . After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth agreed with Sweeney's suggestion that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured. [198] [199] At about 07:50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the \"all clear\" signal was given at 08:30. When only two B-29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10:53, the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given. [200] A few minutes later at 11:00, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley , urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction . The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. [201] In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez , met with Sagane and signed the letter. [202] At 11:01, a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar ' s bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan , to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about 5 kg (11 lb) of plutonium , was dropped over the city's industrial valley. It exploded 47 seconds later at 1,650 ± 33 ft (503 ± 10 m), above a tennis court, [203] halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly 3 km (1.9 mi) northwest of the planned hypocenter; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. [204] The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of 21 ± 2 kt (87.9 ± 8.4 TJ). [136] Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away, and flew over to observe. [205] Urakami Tenshudo (Catholic Church in Nagasaki) destroyed by the bomb, the dome/bell of the church, at right, having toppled off Bockscar flew on to Okinawa, arriving with only sufficient fuel for a single approach. Sweeney tried repeatedly to contact the control tower for landing clearance, but received no answer. He could see heavy air traffic landing and taking off from Yontan Airfield . Firing off every flare on board to alert the field to his emergency landing, the Bockscar came in fast, landing at 140 miles per hour (230 km/h) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour (190 km/h). The number two engine died from fuel starvation as he began the final approach. Touching down midway down the landing strip, Bockscar bounced up into the air again for about 25 feet (7.6 m) before slamming back down hard. The heavy B-29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B-24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. Its reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90-degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off it. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion before the plane came to a stop. The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained. [206] Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times , who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste . He also noted its \"Victor\" number as 77, which was that of Bockscar . [207] Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste . Except for Enola Gay , none of the 393d's B-29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste , [208] which was in fact, Victor 89. [209] Events on the ground The Nagasaki Prefecture Report on the bombing characterized Nagasaki as \"like a graveyard with not a tombstone standing\". [210] Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. [211] Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including \"mobilized\" students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000–22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. [212] Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000. [212] At least 35,000–40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. [213] [214] In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from their injuries. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945; a range of 39,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies. [120] Unlike Hiroshima's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including thirty-six from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. [114] At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died, including a British prisoner of war, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw , [215] and seven Dutch POWs. [216] One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia , was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. [217] There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived. [218] Partially incinerated child in Nagasaki. Photo from Japanese photographer Yōsuke Yamahata , one day after the blast and building fires had subsided. Once the American forces had Japan under their military control, they imposed censorship on all such images including those from the conventional bombing of Tokyo, this prevented the distribution of Yamahata’s photographs. These restrictions were lifted in 1952. [219] [220] The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi (1.6 km), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi (3.2 km) south of the bomb. [141] [221] About 58% of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78% of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10% structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast. [222] Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley. [223] As in Hiroshima, the bombing badly dislocated the city's medical facilities. A makeshift hospital was established at the Shinkozen Primary School, which served as the main medical centre. The trains were still running, and evacuated many victims to hospitals in nearby towns. A medical team from a naval hospital reached the city in the evening, and fire-fighting brigades from the neighboring towns assisted in fighting the fires. [224] Takashi Nagai was a doctor working in the radiology department of Nagasaki Medical College Hospital. He received a serious injury that severed his right temporal artery, but joined the rest of the surviving medical staff in treating bombing victims. [225] Plans for more atomic attacks on Japan Memorandum from Groves to Marshall regarding the third bomb, with Marshall's hand-written endorsement Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19, with three more in September and a further three in October. [86] On August 10, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that \"the next bomb ... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August.\" Marshall endorsed the memo with the hand-written comment, \"It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President\", [86] something Truman had requested that day. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs \"as made ready\". [226] There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall , and Marshall suggested to Stimson that the remaining cities on the target list be spared attack with atomic bombs. [227] Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and 14, [228] and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico , to collect them. [229] At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core . [230] Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until August 16. [231] Therefore, it could have been ready for use on August 19. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped. [226] Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation Main articles: Surrender of Japan and Occupation of Japan Until August 9, Japan's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. The full cabinet met on 14:30 on August 9, and spent most of the day debating surrender. Anami conceded that victory was unlikely, but argued in favour of continuing the war nonetheless. The meeting ended at 17:30, with no decision having been reached. Suzuki went to the palace to report on the outcome of meeting, where he met with Kōichi Kido , the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan . Kido informed him that the emperor had agreed to hold an imperial conference, and gave a strong indication that the emperor would consent to surrender on condition that kokutai be preserved. A second cabinet meeting was held at 18:00. Only four ministers supported Anami's position of adhering to the four conditions, but since cabinet decisions had to be unanimous, no decision was reached before it ended at 22:00. [232] Calling an imperial conference required the signatures of the prime minister and the two service chiefs, but the Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu had already obtained signatures from Toyoda and General Yoshijirō Umezu in advance, and he reneged on his promise to inform them if a meeting was to be held. The meeting commenced at 23:50. No consensus had emerged by 02:00, but the emperor gave his \"sacred decision\", [233] authorizing the Foreign Minister , Shigenori Tōgō , to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration \"does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler.\" [234] On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka , then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, \"Of course.\" [235] As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender. [236] In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings, and did not explicitly mention the Soviets as a factor for surrender: Despite the best that has been done by every one – the gallant fighting of military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people, the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest. Moreover, the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are we to save the millions of our subjects, or to atone ourselves before the hallowed spirits of our imperial ancestors? This is the reason why we have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the joint declaration of the powers. [237] In his \"Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors\" delivered on August 17, however, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender. [238] Reportage See also: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in popular culture Play media The Hiroshima ruins in March and April 1946, by Daniel A. McGovern and Harry Mimura On August 10, 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, Yōsuke Yamahata , correspondent Higashi, and artist Yamada arrived in the city with orders to record the destruction for maximum propaganda purposes, Yamahata took scores of photographs, and on August 21, they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun , a popular Japanese newspaper. [239] Leslie Nakashima filed the first personal account of the scene to appear in American newspapers. A version of his August 27 UPI article appeared in The New York Times on August 31. [240] Wilfred Burchett was the first western journalist to visit Hiroshima after the bombing, arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2. His Morse code dispatch, \"The Atomic Plague\", was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5, 1945. Nakashima's and Burchett's reports were the first public reports to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout – radiation burns and radiation poisoning . [241] [242] Burchett's reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military, who accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda, and suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News . Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale, ignoring his own account published one week earlier. [243] A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey , Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the effects of the bombings in early 1946. The film crew shot 90,000 ft (27,000 m) of film, resulting in a three-hour documentary titled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb; it showed burned-out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified \"secret\" for the next 22 years. [244] [245] Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha's reels were confiscated by the American authorities, but they were requested by the Japanese government, and declassified. [245] The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan , [246] but the Hiroshima-based magazine, Chugoku Bunka , in its first issue published on March 10, 1946, devoted itself to detailing the damage from the bombing. [247] Play media Life among the rubble in Hiroshima in March and April 1946. Film footage taken by Lieutenant Daniel A. McGovern (director) and Harry Mimura (cameraman) for a United States Strategic Bombing Survey project. The book Hiroshima , written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey , which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker , [248] on August 31, 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. [249] [250] [251] It narrated the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. [248] Beginning in 1974, a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977, and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire . [252] The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists, whom the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon . Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon \"would be possible for another twenty years\"; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said \"I think it's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part\", but Heisenberg replied, \"One could equally well say 'That's the quickest way of ending the war'\". Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing \"such an inhumane weapon\"; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, \"we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us\". [253] Hahn told the others, \"Once I wanted to suggest that all uranium should be sunk to the bottom of the ocean\". [253] The Vatican agreed; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. [254] Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse , the Dean of St Albans , prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war's end, calling the use of atomic weapons \"an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre\". [255] Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S.; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans (22.7%) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. [256] [257] The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public (mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud ). [256] During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers. [258] Post-attack casualties See also: Epidemiology data for low-linear energy transfer radiation , Acute radiation syndrome § History , Radiobiology , Hiroshima (book) , and Terufumi Sasaki Play media Silent film footage taken in Hiroshima in March 1946 showing survivors with severe burns and keloid scars. Survivors were asked to stand in the orientation they were in at the time of the flash, to document and convey the line-of-sight nature of flash burns , and to show that, much like a sunburn , thick clothing and fabric offered protection in many cases. The sometimes extensive burn scar contracture is not unusual, being common to all 2nd and 3rd degree burns when they cover a large area of skin. Frequent estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (38.9% of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28.0% of the population) died in 1945, though the number which died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter , who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20–30 days. [259] [260] The most well known of which being Midori Naka , some 650 meters from the hypocenter at Hiroshima, who would travel to Tokyo and then with her death on August 24, 1945 was to be the first death officially certified as a result of radiation poisoning, or as it was referred to by many, \"Atomic bomb disease\". It was unappreciated at the time but the average radiation dose that will kill approximately 50% of adults, the LD50 , was approximately halved, that is, smaller doses were made more lethal, when the individual experienced concurrent blast or burn polytraumatic injuries. [261] Conventional skin injuries that cover a large area frequently result in bacterial infection; the risk of sepsis and death is increased when a usually non-lethal radiation dose moderately suppresses the white blood cell count . [262] In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences – National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. [263] In 1956, the ABCC published The Effect of Exposure to the Atomic Bombs on Pregnancy Termination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki . [264] The ABCC became the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), on April 1, 1975. A binational organization run by both the United States and Japan, the RERF is still in operation today. [265] Cancer increases As cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation instead radiation-induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some 5+ years and Leukemia some 2+ which peaks around 6-8 years later. [266] Dr Jarrett Foley published the first major reports on the significant increased incidence of the latter among survivors, almost all cases of leukemia over the following 50 years were in people exposed to more than 1 Gy . [267] In a strictly dependent manner dependent on their distance from the hypocenter , in the 1987 Life Span Study , conducted by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation , a statistical excess of 507 cancers, of undefined lethality, were observed in 79,972 hibakusha who had still been living between 1958–1987 and who took part in the study. [268] As the epidemiology study continues with time, the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46% of leukemia deaths which may include Sadako Sasaki and 11% of solid cancers of unspecificed lethality, were likely due to radiation from the bombs or some other post-attack city effects, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study. [269] Birth defect investigations While during the preimplantation period, that is 1–10 days following conception , interuterine radiation exposure of \"at least 0.2 Gy \" can cause complications of implantation and death of the human embryo . [270] The number of miscarriages caused by the radiation from the bombings, during this radiosensitive period, is not known. One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure , located 18 mi (29 km) south of Hiroshima, in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. [271] James V. Neel led the study which found that the overall number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. [272] He also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later. [273] While The National Academy of Sciences raised the possibility that Neel's procedure did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure which could bias the results. [274] Overall, a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima when the cities were taken as wholes, in terms of distance from the hypocenters however, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure, were approximately 20 cases were observed in a similar sample size. [275] In 1985, Johns Hopkins University geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. [276] Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) were still looking for possible birth defects among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were significantly common among the survivors, or inherited in the children of survivors. [273] [277] Investigations into brain development See also: Radiation-induced cognitive decline § Radiation Therapy Despite the small sample size of 1600 to 1800 persons who came forth as prenatally exposed at the time of the bombings, that were both within a close proximity to the two hypocenters, to survive the In utero absorption of a substantial dose of radiation and then the malnourished post-attack environment, data from this cohort does support the increased risk of severe mental retardation (SMR), that was observed in some 30 individuals, with SMR being a common outcome of the aforementioned microencephaly. While a lack of statistical data, with just 30 individuals out of 1800, prevents a definitive determination of a threshold point , the data collected suggests a threshold interuterine or fetal dose for SMR, at the most radiosensitive period of cognitive development, when there is the largest number of undifferentiated neural cells (8 to 15 weeks post-conception) to begin at a threshold dose of approximately \"0.09\" to \"0.15\" Gy , with the risk then linearly increasing to a 43% rate of SMR when exposed to a fetal dose of 1 Gy at any point during these weeks of rapid Neurogenesis . [278] [279] However either side of this radiosensitive age, none of the prenatally exposed to the bombings at an age less than 8 weeks, that is prior to synaptogenesis or at a gestational age more than 26 weeks \"were observed to be mentally retarded\", with the condition therefore being isolated to those solely of 8–26 weeks of age and who absorbed more than approximately \"0.09\" to \"0.15\" Gy of prompt radiation energy. [280] [281] Examination of the prenatally exposed in terms of IQ performance and school records, determined the beginning of a statistically significant reduction in both, when exposed to greater than 0.1 to 0.5 Gray, during the same gestational period of 8–25 weeks. However outside this period, at less than 8 weeks and greater than 26 after conception, \"there is no evidence of a radiation-related effect on scholastic performance.\" [282] The reporting of doses in terms of absorbed energy in units of ( Gy and rad ) rather than the use of the biologically significant, biologically weighted Sievert , in both the SMR and cognitive performance data is typical. [283] The reported threshold dose variance between the two cities, is suggested to be a manifestation of the difference between X-ray and neutron absorption , with Little Boy emitting substantially more neutron flux , whereas the Baratol that surrounded the core of Fat Man , filtered or shifted the absorbed neutron-radiation profile, so that the dose of radiation energy received in Nagasaki, is mostly that from exposure to x-rays/gamma rays, in contrast to the environment within 1500 meters of the hypocenter at Hiroshima, were instead the in-utero dose more depended on the absorption of neutrons , which have a higher biological effect per unit of energy absorbed . [284] From the Radiation dose reconstruction work, which were also informed by the 1962 BREN Tower -Japanese city analog, the estimated dosimetry at Hiroshima still has the largest uncertainty as the Little Boy -bomb design was never tested before deployment or afterward, therefore the estimated radiation profile absorbed by individuals at Hiroshima had required greater reliance on calculations than the Japanese soil, concrete and roof-tile measurements which began to reach accurate levels and thereby inform researchers, in the 1990s. [285] [286] [287] Many other investigations into cognitive outcomes, such as Schizophrenia as a result of prenatal exposure, have been conducted with \"no statistically significant linear relationship seen\", there is a suggestion that in the most extremely exposed, those who survived within a kilometer or so of the hypocenters, a trend emerges akin to that seen in SMR, though the sample size is too small to determine with any significance. [288] Hibakusha Main article: Hibakusha The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha ( 被爆者 , Japanese pronunciation: [çibakɯ̥ɕa] ) , a Japanese word that literally translates to \"explosion-affected people\". The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha . As of March 31, 2017 [update] , 164,621 were still alive, mostly in Japan. [289] The government of Japan recognizes about 1% of these as having illnesses [ ambiguous ] caused by radiation. [290] [ better source needed ] The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2017 [update] the memorials record the names of almost 485,000 hibakusha ; 308,725 in Hiroshima [291] and 175,743 in Nagasaki. [292] If they discuss their background, Hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of fear based discrimination and exclusion when it comes to prospects of marriage or work [293] due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness or that the low doses that the majority received were less than a routine diagnostic x-ray , much of the public however persist with the belief that the Hibakusha carry some hereditary or even contagious disease. [294] This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects/congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of the nuclear weapons used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or indeed has been found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received radiotherapy . [295] [296] [297] The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that could conceive, who were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities/birth defects than the rate which is observed in the Japanese average. [298] [299] [300] A study of the long-term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17–20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms. [301] Double survivors Perhaps as many as 200 people from Hiroshima sought refuge in Nagasaki. The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion-affected people) , nine of whom claimed to be in the blast zone in both cities. [302] On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha . He was confirmed to be 3 km (1.9 mi) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day before the bombing, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. [303] He died on January 4, 2010, at the age of 93, after a battle with stomach cancer. [304] Korean survivors See also: Anti-Korean sentiment § Japan During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor . [305] About 5,000–8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500–2,000 died in Nagasaki. [306] For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them in Japan. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits. [307] Memorials Hiroshima was subsequently struck by Typhoon Ida on September 17, 1945. More than half the bridges were destroyed, and the roads and railroads were damaged, further devastating the city. [308] The population increased from 83,000 soon after the bombing to 146,000 in February 1946. [309] The city was rebuilt after the war, with help from the national government through the Hiroshima Peace Memorial City Construction Law passed in 1949. It provided financial assistance for reconstruction, along with land donated that was previously owned by the national government and used for military purposes. [310] In 1949, a design was selected for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park . Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, the closest surviving building to the location of the bomb's detonation, was designated the Hiroshima Peace Memorial . The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was opened in 1955 in the Peace Park. [311] Hiroshima also contains a Peace Pagoda , built in 1966 by Nipponzan-Myōhōji . [312] Panoramic view of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. The Genbaku Dome can be seen in the center left of the image. The original target for the bomb was the \"T\"-shaped Aioi Bridge seen in the left of the image. Nagasaki was also rebuilt after the war, but was dramatically changed in the process. The pace of reconstruction was initially slow, and the first simple emergency dwellings were not provided until 1946. The focus on redevelopment was the replacement of war industries with foreign trade, shipbuilding and fishing. This was formally declared when the Nagasaki International Culture City Reconstruction Law was passed in May 1949. [309] New temples were built, as well as new churches owing to an increase in the presence of Christianity. Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, such as a torii at Sannō Shrine , and an arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum , which was opened in the mid-1990s. [313] Panoramic view of the monument marking the hypocenter, or ground zero, of the atomic bomb explosion over Nagasaki Debate over bombings Main article: Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender , and the ethical, legal, and military controversies surrounding the United States' justification for them have been the subject of scholarly and popular debate. [314] On one hand, it has been argued, that the bombings caused the Japanese surrender, thereby preventing casualties that an invasion of Japan would have involved. [6] [315] Stimson talked of saving one million casualties. [316] The naval blockade might have starved the Japanese into submission without an invasion, but this would also have resulted in many more Japanese deaths. [317] It has also been pointed out that the conventional bombing of Japan caused just as much destruction as the atomic bombs, if not more so. Indeed, Operation Meetinghouse , known as the Great Tokyo Air Raid in Japan, was the single most devastating air raid of the war, with a higher death toll than either of the two atomic bombings. Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa argued that the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan \"played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow's mediation\". [318] A view among critics of the bombings, that was popularized by American historian Gar Alperovitz in 1965, is the idea of atomic diplomacy: that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War . Although not accepted by mainstream historians, this became the position in Japanese school history textbooks. [319] Those who oppose the bombings, give other reasons for their view; among them: a belief, that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral, that the bombings counted as war crimes , that they constituted state terrorism, [320] and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people. [321] Legacy Main article: Nuclear warfare Like the way it began, the manner in which World War II ended cast a long shadow over international relations for decades to come. By June 30, 1946, there were components for only nine atomic bombs in the US arsenal, all Fat Man devices identical to the one used in the bombing of Nagasaki. [322] The nuclear weapons were handmade devices, and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly, safety, reliability and storage before they were ready for production. There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended, but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development. [323] The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy had decried the use of the atomic bombs as adopting \"an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages\", [324] but in October 1947, he reported a military requirement for 400 bombs. [325] The American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted only four years before the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb in September 1949. [325] The United States responded with the development of the hydrogen bomb , a nuclear weapon a thousand times as powerful as the bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. [326] Such ordinary fission bombs would henceforth be regarded as small tactical nuclear weapons . [327] By 1986, the United States would have 23,317 nuclear weapons, while the Soviet Union had 40,159. By 2017, nine nations had nuclear weapons, [328] but Japan was not one of them. Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in February 1970, [329] but it still sheltered under the American nuclear umbrella. American nuclear weapons were stored on Okinawa, and sometimes in Japan itself, albeit in contravention of agreements between the two nations. [330] Lacking the resources to fight the Soviet Union using conventional forces, the Western Alliance came to depend on the use of nuclear weapons to defend itself during the Cold War , a policy that became known in the 1950s as the New Look . [331] In the decades after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States would threaten to use its nuclear weapons many times. [332] Public opinion in the West The examples and perspective in this United States may not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate. (June 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Pew Research Center conducted a 2015 survey showing that 56% of Americans support the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki from WWII, while only 34% oppose the bombings. [333] The study highlighted the impact of the respondent’s generation, showing that 70% of Americans 65 and older support the bombings, while only 47% of 18- to 29-year-olds support the bombings. Younger generations of Americans are less supportive of the bombings, according to the Pew Research Center statistics. Political leanings also impacted responses according to the survey. 74% of Republicans support the bombings while 52% of Democrats support the bombings. [333] American approval of the US dropping the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki has decreased steadily since 1945. A 1945 Gallup poll showed that 85% of Americans approved of using atomic weapons on Japanese cities, while only 10% disapproved. [334] Forty five years later in 1990, Gallup conducted another poll and recorded 53% of Americans approving the bombings with 41% disapproving the bombings. Another 2005 Gallup poll echoes the findings of the 2015 Pew Research Center study by finding 57% of Americans approved the bombings while 38% disapproved. [334] While the poll data from The Pew Research Center and Gallup show a stark drop in support for the bombings over the last half century, Stanford political scientists have conducted research supporting their hypothesis that US public support for the use of nuclear force would be just as high today as in 1945 if a similar yet contemporary real life scenario presented itself. [335] In a 2017 study conducted by political scientists Scott D. Sagan and Benjamin A. Valentino, it was found that 67% of Americans support the conventional strike with use of atomic force in a hypothetical situation that killed 100,000 Iranian civilians over the other hypothetical option of an invasion that would kill 20,000 American soldiers. [336] On the other hand, a 2010 Pew survey showed that 64% of Americans approved of Barack Obama’s declaration of US abstinence of nuclear weapons against a nation that did not have them, showing that most Americans have a conflicted view on use of atomic force. [337] Notes ^ Jump up to: a b Giangreco 2009 , pp. 2–3, 49–51. Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , p. 307. Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , p. 532. Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , p. 527. Jump up ^ Long 1963 , pp. 48–49. ^ Jump up to: a b Brooks & Stanley 2007 , pp. 41–44. Jump up ^ Appleman et al. 1948 , pp. 462–467. Jump up ^ Coox 1969 , pp. 2540–2544. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 32–34. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 125–130. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 169–171. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 45–48. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , p. 21. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 70–72. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 121–124. Jump up ^ \"The Final Months of the War With Japan. Part III (note 24)\" . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved December 17, 2013 . Jump up ^ Carroll 2007 , p. 48. Jump up ^ Drea 1992 , pp. 202–225. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 98–99. Jump up ^ Frank 1999 , p. 340. ^ Jump up to: a b Giangreco 2009 , p. 112. Jump up ^ Schaffer 1985 , pp. 164–165. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , p. 4. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 22–24. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 169–175. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 29–31. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 507–509. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 514–521. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 548–551. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 536–545. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 558–560. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , p. 566. Jump up ^ Sandler 2001 , pp. 24–26. 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Jump up ^ Jones 1985 , pp. 528–529. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Atomic Bomb: Decision—Target Committee, May 10–11, 1945\" . Archived from the original on August 8, 2005 . Retrieved August 6, 2005 . Jump up ^ Reischauer 1986 , p. 101. Jump up ^ Kelly 2012 , pp. 183–203. ^ Jump up to: a b Jones 1985 , p. 529. Jump up ^ Hasegawa 2006 , pp. 67–68. Jump up ^ Hasegawa 2006 , pp. 149–150. ^ Jump up to: a b Jones 1985 , p. 530. Jump up ^ Frank 1999 , pp. 255–256. Jump up ^ Compton 1956 , p. 240. Jump up ^ Compton 1956 , pp. 238–239. Jump up ^ Frank 1999 , pp. 255–260. Jump up ^ Newman 1995 , p. 86. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources\" (PDF) . National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 162 . George Washington University . August 13, 1945. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Williams, Josette H. \"The Information War in the Pacific, 1945 Paths to Peace\" . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ) ^ Jump up to: a b Craven & Cate 1953 , p. 656. Jump up ^ Frank 1999 , p. 153. ^ Jump up to: a b McNelly 2000 , p. 138. ^ Jump up to: a b c Lifton 1991 , p. 17. Jump up ^ 空襲予告ビラ、高山市民が保管　市内で展示 [Air Raid Notice] (in Japanese). 岐阜新聞社 (Gifu Shinbunsha (Open Library)). Archived from the original on October 12, 2013 . Retrieved January 31, 2013 . Jump up ^ Bungei 1981 , p. 215. ^ Jump up to: a b c Hewlett & Anderson 1962 , pp. 372–373. Jump up ^ Gowing 1964 , p. 372. Jump up ^ \"Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee,\" . Washington, DC: United States Department of State. July 4, 1945 . Retrieved 18 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953 , pp. 712–713. Jump up ^ \"Letter received from General Thomas Handy to General Carl Spaatz authorizing the dropping of the first atomic bomb\" . National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved January 26, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pages from President Truman's diary, July 17, 18, and 25, 1945\" . Harry S. Truman Library & Museum . Retrieved December 16, 2013 . Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 , pp. 389–390. Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 , pp. 395–396. Jump up ^ Frank 1999 , pp. 233–234. The meaning of mokusatsu can fall anywhere in the range of \"ignore\" to \"treat with contempt\". Jump up ^ Bix 1996 , p. 290. Jump up ^ Asada 1996 , p. 39. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977 , pp. 326, 356, 370. ^ Jump up to: a b Hoddeson et al. 1993 , p. 262. ^ Jump up to: a b Hoddeson et al. 1993 , p. 265. Jump up ^ Coster-Mullen 2012 , p. 30. Jump up ^ Coster-Mullen 2012 , p. 45. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005 , pp. 38–40. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 64–65, 163. Jump up ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1995 , p. 41. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009 , pp. 70, 163. ^ Jump up to: a b c Zaloga & Noon 2010 , p. 59. Jump up ^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey (June 1946). \"U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\" . Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Archived from the original on October 11, 2004 . Retrieved July 26, 2009 . Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977 , pp. 224–225. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977 , p. 38. Jump up ^ Groves 1962 , p. 316. ^ Jump up to: a b c Frank 1999 , p. 263. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Frequently Asked Questions #1\" . Radiation Effects Research Foundation (Formerly known as the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC)). Archived from the original on September 19, 2007 . Retrieved September 18, 2007 . Jump up ^ Bodden 2007 , p. 20. Jump up ^ Preston 2005 , p. 262. Jump up ^ Fiévé & Waley 2003 , p. 330. Jump up ^ Rotter 2008 , p. 267. ^ Jump up to: a b \"509th Timeline: Inception to Hiroshima\" . The Atomic Heritage Foundation . Retrieved May 5, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Timeline #2 – the 509th; The Hiroshima Mission\" . The Atomic Heritage Foundation . Retrieved May 4, 2007 . Jump up ^ Dietz & Van Kirk 2012 , p. 462. Jump up ^ Dietz & Van Kirk 2012 , p. 467. Jump up ^ Lewis & Tolzer 1957 , p. 72. Jump up ^ \"Timeline #2- the 509th; The Hiroshima Mission\" . The Atomic Heritage Foundation . Retrieved May 5, 2007 . Jump up ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. \"Rare Photo of the Mushroom Cloud Over Hiroshima Discovered in a Former Japanese Elementary School\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved December 4, 2016 . Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977 , pp. 391–392. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977 , p. 414. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977 , p. 415. Jump up ^ Allen 1969 , p. 2566. ^ Jump up to: a b c Kerr et al 2005 , pp. 42–43. Jump up ^ Malik, John (September 1985). \"The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Explosions\" (PDF) . Los Alamos National Laboratory . Retrieved March 9, 2014 . describes how various values were recorded for the B-29's altitude at the moment of bomb release over Hiroshima. The strike report said 30,200 ft, the official history said 31,600 ft, Commander Parson's log entry was 32,700 ft, and the navigator's log was 31,060 ft—the latter possibly an error transposing two digits. A later calculation using the indicated atmospheric pressure arrived at the figure of 32,200 ft. Similarly, several values have been reported as the altitude of the Little Boy bomb at the moment of detonation. Published sources vary in the range of 1,800 to 2,000 ft (550 to 610 m) above the city. The device was set to explode at 1,885 ft (575 m), but this was approximate. Malik uses the figure of 1,903 ft (580 m) plus or minus 50 ft (15 m), determined after data review by Hubbell et al 1969 . Radar returns from the tops of multistory buildings near the hypocenter may have triggered the detonation at a somewhat higher altitude than planned. Kerr et al. 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Selden, Kyoko Iriye; Selden, Mark (1990). The Atomic Bomb: Voices from Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-87332-773-X . OCLC 20057103 . Sharp, Patrick B. (2000). \"From Yellow Peril to Japanese Wasteland: John Hersey's 'Hiroshima ' \". Twentieth Century Literature . 46 : 434–452. ISSN 0041-462X . JSTOR 827841 . Sherwin, Martin J. (2003). A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and its Legacies . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3957-9 . OCLC 52714712 . Sklar, Morty, ed. (1984). Nuke-rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons . Iowa City, Iowa: The Spirit That Moves Us Press. ISBN 0-930370-16-3 . OCLC 10072916 . Slavinskiĭ, Boris Nikolaevich (2004). The Japanese-Soviet Neutrality Pact: A Diplomatic History, 1941–1945 . Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series. London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-415-32292-8 . Stohl, Michael (1979). The Politics of Terrorism . New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-6764-8 . OCLC 4495087 . Sweeney, Charles ; Antonucci, James A.; Antonucci, Marion K. (1997). War's End: An Eyewitness Account of America's Last Atomic Mission . New York: Quill Publishing. ISBN 0-380-78874-8 . Tanaka, Yuki ; Young, Marilyn B. (2009). Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth Century History . New York: New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-547-9 . OCLC 624416971 . Thomas, Gordon; Morgan-Witts, Max (1977). Ruin from the Air . London: Hamilton. ISBN 0-241-89726-2 . OCLC 252041787 . Tibbets, Paul W. (1998). Return Of The Enola Gay . New Hope, Pennsylvania: Enola Gay Remembered. ISBN 0-9703666-0-4 . OCLC 69423383 . Toon, O. B.; Turco, R. P.; Robock, A.; Bardeen, C.; Oman, L.; Stenchikov, G. L. (2007). \"Atmospheric Effects and Societal Consequences of Regional Scale Nuclear Conflicts and Acts of Individual Nuclear Terrorism\" (PDF) . Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics . 7 : 1973–2002. ISSN 1680-7316 . Retrieved December 4, 2016 . United States Department of State (1960). Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers: the Conference of Berlin (the Potsdam Conference), 1945 . Foreign Relations of the United States. 2 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 22435734 . Wainstock, Dennis D. (1996). The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-95475-7 . OCLC 33243854 . Walker, J. Samuel (January 1990). \"The Decision to Use the Bomb: A Historiographical Update\". Diplomatic History . 14 (1): 97–114. doi : 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1990.tb00078.x . ISSN 1467-7709 . Walker, J. Samuel (April 2005). \"Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: A Search for Middle Ground\". Diplomatic History . 29 (2): 311–334. doi : 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2005.00476.x . ISSN 1467-7709 . Werrell, Kenneth P. (1996). Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II . Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-665-4 . OCLC 32921746 . White, Geoffrey. M. (July 1995). \"Memory Wars: The Politics of Remembering the Asia-Pacific War\" (PDF) . Asia-Pacific Issues (21). ISSN 1522-0966 . Retrieved June 30, 2013 . Williams, M. H. (1960). Chronology, 1941–1945 . Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 1358166 . Yamada, Michiko; Izumi, Shizue (2002). \"Psychiatric Sequelae in Atomic Bomb Survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki Two Decades After the Explosions\". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology . 37 (9): 409–415. doi : 10.1007/s00127-002-0572-5 . ISSN 0933-7954 . Zaloga, Steven J. ; Noon, Steve (2010). Defense of Japan 1945 . Fortress. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84603-687-9 . OCLC 503042143 . Further reading Allen, Thomas; Polmar, Norman (1995). Code-Name Downfall . New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80406-9 . Alperovitz, Gar ; Tree, Sanho (1996). The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb . New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76285-X . The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1981). Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings . New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02985-X . Delgado, James P. (2009). Nuclear Dawn: the Atomic Bomb, from the Manhattan Project to the Cold War . New York: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-396-4 . OCLC 297147193 . Gordin, Michael D. (2007). Five Days in August: How World War II Became a Nuclear War . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12818-9 . OCLC 70630623 . Gosling, Francis George (1994). The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb . Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Energy, History Division. OCLC 637052193 . Krauss, Robert; Krauss, Amelia (2005). The 509th Remembered: A History of the 509th Composite Group as Told by the Veterans Themselves . Buchanan, Michigan: 509th Press. ISBN 0-923568-66-2 . OCLC 59148135 . Merton, Thomas (1962). Original Child Bomb: Points for Meditation to be Scratched on the Walls of a Cave . New York: New Directions. OCLC 4527778 . Murakami, Chikayasu (2007). Hiroshima no shiroi sora (The White Sky in Hiroshima) . Tokyo: Bungeisha. ISBN 4-286-03708-8 . Ogura, Toyofumi (2001). Letters from the End of the World: A Firsthand Account of the Bombing of Hiroshima . Tokyo: Kodansha International. ISBN 4-7700-2776-1 . Sekimori, Gaynor (1986). Hibakusha: Survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Company. ISBN 4-333-01204-X . Ward, Wilson (Spring 2007). \"The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima\". International Security . 31 (4): 162–179. doi : 10.1162/isec.2007.31.4.162 . ISSN 1531-4804 . Warren, Stafford L. (1966). \"Manhattan Project\". In Ahnfeldt, Arnold Lorentz. Radiology in World War II . Washington, D.C.: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. pp. 831–922. OCLC 630225 . External links Find more about Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Present day Are Nagasaki and Hiroshima still radioactive? – No. Includes explanation. The decision \"Order from General Thomas Handy to General Carl Spaatz authorizing the dropping of the first atomic bomb\" . Wikisource. 2015. \"Documents on the Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb\" . Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . \"President Truman Defends Use of Atomic Bomb, 1945:Original Letters\" . Shapell Manuscript Foundation . Retrieved February 8, 2014 . \"Correspondence Regarding Decision to Drop the Bomb\" . Nuclear Age Peace Foundation . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . The effects \"The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\" . U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey . Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum . 1946 . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . \"Scientific Data of the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Disaster\" . Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . \"Tale of Two Cities: The Story of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\" . National Science Digital Library . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . \"The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\" . Atomic Archive. 1946 . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . \"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II\" (PDF) . National Security Archive . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . The short film Children of Hiroshima (Reel 1 of 2) (1952) is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film Children of Hiroshima (Reel 2 of 2) (1952) is available for free download at the Internet Archive \"Photo gallery of aftermath pictures\" . Time-Life. Archived from the original on July 19, 2012 . Retrieved February 8, 2014 . Video footage of the bombing of Nagasaki (silent) on YouTube Video footage of the bombing of Hiroshima on YouTube The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima & Nagasaki public domain audiobook at LibriVox Archives \"Nagasaki Archive\" . Google Earth mapping of Nagasaki bombing archives . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . \"Hiroshima Archive\" . Google Earth mapping of Hiroshima bombing archives . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . Bibliographies \"Annotated bibliography for atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\" . Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . Commemoration Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum Hiroshima and Nagasaki: A Look Back at the US Atomic Bombing 64 Years Later – video by Democracy Now! 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{ "text": "Red-tailed hawk - Wikipedia Red-tailed hawk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Red-tailed hawk Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Accipitriformes Family: Accipitridae Genus: Buteo Species: B. jamaicensis Binomial name Buteo jamaicensis ( Gmelin , 1788) Synonyms Buteo borealis Buteo broealis ( lapsus ) Falco borealis Gmelin Falco harlani Audubon The red-tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ) is a bird of prey that breeds throughout most of North America, from the interior of Alaska and northern Canada to as far south as Panama and the West Indies . It is one of the most common members within the genus of Buteo in North America or worldwide. [2] The red-tailed hawk is one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the \" chickenhawk ,\" though it rarely preys on standard-sized chickens. [3] The bird is sometimes also referred to as the red-tail for short, when the meaning is clear in context. Red-tailed hawks can acclimate to all the biomes within their range, occurring on the edges of non-ideal habitats such as dense forests and sandy deserts. [4] The red-tailed hawk occupies a wide range of habitats and altitudes including deserts, grasslands, coniferous and deciduous forests, agricultural fields and urban areas. Its latitudinal limits fall around the tree line in the Arctic and the species is absent from the high Arctic. It is legally protected in Canada , Mexico and the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act . The 14 recognized subspecies vary in appearance and range, varying most often in color, and in the west of North America, red-tails are particularly often strongly polymorphic , with individuals ranging from almost white to nearly all black. [5] The subspecies Harlan's hawk ( B. j. harlani ) is sometimes considered a separate species ( B. harlani ). [6] The red-tailed hawk is one of the largest members of the genus Buteo , typically weighing from 690 to 1,600 g (1.5 to 3.5 lb) and measuring 45–65 cm (18–26 in) in length, with a wingspan from 110–141 cm (3 ft 7 in–4 ft 8 in). This species displays sexual dimorphism in size, with females averaging about 25% heavier than males. [2] [7] The diet of red-tailed hawks is highly variable and reflects their status as opportunistic generalist, but in North America , it is most often a predator of small mammals such as rodents . Prey that is terrestrial and diurnal is preferred so types such as ground squirrels are preferential where they naturally occur. [8] Large numbers of birds and reptiles can occur in the diet in several areas and can even be the primary foods. Meanwhile, amphibians , fish and invertebrates can seem rare in the hawk’s regular diet; however, they are not infrequently taken by immature hawks. Red-tailed hawks may survive on islands absent of native mammals on diets variously including invertebrates such as crabs , or lizards and birds . Like many Buteo , they hunt from a perch most often but can vary their hunting techniques where prey and habitat demand it. [5] [9] Because they are so common and easily trained as capable hunters, the majority of hawks captured for falconry in the United States are red-tails. Falconers are permitted to take only passage hawks (which have left the nest, are on their own, but are less than a year old) so as to not affect the breeding population. Adults, which may be breeding or rearing chicks, may not be taken for falconry purposes and it is illegal to do so. Passage red-tailed hawks are also preferred by falconers because these younger birds have not yet developed the adult behaviors which would make them more difficult to train. [10] Contents [ hide ] 1 Description 1.1 Identification 2 Taxonomy 2.1 Subspecies 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behavior 4.1 Flight 4.2 Vocalization 4.3 Migration 5 Dietary biology 5.1 Mammals 5.2 Birds 5.3 Reptiles 5.4 Other prey 5.5 Interspecies predatory relationships 6 Reproduction 6.1 Courtship and pre-laying behaviors 6.2 Nests 6.3 Eggs 6.4 Hatching, development and brooding 6.5 Fledging and immaturity 6.6 Breeding success and longevity 7 Relationship with humans 7.1 Use in falconry 7.2 Feathers and Native American use 8 References 9 External links 9.1 Historical works 9.2 Live nest cameras Description [ edit ] Red-tailed hawk plumage can be variable, depending on the subspecies and the region. These color variations are morphs , and are not related to molting . The western North American population, B. j. calurus , is the most variable subspecies and has three main color morphs: light, dark, and intermediate or rufous. The dark and intermediate morphs constitute 10–20% of the population in the western United States but seem to constitute only 1-2% of B. j. calurus in western Canada . [11] [12] A whitish underbelly with a dark brown band across the belly, formed by horizontal streaks in feather patterning, is present in most color variations. This feature is variable in eastern hawks and generally absent in some light subspecies (i.e. B. j. fuertesi ). [2] Most adult red-tails have a dark brown nape and upper head which gives them a somewhat hooded appearance, while the throat can variably present a lighter brown “necklace”. Especially in younger birds, the underside may be otherwise covered with dark brown spotting and some adults may too manifest this stippling. The back is usually a slightly darker brown than elsewhere with paler scapular feathers, ranging from tawny to white, forming a variable imperfect “V” on the back. The tail of most adults, which of course gives this species its name, is rufous brick-red above with a variably sized black subterminal band and generally appears light buff-orange from below. In comparison, the typical pale immatures (i.e. less than two years old) typically have a mildly paler headed and tend to show a darker back than adults with more apparent pale wing feather edges above (for descriptions of dark morph juveniles from B. j. calurus , which is also generally apt for description of rare dark morphs of other races, see under that subspecies description). In immature red-tailed hawks of all hues, the tail is a light brown above with numerous small dark brown bars of roughly equal width, but these tend to be much broader on dark morph birds. Even in young red-tails, the tail may be a somewhat rufous tinge of brown. [2] [4] [13] The bill is relatively short and dark, in the hooked shape characteristic of raptors , and the head can sometimes appear small in size against the thick body frame. [2] The cere , the legs, and the feet of the red-tailed hawk are all yellow, as is the hue of bare parts in many accipitrids of different lineages. [14] Immature birds can be readily identified at close range by their yellowish irises . As the bird attains full maturity over the course of 3–4 years, the iris slowly darkens into a reddish-brown hue, which is the adult eye-color in all races. [4] [13] Seen in flight, adults usually have dark brown along the lower edge of the wings, against a mostly pale wing, which bares light brownish barring. Individually, the underwing coverts can range from all dark to off-whitish (most often more heavily streaked with brown) which contrasts with a distinctive black patagium marking. The wing coloring of adults and immatures is similar but for typical pale morph immatures having somewhat heavier brownish markings. [2] [15] A typical pale western adult in flight Though the markings and hue vary across the subspecies, the basic appearance of the red-tailed hawk is relatively consistent. Overall, this species is blocky and broad in shape, often appearing (and being) heavier than other Buteos of similar length. They are the heaviest Buteos on average in eastern North America, albeit scarcely ahead of the larger winged rough-legged buzzard ( Buteo lagopus ), and second only in size in the west to the ferruginous hawk ( Buteo regalis ). Red-tailed hawks may be anywhere from the seventh to the ninth heaviest Buteo in the world depending on what figures are used. However, in the northwestern United States , ferruginous hawk females are 35% heavier than female red-tails from the same area. [2] [16] On average, western red-tailed hawks are relatively longer winged and lankier proportioned but are slightly less stocky, compact and heavy than eastern red-tailed hawks in North America. Eastern hawks may also have mildly larger talons and bills than western ones. Based on comparisons of morphology and function amongst all accipitrids, these features imply that western red-tails may need to vary their hunting more frequently to on the wing as the habitat diversifies to more open situations and presumably would hunt more variable and faster prey, whereas the birds of the east, which was historically well-wooded, are more dedicated perch hunters and can take somewhat larger prey but are likely more dedicated mammal hunters. [9] [17] [18] In terms of size variation, red-tailed hawks run almost contrary to Bergmann's rule (i.e. that northern animals should be larger in relation than those closer to the Equator within a species) as one of the northernmost subspecies, B. j. alascensis , is the second smallest race based on linear dimensions and that two of the most southerly occurring races in the United States , B. j. fuertesi and B. j. umbrinus , respectively, are the largest proportioned of all red-tailed hawks. [9] [18] [19] Red-tailed hawks tend have a relatively short but broad tails and thick, chunky wings. [13] Although often described as long winged, [2] [4] the proportional size of the wings is quite small and red-tails have high wing loading for a buteonine hawk. For comparison, two other widespread Buteo hawks in North America were found to weigh: 30 g (1.1 oz) for every square centimeter of wing area in the rough-legged buzzard ( Buteo lagopus ) and 44 g (1.6 oz) per square cm in the red-shouldered hawk ( Buteo lineatus ). In contrast, the red-tailed hawk weighed considerably more for their wing area: 199 g (7.0 oz) per square cm. [20] As is the case with many raptors, the red-tailed hawk displays sexual dimorphism in size, as females are up to 25% larger than males. [14] As is typical in large raptors, frequently reported mean body mass for Red-tailed Hawks are somewhat higher than expansive research reveals. [21] Part of this weight variation is seasonal fluctuations, hawks tending to be heavier in winter than during migration or especially during the trying summer breeding season, and also due to clinal variation. Furthermore, immature hawks are usually lighter in mass than their adult counterparts despite averaging somewhat longer winged and tailed. Male red-tailed hawks may weigh from 690 to 1,300 g (1.52 to 2.87 lb) and females may weigh between 801 and 1,723 g (1.766 and 3.799 lb) (the lowest figure from a migrating female immature from Goshute Mountains , Nevada , the highest from a wintering female in Wisconsin ). [5] [22] [23] Some sources claim the largest females can weigh up to 2,000 g (4.4 lb) but whether this is in reference to wild hawks (as opposed to those in captivity or used for falconry) is not clear. [24] The largest known survey of body mass in red-tailed hawks is still credited to Craighead & Craighead (1956), who found 100 males to average 1,028 g (2.266 lb) and 108 females to average 1,244 g (2.743 lb). However, these figures were apparently taken from labels on museum specimens, apparently from natural history collections in Wisconsin and Pennsylvania , without note to the region, age or subspecies of the specimens. [5] [25] However, 16 sources ranging in sample size from the aforementioned 208 specimens to only four hawks in Puerto Rico (with 9 of the 16 studies of migrating red-tails), showed that males weigh a mean of 860.2 g (1.896 lb) and females weigh a mean of 1,036.2 g (2.284 lb), about 15% lighter than prior species-wide published weights. Within the continental United States , average weights of males can range from 840.8 g (1.854 lb) (for migrating males in Chelan County, Washington ) to 1,031 g (2.273 lb) (for male hawks found dead in Massachusetts ) and females ranged from 1,057.9 g (2.332 lb) (migrants in the Goshutes ) to 1,373 g (3.027 lb) (for females diagnosed as B. j. borealis in western Kansas ). [21] [9] [17] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] Size variation in body mass reveals that the red-tailed hawks typically varies only a modest amount and that size differences are geographically inconsistent. Racial variation in average weights of great horned owls ( Bubo virginianus ) show that mean body mass is nearly twice (the heaviest race is about 36% heavier than the lightest known race on average) as variable as that of the hawk (where the heaviest race is only just over 18% heavier on average than the lightest). Also, great horned owls correspond well at the species level with Bergmann’s rule . [9] [26] [31] Male red-tailed hawks can reportedly measure 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) in total length, females measuring 48 to 65 cm (19 to 26 in) long. The wingspan typically can range from 105 to 141 cm (3 ft 5 in to 4 ft 8 in), although the largest females may possible span up to 147 cm (4 ft 10 in). In the standard scientific method of measuring wing size, the wing chord is 325.1–444.5 mm (12.80–17.50 in) long. The tail measures 188 to 258.7 mm (7.40 to 10.19 in) in length. [2] [22] [32] The exposed culmen was reported to range from 21.7 to 30.2 mm (0.85 to 1.19 in) and the tarsus averaged 74.7–95.8 mm (2.94–3.77 in) across the races. [21] [9] [33] The middle toe (excluding talon) can range from 38.3 to 53.8 mm (1.51 to 2.12 in), with the hallux-claw (the talon of the rear toe, which has evolved to be the largest in accipitrids) measuring from 24.1 to 33.6 mm (0.95 to 1.32 in) in length. [21] [9] Characteristic red tail Identification [ edit ] Although they overlap in range with most other American diurnal raptors, identifying most mature red-tailed hawks to species is relatively straightforward, particularly if viewing a typical adult at a reasonable distance. The red-tailed hawk is the only North American hawk with a rufous tail and a blackish patagium marking on the leading edge of its wing (which is obscured only on dark morph adults and Harlan’s hawks by similarly dark colored feathers). [2] Other larger adult Buteo in North America usually have obvious distinct markings that are absent in red-tails, whether the rufous-brown “beard” of Swainson's hawks ( Buteo swainsonii ) or the colorful rufous belly and shoulder markings and striking black-and-white mantle of red-shouldered hawks (also the small “windows” seen at the end of their primaries). [34] In perched individuals, even as silhouettes, the shape of large Buteos may be distinctive, such as the wingtips overhanging the tail in several other species, but not in red-tails. North American Buteos range from the dainty, compact builds of much smaller Buteos , such as broad-winged hawk ( Buteo platypterus ) to the heavyset, neckless look of ferruginous hawks or the rough-legged buzzard which has a compact, smaller appearance than a red-tail in perched birds due to its small bill, short neck and much shorter tarsus, while the opposite effect occurs in flying rough-legs with their much bigger wing area. [2] [34] In flight, most other large North American Buteo are distinctly longer and slenderer winged than red-tailed hawks, with the much paler ferruginous hawk having peculiarly slender wings in relation to its massive, chunky body. Swainson's hawks are distinctly darker on the wing and ferruginous hawks are much paler winged than typical red-tailed hawks. Pale morph adult ferruginous hawk can show mildly tawny-pink (but never truly rufous) upper tail, and like red-tails tend to have dark markings on underwing-coverts and can have a dark belly band but compared to red-tailed hawks have a distinctly broader head, their remiges are much whiter looking with very small dark primary tips, they lack the red-tail’s diagnostic patagial marks and usually (but not always) also lack the dark subterminal tail-band, and ferruginous have a totally feathered tarsus. With its whitish head, the ferruginous hawk is most similar to Krider's red-tailed hawks, especially in immature plumage, but the larger hawk has broader head and narrower wing shape and the ferruginous immatures are paler underneath and on their legs. Several species share a belly band with the typical red-tailed hawk but they vary from subtle (as in the ferruginous hawk) to solid blackish, the latter in most light-morph rough-legged buzzards . [2] [15] [35] More difficult to identify among adult red-tails are its darkest variations, as most species of Buteo in North America also have dark morphs. Western dark morph red-tails (i.e. calurus ) adults, however, retain the typical distinctive brick-red tail which other species lack, which may stand out even more against the otherwise all chocolate brown-black bird. Standard pale juveniles when perched show a whitish patch in the outer half of the upper surface of the wing which other juvenile Buteo lack. [4] The most difficult to identify stages and plumage types are dark morph juveniles, Harlan’s hawk and some Krider’s hawks (the latter mainly with typical ferruginous hawks as aforementioned). Some darker juveniles are similar enough to other Buteo juveniles that it has been stated that they \"cannot be identified to species with any confidence under various field conditions.\" [5] [4] However, field identification techniques have advanced in the last few decades and most experienced hawk-watchers can distinguish even the most vexingly plumaged immature hawks, especially as the wing shapes of each species becomes apparent after seeing many. Harlan’s hawks are most similar to dark morph rough-legged buzzards and dark morph ferruginous hawks . Wing shape is the most reliable identification tool for distinguishing the Harlan’s from these, but also the pale streaking on the breast of Harlan’s, which tends to be conspicuous in most individuals, and is lacking in the other hawks. Also dark morph ferruginous hawks do not have the dark subterminal band of a Harlan’s hawk but do bear a black undertail covert lacking in Harlan’s. [2] [36] Taxonomy [ edit ] In flight showing the red tail Play media Red-tailed hawk hovers in the wind The red-tailed hawk is a member of the subfamily Buteoninae which includes about 55 currently recognized species. [2] [22] Unlike many lineages of accipitrid, which seemed to have radiated out of Africa or south Asia , the Buteoninae clearly originated in the Americas based on fossil records and current species distributions (more than 75% of the extant hawks from this lineage are found in the Americas). [2] [37] As a subfamily, the Buteoninae seem to be rather old based on genetic materials, with monophyletic genera baring several million years of individual evolution. Diverse in plumage appearance, habitat, prey and nesting preferences, buteonine hawks are nonetheless typically medium to large sized hawks with ample wings (while some fossil forms are very large, larger than any eagle alive today). [38] [39] [40] The red-tailed hawk is a member of the genus Buteo , a group of medium-sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings. Members of this genus are known as buzzards in Eurasia, but hawks in North America. [41] Under current classification, the genus includes approximately 28 species, the second most diverse of all extant accipitrid genera behind only Accipiter . The buzzards of Eurasia and Africa are mostly part of the genus Buteo , although two other small genera within the subfamily Buteoninae occur in Africa. [2] [22] [42] At one time, the rufous-tailed hawk ( Buteo ventralis ), distributed in Patagonia and some other areas of southern South America , was considered part of the red-tailed hawk species. With a massive distributional gap consisting of the majority of South America , the rufous-tailed hawk is considered a separate species now but the two hawks still compromise a “species pair” or superspecies , as they are clearly closely related. The rufous-tailed hawk, while comparatively little studied, is very similar to the red-tailed hawk, being about the same size in body mass and possessing the same wing structure, and having more or less parallel nesting and hunting habits. Physically, however, rufous-tailed hawk adults do not attain a bright brick-red tail as do red-tailed hawks, instead retaining a dark brownish-cinnamon tail with many blackish crossbars similar to juvenile red-tailed hawks. [2] [43] [44] [45] Another, more well-known, close relative to the red-tailed hawk is the common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ), which has been considered as its Eurasian “ broad ecological counterpart ” and may too be within a species complex with red-tailed hawk. The common buzzard, in turn, is also part of a species complex with other Old World buzzards, namely the mountain buzzard ( Buteo oreophilus ), the forest buzzard ( Buteo trizonatus ) and the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ). [2] [42] [46] All six species in the alleged species complex, although varying notably in size and plumage characteristics, that houses red-tailed hawk share with it the feature of the blackish patagium marking, which is missing in most other Buteos . [2] [47] Subspecies [ edit ] There may be at least 14 recognized subspecies of Buteo jamaicensis , which vary in range and in coloration. However, not all authors accept every subspecies, particularly some of the insular races of the tropics (which differ only slightly in some cases from the nearest mainland forms) and particularly the Krider’s hawks, by far the most controversial red-tailed hawk race as few authors agree on its suitability as a full-fledged subspecies. [5] [9] [15] B. j. jamaicensis , the nominate subspecies, occurs in the northern West Indies , including Jamaica , Hispaniola , Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles but not the Bahamas or Cuba . El Yunque National Forest , Puerto Rico holds some of the highest known density of red-tailed hawks anywhere. [48] The bird is referred to as \"Guaraguao\" in the island. [49] [50] This is the smallest bodied subspecies of red-tailed hawk. In males, the wing chord can range from 330 to 339 mm (13.0 to 13.3 in), averaging 334.9 mm (13.19 in), and, in females, it ranges from 350 to 371 mm (13.8 to 14.6 in), averaging 364.9 mm (14.37 in). Additionally, males and females average 194.8 and 210 mm (7.67 and 8.27 in) in tail length, 81.3 and 83.4 mm (3.20 and 3.28 in) in tarsal length and 26.1 and 28.2 mm (1.03 and 1.11 in) in culmen length. [2] [5] [51] Additionally, two Puerto Rican males were found to average 795 g (1.753 lb) and two females averaged 1,023 g (2.255 lb). [52] Although claimed as the most sexual dimorphic subspecies by size, neither body mass nor linear dimensions seem to support this. [5] [52] This subspecies has less mottling than northern red-tails on the back, lacks the white tip at the end of the rectrices and, most characteristically, has a very broad, but raggedly edged, and black belly-band. [2] [9] B. j. alascensis breeds (probably resident) from southeastern coastal Alaska to the Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island in British Columbia . [53] Despite its northerly distribution, this is a small subspecies linearly, second only to the nominate race in diminutive size. The largest females from this race are reportedly smaller than almost all male red-tails from other races in Canada . [5] [54] In wing chord males range from 334 to 362 mm (13.1 to 14.3 in), averaging 346.5 mm (13.64 in), and females range from 358 to 363 mm (14.1 to 14.3 in), averaging 360.5 mm (14.19 in). males and females average 227.6 and 226.9 mm (8.96 and 8.93 in) in tail length, 86.9 and 83.2 mm (3.42 and 3.28 in) in tarsal length and 24.4 and 26.4 mm (0.96 and 1.04 in) in culmen length. [2] [5] [51] This race is darker than pale morph calurus hawks, nearly solidly dark-brown above with almost no pale mottling on the scapulars. The breast is slightly rufous with dark arrowheads rather than streaking around the belly (although not all alascensis have the arrowheads, probably through hybridization with other races), meanwhile the rest of the underside down to the “trousers” is paler and more washed out than on calurus . Immatures of this race are usually blackish-brown overall with a white throat and wide tail-bands, rather unlike calurus . [2] [5] [9] B. j. borealis group [55] (eastern red-tailed hawk) [55] breeds from southeast Canada and Maine south through Texas and east to northern Florida . The race breeds below the Arctic (unlike more western birds which can reach the sub-Arctic as breeders), and is absent from all but the southernmost part of the Hudson Bay and roughly the northern third of both Quebec and Newfoundland . [56] Wintering migrants from southern Ontario may range east to southern Maine and south to as far as the Gulf coast and Florida . [53] The western limits of this races’ range are slightly ambiguous and they may hybridize extensively with calurus in timbered stretches of the Great Plains . The breeding range of borealis seems to include most of Texas (perhaps excluding the western sections), Oklahoma , Kansas and Nebraska . In the Dakotas and even eastern Wyoming , some borealis may occur but give way mostly to calurus and/or kriderii type red-tailed hawks, with the borealis type-hawks breeding without race mixing to the western border of Minnesota and the eastern third of Manitoba . [9] [56] This is a large-bodied, relatively heavy race, but differs from more westerly hawks in having a relatively smaller wing area. Based on linear dimensions, this subspecies shows the most size variation and, unlike the red-tailed hawk species overall, size variation seems to fall within Bergmann’s rule as northern birds average larger than the southern ones. [2] [5] [17] [18] The wing chord of males can range from 337 to 396 mm (13.3 to 15.6 in), averaging 370.1 mm (14.57 in), and, in females, it ranges from 370 to 427 mm (14.6 to 16.8 in), averaging 390.2 mm (15.36 in). Additionally, males and females average 215.4 and 230.1 mm (8.48 and 9.06 in) in tail length, 82.4 and 85 mm (3.24 and 3.35 in) in tarsal length and 25.1 and 27.6 mm (0.99 and 1.09 in) in culmen length. [2] [5] [9] [17] [51] The largest known sample of body weights from unambiguous borealis was from Wisconsin migrants, with 34 males averaging 945.3 g (2.084 lb) and 24 females averaging 1,222.4 g (2.695 lb). [5] This race only has pale morphs and almost always bears a whitish ground color with little barring overall, including a variably present dark necklace, a frequently absent or much reduced belly-band and little to no barring on the flanks or the upper legs. Immature borealis tend to have dark spotting on leg feathers but otherwise average paler than immatures of most other races. [2] [5] This race includes a form from the northern stretches of its range (mostly breeding within Canada ), formerly considered as B. j. abieticola . Birds of abieticola type are more heavily marked below than typical borealis and, thus borealis seem to correspond to Gloger's rule , as well. This plumage variation appears to be a regional adaptation to the denser boreal forest . [57] [58] B. j. calurus (western red-tailed hawk) [55] This race seem to have the greatest longitudinal breeding distribution of any race of red-tailed hawk and put together with B. j. borealis these two subspecies may occupy nearly 75% of the breeding range of red-tailed hawks in North America. [9] [56] B. j. calurus reaches its northern limits as a breeder in north-central British Columbia , much of the western part of the Yukon territory , interior Alaska and, near Inuvik in the Northwest Territories , the latter being the northernmost breeding range of the red-tailed hawk species. The race may breed as far south as northwestern Sonora in Mexico . Its eastern limits are reached around central Manitoba , while to the south the states of Montana , Wyoming , Utah , New Mexico and Colorado are mostly occupied by calurus . [9] [56] Wintering birds from interior southwestern British Columbia may move south to as far as southwest to Guatemala and northern Nicaragua . [53] Linearly, this relatively large subspecies can seem to run almost contrary to Bergmann's rule , with birds of the Great Basin being longer winged than most Canadian ones. [18] In wing chord males range from 354 to 404 mm (13.9 to 15.9 in), averaging 386.8 mm (15.23 in), and females range from 386 to 428 mm (15.2 to 16.9 in), averaging 411.2 mm (16.19 in). males and females average 224.2 and 237.3 mm (8.83 and 9.34 in) in tail length, 85.4 and 88.1 mm (3.36 and 3.47 in) in tarsal length and 25.1 and 27.4 mm (0.99 and 1.08 in) in culmen length. [2] [5] [51] [59] The two largest samples of body mass in calurus showed that in Idaho , around the greater area of the Snake River NCA , 90 males averaged 957 g (2.110 lb) and 113 females averaged 1,150 g (2.54 lb), while 152 migrating calurus at the Goshutes Mountains of Nevada averaged 933.4 g (2.058 lb). [17] [28] Adult calurus are usually rangier and darker than borealis hawks, with pale individuals usually having a richer tawny base color (with occasionally a pale rufous color showing around the chest or neck), typically a heavily streaked breast and belly band, a brownish throat, dark barring on the flanks, a well-defined tawny V on the back and, occasionally, a tail with multiple bars. Dark morph calurus adults are typically all chocolate-brown above and below (although sometimes variously even jet-black or with a bit of tawny feather edging below) with a rufous-tail, which sometimes has heavy blackish crossbars but is usually similar to other red-tails. Intermediate or rufous morphs are rich rufous on the breast, with a broad, solid chocolate-brown belly band and heavily barred thighs and crissum. Like dark morphs, rufous morph adults usually lack the incomplete V on the back, but sometimes rufous feathers can manifest one. Adults may show nearly endless variation in coloring and many may combine several characteristics of the three main morphs. Dark morph juveniles are usually mostly dark brown but with extensive pale mottling on the back and occasional tawny-edge feathers on the underside and slightly broader bars on the tail than pale morph calurus . Rufous morph immatures are more similar to pale morph ones but are considerably more heavily streaked almost everywhere below from the thighs to the upper chest. [2] [5] Individuals of northwestern Mexico may average paler than most calurus , lacking the typical dark wing markings. [60] B. j. costaricensis is resident from Nicaragua to Panama . This is a relatively small race. The wing chord of males can range from 368 to 391 mm (14.5 to 15.4 in), averaging 372.7 mm (14.67 in), and, in females, it ranges from 393 to 427 mm (15.5 to 16.8 in), averaging 401.9 mm (15.82 in). Additionally, males and females average 213.2 and 230 mm (8.39 and 9.06 in) in tail length, 88.6 and 86.9 mm (3.49 and 3.42 in) in tarsal length and 26 and 26.7 mm (1.02 and 1.05 in) in culmen length. [2] [9] [59] This race may average around 900 g (2.0 lb), reportedly. [61] This subspecies is arguably the most handsomely colored in typical adult plumage. This subspecies is dark brown above and heavily pigmented dorsally, the white of breast contrasting with a deep rufous abdominal band which contains black streaks and spots. Meanwhile, the flanks, wing linings and sides are an unbarred deep rufous. In some birds, the rich rufous color continues to the underside. The chest is much less heavily streaked than in northern migrants ( B. j. calurus ) to Central America. Unlike other Central American races of red-tailed hawk, there seems to be no dark morph in this subspecies. [2] [5] [62] B. j. fuertesi (southwestern red-tailed hawk) [55] breeds from northern Chihuahua to southern Texas. It winters in Arizona , New Mexico , and southern Louisiana . [53] This seems to be a particularly large subspecies, although its size is not drastically different from calurus , and, going on average wing size and tarsal length, this appears to be the largest race of red-tailed hawk. The wing chord of males can range from 385 to 402 mm (15.2 to 15.8 in), averaging 393.3 mm (15.48 in), and, in females, it ranges from 425 to 436 mm (16.7 to 17.2 in), averaging 430.7 mm (16.96 in). Additionally, males and females average 210.9 and 223.8 mm (8.30 and 8.81 in) in tail length, 88 and 93 mm (3.5 and 3.7 in) in tarsal length and 26.3 and 27.5 mm (1.04 and 1.08 in) in culmen length. [2] [9] [51] Hybridization seems to occur in eastern Texas with borealis , broadly to west with calurus and, possibly, Nuevo León-Chihuahua with B. j. hadropus . [5] This race combines the darker back of calurus with the paler underside of borealis , with the belly-band either entirely absent or only manifesting in light streaking. The tail is variable but relatively pale, with some individuals showing almost no dark subterminal band, others having quite a broad subterminal band and some showing extensively barring on top like darker morphs of calurus . [2] [5] [60] B. j. fumosus , Islas Marías , Mexico. A relatively small subspecies. Unlike some other island races, the validity of this race has rarely been called into question. The wing chord of males can range from 368 to 370 mm (14.5 to 14.6 in), averaging 369.3 mm (14.54 in), and, in females, it ranges from 395 to 400 mm (15.6 to 15.7 in), averaging 397.4 mm (15.65 in). Males and females average 228.9 and 235.5 mm (9.01 and 9.27 in) in tail length, 85.9 and 88.3 mm (3.38 and 3.48 in) in tarsal length and 27.4 and 29.2 mm (1.08 and 1.15 in) in culmen length. [2] [9] [62] [59] This race is similar to calurus but, beyond being noticeably smaller, is duskier and duller hued overall and has a more cinnamon wash below, with heavily dark barred thighs. [2] Harlan's hawks are distinctly darker usually than other races except for dark morph western birds. B. j. hadropus , Mexican Highlands. Not all authorities recognize this race, [2] however most list as it as valid in recent years. [9] [62] Like other neotropical races, this one is relatively small. wing chord averages 378.9 mm (14.92 in) in males and 401.1 mm (15.79 in). Males and females average 215 and 230.4 mm (8.46 and 9.07 in) in tail length, 89.1 and 88 mm (3.51 and 3.46 in) in tarsal length and 26.3 and 26.8 mm (1.04 and 1.06 in) in culmen length. [9] [62] Apparently, this is a similarly race as to B. j. kemsiesi to the south but unlike that race it has rufous barring that extends to the flanks and belly. Apparently, some dark morphs have occurred. One other unique feature is its massive feet (as implied in the subspecies’ scientific name), with a toe length nearly 10% longer than calurus despite its otherwise small body size. The evolutionary reason for these relatively large feet are not known. [5] [9] [62] B. j. harlani (Harlan's red-tailed hawk, [55] It breeds from central Alaska to northwestern Canada , with the largest number of birds breeding in the Yukon territory or western Alaska , reaching their southern limit in north-central British Columbia . The Harlan’s hawk is restricted as a breeder to pure taiga habitat. Harlan’s hawk winters from Nebraska and Kansas to Texas and northern Louisiana , with a rare bird found as far east as Tennessee . [9] [53] [56] [54] While similar in linear dimensions to calurus , this race is sometimes described as slighter and lighter than typical western red-tailed hawks. [63] On the contrary, though, they are highly sexually dimorphic in size (the most dimorphic of any in the United States ) and mature females are not infrequently notably more massive and heavy than almost any female calurus . [5] However, calurus tends to have a much longer tarsus than Harlan’s hawks do, as expected due to the latter’s habitation of cold environments almost year around. [12] The wing chord of males can range from 365 to 390 mm (14.4 to 15.4 in), averaging 381 mm (15.0 in), and, in females, it ranges from 390 to 430 mm (15 to 17 in), averaging 408.7 mm (16.09 in). Males and females average 211 and 225.3 mm (8.31 and 8.87 in) in tail length, 79.8 and 87 mm (3.14 and 3.43 in) in tarsal length and 24.7 and 27 mm (0.97 and 1.06 in) in culmen length. [2] [9] [51] A wintering female in eastern Kansas weighed 1,629 g (3.591 lb). [30] The historic taxonomic status of Harlan’s hawk has been quite erratic, sometimes it has been classified as its own species, B. harlani to the opposite extreme that Palmer (1988) classified as it (perhaps improbably) as a mere western color morph. Most modern authorities recognize as a valid subspecies. [5] [12] [36] Harlan's hawk is markedly different from all other red-tails and can reportedly be identified nearly 100% of the time by an experienced hawk-watcher. [12] [36] In both color morphs, the plumage is predominantly blackish, lacking any warmer or brownish tones (save the tail). Harlan’s hawks usually have faint streaks on the sides of their head and a little gray mottling or speckling on scapulars. Apart from a variably white-streaked throat, their underparts usually mostly black with variable white streaking and barring on the thighs or crissum. There are up to four main variations from the typical one above: extreme dark morph (where even throat is black and no pale streaking is present), dark morph (with barring still present from tarsus to underside), rare pale morph (with few blackish blobs on belly and generally whiter head) and perhaps even rarer types where the base color is grayish. Unlike most red-tailed hawks, generally immatures are similar enough to adults that it can be difficult to distinguish them. On average, immatures have more extensive pale streaking above and mottling below, but much individual variation has been recorded. The typical tail of a Harlan’s hawk is white with a thick black subterminal band but individuals may vary considerable and the tail may be reddish, dusky, whitish, or gray and can be longitudinally streaked, mottled, or barred. [2] [12] [36] B. j. kemsiesi is a dark subspecies resident from Chiapas , Mexico to Nicaragua . The wing chord of males can range from 357 to 382 mm (14.1 to 15.0 in), averaging 376 mm (14.8 in), and, in females, it ranges from 362 to 402 mm (14.3 to 15.8 in), averaging 398.2 mm (15.68 in). Males and females average 212.5 and 231 mm (8.37 and 9.09 in) in tail length, 87.8 and 87.1 mm (3.46 and 3.43 in) in tarsal length and 26.1 and 26.4 mm (1.03 and 1.04 in) in culmen length. [2] [9] [59] This race is similar to B. j. fuertesi but markedly smaller, with its thighs barred with rufous. The dark wing marking may not be distinct in paler birds. A dark morph, similar to calurus , is known to occur in this race. [2] [5] [60] A Krider's red-tailed hawk, a pale color morph or race. B. j. kriderii (Krider's red-tailed hawk) [55] In the breeding season, it occurs from southern Alberta , southern Saskatchewan , southern Manitoba , and extreme western Ontario south to south-central Montana , Wyoming , western Nebraska , and western Minnesota . In winter, it occurs from South Dakota and southern Minnesota south to Arizona , New Mexico , Texas and Louisiana . [53] This is about the same size as calurus . Wing chord averages 378.9 mm (14.92 in) in males and 411.9 mm (16.22 in). Males and females average 220.9 and 237 mm (8.70 and 9.33 in) in tail length, 85 and 87.9 mm (3.35 and 3.46 in) in tarsal length and 25.6 and 26.8 mm (1.01 and 1.06 in) in culmen length. [9] More authorities than not consider this a color morph of the western red-tails than a subspecies in recent classification, but others do still consider it a valid race. [2] [5] [9] Hybridization is possible and known to occur, most extensively with calurus , but also in the Dakotas and eastern Wyoming with borealis and in Alberta some possible Krider’s hybrids with Harlan’s hawks have been reported (despite being considerably farther east than Harlan’s tend to breed). [5] [54] [64] Krider’s hawk is paler than other red-tails, with the head typically white (and the crown invariably so) with somewhat darker nape, variable dark markings about face (sometimes either through eyes, forming a moustache or ear streaks). The upperparts are light brown and upper-wing coverts heavily mottled white, the tail is typically whitish at base otherwise a fairly pale pink-rufous (more rufous than the somewhat similar marked ferruginous hawk , which also rufous “trousers” that are pure white on Krider’s). Krider’s hawks are distinctly all white underneath with no trace of a belly band, unlike palest harlani . There is much individual variation, which is complicated by possible racial hybridization. [9] [54] [64] One study found males more likely than females to have pure kriderii characteristics. [64] The same study found that Krider’s hawks were fully specialized as breeders for the prairie habitat, favoring much more open areas than do other red-tails or especially Harlan’s hawks. While wintering Harlan’s and Krider’s hawks frequently occur in the same general areas, but their habitat preferences there were highly different, Harlan’s favoring thickly timbered areas and Krider’s in quite grassy open areas. Wintering Krider’s also used different and more open habitats than resident red-tails. [64] These authors questioned whether Krider’s hawk was once a pure subspecies, similar to the prairie merlin , but following human habitat alterations, calurus and borealis encroached into their breeding ranges and diluted their characteristics. [64] B. j. socorroensis , endemic to Socorro Island , Mexico. The wing chord of males can range from 368 to 385 mm (14.5 to 15.2 in), averaging 378.4 mm (14.90 in), and, in females, it ranges from 385 to 415 mm (15.2 to 16.3 in), averaging 412.8 mm (16.25 in). Males and females average 214.1 and 230.4 mm (8.43 and 9.07 in) in tail length, 84.9 and 89.1 mm (3.34 and 3.51 in) in tarsal length and 24.9 and 28.6 mm (0.98 and 1.13 in) in culmen length. One female was found to have weighed 1,260 g (2.78 lb). [2] [5] [9] This race, which is physically fairly similar to calurus , is not recognized by some authorities with a breeding population comprising perhaps fewer than 20 birds. There are some differences from calurus , such as their larger, more robust feet (second only among all races to B. j. hadropus ) and much greater sexual dimorphism, which is the most pronounced of any race linearly, averaging a 10.42% when all standard measurements are considered. [9] [65] Furthermore, Socorro hawks tend to average more melantic in overall color, being a duller, darker brown than mainland birds. [66] B. j. solitudinus , native to the Bahamas and Cuba . This race is fairly small, intermediate in size between B. j. umbrinus and the nominate ( B. j. jamaicensis ) found on islands to the respective north and south of this. The wing chord of males can range from 357 to 383 mm (14.1 to 15.1 in), averaging 370 mm (15 in), and, in females, it ranges from 397 to 412 mm (15.6 to 16.2 in), averaging 405.4 mm (15.96 in). Males and females average 221.2 and 251.8 mm (8.71 and 9.91 in) in tail length, 88.5 and 88.3 mm (3.48 and 3.48 in) in tarsal length and 27.2 and 29.8 mm (1.07 and 1.17 in) in culmen length. Like other island races, the validity of this subspecies has been called into question but this race has its defenders as well. Generally, this species appears as a diminutive version of B. j. umbrinus in plumage characteristics but is considerably isolated from that race. [2] [9] [67] [68] B. j. umbrinus occurs year-round in peninsular Florida north to as far Tampa Bay and the Kissimmee Prairie south throughout the rest of peninsular Florida down to the Florida Keys . [53] This is a very large race, only B. j. fuertesi averages larger in overall linear dimensions. Although a non-migratory subspecies, its wings are notably longer than those of borealis and umbrinus may be conspicuously larger than the relatively small southern borealis that they overlap with. The wing chord of males can range from 396 to 400 mm (15.6 to 15.7 in), averaging 398.8 mm (15.70 in), and, in females, it ranges from 373 to 432 mm (14.7 to 17.0 in), averaging 408.9 mm (16.10 in). Males and females average 225 and 234 mm (8.9 and 9.2 in) in tail length, 91.1 and 88.9 mm (3.59 and 3.50 in) in tarsal length and 27.2 and 30 mm (1.07 and 1.18 in) in culmen length. [2] [9] Compared to borealis which it replaces, it has a darker back, more similar to the dark brown of calurus . Adults tend to have chestnut to rufous side-patches, multiple tail bars and no barring on the “trousers”. A very rare dark morph has been reported. [2] Distribution and habitat [ edit ] Immature in California A juvenile red-tailed hawk The red-tailed hawk is one of the most widely distributed of all raptors in the Americas . It occupies the largest breeding range of any diurnal raptor north of the Mexican border, just ahead of the American kestrel ( Falco sparverius ). While the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) has a greater latitudinal distribution as a nester in North America, its range as a breeding species is far more sporadic and sparse than that of red-tailed hawks. [69] The red-tailed hawk breeds from nearly north-central Alaska , the Yukon , and a considerable portion of the Northwest Territories , there reaching as far as a breeder as Inuvik , Mackenzie River Delta and skirting the southern shores of Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake . Thereafter in northern Canada, breeding red-tails continue to northern Saskatchewan and across to north-central Ontario east to central Quebec and the Maritime Provinces of Canada , and south continuously to Florida . Remarkably, throughout the entire contiguous United States there are no substantial gaps where breeding red-tailed hawks do not occur. Along the Pacific , their range includes all of Baja California , including Islas Marías , and Socorro Island in the Revillagigedo Islands . On the mainland, breeding red-tails are found continuously to Oaxaca , then experience a brief gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec thereafter subsequently continuing from Chiapas through central Guatemala on to north Nicaragua . To the south, the population in highlands from Costa Rica to central Panama is isolated from breeding birds in Nicaragua. Further east, breeding red-tailed hawks occur in the West Indies in north Bahamas (i.e. Grand Bahama , Abaco and Andros ) and all larger islands (such as Cuba , Jamaica , Hispaniola and Puerto Rico ) and into the northern Lesser Antilles ( Virgin Islands , Saint Barthélemy , Saba , Saint Kitts and Nevis , being rare as a resident on Saint Eustatius and are probably extinct on Saint Martin ). The typical winter range stretches from southern Canada south throughout the remainder of the breeding range. [2] [53] [69] Red-tailed hawks prefer areas with groves of tall trees from which to hunt and to nest in Red-tailed hawks have shown the ability to become habituated to almost any habitat present in North and Central America. Their preferred habitat is mixed forest and field, with trees or alternately high bluffs that may be used as nesting and perching sites. It occupies a wide range of habitats and altitudes, including deserts , grasslands , nearly any coastal or wetland habitat, mountains , foothills , coniferous and deciduous woodlands and tropical rainforests . Agricultural fields and pasture which are more often than not varied with groves, bluffs or streamside trees in most parts of America may make nearly ideal habitat for breeding or wintering red-tails. [1] [5] [9] [15] Some red-tails may survive or even flourish in urban areas. [70] One famous urban red-tailed hawk, known as \" Pale Male \", became the subject of a non-fiction book, Red-Tails in Love: A Wildlife Drama in Central Park , and is the first known red-tail in decades to successfully nest and raise young in the crowded New York City borough of Manhattan . [71] [72] [73] [74] As studied in Syracuse, New York , the highway system has been very beneficial to red-tails as it juxtaposed trees and open areas, blocks human encroachment with fences, with the red-tailed hawks easily becoming acclimated to car traffic. The only practice which has a negative effect on the highway-occupying red-tails is the planting of exotic Phragmites , which may occasionally obscure otherwise ideal highway habitat. [75] In the northern Great Plains , the widespread practices of wildfire suppression and planting of exotic trees by humans has allowed groves of aspen and various other trees to invade what was once vast, almost continuous grasslands, causing grassland obligates like ferruginous hawks to decline and allowing parkland-favoring red-tails to flourish. [5] [76] To the contrary, clear-cutting of mature woodlands in New England , resulting in only fragmented and isolated stands of trees or low second growth remaining, was recorded to also benefit red-tailed hawks, despite being to the determent of breeding red-shouldered hawks . [77] The red-tailed hawk, as a whole, is second only to the peregrine falcon and the great horned owl amongst raptorial birds in terms of the use of diverse habitats in North America. [5] [78] Beyond the high Arctic (as they discontinuous as a breeder at the tree line ), there are few other areas where red-tailed hawks are absent or rare in North and Central America. Some areas of unbroken forest, especially lowland tropical forests, rarely host red-tailed hawks although they can occupy forested tropical highlands surprisingly well. In deserts, they can only occur where there is some variety of arborescent growth or ample rocky bluffs. [11] [79] [80] Behavior [ edit ] Red-tailed hawks frequently have to cope with mobbing by crows. The red-tailed hawk is a bird that is highly conspicuous to humans in much of its daily behavior. Most birds in resident populations, which are well more than half of all red-tailed hawks, usually split non-breeding season activity between territorial soaring flight and sitting on a perch. Often perching is for hunting purposes, but many will sit on a tree branch for hours, occasionally stretching on a single wing or leg to keep limber, with no signs of hunting intent. [5] [4] [77] Wintering typical pale-morph hawks in Arkansas were found to perch in open areas near the top of tall, isolated trees, whereas dark morphs more frequently perched in dense groups of trees. [4] For many, and perhaps most, red-tailed hawks being mobbed by various birds is a daily concern and can effectively disrupt many of their daily behaviors. Mostly larger passerines , of multiple families from tyrant flycatchers to icterids , will mob red-tails, despite that other raptors such as Accipiter hawks and falcons are a notably greater danger to them. [81] [82] The most aggressive and dangerous attacker as such is likely to be various crows or other corvids , i.e. American crows ( Corvus brachyrhynchos ), due to the fact that a mobbing group (or “murder”) of them can number up to as many as 75 crows, which may cause grievous physical harm to a solitary hawk and, if the hawks are nesting, separate the parent hawks and endanger the eggs or nestlings within their nest to predation by the murder of crows. [83] [84] However, evidence has shown that birds that mob red-tailed hawks can tell by how distended the hawk's crop is (i.e. the upper chest and throat area puffy versus flat-feathered and sleek) and thus mob more often when the hawk is presumably about to hunt. [85] Flight [ edit ] Red-tailed hawks engaging in an inflight battle over prey. Painted by John James Audubon . In flight, this hawk soars with wings often in a slight dihedral , flapping as little as possible to conserve energy. Soaring is by far the most efficient method of flight for red-tailed hawks and is used more often than not. [86] Active flight is slow and deliberate, with deep wing beats. Wing beats are somewhat less rapid in active flight than in most other Buteo hawks, even heavier species such as ferruginous hawks tend to flap more swiftly, due to the morphology of the wings. [87] In wind, it occasionally hovers on beating wings and remains stationary above the ground, but this flight method is rarely employed by this species. [9] [11] When soaring or flapping its wings, it typically travels from 32 to 64 km/h (20 to 40 mph), but when diving may exceed 190 km/h (120 mph). [88] Although North American red-tailed hawks will occasionally hunt from flight, a great majority of flight by red-tails in this area is for non-hunting purpose. [86] During nest defense, red-tailed hawks may be capable of surprisingly swift, vigorous flight while repeatedly diving at perceived threats. [89] Vocalization [ edit ] The cry of the red-tailed hawk is a two to three second hoarse, rasping scream, variously transcribed as kree-eee-ar , tsee-eeee-arrr or sheeeeee , [70] that begins at a high pitch and slurs downward. [2] [15] [88] This cry is often described as sounding similar to a steam whistle. [14] [15] The red-tailed hawk frequently vocalizes while hunting or soaring, but vocalizes loudest and most persistently in defiance or anger, in response to a predator or a rival hawk's intrusion into its territory. [15] [70] At close range, it makes a croaking guh-runk , possibly as a warning sound. [90] Nestlings may give peeping notes with a \"soft sleepy quality\" that give way to occasional screams as they develop, but those are reportedly more likely a soft whistle than the harsh screams of the adults. Their latter hunger call, given anywhere from 11 days (as recorded in Alaska ) to post-fledgling (in California ), is different, a two syllabled, wailing klee-uk food cry exerted by the young when parents leave the nest or enter their field of vision. [5] [91] A strange mechanical sound \"not very unlike the rush of distant water\" has been reported for as utter in the midst of a sky-dance. [5] A modified call of chirp-chwirk is given during courtship while a low key, duck-like nasal gank may be given by pairs when they are relaxed. [15] The fierce, screaming cry of the red-tailed hawk is frequently used as a generic raptor sound effect in television shows and other media, even if the bird featured is not a red-tailed hawk. [92] [93] It is especially used in depictions of the bald eagle . Migration [ edit ] Red-tailed hawks are considered partial migrants, as in about the northern-third of their distribution, which is most of their range in Canada and Alaska , they almost entirely vacate their breeding grounds. [2] [9] In coastal areas of the north, however, such as in the Pacific northwest up to southern Alaska and in Nova Scotia , red-tailed hawks do not usually migrate. [5] More or less, any area where snow cover is nearly continuous during the winter months will show an extended absence of most red-tailed hawks, so some areas as far south as Montana may show strong seasonal vacancies of red-tails. [5] In southern Michigan immature red-tailed hawks tended to remain in winter only when voles were abundant. During relatively long harsh winters up in Michigan, many more young ones were reported in northeastern Mexico . [5] [25] To the opposite extreme, hawks residing as far north as Fairbanks in Alaska may persevere through the winter on their home territory, as was recorded with one male over three consecutive years. [94] Birds of any age tend to be territorial during winter but may shift ranges whenever food requirements demand it. [5] Wintering birds tend to perch on inconspicuous tree perches, seeking shelter especially if they have a full crop or are in the midst of poor or overly windy weather. Adult wintering red-tails tend to perch more prominently than immatures do, which select lower or more secluded perches. Immatures are often missed in winter bird counts, unless they are being displaced by dominant adults. Generally though, immatures can seem to recognize that they are less likely to be attacked by adults during winter and can perch surprisingly close to them. Age is the most significant consideration of wintering hawks’ hierarchy but size does factor in, as larger immatures (presumably usually females) are less likely to displaced than smaller ones. [4] [5] [9] Dark adult red-tailed hawks appear to be harder to locate when perched than other red-tails. In Oklahoma , for example, wintering adult Harlan's hawks were rarely engaged in fights or chased by other red-tails. These Harlan's tended to gather in regional pockets and frequently the same Harlan’s occurred year-to-year. [94] In general, migratory behavior is complex and reliant on each individual hawks’ decision-making (i.e. whether prey populations are sufficient enough to entice the hawk to endure prolonged snow cover). [9] During fall migration, departure may occur as soon as late September but peak movements occur in late October and the full month of November in the United States, with migration ceasing after mid-December. The northernmost migrants may pass over resident red-tailed hawks in the contiguous United States while the latter are still in the midst of brooding fledglings. [5] Not infrequently several autumn hawk-watches in Ontario , Quebec and the northern United States will record 4,500-8,900 red-tailed hawks migrating through each fall, with records of up to 15,000 in a season at Hawk Ridge hawk watch in Duluth, Minnesota . [2] [95] Unlike some other Buteos , such as Swainson's hawks and broad-winged hawks ( Buteo platypterus ), red-tailed hawks do not usually migrate in groups, instead passing by one-by-one, and will only migrate on days when winds are favorable. [2] [5] Most migrants do not go past southern Mexico in late autumn, but a few may annually move down as far as to roughly as far as there are breeding red-tailed hawks down in Panama . However, there are now a few records of wintering migrant red-tails turning up in Colombia , the first records of the species in that country or anywhere in South America . [2] [9] [96] Spring northward movements may commence as early as late February, with peak numbers usually occurring in late March and early April. Seasonal counts may include up to 19,000 red-tails in spring at Derby Hill hawk watch, in Oswego, New York , sometimes more than 5,000 are recorded in a day there. [2] [97] The very most northerly migratory individuals may not reach breeding grounds until June, even adults. [2] [94] Immature hawks migrate later than adults in spring on average but not, generally speaking, in autumn. In the northern Great Lakes , immatures return in late May to early June, when adults are already well into their nesting season and must find unoccupied ranges. [5] However, in Alaska adults tend to migrate before immatures in early to mid-September, to the contrary of other areas, probably as heavy snow fall begins. [94] [98] Yearlings that were banded in southwestern Idaho stayed for about 2 months after fledging, and then traveled long distances with a strong directional bias, with 9 of 12 recovered southeast of the study area- six of these moved down to coastal lowlands in Mexico and down to as far as Guatemala , here 4,205 km (2,613 mi) from their initial banding. [99] In California , 35 hawks were banded as nestlings, 26 were recovered at less than 50 miles away, with multi-directional juvenile dispersals. Nestlings banded in southern California sometimes actually traveled up to as far as 1,190 km (740 mi) north to Oregon ranging to the opposite extreme as far as a banded bird from the Sierra Nevadas that moved 1,700 km (1,100 mi) south to Sinaloa . [5] [100] Nestlings banded in Green County, Wisconsin did not travel very far comparatively by October–November, but just a month later in December recoveries were found in varied states including Illinois , Iowa , Texas , Louisiana and Florida . [101] Dietary biology [ edit ] Juvenile eating a squirrel The red-tailed hawk is carnivorous , and a highly opportunistic feeder. It is said that nearly any small animal they encounter may be viewed as potential food. [4] Their most common prey are small mammals such as rodents and lagomorphs , but they will also consume birds , reptiles , fish , amphibians and invertebrates . Prey varies considerably with regional and seasonal availability, but usually centers on rodents , accounting for up to 85% of a hawk's diet. [14] In total nearly 500 prey species have been recorded in their diet, almost as many as the great horned owl have been recorded as taking. [9] [77] [102] [103] When 27 North American studies are reviewed, mammals make up 65.3% of the diet by frequency, 20.9% by birds, 10.8% by reptiles, 2.8% by invertebrates and 0.2% by amphibians and fish. [5] [4] [102] [103] The geometric mean body mass of prey taken by red-tailed hawks in North America averages about 187 g (6.6 oz) based on a pair of compilation studies from across the continent, regionally varying at least from 43.4 to 361.4 g (1.53 to 12.75 oz). [104] [105] Staple prey (excluding invertebrates ) has been claimed to weigh from 15 to 2,114 g (0.033 to 4.661 lb), ranging roughly from the size of a small mouse or lizard to the size of a black-tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus ). [5] [9] [106] The daily food requirements range from 7 to 11.2% of their own body weight, so that about three voles or an individual prey of equivalent weight are required daily for an average range adult. [25] The talons and feet of red-tailed hawks are relatively large for a Buteo hawk, in an average sized adult red-tail the “hallux-claw” or rear talon, the largest claw on all accipitrids, averages about 29.7 mm (1.17 in). [17] [107] In fact, the talons of red-tails in some areas averaged of similar size to those of ferruginous hawks which can be considerably heavier and notably larger than those of the only slightly lighter Swainson's hawk . [17] [108] [109] This species may exert an average of about 91 kg (201 lb) of pressure per square inch (PSI) through its feet. [17] [110] [111] Due to its morphology, red-tailed hawks generally can attack larger prey than typical Buteo hawks and will seemingly select the largest prey of up to their own size available at the time that they’re hunting. [9] [25] Red-tailed hawks usually hunt by watching for prey activity from a high perch, also known as still hunting. Upon being spotted, prey is dropped down upon by the hawk. Red-tails often select the highest available perches within a given environment since the greater the height they are at, the less flapping is required and the faster the downward glide they can attain toward nearby prey. If prey is closer than average, the hawk may glide at a steep downward angle with few flaps, if farther than average, it may flap a few swift wingbeats alternating with glides. Perch hunting is the most successful hunting method generally speaking for red-tailed hawks and can account for up to 83% of their daily activities (i.e. in winter). [9] [5] [112] Wintering pairs may hunt together and aseasonally may join together to group hunt agile prey that they may have trouble catching by themselves, such as tree squirrels . This may consist of stalking opposites sides of a tree, in order to surround the squirrel and almost inevitably drive the rodent to be captured by one after being flushed by the other hawk. [5] [15] The typical hunting method of red-tailed hawks is to dive down on its prey from a lofty perch. The most common flighted hunting method for red-tail is to cruise approximately 10 to 50 m (33 to 164 ft) over the ground with flap-and-glide type flight, interspersed occasionally with harrier-like quarters over the ground. This method is less successful than perch hunting but seems relatively useful for capturing small birds and may be show the best results while hunting in hilly country. [2] [5] [15] Hunting red-tailed hawks readily will use trees, bushes or rocks for concealment before making a surprise attack, even showing a partial ability to dodge among trees in an Accipiter -like fashion. Among thick stands of spruce in Alaska , a dodging hunting flight was thought to be unusually important to red-tails living in extensive areas of conifers, with hawks even coming to the ground and walking hurriedly in prey pursuit especially if the prey was large, a similar behavior to goshawks . [5] [94] Additional surprisingly swift aerial hunting has reported in red-tails who habitually hunt bats in Texas . Here the bat-hunting specialists would stoop with half-close wings, quite falcon -like, plowing through the huge stream of bats exiting their cave roosts, then zooming upwards with a bat in its talons. These hawks would also fly parallel closely to the stream, then veer sharply into it and seize a bat. [113] [114] [115] In the neotropics , red-tails have shown the ability to dodge amongst forest canopy whilst hunting. [2] [52] In Kansas , red-tailed hawks were recorded sailing to catch flying insects, a hunting method more typical of a Swainson's hawk. [116] Alternately, they may drop to the ground to forage for insects like grasshoppers and beetles as well as other invertebrates and probably amphibians and fish (except by water in the latter cases). Hunting afoot seems to be particularly prevalent among immatures. Young red-tailed hawks in northeastern Florida were recorded often extracting earthworms from near the surface of the ground and some had a crop full of earthworms after rains. Ground hunting is also quite common on Socorro Island , where there are no native land mammals and invertebrates are more significant to their overall diet. [2] [5] [117] A red-tailed hawk was observed to incorporate an unconventional killing method which was drowning a heron immediately after capture. [118] One red-tailed hawk was seen to try to grab a young ground squirrel and, upon missing it, screamed loudly, which in turn caused another young squirrel to break into a run wherein it was captured. Whether this was an intentional hunting technique needs investigation. [15] Upon capture, smaller prey is taken to a feeding perch, which is almost always lower than a hunting perch. Among small prey, rodents are often swallowed whole as are shrews and small snakes , while birds are plucked and beheaded. Even prey as small as chipmunks may take two to three bites to consume. Larger mammals of transportable size are at times beheaded and have part of their fur discarded, then leftovers are either stored in a tree or fall to the ground. Large prey, especially if too heavy to transport on the wing, is often dragged to a secluded spot and dismantled in various ways. If they can successfully carry what remains to a low perch, they tend to feed until full and then discard the rest. [5] [4] [15] Mammals [ edit ] Play media Red-tailed hawk eating a rodent Rodents are certainly the most often taken type of prey by frequency but their contribution to prey biomass at nests can be regionally low and the type, variety and importance of rodent prey can be highly variable. In total, well over 100 rodent species have turned up the diet of red-tailed hawks. [9] [102] [103] Rodents of extremely varied sizes may be hunted by red-tails, with species ranging in size from the 8.2 g (0.29 oz) eastern harvest mouse ( Reithrodontomys humulis ) to marmots ( Marmota ssp. ), weighing some 3,300 g (7.3 lb) in spring, although whether they can take full grown marmots is questionable. At least some attacks on adult marmots like groundhogs ( Marmota monax ) are abortive. [119] [120] [121] At times, the red-tailed hawk is thought of as a semi-specialized vole -catcher, but voles are a subsistence food that are more or less are taken until larger prey can be captured. In an area of Michigan , immature hawks took almost entirely voles but adults were diversified feeders. [5] [25] Indeed, the 44.1 g (1.56 oz) meadow vole ( Microtus pennsylvanicus ) was the highest frequency prey species in 27 dietary studies across North America, accounting for up to 54% of the food at nests by frequency. It is quite rare for any one species to make up more than half of the food at any dietary study for red-tailed hawks. [5] [4] [102] [103] [122] [123] In total about 9 Microtus species are known in the overall diet, with 5 other voles and lemmings known to be included in their prey spectrum. [102] [103] Another well-represented species was the 27.9 g (0.98 oz) prairie vole ( Microtus ochrogaster ), which were the primary food, making up 26.4% of a sample of 1322, in eastern Kansas . [124] [125] While crepuscular in primary feeding activity, voles are known to be active both day and night, and so are reliable food for hawks than most non-squirrel rodents, which generally are nocturnal in activity. [25] [126] [127] Indeed, most other microtine rodents are largely inaccessible to red-tailed hawks due to their strongly nocturnal foraging patterns, even though 24 species outside of voles and lemmings are known to be hunted. Woodrats are taken as important supplemental prey in some regions, being considerably larger than most other crictetid rodents, and some numbers of North American deermouse ( Peromyscus maniculatus ) may turn up. The largest representation of the latter species was contributing 11.9% of the diet in the Great Basin of Utah , making them the second best represented prey species there. [102] [128] Considering this limited association with nocturnal rodents, the high importance of pocket gophers in the diet of red-tailed hawks is puzzling to many biologists, as these tend to be highly nocturnal and elusive by day, rarely leaving the confines of their burrow. At least 8 species of pocket gopher are included in the prey spectrum (not to mention 5 species of pocket mice ). The 110 g (3.9 oz) northern pocket gopher ( Thomomys talpoides ) is particularly often reported and, by frequency, even turns up as the third most often recorded prey species in 27 American dietary studies. Presumably, hunting of pocket gophers by red-tails, which has possibly never been witnessed, occurs in dim light at first dawn and last light of dusk when they luck upon a gopher out foraging. [5] [102] [103] [129] [130] Voles are often caught by red-tails, especially immature hawks such as this may depend almost fully upon them. By far, the most important prey among rodents are squirrels , as they are almost fully diurnal. All told, nearly 50 species from the squirrel family have turned up as food. In particular, where they are distributed, ground squirrels are doubly attractive as a primary food source due to their ground dwelling habits, as red-tails prefer to attack prey that is terrestrial. [9] [5] [102] [103] There are also many disadvantages to ground squirrels as prey: they can escape quickly to the security of their burrows, they tend to be highly social and they are very effective and fast in response to alarm calls, and a good deal of species enter hibernation that in the coldest climates can range up to a 6 to 9-month period (although those in warmer climates with little to no snowy weather often have brief dormancy and no true hibernation). Nonetheless, red-tailed hawks are devoted predators of ground squirrels, especially catching incautious ones as they go out foraging (which more often than not are younger animals). [131] [132] [133] [134] A multi-year study conducted on San Joaquin Experimental Range in California , seemingly still the largest food study to date done for red-tailed hawks with 4031 items examined, showed that throughout the seasons the 722 g (1.592 lb) California ground squirrel ( Otospermophilus beecheyi ) was the most significant prey, accounting for 60.8% of the breeding season diet and about 27.2% of the diet for hawks year-around. Because of the extremely high density of red-tailed hawks on this range, some pairs came to specialize on diverse alternate prey, which consisted variously of kangaroo rats , lizards , snakes or chipmunks . One pair apparently lessened competition by focusing on pocket gophers instead despite being near the center of ground squirrel activity. [135] [136] In Snake River NCA , the primary food of red-tailed hawks was the 203.5 g (7.18 oz) Townsend's ground squirrel ( Urocitellus townsendii ), which made up nearly 21% of the food in 382 prey items across several years despite sharp spikes and crashes of the ground squirrel population there. [106] [137] The same species was the main food of red-tailed hawks in southeastern Washington , making up 31.2% of 170 items. [138] An even closer predatory relationship was reported in the Centennial valley of Montana and south-central Montana, where 45.4% of 194 prey items and 40.2% of 261 items, respectively, of the food of red-tails consisted of the 455.7 g (1.005 lb) Richardson's ground squirrel ( Urocitellus richardsonii ). [108] [139] [140] Locally in Rochester, Alberta , Richardson's ground squirrel , estimated to average 444 g (15.7 oz), were secondary in number to unidentified small rodents but red-tails in the region killed an estimated 22-60% of the area’s ground squirrel, a large dent in the squirrel’s population. [141] Further east, ground squirrels are not so reliably distributed, but one study in southern Wisconsin , in one of several quite different dietary studies in that state, the 172.7 g (6.09 oz) thirteen-lined ground squirrel ( Ictidomys tridecemlineatus ) was the main prey species, making up 29.7% of the diet (from a sample of 165). [142] [143] In Kluane Lake , Yukon , 750 g (1.65 lb) Arctic ground squirrels ( Spermophilus parryii ) were the main overall food for Harlan’s red-tailed hawks, making up 30.8% of a sample of 1074 prey items. When these ground squirrels enter their long hibernation, the breeding Harlan’s hawks migrate south for the winter. [144] Nearly as important in Kluane Lake was the 200 g (7.1 oz) American red squirrel ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ), which constituted 29.8% of the above sample. Red squirrels are highly agile dwellers on dense spruce stands, which has caused biologists to ponder how the red-tailed hawks are able to routinely catch them. Although it is possible that the hawks catch them on the ground such as when squirrels are digging their caches, and the dark color of the Harlan’s hawks may allow them to more effectively ambush the squirrels locally. [5] [143] [144] While American red squirrel turn up not infrequently as supplementary prey elsewhere in North America, other tree squirrels seem to be comparatively infrequently caught, at least during the summer breeding season. It is known that pairs of red-tailed hawks will cooperative hunt tree squirrels at times, probably mostly between late fall and early spring. Fox squirrels ( Sciurus niger ), the largest of North America’s tree squirrels at 800 g (1.8 lb), are fairly regular supplemental prey but the lighter, presumably more agile 533 g (1.175 lb) eastern gray squirrel ( Sciurus carolinensis ) appears to be seldom caught based on dietary studies. [9] [101] [142] [143] [145] While adult marmot may be difficult for red-tailed hawks to catch, young marmots are readily taken in numbers after weaning, such as a high frequency of yellow-bellied marmot ( Marmota flaviventris ) in Boulder, Colorado . [146] Another grouping of squirrels but at the opposite end of the size spectrum for squirrels, the chipmunks are also mostly supplemental prey but are considered more easily caught than tree squirrels, considering that they are more habitual terrestrial foragers. [5] [4] [102] In central Ohio , eastern chipmunks ( Tamias striatus ), the largest species of chipmunk at an average weight of 96 g (3.4 oz), were actually the leading prey by number, making up 12.3% of a sample of 179 items. [145] [147] Outside of rodents, the most important prey for North American red-tailed hawks is rabbits and hares , of which at least 13 species are included in their prey spectrum. By biomass and reproductive success within populations, these are certain to be the most significant food source to the species (at least in North America). [9] [102] Adult Sylvilagus rabbits known to be hunted by red-tails can range from the 700 g (1.5 lb) brush rabbit ( Sylvilagus bachmani ) to the Tres Marias rabbit ( Sylvilagus graysoni ) at 1,470 g (3.24 lb) while all leporids hunted may range the 421.3 g (14.86 oz) pygmy rabbit ( Brachylagus idahoensis ) to hares and jackrabbits potentially up twice the hawk’s own weight. [148] [149] [150] [151] [28] While primarily crepuscular in peak activity, rabbits and hares often foraging both during day and night and so face almost constant predatory pressure from a diverse range of predators. Male red-tailed hawks or pairs which are talented rabbit hunters are likely have higher than average productivity due to the size and nutrition of the meal ensuring healthy, fast-growing offspring. [5] [9] [25] [152] Most widely reported are the cottontails , which the three most common North America varieties softly grading into mostly allopatric ranges, being largely segregated by habitat preferences where they overlap in distribution. Namely, in descending order of reportage were: the eastern cottontail ( Sylvilagus floridanus ), the second most widely reported prey species overall in North America and with maximum percentage known in a given study was 26.4% in Oklahoma (out of 958 prey items), the mountain cottontail ( Sylvilagus nuttallii ), maximum representation being 17.6% out of a sample of 478 in Kaibab Plateau , Arizona and the desert cottontail ( Sylvilagus audubonii ), maximum representation being 22.4% out of a sample of 326 in west-central Arizona . [102] [139] [153] [154] Black-tailed jackrabbits ( Lepus californicus ) are even more intensely focused upon as a food source by the hawks found in the west, particularly the Great Basin . This species is likely the largest prey routinely hunted by red-tails and the mean prey size where jackrabbits are primarily hunted is indeed the highest known overall in the species. When jackrabbit numbers crash, red-tailed hawk productivity tends to decline synchronically. In northern Utah , black-tailed jackrabbits made up 55.3% by number of a sample of 329. Elsewhere, they are usually somewhat secondary by number. Mean sizes of jackrabbits taken can range up to approximately 2,114 g (4.661 lb), but probably quantitatively mostly juvenile and yearling jackrabbits are caught. Prime adult jackrabbits, with weights at times exceeding 2,700 g (6.0 lb), are difficult and taken infrequently, short of by particularly large and aggressive female red-tails. [102] [138] [106] [128] Other even larger species are sometimes taken as prey such as the white-tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus townsendii ), but whether this includes healthy adults, as they average over 3,200 g (7.1 lb), is unclear. [108] Near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA a red-tailed hawk consumes a young Eastern cottontail In the boreal forests of Canada and Alaska , red-tails are fairly dependent on the snowshoe hare ( Lepus americanus ), falling somewhere behind the great horned owl and ahead of the northern goshawk in their regional reliance on this food source. [94] [144] [141] The hunting preferences of red-tails who rely on snowshoe hares is variable. In Rochester, Alberta , 52% of snowshoe hares caught were adults, such prey estimated to average 1,287 g (2.837 lb), and adults, in some years, were six times more often taken than juvenile hares, which averaged an estimated 560 g (1.23 lb). 1.9-7.1% of adults in the regional population of Rochester were taken by red-tails, while only 0.3-0.8 of juvenile hares were taken by them. Despite their reliance on it, only 4% (against 53.4% of the biomass) of the food by frequency here was made up of hares. [141] On the other hand, in Kluane , Yukon , juvenile hares were taken roughly 11 times more often than adults, despite the larger size of adults here, averaging 1,406.6 g (3.101 lb), and that the overall prey base was less diverse at this more northerly clime. In both Rochester and Kluane Lake, the number of snowshoe hares taken was considerably lower than numbers of ground squirrels taken. The differences of average characteristics of snowshoe hares that were hunted may be partially due to habitat (extent of bog openings to dense forest) or topography. [144] [155] Another member of the Lagomorpha order has been found in the diet, the much smaller American pika ( Ochotona princeps ), at 150 g (5.3 oz), but is not quantitatively common in the foods of the species so far as is known. [156] A diversity of mammals may be consumed opportunistically outside of the main food groups of rodents and leporids, but usually occur in low numbers. At least five species each are taken of shrews and moles , ranging in size from their smallest mammalian prey, the cinereus ( Sorex cinereus ) and least shrews ( Cryptotis parva ), which both weigh about 4.4 g (0.16 oz), to Townsend's mole ( Scapanus townsendii ), which weighs about 126 g (4.4 oz). [102] [103] [157] [158] [159] [160] [161] A respectable number of the 90 g (3.2 oz) eastern mole ( Scalopus aquaticus ) were recorded in studies from Oklahoma and Kansas . [102] [124] Four species of bat have been recorded in their foods. [102] [135] The red-tailed hawks local to the large cave colonies of 12.3 g (0.43 oz) Mexican free-tailed bats ( Tadarida brasiliensis ) in Texas can show surprising agility, some of the same hawks spending their early evening and early morning hours in flight patrolling the cave entrances in order to stoop suddenly on these flighted mammals. [113] [114] [162] Larger miscellaneous mammalian prey are either usually taken as juveniles, like the nine-banded armadillo ( Dasypus novemcinctus ), or largely as carrion , like the Virginia opossum ( Didelphis virginiana ). [161] [163] Small carnivorans may be taken, usually consisting of much smaller mustelids , like the 150.6 g (5.31 oz) long-tailed weasel ( Mustela frenata ), which was surprisingly widely taken as a supplemental prey species. [52] [102] [106] [143] [164] Adult ringtails ( Bassariscus astutus ), which are about the same weight as a red-tailed hawk at 1,015 g (2.238 lb), are taken as prey occasionally. [153] [165] Larger carnivoran remains are sometimes found amongst their foods, but most are likely taken as juveniles or smaller range adults, or otherwise consumed only as carrion. Some of the relatively larger carnivorans red-tailed hawks have been known to eat have included red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), kit fox ( Vulpes macrotis ), white-nosed coati ( Nasua narica ), raccoon ( Procyon lotor ), striped skunk ( Mephitis mephitis ) and domestic cats ( Felis silvestris catus ). [103] [146] [166] [167] [168] Many of these medium-sized carnivorans are probably visited as roadkill, especially during the sparser winter months, but carrion has turned up more widely than previously thought. Some nests have been found (to the occasional “shock” of researchers) with body parts from large domestic stock like sheep ( Ovies aries ), pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ), horses ( Equus caballus ferus ) and cattle ( Bos primigenius taurus ) (not to mention wild varieties like deer ), which red-tails must visit when freshly dead out on pastures and take a couple talonfuls of meat. [5] [153] [135] [166] In one instance, a red-tailed hawk was observed to kill a small but seemingly healthy lamb . These are born heavier than most red-tails at 1,500 g (3.3 lb) but in this instance, the hawk was scared away before it could consume its kill by the rifle fire of the shepherd who witnessed the instance. [169] Birds [ edit ] A hawk eats a rock pigeon , near Toronto harbour Like most (but not all) Buteo hawks, red-tailed hawks do not primarily hunt birds in most areas, but can take them fairly often whenever they opportune upon some that are vulnerable. Birds are, by far, the most diverse class in the red-tailed hawk’s prey spectrum, with well over 200 species known in their foods. [77] [102] [103] In most circumstances where birds become the main food of red-tailed hawks, it is in response to ample local populations of galliforms . As these are meaty, mostly terrestrial birds which usually run rather than fly from danger (although all wild species in North America are capable of flight), galliforms are ideal avian prey for red-tails. Some 23 species of galliforms are known to be taken by red-tailed hawks, about a third of these being species introduced by humans. [102] [103] Native quails of all five North American species may expect occasional losses. [135] [170] [171] All 12 species of grouse native to North America are also occasionally included in their prey spectrum. [144] [108] [172] [173] [174] [175] [176] [177] [178] [179] In the state of Wisconsin , two large studies, from Waupun and Greene county , found the main prey species to be the ring-necked pheasant ( Phasianus colchicus ), making up 22.7% of a sample of 176 and 33.8% of a sample of 139, respectively. [101] [180] With a body mass averaging 1,135 g (2.502 lb), adult pheasants are among the largest meals that male red-tails are likely to deliver short of adult rabbits and hares and therefore these nests tend to be relatively productive. Despite being not native to North America, pheasants usually live in a wild state. All Wisconsin studies also found large numbers of chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ), making up as much as 14.4% of the diet. Many studies reflect that free-ranging chickens are vulnerable to red-tailed hawks although somewhat lesser numbers are taken by them overall in comparison to nocturnal predators (i.e. owls and foxes ) and goshawks . [16] [101] [105] [180] In Rochester, Alberta , fairly large numbers of ruffed grouse ( Bonasa umbellus ) were taken but relatively more juveniles were taken of this species than the two other main contributors to biomass here, snowshoe hare and Townsend’s ground squirrel, as they are fairly independent early on and more readily available. Here the adult grouse was estimated to average 550 g (1.21 lb) against the average juvenile which in mid-summer averaged 170 g (6.0 oz). [141] Beyond galliforms, three other quite different families of birds make the most significant contributions to the red-tailed hawk’s avian diet. None of these three families are known as particularly skilled or swift fliers but the species are generally small enough that they would generally easily be more nimble in flight than a red-tailed hawk. One of these are the woodpeckers , if only for one species, the 131.6 g (4.64 oz) northern flicker ( Colaptes auratus ), which was the best represented bird species in the diet in 27 North American studies and was even the fourth most often detected prey species of all. [5] [4] [16] [102] [103] Woodpeckers are often a favorite in the diet of large raptors as their relatively slow, undulating flight makes these relatively easy targets. The flicker in particular is a highly numerous species that has similar habitat preferences to red-tailed hawks, preferring fragmented landscapes with trees and openings or parkland-type wooded mosaics, and often forage on the ground for ants, which may make them even more susceptible. [181] [182] Varied other woodpecker species may turn up in their foods, from the smallest to the largest extant in North America, but are much more infrequently detected in dietary studies. [161] [183] Another family relatively often selected prey family are corvids , which despite their relatively large size, formidable mobbing abilities and intelligence are also slower than average fliers for passerines. 14 species of corvid are known to fall prey to red-tailed hawks. [102] [103] [184] In the Kaibab Plateau , the 128 g (4.5 oz) Steller's jay ( Cyanocitta stelleri ) were the fourth most identified prey species (10.3% of the diet). [16] [153] 453 g (0.999 lb) American crows are also regularly detected supplemental prey in several areas. [16] [101] [139] [180] Even the huge common raven ( Corvus corax ), at 1,050 g (2.31 lb) at least as large as red-tailed hawk itself, may fall prey to red-tails, albeit very infrequently and only in a well-staged ambush. [16] [153] One of the most surprising heavy contributors are the icterids , despite their slightly smaller size and tendency to travel in large, wary flocks, 12 species are known to be hunted. [102] [103] One species pair, the meadowlarks , are most often selected as they do not flock in the same ways as many other icterids and often come to the ground, throughout their life history, rarely leaving about shrub-height. The 100.7 g (3.55 oz) western meadowlark ( Sturnella neglecta ), in particular, was the third most often detected bird prey species in North America . [5] [4] [16] [102] [103] [106] Red-winged blackbirds ( Agelaius phoeniceus ) which are probably too small, at an average weight of 52.4 g (1.85 oz), and fast for a red-tailed hawk to ever chase on the wing (and do travel in huge flocks, especially in winter) are nonetheless also quite often found in their diet, representing up to 8% of the local diet for red-tails. It is possible that males, which are generally bold and often select lofty perches from which to display, are most regularly ambushed. [5] [16] [180] One bird species that often flocks with red-winged blackbirds in winter is even better represented in the red-tail’s diet, the non-native 78 g (2.8 oz) European starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ), being the second most numerous avian prey species and seventh overall in North America. [16] [102] [103] Although perhaps most vulnerable when caught unaware while calling atonally on a perch, a few starlings (or various blackbirds) may be caught by red-tails which test the agile, twisting murmurations of birds by flying conspicuously towards the flock, to intentionally disturb them and possibly detect lagging, injured individual birds that can be caught unlike healthy birds. However, this behavior has been implied rather than verified. [5] [135] Over 50 passerine species from various other families beyond corvids, icterids and starlings are included in the red-tailed hawks’ prey spectrum but are caught so infrequently as to generally not warrant individual mention. [102] [103] Non-passerine prey taken infrequently may include pigeons and doves , cuckoos , nightjars , kingfishers and parrots . [9] [106] [135] [185] [186] [187] [188] However, of some interest, is the extreme size range of birds that may be preyed upon. Red-tailed hawks in Caribbean islands seem to catch small passerines more frequently due to the paucity of vertebrate prey diversity here. Birds as small as the 7.7 g (0.27 oz) elfin woods warbler ( Setophaga angelae ) and the 10 g (0.35 oz) bananaquit ( Coereba flaveola ) may turn up not infrequently as food. How red-tails can catch prey this small and nimble is unclear (perhaps mostly the even smaller nestlings or fledglings are depredated). [5] [9] [16] [52] In California , most avian prey was stated to be between the size of a starling and a quail . [5] [135] Numerous water birds may be preyed upon including at least 22 species of shorebirds , 17 species of waterfowl , 8 species of heron and egrets and 8 species of rails , plus a smaller diversity of grebes , shearwaters and ibises . [5] [102] [103] [189] [190] These may range to as small as the tiny, mysterious and “ mouse -like” black rail ( Laterallus jamaicensis ), weighing an average of 32.7 g (1.15 oz), and snowy plover ( Charadrius nivosus ), weighing an average of 42.3 g (1.49 oz) (how they catch adults of this prey is not known), to some gulls , ducks and geese as heavy or heavier than a red-tailed hawk itself. [16] [191] [192] How large of a duck that red-tailed hawks can capture may be variable. In one instance, a red-tailed hawk failed to kill a healthy drake red-breasted merganser ( Mergus serrator ), with this duck estimated to weigh 1,100 g (2.4 lb), later the same red-tail was able to dispatch a malnourished red-necked grebe ( Podiceps grisegena ) (a species usually about as heavy as the merganser), weighing an estimated 657 g (1.448 lb). [193] However, in interior Alaska, locally red-tailed hawks have become habitual predators of adult ducks, ranging from 345 g (12.2 oz) green-winged teal ( Anas carolinensis ) to 1,141 g (2.515 lb) mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ). [16] [94] Even larger, occasionally adult Ross's goose ( Chen rossii ), weighing on average 1,636 g (3.607 lb), have been killed as well. [16] [194] Also, a non-native Egyptian goose ( Alopochen aegyptiaca ), in which adults average 1,762 g (3.885 lb), was killed by a red-tail in Texas . [16] [195] Certainly the largest avian prey red-tailed hawks have successfully hunted is large galliforms. There are several known instances of predation on adult greater sage grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus ), although mainly females are reported taken, these averaging 1,200 to 1,745 g (2.646 to 3.847 lb) depending on region. Some adult male sage grouse may have been attacked but, as these average from 2,100 to 3,190 g (4.63 to 7.03 lb), this needs verification. [16] [173] [196] [197] [198] Even larger, in at least once case a grown hatch-year bird was caught of the rare, non-native Himalayan snowcock ( Tetraogallus himalayensis ), this species averaging 2,428 g (5.353 lb) in adults. [16] [199] Red-tailed hawks are a threat to the poults typically of the wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ). However, in one instance, an immature red-tail was observed trying to attack an adult female turkey, which would weigh about 4,260 g (9.39 lb) (on average). However this red-tail was unable to overpower the turkey hen. [16] [200] Additionally, young domestic turkeys, weighing up to at least 1,500 g (3.3 lb), have been killed by red-tailed hawks. [201] Other than wild turkeys, other larger birds occasionally lose young to red-tails such as trumpeter swans ( Cygnus buccinator ), sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ) and great blue herons ( Ardea herodias ). [202] [203] [204] Reptiles [ edit ] A red-tailed hawk flies off with its kill, a large colubrid snake Early reports claimed relatively little predation of reptiles by red-tailed hawks but these were regionally biased towards the east coast and the upper Midwest of the United States. [205] However, locally the predation on reptiles can be regionally quite heavy and they may become the primary prey where large, stable numbers of rodents and leporids are not to be found reliably. Nearly 80 species of reptilian prey have been recorded in the diet at this point. [5] [102] [103] Most predation is on snakes , with more than 40 species known in the prey spectrum. The most often found reptilian species in the diet (and sixth overall in 27 North American dietary studies) was the gopher snake ( Pituophis catenifer ). Red-tails are efficient predators of these large snakes, which average about 532 g (1.173 lb) in adults, although they also take many small and young gopher snakes. [106] [138] [206] [207] [208] Along the Columbia River in Washington , large colubrid snakes were found to be the primary prey, with the eastern racer ( Coluber constrictor ), which averages about 556 g (1.226 lb) in mature adults, the most often recorded at 21.3% of 150 prey items, followed by the gopher snake at 18%. This riverine region lacks ground squirrels and has low numbers of leporids. 43.2% of the overall diet here was made up of reptiles, while mammals, made up 40.6%. [206] [209] In the Snake River NCA , the gopher snake was the second most regularly recorded (16.2% of 382 items) prey species over the course of the years, and did not appear to be subject to the extreme population fluctuations of mammalian prey here. [106] Good numbers of smaller colubrids can be taken as well, especially garter snakes . [102] [108] [124] Red-tailed hawks may engage in avoidance behavior to some extent with regard to venomous snakes . For example, on the San Joaquin Experimental Range in California, they were recorded taking 225 gopher snakes against 83 western rattlesnakes ( Crotalus oreganus ). Based on surveys, however, the rattlesnakes were five times more abundant on the range than the gopher snakes. [5] [135] Nonetheless, at least 15 venomous snakes have been recorded in the red-tailed hawk’s diet. [102] [103] The smallest known snake known to be hunted by red-tailed hawks is the 6 g (0.21 oz) redbelly snake ( Storeria occipitomaculata ). [210] Red-tailed hawks have been seen flying off with snake prey that may exceed 153 cm (5 ft 0 in) in length in some cases. [9] One red-tail was photographed killing a “fairly large” eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( Crotalus adamanteus ), this being North America’s heaviest snake and the heaviest venomous snake in the Americas at a large mature size of about 2,300 g (5.1 lb). [22] [211] For the eastern indigo snakes ( Drymarchon couperi ), North America’s longest native snake, usually young and small ones are reportedly at risk. [212] In North America, fewer lizards are typically recorded in the foods of red-tailed hawk than are snakes, probably because snakes are considerably better adapted to cooler, seasonal weather, with an extensive diversity of lizards found only in the southernmost reaches of the contiguous United States . A fair number of lizards were recorded in the diet in southern California and red-tails can be counted among the primary predatory threats to largish lizards in the United States such as the 245 g (8.6 oz) common chuckawalla ( Sauromalus ater ). [103] [135] [213] [214] However, the red-tailed hawks ranging into the neotropics regularly take numerous species of lizards. This is especially true of hawks living on islands which are not naturally colonized by small mammals. Insular red-tails commonly pluck up mostly tiny anoles , that may average only 1.75 to 43.5 g (0.062 to 1.534 oz) in adult mass, depending on species. [9] [52] [215] Not all tropical lizards taken by red-tailed hawks are so dainty and some are easily as large as most birds and reptiles taken elsewhere such as adults of the 1,800 g (4.0 lb) San Esteban chuckwalla ( Sauromalus varius ) and even those as large as 2,800 g (6.2 lb) Cape spinytail iguanas ( Ctenosaura hemilopha ) and 4,000 g (8.8 lb) green iguanas ( Iguana iguana ) (though it is not clearly noted whether they can take healthy adults iguanas or not). [216] [217] [218] [219] Beyond snakes and lizards, there are a few cases of red-tailed hawks preying on baby or juvenile turtles, i.e. the gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ), the desert tortoise ( Gopherus agassizii ) and the common snapping turtle ( Chelydra serpentina ). [161] [220] Other prey [ edit ] Records of predation on amphibians is fairly infrequent. It is thought that such prey may be slightly underrepresented, as they are often consumed whole and may not leave a trace in pellets. Their fine bones may dissolve upon consumption. [5] [102] [205] So far as is known, North American red-tailed hawks have preyed upon 9 species of amphibian, four of which are toads . Known amphibian prey has ranged to as small as the 0.75 g (0.026 oz) red-backed salamander ( Plethodon cinereus ), the smallest known vertebrate prey for red-tailed hawks, to the 430 g (15 oz) American bullfrog ( Lithobates catesbeianus ). [142] [161] [221] Invertebrates , mostly represented by insects like beetles and crickets , are better represented in the stomach contents of red-tailed hawks than their pellets or prey remains. [5] [205] It is possible some invertebrate prey is ingested incidentally, as in other various birds of prey, they can in some cases be actually from the stomachs of birds eaten by the raptor. [2] [5] However, some red-tails, especially immatures early in their hunting efforts, often do spend much of the day on the ground grabbing terrestrial insects and spiders. [5] [102] [205] [222] [223] The red-tailed hawks of Puerto Rico frequently consume Puerto Rican freshwater crabs ( Epilobocera sinuatifrons ), which average 9.4 g (0.33 oz). [9] [52] [224] Reportedly other island populations, such as those on Socorro island , also feed often on terrestrial crabs , here often reportedly blunting their claws while catching them. [15] Fish are the rarest class of prey based on dietary studies. Among the rare instances of them capturing fish have included captures of wild channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ), non-native common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) and ornamental koi ( Cyprinus rubrofuscus ) as well some hawks that were seen scavenging on dead chum salmon ( Oncorhynchus keta ). [103] [225] [226] Interspecies predatory relationships [ edit ] As easily one of the most abundant of all American raptorial birds, red-tailed hawks have been recorded as interacting with every other diurnal bird of prey. Due to the extreme dietary plasticity of red-tails, the food habits of other birds of prey regularly overlap considerably with red-tails. Furthermore, due to its ability to nest in varied habitats, home ranges also frequently abut those of other raptor species. [5] [9] The most obvious similar species in their range are other Buteo hawks, especially larger species with a similar ecological niche. Two of the larger, more widespread other Buteos are the Swainson's hawk and the ferruginous hawks and, as with many other birds of prey, red-tailed hawks occur in almost the entirety of these birds’ breeding ranges. [9] [56] These species have broadly similar breeding season diets, especially the ferruginous and red-tailed hawks. In some areas, such as Snake River NCA the diets of the two species consist of more than 90% of the same species and body mass of prey taken was similar. [106] [108] Therefore, all three large Buteo hawks defend their territories from each other with almost the same degree of dedication that they defend from others of their own species. In some cases, territorial clashes of Swainson's hawks and red-tailed hawks can last up to 12 hours, however, the birds involved are usually careful to avoid physical contact. [5] [227] Due to the similarities of the foods and their aggressive dispositions towards one another, these Buteos need some degree of partitioning in order to persist alongside one another and this usually is given by habitat preferences. The ferruginous hawk prefers open, practically treeless prairie while of these, the red-tailed hawks prefers the most wooded areas with large trees, while the Swainson's hawk prefer roughly intermediate areas. [108] [227] [8] Where the habitat is more open, such as in Cassia County, Idaho , the Swainson's and ferruginous hawks have the advantage in numbers and red-tails are scarce. [228] However, habitat alterations by humans, such as fire suppression and recovering pasture, usually favor the red-tailed hawk and are to the detriment of the other two species. [56] [229] [76] These practices have caused range expansions of many other species of birds but declines in many others. [230] [231] [232] Of these three Buteo species, the Swainson's hawk is most dissimilar, being a long-distance migrant which travels to South America each winter and, for much of the year, prefers to prey on insects (except for during breeding, when more nutritious food such as ground squirrels are mainly fed to the young). It also breeds notably later than the other two species. [233] Surprisingly, although its slightly smaller in body mass and has notably smaller (and presumably weaker) feet than ferruginous and red-tailed hawks, the Swainson's is actually usually (but not invariably) dominant in territorial conflicts over the other two. Part of this advantage is that the Swainson's hawk is apparently a superior flier both in long and short distance flights, with its more pointed wing shape and lower wing loading allowing it more agile, sustained and speedier flight that the bulkier hawks cannot match. [234] [235] Therefore, in north-central Oregon , Swainson's hawks were shown to be more productive, in prairie located trees, and partially displaced prior-breeding red-tails several times, although overall breeding success rates were not perceptibly decreased in the latter hawk. [227] [236] In the Chihuahuan Desert of Mexico , Swainson's hawks usually nested in lowlands and red-tails nested in highlands but interspecies conflicts nevertheless were apparently quite frequent. [237] Usually, the habitat preferences of red-tailed hawks and ferruginous hawks are discrepant enough to keep serious territorial conflicts to a minimum. [106] [227] However, red-tailed hawks and ferruginous hawks occasionally engaged in kleptoparasitism towards one another, usually during winter. Red-tails may be somewhat dominant based on prior reports in food conflicts but the ferruginous hawk may also win these. [4] [238] Where they overlap, the hawk species may adjust their daily routine to minimize contact, which tends to be costly of time and energy and may cause the hawks to abandon their nests for long stretches of time, which in turn leaves their young vulnerable to predation. [5] When habitats change rapidly, often due to human interference, and the species nest more closely than natural partitioning would allow, in all three nesting success can decline significantly. [8] Beyond the Swainson's and ferruginous hawks, six other Buteos co-occur with red-tailed hawks in different parts of North America . Many of these are substantially smaller than red-tails and avoid most serious territorial conflicts with them by nesting in deeper wooded areas. [77] [56] One other larger species, the rough-legged buzzard , mostly nests far north of the breeding range of red-tailed hawks. However, in Alaska they sometimes nest in the same areas. The rough-legged buzzards are both cliff and tree nesters and areas used by the two species are not necessarily mutually exclusive but each seems to avoid the other, in part by differing breeding schedules. [239] Wintering rough-legged buzzards may regularly come into conflict over food with red-tailed hawks and seem to be subordinate to the red-tails, with several records of them being chased off both kills and carrion by the red-tailed hawks. During winter, their hunting habits may keep them somewhat separate, the rough-legged being a much more aerial hunter but rough-legged buzzards usually withdrew if a flying red-tailed hawk flew towards them. There is at least one case, however, of a rough-legged buzzard being the victor of a conflict over a kill with a red-tailed hawk. [94] [166] Red-tailed hawks are conspicuously more aggressive and tend to be dominant over slenderer, medium-sized Buteos such as red-shouldered hawks and zone-tailed hawks ( Buteo albonotatus ). [15] In Massachusetts , red-shoulder hawks used mixed forests and hardwoods as nesting habitat while red-tails most often used in pitch pine and stunted oaks on Cape Cod . Nesting range overlap here most often occurred on white pine forests. As habitat has opened over time, red-tailed hawks frequently took over former red-shouldered hawk territories, even using their nests in two cases. [5] [77] In north-central Florida , it was found during winter that red-shouldered and red-tailed hawk habitat usage blurred and, because the local habitat favors red-shouldered hawks, they easily outnumbered the number of red-tailed hawks in the area. Therefore, again with sufficient habitat partitioning, the two species can live near one another without negatively effecting one another. [240] In the American southwest and Texas , two relatively large buteonine hawks also live alongside red-tailed hawks, the Harris's hawk ( Parabuteo unicinctus ) and the white-tailed hawk ( Geranoaetus albicaudatus ). Usually, habitat preferences kept conflicts to a minimum, with the red-tailed hawk favoring taller, more isolated saguaro cactus for nesting, whereas the other species outnumbered red-tails in areas that were denser and more shrubby. [238] [241] [242] The Harris's hawk was determined to be a superior aerial hunter over red-tailed hawks, and could take down flying birds more routinely. [241] Hawks and kites from outside the buteonine lineage are usually substantially smaller or at least different enough in diet and habitat to largely avoid heavy conflict with red-tailed hawks. On occasion, northern harriers ( Circus hudsonius ) which have much lower wing loading, will mob red-tailed hawks out of their home ranges but in winter the red-tails seem to be dominant over them in conflicts over food. [166] [243] Among Accipiter hawks, the most similar to the red-tailed hawk in diet and size is the northern goshawk . In some areas, the prey species of these can be very similar and North American populations of goshawks take many more squirrels and leporids than their Eurasian counterparts do. [144] [244] It was found that the feet and striking power of hunting goshawks was more powerful than that of the red-tailed hawk, despite the red-tails being up to 10% heavier in some parts of North America. [111] Therefore, wild goshawks can dispatch larger prey both on average and at maximum prey size, with some victims of female goshawks such as adult hares and galliforms such as turkey and capercaillie weighing up to or exceeding roughly 4,000 g (8.8 lb). [245] [246] [247] In a comparative study in the Kaibab Plateau of Arizona , however, it was found that red-tailed hawks had several population advantages. Red-tails were more flexible in diet, although there was a very broad overlap in prey species selected, and nesting habitat than the goshawks were. [153] Remarkably, as red-tailed hawks in conflict with other more closely related Buteo hawks rarely (if ever) result in mortality on either side, goshawks and red-tailed hawks do seem to readily kill one another. Adults of both species have been shown to be able to kill adults of the other. [141] [248] [249] [250] A red-tailed hawk is mobbed by a northern mockingbird in the urban environment of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . The great horned owl occupies a similar ecological niche nocturnally to the red-tailed hawk. [105] There have been many studies that have contrasted the ecology of these two powerful raptors. [25] [101] [145] The great horned owl averages heavier and larger footed, with northern populations averaging up to 26% heavier in the owl than the hawk. [25] However, due in part to the red-tail’s more extensive access to sizable prey such as ground squirrels, several contrasting dietary studies found that the estimated mean prey size of the red-tailed hawk, at 175 g (6.2 oz), was considerably higher than that of the great horned owl, at 76 g (2.7 oz). [105] Also, the diet of red-tailed hawk seems to be more flexible by prey type, as only just over 65% of their diet is made of mammals, whereas great horned owls were more restricted feeders on mammals, selecting them 87.6% of the time. [102] [103] [251] However, the overall prey spectrum of great horned owls includes more species of mammals and birds (but far less reptiles) and the great horned owl can attack prey of a wider size range, including much larger prey items than any taken by red-tailed hawks. Some prey killed by great horned owls was estimated to weigh up to 6,800 g (15.0 lb). [102] [251] [252] Great horned owls and red-tailed hawks compete not only for food but more seriously over nesting areas and home ranges. Great horned owls are incapable of constructing nests and readily expropriate existing red-tail nests. The habitat preferences of the two species are quite similar and the owl frequently uses old red-tail nests, but they do seem to prefer more enclosed nest locations where available over the generally open situation around red-tailed hawk nests. Sometimes in warmer areas, the owls may nest sufficiently early to have fledged young by the time red-tails start to lay. However, when there is a temporal overlap in reproductive cycles, the owl sometimes takes over an occupied red-tail nest, causing desertion. Red-tailed hawks have an advantage in staple prey flexibility as aforementioned, while great horned owl populations can be stressed when preferred prey is scarce, especially when they rely on leporids such as hares and jackrabbits . [5] [105] [144] [128] For example, in Alberta , when snowshoe hares were at their population peak, red-tailed hawks did not increase in population despite taking many, with only a slight increase in mean clutch size, whereas the owls fluctuated in much more dramatic ways in accordance with snowshoe hare numbers. The red-tails migratory behavior was considered as the likely cause of this lack of effect, whereas great horned owls remained through the winter and was subject to winter-stress and greater risk of starvation. [253] As a nester, great horned owl has the advantage in terms of flexibility, being somewhat spread more evenly across different habitats whereas in undisturbed areas, red-tailed hawks seem to nest more so in clusters where habitat is favorable. [5] [101] [145] [253] Predatory relationships between red-tailed hawks and great horned owls are quite one-sided, with the great horned owl likely the overall major predator of red-tails. On the other hand, red-tailed hawks are rarely (if ever) a threat to the great horned owl. Occasionally a red-tailed hawk can strike down an owl during the day but only in a few singular cases has this killed an owl. [254] [255] Most predation by the owls on the hawks is directed at nestlings at the point where the red-tails’ nestlings are old enough that the parents no longer roost around the nest at night. Up to at least 36% of red-tailed hawk nestlings in a population may be lost to great horned owls. [5] [141] Adult and immature red-tailed hawks are also occasionally preyed upon at night by great horned owls in any season. In one case, a great horned owl seemed to have ambushed, killed and fed upon a full-grown migrating red-tail even in broad daylight. [5] [77] Occasionally, both red-tails and great horned owls will engage each other during the day and, even though the red-tailed hawk has the advantage at this time of day, either may succeed in driving away the other. [4] [77] [253] Despite their contentious relations, the two species may nest quite close, for example, in Saskatchewan , the closest nests distances between them were only 32 to 65 m (105 ft 0 in to 213 ft 3 in), but at these sites all owl nests but only two red-tail nests succeeded. [256] In Waterloo, Wisconsin , however, the two species were largely segregated by nesting times, as returning red-tailed hawks in April–June were usually able to successfully avoid nesting in groves holding great horned owls, which can begin nesting activities as early as February. [257] In Delaware County, Ohio and in central New York state , the findings were generally similar as in Wisconsin, that temporal and times of hunting activities usually allowed both species to succeed in nesting but in all three areas, any time the red-tails tried to nest closer to great horned owls, their breeding success rates lowered considerably. It is presumable that sparser habitat and prey resources increased the closeness of nesting habits of the two species, to the determent of the red-tails. Due to nesting proximity to great horned owls, mature red-tails may have losses ranging from 10 to 26%. [141] [145] [256] [258] Red-tailed hawks may face competition from a very broad range of predatory animals, including birds outside of typically active predatory families, carnivoran mammals and some reptiles such as snakes. Mostly these diverse kinds of predators are segregated by their hunting methods, primary times of activity and habitat preferences. In California , both the red-tails and western diamondback rattlesnakes ( Crotalus atrox ) lives mainly on California ground squirrel but the rattlesnake mainly attacks the squirrels in and around their burrows, whereas the hawks must wait until they leave the burrows to capture them. [259] Hawks have been observed following American badgers ( Taxidea taxus ) to capture prey they flush and the two are considered potential competitors, especially in sparse sub-desert areas where the rodent foods they both favor are scarce. [260] Competition over carcasses may occur with American crows , and several crows, usually about six or more, working together can displace a hawk. [261] Another avian scavenger, the turkey vulture ( Cathartes aura ), is dominated by red-tails and may be followed by red-tails in order to supplant a carcass found by the vulture with their keen sense of smell. [262] In some cases, red-tailed hawks may be considered lessened as food competitors by their lack of specialization. For instance, no serious competition probably occurs between them and Canada lynx ( Lynx canadensis ) despite both living on snowshoe hares. [263] Red-tailed Hawk with moon over Estero Bay CA Distinguishing territorial exclusionary behavior and anti-predator behavior is difficult in raptorial birds. However, as opposed to other medium to largish hawks which chase off red-tails most likely as competition, in much smaller raptors such as kestrels and smaller Accipiter hawks, their aggressive reaction to red-tailed hawks is almost certainly an anti-predator behavior. Although less prolific than goshawks , some eagles and, especially, great horned owls , red-tailed hawks can and do prey upon smaller birds of prey. The following species of accipitrid have been known to fall prey to red-tailed hawks, potentially including nestlings, fledglings, immatures and/or adults: swallow-tailed kite ( Elanoides forficatus ), [264] Mississippi kite ( Ictinia mississippiensis ), [265] white-tailed kite ( Elanus leucurus ), [266] northern harrier ( Circus hudsonius ), [103] sharp-shinned hawk ( Accipiter striatus ), [267] Cooper's hawk ( Accipiter cooperii ), [268] goshawks , [250] gray hawk (B uteo plagiatus ), [269] red-shouldered hawk [270] and broad-winged hawk ( Buteo platypterus ). [271] These species range from the 135.7 g (4.79 oz) sharp-shinned hawk, the smallest North American accipitrid, to the goshawk, which at 956 g (2.108 lb) is nearly red-tailed hawk sized. [16] [250] Additionally, there are records of red-tailed hawks hunting 9 species of owl, ranging in size from the 104.2 g (3.68 oz) northern saw-whet owl ( Aegolius acadius ) to juveniles of the 1,079 g (2.379 lb) great gray owl ( Strix nebulosa ) and seemingly adults of the 717 g (1.581 lb) barred owl ( Strix varia ). [102] [103] [272] Red-tails will also hunt falcons including adult American kestrels ( Falco sparverius ) and merlins ( Falco columbarius ) and presumed nestlings of the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ). [103] [273] [274] When hunting other raptorial birds, red-tailed hawks seem to ambush them from a perch, diving suddenly and unexpectedly upon spotting the quarry and tend to have the greatest success when the raptorial prey is distracted, such as those migrating on windy days, feeding on their own prey and tending to their nest. [5] [250] [273] In turn, red-tailed hawks may engage in behavior that straddles territorial exclusion and anti-predator behavior to the two much larger raptors in North America which actively hunt, the eagles . Red-tails are most commonly seen flying towards and aggressively displacing both flying bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) and golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ), but may also, to the contrary, unobtrusively duck down out of flight to an inconspicuous perch when an eagle is spotted. The behavioral variation is probably related to the activity of hawks, which may feel the need to protect their nests and food resources while actively breeding but are not usually willing to risk their lives in attacking an eagle while migrating or wintering. At times mobbing behavior of smaller raptors may cause both eagles to turn over and present their large talons to their attacker, which can be dangerous for the smaller hawk. [5] [135] [227] [275] Besides the great horned owl, the two eagle species are the only known animals known to regularly threaten red-tailed hawks of any age. In particular, the golden eagle is probably the greatest daytime threat to fledged immature and adult red-tails, as these have turned up in many dietary studies of the powerful eagle. [102] [276] Less efficient as a predator of red-tails, bald eagles nonetheless have been recording killing adults in some cases or, more often, depredating red-tailed hawk nests. On occasion, this may result in the bald eagle bringing the nestling red-tails to their own nest and, for some reason, not killing them. In some cases, the bald eagles inadvertently actually raise the nestling red-tails themselves and the baby red-tailed hawks may successfully fledge. [277] [278] [279] In one case, a red-tailed hawk was observed to kill a bald eagle chick, whether this was predatory or competitive, it quickly abandoned the dead nestling after the eagle’s parents returned. [280] On several tropical islands, which are often shared only with other hawks, owls and falcons of only medium or small-sized and typically lack larger raptors or carnivorans, the red-tailed hawk may be the largest native predator and will, in these cases, be considered the apex predator . [281] [67] Other than large birds of prey, extensive records of predation on red-tailed hawks is surprisingly poor, in spite of several populations recording nestlings and eggs disappearing through presumed acts of natural predation. The most likely major predator of eggs and nestlings that disappear is the raccoon which, during its nocturnal foraging, is a notorious enemy of nearly any kind of birds nest. [5] [4] [282] It is also known that unidentified large snakes, probably consisting of the same species that the red-tails so readily predate during broad daylight, will prey upon nestling red-tails. [283] In California , common ravens were recorded preying on the downy young of red-tailed hawks. [284] Other corvids, including blue jays ( Cyanocitta cristata ), California scrub jays ( Aphelocoma californica ) and crows , are known to feed on eggs and small nestlings either when nest attendance is atypically low by the hawks or when they can successful harass the parent hawks via mobbing so severely that they temporarily leave the nest. [4] [15] [285] Blackflies ( Simulium canonicolum ) have been recorded as killing several red-tail chicks through blood loss. [286] There are also several cases of possible prey turning the tables on red-tailed hawks and either maiming or killing them. This is especially true of snakes, with some prey species of Pituophis , Pantherophis and Coluber known to overpower and nearly kill, often the hawk survives only if by human intervention. Not infrequently prey such as coral snakes and rattlesnakes may succeed in killing red-tailed hawks with their venom, even if they themselves are also killed and partially consumed. [135] [208] [287] [288] Peregrine falcons are also known to kill red-tailed hawks that have come too close to their nests by stooping upon them. [5] Reproduction [ edit ] Territorial adult chasing away an immature red-tailed hawk Courtship and pre-laying behaviors [ edit ] Pairs either court for the first time or engage in courtship rituals to strengthen pre-existing pair bonds before going into the breeding. The breeding season usually begins in late February through March, but can commence as early as late December in Arizona and late January in Wisconsin or to the opposite extreme as late as mid-April as in Alberta . [9] [101] [141] [241] In this pre-nesting period, high-circling with much calling will occur. One or both members of a pair may be involved. The courtship display often involves dangling legs, at times the pair will touching each other's wings and male's feet may touch female's back, she may occasional roll over and present talons, food passes are rarely reported. [2] [9] [94] High soaring occurs aseasonally. Circling above territory tends to be done noisily and conspicuously, helping insure against possible takeovers. Spring circling of a pair can be a prelude to copulation. [15] A typical sky-dance involves the male hawk climbing high in flight with deep, exaggerated beats and then diving precipitously on half-closed wings at great speed, checking, and shooting back up, or often plunging less steeply and repeating process in a full rollercoaster across the sky. Sky-dances are done on periphery of the pair’s territory and it appears to designate the territory limits, occasionally one male’s sky-dance may also trigger a sky-dance by a neighboring male, who may even run a parallel course in the sky. Sky-dances no longer occur after late incubation. [2] [5] [77] Boundary flight displays may be engaged in by all four birds of 2 adjacent pairs. [15] Cartwheeling with interlocking talons is also seen occasionally in spring, almost always a territorial male expelling an intruding one, the latter often being a second or third year male that is newly mature. A perched display, with fluffed-out breast feathers may too occur at this time. Even males that are in spring migration have been recorded engaging in a separate display: circling at slow speed before partially closing wings, dropping legs with talons spread and tilting from side-to-side. A female hawk is usually around when migrating male does this but she does not engage in this display herself. [2] [5] The area of occupancy of breeding territories by pairs is variable based on regional habitat composition. The highest recorded density of pairs was in California where each pair occurred on 1.3 km 2 (0.50 sq mi), which was actually just ahead of Puerto Rico where pair occupancy averaged 1.56 km 2 (0.60 sq mi) in peak habitat. The largest known average territory sizes were surprisingly in Ohio , where the average area of occupancy by pairs was recorded as 50 km 2 (19 sq mi). [9] [52] [135] In Wisconsin mean ranges for males range from 1.17 to 3.9 km 2 (0.45 to 1.51 sq mi) in males and from 0.85 to 1.67 km 2 (0.33 to 0.64 sq mi) in females, respectively in summer and winter. Here and elsewhere, both members of the pair stay quite close together throughout winter if they’re sedentary. Other the other hand, migrant populations tend to separate while migrating and return to the same territory to find its prior mate, sometimes before they reach their home range. [9] [52] [257] In Alaska , returning migrant pairs were able to displace lone red-tailed hawks that had stayed on residence, especially lone males but sometimes even lone females. [94] In general, the red-tailed hawk will only take a new mate when its original mate dies. [289] Although pairs often mate for life, replacement of mates can often be quite fast for this common bird species. In one case in Baja California , when a female was shot on May 16, the male of that pair was seen to have selected a new mate the following day. [5] [290] In copulation, the female, when perched, tilts forward, allowing the male to land with his feet lodged on her horizontal back. The female twists and moves her tail feathers to one side, while the mounted male twists his cloacal opening around the female's cloaca. Copulation lasts 5 to 10 seconds and during pre-nesting courtship in late winter or early spring can occur numerous times each day. [291] Nests [ edit ] Red-tailed hawks build large but untidy looking nests The pair constructs a stick nest most often in a large tree 4 to 21 m (13 to 69 ft) off the ground or on a cliff ledge 35 m (115 ft) or higher above the ground, or may nest on virtually any man-made structures with some variety of ample ledges or surface space and good views of the surrounding environment (i.e. powerline poles, radio transmission towers, skyscraper buildings). [74] [292] [293] [294] Much variation is recorded in nest usage behavior, many red-tails build new nests every year despite prior nests sometimes being in good standing and unoccupied, some may reuse a nest in subsequent years or may leave a nest for a year and then come back to it the following year. [9] [5] A red-tailed hawk nest is typically located in a gradient zone between woods with tall, mature trees, if available, and openings whether this is composed of shrubland, grassland or agricultural areas. [295] Nest sites vary greatly in topography and vegetative composition. [296] At times, unlike great horned owls , red-tailed hawks have been recorded nesting in surprisingly unbroken forests. [297] In North Dakota , nest sites tend to be concentrated along wooded river drainages. [298] Compared to Swainson's hawks and ferruginous hawks , red-tailed hawk nests are usually in taller trees and are closer to waterways. [8] [299] In Puerto Rico , nests are most often found in transitional zone between dry lowlands and mountainous cloud forests, with trees typically taller than their neighbors to allow views of more than half of their home ranges. More than 21 tree species were recorded used in Puerto Rico. [52] Tree species is seemingly unimportant to red-tailed hawks. [300] In some parts of Arizona , saguaro cactus were used exclusively as nesting sites. [241] Alternately, old nests of other Buteo hawks, corvids , golden eagles and even leaf nests of tree squirrels have also been used by red-tailed hawks. [2] Both members of the pair will build the nests but the female spends more time forming the bowl, with the greatest activity often in the morning and nest building completed in a week or less. [101] [135] The nest is generally 71 to 97 cm (28 to 38 in) in diameter, with a mean of roughly 76 cm (30 in), and can be up to 96 cm (38 in) tall after several years use. The inner bowl averages about 37 cm (15 in) wide and 13 cm (5.1 in) deep. [9] [77] [257] The nest is constructed of twigs, and lined with bark , pine needles, corn cobs , husks, stalks, aspen catkins, or other plant lining matter. Lining the nest may be for warning other red-tails of the active use of a nest. [9] [101] In moderate to northern climes, red-tailed hawks tend to face to the south or west, presumably to make them less vulnerable to strong northeasterly storm winds. [301] Eggs [ edit ] In most of the interior contiguous United States the first egg is laid between mid-March and early April, ranging from 3 to 5 weeks after the nest is constructed, with the clutch completed 2 to 5 days after the initial egg is laid. [9] [302] The average date of the laying the first egg can be variable: peaking mid-January in Puerto Rico , averaging March 9th in Arizona , March 26 in the Front Range Urban Corridor and May 1st in Alberta . [9] [52] [141] [241] The mean initiation of clutches may bump weeks later if 10 cm (3.9 in) or more of snow is still on the ground in Wisconsin during March. [101] A clutch of one to three eggs is laid in March or April, depending upon latitude, with four eggs being uncommon and five and perhaps even six increasingly rare. [77] Clutch size depends almost exclusively on the availability of prey for the adults. At the species level, body size also determines clutch size. For example, while the total clutch weighs up to 18% of the females weight and the clutch size averages 2 to 3, a larger raptor like the golden eagle lays a smaller clutch, usually not more than two, that weighs less than 10% in total of the female’s body mass, whereas a smaller raptor like the kestrel lays a larger clutch averaging five that weighs 50% of the females weight. [4] Average clutch size vary from 1.96 in Alaska when prey populations were low up to 2.96 in Washington . [94] [303] Eggs are laid approximately every other day. Average egg sizes in height and width (each with a sample size of 20) are in the following subspecies- B. j. borealis : 59.53 mm × 47.49 mm (2.344 in × 1.870 in); B. j. calurus : 60.04 mm × 47.1 mm (2.364 in × 1.854 in); B. j. fuertesi : 59.42 mm × 46.99 mm (2.339 in × 1.850 in). [304] The eggs of red-tailed hawks are mostly white, sometimes with a faint buffy wash; at times the eggs manifest a sparsely or heavily marked with blotches of buff, pale reddish-brown, dark brown, or purple. The markings often appear indistinctly and may combine to form a fine speckling. [305] They are incubated primarily by female, with the male substituting when the female leaves to hunt or merely stretch her wings. Rarely do the males incubate more than four hours of daylight. The male brings most food to the female while she incubates. [9] [77] [257] [284] Hatching, development and brooding [ edit ] Parent in nest with chicks After 28 to 35 days of incubation (averaging about three days longer in the Caribbean as does fledgling as compared to North American red-tails), the eggs hatch over 2 to 4 days. [2] [306] Like most raptorial birds, the nestlings are altricial and nidicolous at hatching. [9] [135] Hatchlings average 58 g (2.0 oz) in body mass with no difference in sizes of the sexes until the young are about 29 days old for mass and 21 days or so for external linear standard measurements such as bill and talon size. [307] The female broods them while the male provides most of the food to the female and the young, which are also known as eyasses (pronounced \"EYE-ess-ez\"). The female feeds the eyasses after tearing the food into small pieces. The young red-tails are active by the second day when they issue soft peeping calls, bounce, and wave continuously with their wings. By day 7, the bouncing and peeping begin to wane, and young start to peck at prey in their nest. Nestlings emit high whistling notes (usually in response to adults overhead) by day 10, sit up on tarsometatarsi by day 15, become aggressive toward intruders by day 16, strike out with talons and wings by day 21, begin to stretch wings and exercise regularly by day 30. After 42 to 46 days, the eyasses begin to leave the nest and tear apart prey for themselves. [9] [135] The amount of food brought to the nest daily varies considerably, based on brood size and prey availability. In Alberta , an average of 410 to 730 g (14 to 26 oz) is brought each day for 1 to 3 nestlings while in Washington , it was estimated a minimum of 520 g (1.15 lb) per day for 1 surviving nestling and in Wisconsin , an estimated 219 g (7.7 oz) was needed for 1 nestling and 313 g (11.0 oz) for 2. [257] [253] [308] Brooding is strenuous for parent red-tails and both members of the pair usually lose some weight, especially the female. Some females may lose over 100 g (3.5 oz) between hatching and fledging. [9] During brooding the female may become aggressive to intruders, including humans. In the east, red-tailed hawk females rarely defends nests from humans but historically in California and quite often still in Alaska , some female will dive repeatedly and \"savagely\", sometimes snapping off large branches in her temper, occasionally stunning herself or inadvertently knocking down her own youngster if it is attempting to fledge. Apparently, the less extensive prior exposure they have to humans may make mature females more aggressive towards humans near the nest. [5] [15] [94] Although development is asynchronical in most nests, runting may sometimes be recorded and even siblicide may occur, with the parents feeding the weaker, younger chicks less so and both the siblings and parents occasionally aggressively pecking the “runts” of the nest. Ultimately, the runt in such cases does not usually survive and may be either be found crushed in the nest, discarded out of the nest after starvation or consumed by the parents or the siblings. However, as a whole, such killings are fairly rare and only when food supplies are extremely low, often this being in sync with poor spring weather (such as overly rainy or cold conditions). [5] [258] [308] If there is too much food, such as California ground squirrels in California , the parents will discard remains after a day or two since decomposition of their prey invites infection, other diseases and blood-sucking insects to the nest that may endanger the nestlings. However, after about four weeks, the female often stops discarding leftover prey and the increased presence of flies may form somewhat of a risk to disease in the young but may also merely get the young to leave the nest sooner. [15] [135] One nest in California had two females and one male attended to, the male performing his usual function but both females would brood and tend to the nest. [309] Fledging and immaturity [ edit ] A red-tailed hawk chick peers out of its cliff nest Young typically leave the nest for the first time and attempt their first flights at about 42–46 days after hatching but usually they stay very near the nest for the first few days. During this period, the fledglings remain fairly sedentary, though they may chase parents and beg for food. Parents deliver food directly or, more commonly, drop it near the young. Short flights are typically undertaken for the first 3 weeks after fledgling and the young red-tails activity level often doubles. About 6 to 7 weeks after fledging, the young begin to capture their own prey, which often consists of insects and frogs that the young hawks can drop down to onto the ground with relative ease. At the point they are 15 weeks old, they may start attempts to hunt more difficult mammal and bird prey in sync with their newly developed skills for sustained flight, and most are efficient mammal predators fairly soon after their first attempts at such prey. Shortly thereafter, when the young are around 4 months of age, they become independent of their parents. In some extreme cases, juvenile red-tails may prolong their association with their parents to as long as they are half a year old, as was recorded in Wisconsin . [257] [4] [310] [311] After dispersing from the parental territory, juveniles from several nests may congregate and interact in a juvenile staging area. Although post-fledgling siblings in their parents care are fairly social, they are rarely seen together post distribution from their parents range. [9] [312] Usually, newly independent young hawks leave the breeding area and migrate, if necessary, earlier than adults do, however the opposite was true in the extreme north of Alaska , where adults were recorded to leave first. [312] [313] Immature hawks in migratory populations tend to distribute further in winter than adults from these populations do. [314] Immatures attempting to settle for the winter often are harassed from territory to territory by older red-tails, settling only in small, marginal areas. In some cases, such as near urban regions, immatures may be driven to a small pockets of urban vegetation with less tree cover and limited food resources. When a distant adult appear, immature may drop from a prominent perch to a more concealed one. [15] [101] In some cases, hungry immature red-tails have been recorded making attempts at hunting prey beyond their capacities, expending valuable energy, such as healthy adults of larger carnivorans such as coyotes ( Canis latrans ), foxes and badgers and healthy flying passerines . [5] There are some cases of red-tailed hawks, presumably younger than two years of age, attempting to breed, often with an adult bird of the opposite sex. Such cases have been recorded in Alberta , Arizona and Wisconsin , with about half of these attempts being successful at producing young. [141] [180] [303] [315] However, while adult plumage and technically sexual maturity is attained at two years old, many red-tails do not first successfully breed until they are around 3 years of age. [9] Breeding success and longevity [ edit ] A recent fledgling on the ground, probably making its early hunting attempts. Breeding success is variable due to many factors. Estimated nesting success usually falls between 58% and 93%. [241] [258] Nesting success rates are probably drive primarily by prey populations, regional habitat composition, competition levels with other red-tailed hawks, predation rates (often due to great horned owls or perhaps raccoons ) and human disturbance levels. [5] [9] [4] In Oregon specifically, nesting success varied primarily based on \"dispersion and density of perches\" secondarily to ground squirrel abundance and whether the nest of other pairs red-tails was directly visible from a nest. [227] [316] [317] Repeated disturbances at the nest early in the nesting cycle may cause abandonment of eggs or nestlings in some cases, but seemingly pairs are less likely to abandon the young later in the season in cases of human disturbance. [5] 30% of nesting deaths in a study from Wisconsin were from nestlings falling to their death or the nest collapsing. [257] In Puerto Rico , habitat appeared to be the primary driver of breeding success, as in lowland pastures nesting success was 43% producing a mean number of fledglings of 1.5 whereas in cloud forest success was 34% producing a mean of 0.7 fledglings. [52] In Wyoming , 12 pairs on a 12 square mile tract produced an average of 1.4 young per pair. [15] In comparison, the mean number of fledglings was 0.96 in Michigan , 1.36 in Montana and was 1.4 in the Appalachians . [25] [310] [318] In Wisconsin , the number of young successfully to fledge ranged from 1.1 to 1.8 from year to year probably depending on staple prey numbers. [101] The record lifespan in wild for a red-tailed hawk is 25 years and 5 months from banding studies. In comparison, lifespans of up to 29.5 years have been recorded in captivity. [5] In the wild, other red-tailed hawks have lived for at least 25 years, for example, Pale Male was born in 1990, and in Spring 2014 is still raising eyasses. [74] However, of 5195 banded wild red-tailed hawks in one bander’s recordings, only 31 were reported to have survived to 17 years of age and only 11 survived for 20 years. [319] The average mortality rate at 1 year of age for red-tails is 54% and thereafter is around 20% from banding sources. [303] The estimated average lifespan of red-tailed hawks who attain maturity, per Palmer (1988), was claimed as only 6 to 7 years. [5] The main causes of mortality considered as electrocution on power lines, other collisions, shooting, consumption of poisoned baits set for other animals and collision with vehicles and other crafts. While most mortality of young red-tails is at least mainly due to natural causes, mortality of fledged or older red-tails is now mostly attributable to human killing, accidental or intentional, as well as flying into manmade materials. [2] [284] [320] Hawks in urban areas are threatened by the use of rat traps and poisoned bait to kill rodents. This generally consists of warfarin cookies which induce internal bleeding in rats and mice, and a hawk that ingests rodents who have consumed rat poison can itself be affected. [321] Red-tailed hawks are also vulnerable to fatal bacterial infections include peritonitis , myocarditis , granulamotous , sarcocystosis and mycobateriosis as well as some forms of viral infection, to which immature hawks especially, as they often have less access to coverage in poor weather conditions, are most vulnerable. [9] Neither this nor other Buteo hawks were found to be highly susceptible to long-term DDT egg-shell thinning due to being part, generally, of relatively short, terrestrial-based food chains. [4] Relationship with humans [ edit ] See also § Distribution and habitat , for habitat relationships to human settlement patterns. Use in falconry [ edit ] The red-tailed hawk is a popular bird in falconry , particularly in the United States where the sport of falconry is tightly regulated and where red-tailed hawks are both widely available and allowed to novice falconers. Red-tailed hawks are highly tameable and trainable, with a more social disposition than all other falcons or hawks other than the Harris's hawk . [322] They are also long lived and highly disease resistant, allowing a falconer to maintain a red-tailed hawk as a hunting companion for potentially up to two decades. [10] There are fewer than 5,000 falconers in the United States, so despite their popularity any effect on the red-tailed hawk population, estimated to be about one million in the United States, is negligible. [323] Not being as swift as falcons or accipiters , red-tailed hawks are not the most effective of bird hawks and are usually used against ground game such as rabbits and squirrels. However, some individuals may learn to ambush birds on the ground with a swift surprise approach and capture them before they can accelerate to full speed and escape. Some have even learned to use a falcon-like diving stoop to capture challenging game such as pheasants. In the course of a typical hunt, a falconer using a red-tailed hawk most commonly releases the hawk and allows it to perch in a tree or other high vantage point. The falconer, who may be aided by a dog, then attempts to flush prey by stirring up ground cover. A well-trained red-tailed hawk will follow the falconer and dog, realizing that their activities produce opportunities to catch game. Once a raptor catches game, it does not bring it back to the falconer. Instead, the falconer must locate the bird and its captured prey, \"make in\" (carefully approach) and trade the bird its kill in exchange for a piece of offered meat. [10] [324] Feathers and Native American use [ edit ] Red-tailed hawk in Oregon The feathers and other parts of the red-tailed hawk are considered sacred to many American indigenous people and, like the feathers of the bald eagle and golden eagle , are sometimes used in religious ceremonies and found adorning the regalia of many Native Americans in the United States ; these parts, most especially their distinctive tail feathers, are a popular item in the Native American community. [325] As with the other two species, the feathers and parts of the red-tailed hawk are regulated by the eagle feather law , [326] which governs the possession of feathers and parts of migratory birds. [327] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b BirdLife International. (2016). Buteo jamaicensis . 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Wikispecies has information related to Buteo jamaicensis Wikisource has original text related to this article: \"The Red-tailed Hawk\" by John James Audubon Wikisource has original text related to this article: \"The Black Warrior, Falco Harlani \" by John James Audubon Red-tailed hawk Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Red-tailed hawk – Buteo jamaicensis – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter Red-tailed hawk Pictures at Fordham University North American Falconers Association Comparison of Adult & Immature tails Discussion of Krider's and Harlan's forms and identification issues Photo Field Guide on Flickr \"Red-tailed hawk\" in The Encyclopedia of Life \"Red-tailed hawk media\" . Internet Bird Collection . Red-tailed hawk photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University) Historical works [ edit ] John James Audubon. The Red-tailed Hawk in Ornithological Biography vol. 1 (1831), pp. 265–272 (also on WikiSource, see right). The Red-tailed Buzzard in The Birds of America vol. 1 (1840), pp. 32–38. [The 1840 edition appears to be a combination of the two companion works from early 1830s: the plates from Birds of America and the descriptions from Ornithological Biography .] John James Audubon. The Black Warrior in Ornithological Biography vol. 1 (1831), pp. 441–443 (also on WikiSource, see right). Harlan's Buzzard in The Birds of America vol. 1 (1840), pp. 38–40. Live nest cameras [ edit ] Live nestcam at Cornell University Live nestcam at Syracuse University PMC-Sierra HawkCam Live nestcam at the University of Wisconsin, Madison [ show ] v t e Subfamily : Buteoninae Genus Species (extinctions: † indicates a species confirmed to be extinct) Geranoaetus Black-chested buzzard-eagle Variable hawk White-tailed hawk Buteo Common buzzard Eastern buzzard Himalayan buzzard Cape Verde buzzard Socotra buzzard Red-tailed hawk Long-legged buzzard Rough-legged buzzard Ferruginous hawk Red-shouldered hawk Broad-winged hawk Swainson's hawk Ridgway's hawk White-rumped hawk Short-tailed hawk White-throated hawk Galápagos hawk Gray hawk Zone-tailed hawk Hawaiian hawk Rufous-tailed hawk Mountain buzzard Madagascar buzzard Upland buzzard Red-necked buzzard Jackal buzzard Archer's buzzard Augur buzzard Rupornis Roadside hawk Parabuteo Harris's hawk White-rumped hawk Buteogallus Rufous crab hawk Common black hawk Cuban black hawk Great black hawk Savanna hawk Busarellus Black-collared hawk Leucopternis White-browed hawk White-necked hawk Black-faced hawk Plumbeous hawk Barred hawk Slate-colored hawk Semiplumbeous hawk Pseudastur Gray-backed hawk White hawk Mantled hawk Kaupifalco Lizard buzzard Butastur Rufous-winged buzzard Grasshopper buzzard White-eyed buzzard Grey-faced buzzard Harpyhaliaetus Chaco eagle Solitary eagle Eagle Buzzard Taxon identifiers Wd : Q457471 ARKive : buteo-jamaicensis eBird : rethaw EoL : 1049057 EPPO : BUTEJA Fossilworks : 129162 GBIF : 2480542 IBC : red-tailed-hawk-buteo-jamaicensis iNaturalist : 5212 ITIS : 175350 IUCN : 22695933 NCBI : 56263 Species+ : 9825 WoRMS : 159109 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red-tailed_hawk&oldid=838051004 \" Categories : IUCN Red List least concern species Buteo Falconry Sound effects Birds of North America Birds described in 1788 Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list Articles with 'species' microformats Good articles Use dmy dates from May 2012 Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Diné bizaad Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Interlingua Italiano עברית Latina Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 27 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018, at 16:38. 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{ "text": "2017 NBA Playoffs - Wikipedia 2017 NBA Playoffs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2017 NBA Playoffs Dates April 15–June 12, 2017 Season 2016–17 Teams 16 Champions Golden State Warriors (5th title) Runners-up Cleveland Cavaliers (4th finals appearance) Semifinalists San Antonio Spurs Boston Celtics ← 2016 2018 → The 2017 NBA Playoffs began on April 15, 2017. It concluded with the Golden State Warriors defeating the Cleveland Cavaliers 4 games to 1 in the NBA Finals , their third consecutive meeting at the Finals. Kevin Durant was named the NBA Finals MVP in his first year on the team. The Warriors set the record for the longest playoff winning streak (15) and the best record (16-1) in NBA playoff history. Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Western Conference 1.2 Eastern Conference 1.3 First round 1.4 Conference Semifinals 1.5 Conference Finals 1.6 NBA Finals 2 Format 3 Playoff qualifying 3.1 Eastern Conference 3.2 Western Conference 4 Bracket 5 First Round 5.1 Eastern Conference 5.1.1 (1) Boston Celtics vs. (8) Chicago Bulls 5.1.2 (2) Cleveland Cavaliers vs. (7) Indiana Pacers 5.1.3 (3) Toronto Raptors vs. (6) Milwaukee Bucks 5.1.4 (4) Washington Wizards vs. (5) Atlanta Hawks 5.2 Western Conference 5.2.1 (1) Golden State Warriors vs. (8) Portland Trail Blazers 5.2.2 (2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (7) Memphis Grizzlies 5.2.3 (3) Houston Rockets vs. (6) Oklahoma City Thunder 5.2.4 (4) Los Angeles Clippers vs. (5) Utah Jazz 6 Conference Semifinals 6.1 Eastern Conference Semifinals 6.1.1 (1) Boston Celtics vs. (4) Washington Wizards 6.1.2 (2) Cleveland Cavaliers vs. (3) Toronto Raptors 6.2 Western Conference Semifinals 6.2.1 (1) Golden State Warriors vs. (5) Utah Jazz 6.2.2 (2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (3) Houston Rockets 7 Conference Finals 7.1 Eastern Conference Finals 7.1.1 (1) Boston Celtics vs. (2) Cleveland Cavaliers 7.2 Western Conference Finals 7.2.1 (1) Golden State Warriors vs. (2) San Antonio Spurs 8 2017 NBA Finals: (E2) Cleveland Cavaliers vs. (W1) Golden State Warriors 9 Statistical leaders 10 Media coverage 10.1 Television 11 References 12 External links Overview [ edit ] Western Conference [ edit ] The Golden State Warriors clinched the earliest playoffs berth in NBA history (on February 25th), clinched the best record in the league for 3 straight season and entered their fifth consecutive postseason for the first time since making six straight appearances from 1947–52'. The San Antonio Spurs entered their 20th consecutive postseason, including back-to-back 60+ wins for the first time in franchise history. However, they were swept by the Golden State Warriors in the Conference Finals. The Houston Rockets entered their fifth consecutive postseason. However, they were eliminated by the San Antonio Spurs in the Conference Semifinals. The Los Angeles Clippers entered their franchise record sixth consecutive postseason. However, they were eliminated by the Utah Jazz in the first round. The Utah Jazz clinched the playoffs spot for the first time since 2012 and their first playoffs series win since 2010 . However, they were swept by the Golden State Warriors in the Conference Semifinals. The Oklahoma City Thunder entered their 2nd consecutive postseason. However, they were eliminated by the Houston Rockets in the first round, their earliest exit since 2010 . The Memphis Grizzlies entered their seventh consecutive postseason. However, they were eliminated by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round for the second straight year. The Portland Trail Blazers entered their fourth consecutive postseason. However, they were swept by Golden State Warriors in the first round. Eastern Conference [ edit ] The Boston Celtics entered their third consecutive postseason and clinched the best record in the Eastern Conference for the first time since 2008 . However, they were eliminated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals. The defending champions Cleveland Cavaliers entered their third consecutive postseason. However, they were defeated by the Golden State Warriors in the NBA Finals. The Toronto Raptors entered their fourth consecutive postseason, including back-to-back 50+ wins for the first time in franchise history. However, they were swept by the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Semifinals. The Washington Wizards , Milwaukee Bucks & Chicago Bulls clinched a playoff spot for the first time since 2015 . Milwaukee and Chicago were eliminated by Toronto and Boston, respectively. The Washington Wizards were eliminated by the Boston Celtics in the Conference Semifinals. It should also be noted that Game 6 of the Wizards-Celtics game was the last time before Verizon Center renames to Capital One Arena . The Atlanta Hawks entered their 10th consecutive postseason, one shy of their postseason streak of 11 (1963-73). However, they were eliminated by the Washington Wizards in the first round. The Indiana Pacers entered their second consecutive postseason. However, they were swept by the Cleveland Cavaliers in the first round. With a 4th seed in the playoffs, the Wizards had their highest seed under a 16-team playoff format. First round [ edit ] This was the first time, in a best-of-7 series, that an 8th seed (Chicago Bulls) went up 2–0 against a 1st seed (Boston Celtics) in the first round. It is the second time this happened overall; the Los Angeles Lakers did it against the Phoenix Suns in 1993 , which was a best-of-five series that Phoenix eventually won 3 games to 2. Cleveland became the first team in playoffs history to come back from a 25-point halftime deficit and win when they beat the Pacers in Game 3. The Cavaliers became the first team to sweep an opponent while giving up 100+ points every game since the Houston Rockets allowed 100+ in all 4 games during their sweep of the Orlando Magic in the 1995 NBA Finals. The Boston Celtics became the 19th team to come back after trailing 2–0, against the Bulls. They were also the 4th team in NBA history to lose the first two games of a best-of-7 series at home and still win the series. Game 7 between the Los Angeles Clippers and Utah Jazz ensured an 18th-straight postseason in which at least one Game 7 was played; 1999 was the last postseason to not feature a Game 7. The Clippers became the first NBA team to blow five straight postseason series leads. Conference Semifinals [ edit ] Trailing by 14 and 13 in Games 1 and 2 respectively, the Boston Celtics became the first team to come back and win back-to-back games after trailing by double digits in the first quarter. The 27-point loss in Game 1 is San Antonio's largest defeat in a postseason home game. Scoring 125 points in a Game 2 blowout victory against the Toronto Raptors, the Cleveland Cavaliers set a franchise record for most points scored in a postseason game. Their previous record was 124, in 2010. 18 of 21 conference semifinals games were decided by 10 points or more. Eight of these games were decided by over 20 points. With a four-game sweep against the Raptors, the Cleveland Cavaliers became the second team to have six playoffs series sweeps in three consecutive postseasons (2015–2017) since the Lakers did it in 1987–1989. They also became the first team to start 8–0 in two straight playoffs. The Cavaliers' Game 4 win over the Raptors gave them their 11th consecutive postseason win (a streak dating back to Game 5 of the 2016 NBA Finals), setting a franchise record. With a four-game sweep against Utah, Golden State swept consecutive playoff series for the first time in franchise history and also had their best eight-game postseason start in franchise history. The Cavaliers and Warriors both started the NBA postseason with 8–0 records, the first time in NBA history that two teams started 8–0 in the same postseason since switching to a seven-game format. In a series-ending 114–75 loss against the Spurs, the Houston Rockets set an NBA record for fewest two-point field goals made in a game. They made 9 of 37, while the previous record was 11 of 41. Conference Finals [ edit ] After trailing as much as 25 points, Golden State Warriors came back and won against the San Antonio Spurs in Game 1. This is the largest comeback in the Conference Finals since the Celtics came back from 26 to beat the Nets in Game 3 of the 2002 Eastern Conference Finals. With a 36-point win against the San Antonio Spurs in Game 2, this is Golden State Warriors' 2nd largest margin of victory in postseason history. (The largest is 39-point set back in 1948 , which would be surpassed in the following year when the Warriors defeat Rockets by 41.) After trailing as much as 21 points, the Boston Celtics surged back with a 28–10 third quarter run against the Cleveland Cavaliers to win Game 3. This was also the Cavaliers' first loss this postseason, as well as their first loss in a postseason game since Game 4 of the previous year's Finals , snapping an NBA playoff record tying 13 game winning streak. With a four-game sweep against the San Antonio Spurs, the Golden State Warriors earned the distinction of having a 12–0 postseason record, the first in NBA history. They are also the first team to have 3 best-of-7 series sweeps, and join the 1988-89 Los Angeles Lakers (who ironically, would get swept themselves by the Detroit Pistons ) and the 2000-01 Lakers as the only teams to be undefeated going into the championship round, and the only one to have done it under the 7-7-7-7 format since it was introduced in 2003. NBA Finals [ edit ] The Golden State Warriors began the finals with a playoff record of 12–0. The first two finals' games were blowouts by Golden State, game three was closer, but the Warriors still came out victors, going up 3–0 bringing them to 15–0 in the playoffs, the best ever start in NBA playoff history. The Cavs countered beating the Warriors 137–116 in Game four, with 86 points in the first half, setting an NBA Finals' record. On June twelfth, the Warriors bounced back and won game five at home 129-120, clinching the organization's fifth championship. Golden State's 16–1 record is an NBA playoff record since 03' for least games attempted to achieve an NBA championship. The title was all-star forward Kevin Durant's first and all-stars Stephen Curry's, Klay Thompson's, and Draymond Green's second in three years. Durant, who scored over 30 points in each of five games (the first player to do so since Shaquille O'Neal in 2000 with Los Angeles), was the recipient of the 2017 Bill Russell NBA Finals' MVP award. Format [ edit ] Further information: NBA Playoffs § Format Within each conference, the eight teams with the most wins qualify for the playoffs. The seedings are based on each team's record. Each conference's bracket is fixed; there is no reseeding. All rounds are best-of-seven series; the team that has four wins advances to the next round. As stated above, all rounds, including the NBA Finals, are in a 2–2–1–1–1 format. Home court advantage in any round does not necessarily belong to the higher-seeded team, but instead to the team with the better regular season record. If two teams with the same record meet in a round, standard tiebreaker rules are used. The rule for determining home court advantage in the NBA Finals is winning percentage, then head to head record, followed by record vs. opposite conference. Playoff qualifying [ edit ] On February 25, 2017, The Golden State Warriors became the first team to clinch a 2017 playoff spot, and the earliest in NBA history, besting their own record from last year by two days. [1] The Cleveland Cavaliers became the first Eastern Conference team to clinch a playoff spot on March 19, 2017. [2] Eastern Conference [ edit ] Seed Team Record Clinched Playoff berth Division title Best record in conference Best record in NBA 1 Boston Celtics 53–29 March 21 [3] April 10 April 12 [4] — 2 Cleveland Cavaliers 51–31 March 19 [2] March 24 [5] — — 3 Toronto Raptors 51–31 March 25 [6] — — — 4 Washington Wizards 49–33 March 24 March 28 [7] — — 5 Atlanta Hawks 43–39 April 8 — — — 6 Milwaukee Bucks 42–40 April 8 — — — 7 Indiana Pacers 42–40 April 12 — — — 8 Chicago Bulls 41–41 April 12 — — — Western Conference [ edit ] Seed Team Record Clinched Playoff berth Division title Best record in Conference Best record in NBA 1 Golden State Warriors 67–15 February 25 [1] March 16 [8] April 5 [9] April 5 [9] 2 San Antonio Spurs 61–21 March 4 [10] March 31 [11] — — 3 Houston Rockets 55–27 March 14 [12] — — — 4 Los Angeles Clippers 51–31 March 25 [13] — — — 5 Utah Jazz 51–31 March 26 [14] April 7 — — 6 Oklahoma City Thunder 47–35 March 29 [15] — — — 7 Memphis Grizzlies 43–39 March 31 [16] — — — 8 Portland Trail Blazers 41–41 April 9 [17] — — — Bracket [ edit ] Teams in bold advanced to the next round. The numbers to the left of each team indicate the team's seeding in its conference, and the numbers to the right indicate the number of games the team won in that round. The division champions are marked by an asterisk. Teams with home court advantage are shown in Italics. First Round Conference Semifinals Conference Finals NBA Finals E1 Boston * 4 E8 Chicago 2 E1 Boston * 4 E4 Washington * 3 E4 Washington * 4 E5 Atlanta 2 E1 Boston * 1 Eastern Conference E2 Cleveland * 4 E3 Toronto 4 E6 Milwaukee 2 E3 Toronto 0 E2 Cleveland * 4 E2 Cleveland * 4 E7 Indiana 0 E2 Cleveland * 1 W1 Golden State * 4 W1 Golden State * 4 W8 Portland 0 W1 Golden State * 4 W5 Utah * 0 W4 LA Clippers 3 W5 Utah * 4 W1 Golden State * 4 Western Conference W2 San Antonio * 0 W3 Houston 4 W6 Oklahoma City 1 W3 Houston 2 W2 San Antonio * 4 W2 San Antonio * 4 W7 Memphis 2 * Division winner Bold Series winner Italic Team with home-court advantage This bracket: view talk edit First Round [ edit ] All times are in Eastern Daylight Time ( UTC−04:00 ) Eastern Conference [ edit ] (1) Boston Celtics vs. (8) Chicago Bulls [ edit ] TNT April 16 6:30 PM Boxscore Chicago Bulls 106 , Boston Celtics 102 Scoring by quarter: 23– 28 , 25 –18, 26– 28 , 32 –28 Pts: Jimmy Butler 30 Rebs: Robin Lopez 11 Asts: Rondo , Wade 6 each Pts: Isaiah Thomas 33 Rebs: Jae Crowder 8 Asts: Al Horford 8 Bulls leads series, 1–0 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Mike Callahan, Kane Fitzgerald, David Guthrie TNT April 18 8:00 PM Boxscore Chicago Bulls 111 , Boston Celtics 97 Scoring by quarter: 31 –26, 23 –20, 32 –29, 25 –22 Pts: Butler , Wade 22 each Rebs: Rajon Rondo 9 Asts: Rajon Rondo 14 Pts: Isaiah Thomas 20 Rebs: Al Horford 11 Asts: Kelly Olynyk 7 Bulls leads series, 2–0 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: James Capers, John Goble, Sean Wright ESPN April 21 7:00 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 104 , Chicago Bulls 87 Scoring by quarter: 33 –15, 11– 26 , 32 –22, 28 –24 Pts: Al Horford 18 Rebs: Al Horford 8 Asts: Isaiah Thomas 9 Pts: Dwyane Wade 18 Rebs: Cristiano Felício 11 Asts: three players 3 each Bulls leads series, 2–1 United Center , Chicago , Illinois Attendance: 21,293 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Brian Forte, Bill Spooner TNT April 23 6:30 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 104 , Chicago Bulls 95 Scoring by quarter: 30 –18, 27– 28 , 22– 24 , 25–25 Pts: Isaiah Thomas 33 Rebs: Al Horford 12 Asts: Isaiah Thomas 7 Pts: Jimmy Butler 33 Rebs: Bobby Portis 8 Asts: Jimmy Butler 9 Series tied at, 2–2 United Center , Chicago , Illinois Attendance: 21,863 Referees: Scott Foster, Eric Lewis, Tom Washington TNT April 26 8:30 PM Boxscore Chicago Bulls 97, Boston Celtics 108 Scoring by quarter: 20– 23 , 30 –29, 31 –27, 16– 29 Pts: Dwyane Wade 26 Rebs: Dwyane Wade 11 Asts: Dwyane Wade 8 Pts: Bradley , Thomas 24 each Rebs: Al Horford 7 Asts: Al Horford 9 Celtics leads series, 3–2 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Danny Crawford , Sean Corbin, Ed Malloy ESPN April 28 8:00 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 105 , Chicago Bulls 83 Scoring by quarter: 30 –23, 24 –18, 34 –18, 17– 24 Pts: Avery Bradley 23 Rebs: Horford , Olynyk 6 each Asts: Al Horford 7 Pts: Jimmy Butler 23 Rebs: Bobby Portis 11 Asts: Dwyane Wade 3 Boston wins series, 4–2 United Center , Chicago , Illinois Attendance: 21,682 Referees: Mike Callahan, Bill Kennedy , James Williams After trailing 2-0 in the series, the Celtics came back to tie the series as Rajon Rondo was ruled out indefinitely after breaking his right thumb in Game 2, and Al Horford scored 18 points and grabbed 8 rebounds in Game 3, and Isaiah Thomas scorched the Bulls for 33 points in Game 4. The Celtics' win in Game 5 would be the only home game victory of the series, and Avery Bradley scored 23 points in Game 6 as the Celtics eliminated the Bulls. Notably, this series began one day following the death of Chyna Thomas, younger sister of Isaiah, in a one-car accident. Thomas played all six games of the series, before returning to the state of Washington for her funeral on April 29th [18] . Game 6 also marked the final game of Jimmy Butler's tenure as a Bull. Regular-season series show Tied 2–2 in the regular-season series October 27, 2016 Recap Boston Celtics 99, Chicago Bulls 105 United Center , Chicago , Illinois November 2, 2016 Recap Chicago Bulls 100, Boston Celtics 107 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts February 16, 2017 Recap Boston Celtics 103, Chicago Bulls 104 United Center , Chicago , Illinois March 12, 2017 Recap Chicago Bulls 80, Boston Celtics 100 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts This was the fifth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning the first four meetings. Previous playoff series [19] show Boston leads 4–0 in all-time playoff series 1981 Boston Celtics 4, Chicago Bulls 0 1981 Eastern Conference Semifinals 1986 Boston Celtics 3, Chicago Bulls 0 1986 Eastern Conference First Round 1987 Boston Celtics 3, Chicago Bulls 0 1987 Eastern Conference First Round 2009 Boston Celtics 4, Chicago Bulls 3 2009 Eastern Conference First Round (2) Cleveland Cavaliers vs. (7) Indiana Pacers [ edit ] ABC April 15 3:00 PM Boxscore Indiana Pacers 108, Cleveland Cavaliers 109 Scoring by quarter: 29– 34 , 30– 32 , 25– 26 , 24 –17 Pts: Paul George 29 Rebs: Thaddeus Young 9 Asts: Paul George 7 Pts: LeBron James 32 Rebs: Tristan Thompson 13 Asts: LeBron James 13 Cavaliers leads series, 1–0 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Scott Foster, Matt Boland, Tony Brothers TNT April 17 7:00 PM Boxscore Indiana Pacers 111, Cleveland Cavaliers 117 Scoring by quarter: 29– 32 , 29– 31 , 20– 33 , 33 –21 Pts: Paul George 32 Rebs: Paul George 8 Asts: Paul George 7 Pts: Kyrie Irving 37 Rebs: Kevin Love 11 Asts: LeBron James 7 Cavaliers leads series, 2–0 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Marc Davis, Sean Corbin, James Williams TNT April 20 7:00 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 119 , Indiana Pacers 114 Scoring by quarter: 27– 37 , 22– 37 , 35 –17, 35 –23 Pts: LeBron James 41 Rebs: LeBron James 13 Asts: LeBron James 12 Pts: Paul George 36 Rebs: Paul George 15 Asts: Paul George 9 Cavaliers leads series, 3–0 Bankers Life Fieldhouse , Indianapolis , Indiana Attendance: 17,923 Referees: Danny Crawford , Tony Brown, Ron Garretson ABC April 23 1:00 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 106 , Indiana Pacers 102 Scoring by quarter: 22– 24 , 36 –28, 30 –25, 18– 25 Pts: LeBron James 33 Rebs: Kevin Love 16 Asts: LeBron James 4 Pts: Lance Stephenson 22 Rebs: Thaddeus Young 10 Asts: Jeff Teague 10 Cleveland wins series, 4–0 Bankers Life Fieldhouse , Indianapolis , Indiana Attendance: 17,923 Referees: Mike Callahan, David Guthrie, Leon Wood In Game 1, LeBron James scored 32 points in a close battle; the Pacers came back in the 4th quarter, but C.J. Miles missed a game-winning three, giving the Cavaliers the win. But after winning Game 2, the Cavs were down by as many as 26 points in the first half of Game 3. The Pacers were in control until the Cavs led by James' triple-double of 41 points, 13 rebounds and 12 assists came roaring back in the second half and took the lead late in the fourth quarter. They would end up winning Game 3, 119-114, as they made it one of the largest comebacks in NBA playoff history. With the Pacers holding a 2-point lead with over a minute left in Game 4, James hits the three over Myles Turner , giving the Cavs a one-point lead. Later, Kyle Korver 's free throws increases the lead to three. The Pacers had a chance to extend the game, but Paul George missed the three, and James gets the rebound. He would make 1 of the 2 free throws to seal the Cavs' 4-game sweep over the Pacers. Regular season series show Cleveland won 3–1 in the regular-season series November 16, 2016 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 93, Indiana Pacers 103 Bankers Life Fieldhouse , Indianapolis , Indiana February 8, 2017 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 132 , Indiana Pacers 117 Bankers Life Fieldhouse , Indianapolis , Indiana February 15, 2017 Recap Indiana Pacers 104, Cleveland Cavaliers 113 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio April 2, 2017 Recap Indiana Pacers 130, Cleveland Cavaliers 135 (2OT) Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Pacers winning the first meeting. Previous playoffs series show Indiana leads 1–0 in all-time playoff series 1998 Cleveland Cavaliers 1, Indiana Pacers 3 1998 Eastern Conference First Round (3) Toronto Raptors vs. (6) Milwaukee Bucks [ edit ] ESPN April 15 5:30 PM Boxscore Milwaukee Bucks 97 , Toronto Raptors 83 Scoring by quarter: 30 –22, 16– 29 , 29 –19, 22 –13 Pts: Giannis Antetokounmpo 28 Rebs: Greg Monroe 15 Asts: Khris Middleton 9 Pts: DeMar DeRozan 27 Rebs: Serge Ibaka 14 Asts: Kyle Lowry 6 Bucks leads series, 1–0 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario Attendance: 20,133 Referees: Ken Mauer , John Goble, Ed Malloy NBA TV April 18 7:00 PM Boxscore Milwaukee Bucks 100, Toronto Raptors 106 Scoring by quarter: 25– 28 , 27–27, 31 –29, 17– 22 Pts: Giannis Antetokounmpo 24 Rebs: Giannis Antetokounmpo 15 Asts: Giannis Antetokounmpo 7 Pts: DeMar DeRozan 23 Rebs: Jonas Valančiūnas 10 Asts: Serge Ibaka 6 Series tied at, 1–1 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario Attendance: 20,077 Referees: Mike Callahan, Bill Kennedy , Mark Lindsay NBA TV April 20 8:00 PM Boxscore Toronto Raptors 77, Milwaukee Bucks 104 Scoring by quarter: 12– 32 , 18– 25 , 16– 21 , 31 –26 Pts: Lowry , Wright 13 each Rebs: Pöltl , Valančiūnas 7 each Asts: Cory Joseph 3 Pts: Khris Middleton 20 Rebs: Giannis Antetokounmpo 8 Asts: Malcolm Brogdon 9 Bucks leads series, 2–1 Bradley Center , Milwaukee , Wisconsin Attendance: 18,717 Referees: Derrick Stafford, Derrick Collins, Zach Zarba TNT April 22 3:00 PM Boxscore Toronto Raptors 87 , Milwaukee Bucks 76 Scoring by quarter: 19–19, 22–22, 23 –17, 23 –18 Pts: DeMar DeRozan 33 Rebs: DeMar DeRozan 9 Asts: DeMar DeRozan 5 Pts: Tony Snell 19 Rebs: Khris Middleton 11 Asts: Giannis Antetokounmpo 4 Series tied at, 2–2 Bradley Center , Milwaukee , Wisconsin Attendance: 18,717 Referees: Danny Crawford , Brent Barnaky, Ron Garretson NBA TV April 24 7:00 PM Boxscore Milwaukee Bucks 93, Toronto Raptors 118 Scoring by quarter: 20– 31 , 28 –26, 25– 33 , 20– 28 Pts: Giannis Antetokounmpo 30 Rebs: Giannis Antetokounmpo 9 Asts: Khris Middleton 6 Pts: Norman Powell 25 Rebs: Jonas Valančiūnas 7 Asts: Kyle Lowry 10 Raptors leads series, 3–2 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario Attendance: 20,251 Referees: James Capers, Pat Fraher, Courtney Kirkland TNT April 27 7:00 PM Boxscore Toronto Raptors 92 , Milwaukee Bucks 89 Scoring by quarter: 28 –24, 23 –14, 23–23, 18– 28 Pts: DeMar DeRozan 32 Rebs: Serge Ibaka 11 Asts: Kyle Lowry 4 Pts: Giannis Antetokounmpo 34 Rebs: Giannis Antetokounmpo 9 Asts: Khris Middleton 5 Toronto wins series, 4–2 Bradley Center , Milwaukee , Wisconsin Attendance: 18,717 Referees: Marc Davis, Tony Brothers , Rodney Mott Regular-season series show Toronto won 3–1 in the regular-season series November 25, 2016 Recap Toronto Raptors 105 , Milwaukee Bucks 99 Bradley Center , Milwaukee , Wisconsin December 12, 2016 Recap Milwaukee Bucks 100, Toronto Raptors 122 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario January 27, 2017 Recap Milwaukee Bucks 86, Toronto Raptors 102 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario March 4, 2017 Recap Toronto Raptors 94, Milwaukee Bucks 101 Bradley Center , Milwaukee , Wisconsin This was the first meeting in the playoffs between the Raptors and Bucks. [20] (4) Washington Wizards vs. (5) Atlanta Hawks [ edit ] TNT April 16 1:00 PM Boxscore Atlanta Hawks 107, Washington Wizards 114 Scoring by quarter: 29 –25, 19– 20 , 28– 38 , 31–31 Pts: Dennis Schröder 25 Rebs: Dwight Howard 14 Asts: Dennis Schröder 9 Pts: John Wall 32 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 10 Asts: John Wall 14 Wizards leads series, 1–0 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. Attendance: 20,356 Referees: Derrick Stafford, Derrick Collins, Zach Zarba NBA TV April 19 7:00 PM Boxscore Atlanta Hawks 101, Washington Wizards 109 Scoring by quarter: 24 –23, 19– 28 , 35 –23, 23– 35 Pts: Paul Millsap 27 Rebs: Paul Millsap 10 Asts: Dennis Schröder 9 Pts: John Wall 32 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 10 Asts: John Wall 9 Wizards leads series, 2–0 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. Attendance: 20,356 Referees: Marc Davis, Sean Corbin, David Guthrie TNT April 22 5:30 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 98, Atlanta Hawks 116 Scoring by quarter: 20– 38 , 26–26, 21– 26 , 31 –26 Pts: John Wall 29 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 8 Asts: John Wall 7 Pts: Paul Millsap 29 Rebs: Paul Millsap 14 Asts: Dennis Schröder 9 Wizards leads series, 2–1 Philips Arena , Atlanta , Georgia Attendance: 18,866 Referees: James Capers, Kane Fitzgerald, Pat Fraher TNT April 24 8:00 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 101, Atlanta Hawks 111 Scoring by quarter: 35 –28, 15– 31 , 27 –18, 24– 34 Pts: Bradley Beal 32 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 18 Asts: John Wall 10 Pts: Paul Millsap 19 Rebs: Dwight Howard 15 Asts: Bazemore , Millsap 7 each Series tied at, 2–2 Philips Arena , Atlanta , Georgia Attendance: 18,676 Referees: Ken Mauer , Ed Malloy, Leroy Richardson TNT April 26 6:00 PM Boxscore Atlanta Hawks 99, Washington Wizards 103 Scoring by quarter: 25 –23, 24– 27 , 30– 33 , 20–20 Pts: Dennis Schröder 29 Rebs: Paul Millsap 11 Asts: Dennis Schröder 11 Pts: Bradley Beal 27 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 10 Asts: John Wall 14 Wizards leads series, 3–2 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. Attendance: 20,356 Referees: Monty McCutchen , James Williams, Sean Wright NBA TV / ESPNU April 28 7:30 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 115 , Atlanta Hawks 99 Scoring by quarter: 30 –23, 35 –23, 24– 36 , 26 –17 Pts: John Wall 42 Rebs: Morris , Porter 8 each Asts: John Wall 8 Pts: Paul Millsap 31 Rebs: Paul Millsap 10 Asts: Dennis Schröder 10 Washington wins series, 4–2 Philips Arena , Atlanta , Georgia Attendance: 18,849 Referees: Danny Crawford , John Goble, Bill Spooner Regular-season series show Washington won 3–1 in the regular-season series October 27, 2016 Recap Washington Wizards 99, Atlanta Hawks 114 Philips Arena , Atlanta , Georgia November 4, 2016 Recap Atlanta Hawks 92, Washington Wizards 95 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. January 27, 2017 Recap Washington Wizards 112 , Atlanta Hawks 86 Philips Arena , Atlanta , Georgia March 22, 2017 Recap Atlanta Hawks 100, Washington Wizards 104 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. This was the sixth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Wizards/Bullets winning three of the first five meetings. Previous playoff series [21] show Washington/Baltimore leads 3–2 in all-time playoff series 1965 St. Louis Hawks 1, Baltimore Bullets 3 1965 Western Conference Semifinals 1966 Baltimore Bullets 0, St. Louis Hawks 3 1966 Western Conference Semifinals 1978 Washington Bullets 2 , Atlanta Hawks 0 1978 Eastern Conference First Round 1979 Washington Bullets 4 , Atlanta Hawks 3 1979 Eastern Conference Semifinals 2015 Washington Wizards 2, Atlanta Hawks 4 2015 Eastern Conference Semifinals Western Conference [ edit ] (1) Golden State Warriors vs. (8) Portland Trail Blazers [ edit ] ABC April 16 3:30 PM Boxscore Portland Trail Blazers 109, Golden State Warriors 121 Scoring by quarter: 27– 32 , 29 –24, 32–32, 21– 33 Pts: C. J. McCollum 41 Rebs: Evan Turner 10 Asts: Turner , Vonleh 4 each Pts: Kevin Durant 32 Rebs: Draymond Green 12 Asts: Draymond Green 9 Warriors leads series, 1–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Tony Brown, Ron Garretson TNT April 19 10:30 PM Boxscore Portland Trail Blazers 81, Golden State Warriors 110 Scoring by quarter: 17– 33 , 29 –22, 12– 28 , 23– 27 Pts: Maurice Harkless 15 Rebs: Maurice Harkless 8 Asts: Evan Turner 7 Pts: Stephen Curry 19 Rebs: Draymond Green 12 Asts: Draymond Green 10 Warriors leads series, 2–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Ken Mauer , Ed Malloy, Michael Smith ESPN April 22 10:30 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 119 , Portland Trail Blazers 113 Scoring by quarter: 30– 37 , 24– 30 , 33 –21, 32 –25 Pts: Stephen Curry 34 Rebs: Draymond Green 8 Asts: Stephen Curry 8 Pts: C. J. McCollum 32 Rebs: Jusuf Nurkić 8 Asts: Lillard , Nurkić 4 each Warriors leads series, 3–0 Moda Center , Portland, Oregon Attendance: 20,177 Referees: Ken Mauer , Leroy Richardson, Zach Zarba TNT April 24 10:30 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 128 , Portland Trail Blazers 103 Scoring by quarter: 45 –22, 27 –26, 34 –32, 22– 23 Pts: Stephen Curry 37 Rebs: Curry , Pachulia 7 each Asts: Stephen Curry 8 Pts: Damian Lillard 34 Rebs: Noah Vonleh 14 Asts: Damian Lillard 6 Golden State wins series, 4–0 Moda Center , Portland, Oregon Attendance: 19,902 Referees: Derrick Stafford, Bennie Adams , Sean Wright Regular-season series show Golden State won 4–0 in the regular-season series November 1, 2016 Recap Golden State Warriors 127 , Portland Trail Blazers 104 Moda Center , Portland, Oregon December 17, 2016 Recap Portland Trail Blazers 90, Golden State Warriors 135 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California January 4, 2017 Recap Portland Trail Blazers 117, Golden State Warriors 125 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California January 29, 2017 Recap Golden State Warriors 113 , Portland Trail Blazers 111 Moda Center , Portland, Oregon This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with Golden State winning the first meeting in 2016. [22] Previous playoffs series show Golden State leads 1–0 in all-time playoff series 2016 Portland Trail Blazers 1, Golden State Warriors 4 2016 Western Conference Semifinals (2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (7) Memphis Grizzlies [ edit ] ESPN April 15 8:00 PM Boxscore Memphis Grizzlies 82, San Antonio Spurs 111 Scoring by quarter: 30 –25, 19– 27 , 15– 32 , 18– 27 Pts: Marc Gasol 32 Rebs: Conley , Gasol 5 each Asts: Mike Conley 7 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 32 Rebs: Dewayne Dedmon 8 Asts: Kawhi Leonard 5 Spurs leads series, 1–0 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,418 Referees: Marc Davis, Bill Kennedy , Josh Tiven TNT April 17 9:30 PM Boxscore Memphis Grizzlies 82, San Antonio Spurs 96 Scoring by quarter: 16– 29 , 21– 27 , 28 –19, 17– 21 Pts: Mike Conley 24 Rebs: Zach Randolph 10 Asts: Mike Conley 8 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 37 Rebs: Kawhi Leonard 11 Asts: Ginóbili , Mills 3 each Spurs leads series, 2–0 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,418 Referees: Danny Crawford , Rodney Mott , Bill Spooner TNT April 20 9:30 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 94, Memphis Grizzlies 105 Scoring by quarter: 21–21, 25– 29 , 17– 31 , 31 –24 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 18 Rebs: LaMarcus Aldridge 11 Asts: three players 3 each Pts: Mike Conley 24 Rebs: Zach Randolph 8 Asts: Mike Conley 8 Spurs leads series, 2–1 FedExForum , Memphis, Tennessee Attendance: 18,119 Referees: James Capers, Pat Fraher, Courtney Kirkland ESPN April 22 8:00 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 108, Memphis Grizzlies 110 (OT) Scoring by quarter: 26 –23, 25– 32 , 20 –19, 25 –22, Overtime: 12– 14 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 43 Rebs: Pau Gasol 11 Asts: Tony Parker 5 Pts: Mike Conley 35 Rebs: Marc Gasol 12 Asts: Mike Conley 8 Series tied at, 2–2 FedExForum , Memphis, Tennessee Attendance: 18,119 Referees: Derrick Stafford, Bennie Adams , John Goble NBA TV April 25 9:00 PM Boxscore Memphis Grizzlies 103, San Antonio Spurs 116 Scoring by quarter: 23–23, 26– 32 , 27– 32 , 27– 29 Pts: Mike Conley 26 Rebs: Marc Gasol 7 Asts: Zach Randolph 6 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 28 Rebs: LaMarcus Aldridge 9 Asts: Leonard , Parker 6 each Spurs leads series, 3–2 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,418 Referees: Mike Callahan, Tony Brothers , Derrick Collins TNT April 27 9:30 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 103 , Memphis Grizzlies 96 Scoring by quarter: 24 –22, 21– 28 , 30 –24, 28 –22 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 28 Rebs: LaMarcus Aldridge 12 Asts: Leonard , Parker 4 each Pts: Mike Conley 26 Rebs: Zach Randolph 11 Asts: Marc Gasol 6 San Antonio wins series, 4–2 FedExForum , Memphis, Tennessee Attendance: 18,119 Referees: Scott Foster, Brian Forte, Zach Zarba In game 4, Marc Gasol hits the game winning shot with 0.7 seconds left in overtime. Regular-season series show Tied 2–2 in the regular-season series February 6, 2017 Recap San Antonio Spurs 74, Memphis Grizzlies 89 FedExForum , Memphis, Tennessee March 18, 2017 Recap San Antonio Spurs 96, Memphis Grizzlies 104 FedExForum , Memphis, Tennessee March 23, 2017 Recap Memphis Grizzlies 90, San Antonio Spurs 97 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas April 4, 2017 Recap Memphis Grizzlies 89, San Antonio Spurs 95 (OT) AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas This was the fifth playoff meeting between these two teams, with San Antonio winning three of the four meetings. Previous playoff series [23] show San Antonio leads 3–1 in all-time playoff series 2004 San Antonio Spurs 4 , Memphis Grizzlies 0 2004 Western Conference First Round 2011 San Antonio Spurs 2, Memphis Grizzlies 4 2011 Western Conference First Round 2013 San Antonio Spurs 4 , Memphis Grizzlies 0 2013 Western Conference Finals 2016 San Antonio Spurs 4 , Memphis Grizzlies 0 2016 Western Conference First Round (3) Houston Rockets vs. (6) Oklahoma City Thunder [ edit ] TNT April 16 9:00 PM Boxscore Oklahoma City Thunder 87, Houston Rockets 118 Scoring by quarter: 29 –27, 25– 32 , 20– 30 , 13– 29 Pts: Russell Westbrook 22 Rebs: Russell Westbrook 11 Asts: Russell Westbrook 7 Pts: James Harden 37 Rebs: Ryan Anderson 12 Asts: James Harden 9 Rockets leads series, 1–0 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas Attendance: 18,055 Referees: James Capers, Courtney Kirkland, Sean Wright TNT April 19 8:00 PM Boxscore Oklahoma City Thunder 111, Houston Rockets 115 Scoring by quarter: 35 –26, 33– 36 , 21– 24 , 22– 29 Pts: Russell Westbrook 51 Rebs: Russell Westbrook 10 Asts: Russell Westbrook 13 Pts: James Harden 35 Rebs: Clint Capela 10 Asts: James Harden 8 Rockets leads series, 2–0 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas Attendance: 18,055 Referees: Scott Foster, Mark Ayotte , Tony Brothers ESPN April 21 9:30 PM Boxscore Houston Rockets 113, Oklahoma City Thunder 115 Scoring by quarter: 25– 34 , 33 –31, 25– 28 , 30 –22 Pts: James Harden 44 Rebs: Patrick Beverley 7 Asts: James Harden 6 Pts: Russell Westbrook 32 Rebs: Russell Westbrook 13 Asts: Russell Westbrook 11 Rockets leads series, 2–1 Chesapeake Energy Arena , Oklahoma City , Oklahoma Attendance: 18,203 Referees: Scott Foster, Mark Lindsay, Tom Washington ABC April 23 3:30 PM Boxscore Houston Rockets 113 , Oklahoma City Thunder 109 Scoring by quarter: 22– 26 , 32–32, 19–19, 40 –32 Pts: Nenê 28 Rebs: Nenê 10 Asts: James Harden 8 Pts: Russell Westbrook 35 Rebs: Russell Westbrook 14 Asts: Russell Westbrook 14 Rockets leads series, 3–1 Chesapeake Energy Arena , Oklahoma City , Oklahoma Attendance: 18,203 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Brian Forte, Josh Tiven TNT April 25 8:00 PM Boxscore Oklahoma City Thunder 99, Houston Rockets 105 Scoring by quarter: 22 –16, 22– 35 , 33 –21, 22– 33 Pts: Russell Westbrook 47 Rebs: Russell Westbrook 11 Asts: Russell Westbrook 9 Pts: James Harden 34 Rebs: Clint Capela 9 Asts: James Harden 4 Houston wins series, 4–1 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas Attendance: 18,055 Referees: Marc Davis, Bill Kennedy , Zach Zarba Regular-season series show Houston won 3–1 in the regular-season series November 16, 2016 Recap Houston Rockets 103, Oklahoma City Thunder 105 Chesapeake Energy Arena , Oklahoma City , Oklahoma December 9, 2016 Recap Houston Rockets 102 , Oklahoma City Thunder 99 Chesapeake Energy Arena , Oklahoma City , Oklahoma January 5, 2017 Recap Oklahoma City Thunder 116, Houston Rockets 118 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas March 26, 2017 Recap Oklahoma City Thunder 125, Houston Rockets 137 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas This was the eighth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Thunder/SuperSonics winning six of the first seven meetings. Previous playoff series [24] show Oklahoma City/Seattle leads 6–1 in all-time playoff series 1982 Houston Rockets 1, Seattle SuperSonics 2 1982 Western Conference First Round 1987 Houston Rockets 2, Seattle SuperSonics 4 1987 Western Conference Semifinals 1989 Houston Rockets 0, Seattle SuperSonics 3 1989 Western Conference First Round 1993 Houston Rockets 3, Seattle SuperSonics 4 1993 Western Conference Semifinals 1996 Houston Rockets 0, Seattle SuperSonics 4 1996 Western Conference Semifinals 1997 Houston Rockets 4, Seattle SuperSonics 3 1997 Western Conference Semifinals 2013 Houston Rockets 2, Oklahoma City Thunder 4 2013 Western Conference First Round (4) Los Angeles Clippers vs. (5) Utah Jazz [ edit ] ESPN April 15 10:30 PM Boxscore Utah Jazz 97 , Los Angeles Clippers 95 Scoring by quarter: 22– 24 , 30 –28, 22 –18, 23– 25 Pts: Joe Johnson 21 Rebs: Gordon Hayward 10 Asts: Boris Diaw 6 Pts: Blake Griffin 26 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 15 Asts: Chris Paul 11 Jazz leads series, 1–0 Staples Center , Los Angeles , California Attendance: 19,060 Referees: Danny Crawford , Rodney Mott , Bill Spooner In Game 1, Joe Johnson hits the game-winner at the buzzer. TNT April 18 10:30 PM Boxscore Utah Jazz 91, Los Angeles Clippers 99 Scoring by quarter: 18– 29 , 24 –22, 28–28, 21 –20 Pts: Gordon Hayward 20 Rebs: Favors , Hill 7 each Asts: George Hill 4 Pts: Blake Griffin 24 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 15 Asts: Chris Paul 10 Series tied at, 1–1 Staples Center , Los Angeles , California Attendance: 19,060 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Kane Fitzgerald, Pat Fraher ESPN2 April 21 10:00 PM Boxscore Los Angeles Clippers 111 , Utah Jazz 106 Scoring by quarter: 21– 34 , 28 –24, 33 –26, 29 –22 Pts: Chris Paul 34 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 13 Asts: Chris Paul 10 Pts: Gordon Hayward 40 Rebs: Gordon Hayward 8 Asts: Joe Ingles 5 Clippers lead series, 2–1 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah Attendance: 19,911 Referees: Mike Callahan, Tony Brothers , Eric Lewis TNT April 23 9:00 PM Boxscore Los Angeles Clippers 98, Utah Jazz 105 Scoring by quarter: 26 –24, 26– 31 , 28 –22, 18– 28 Pts: Chris Paul 27 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 10 Asts: Chris Paul 12 Pts: Joe Johnson 28 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 13 Asts: Joe Ingles 11 Series tied at, 2–2 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah Attendance: 19,911 Referees: Marc Davis, Bill Kennedy , James Williams TNT April 25 10:30 PM Boxscore Utah Jazz 96 , Los Angeles Clippers 92 Scoring by quarter: 19– 21 , 27 –22, 18 –15, 32– 34 Pts: Gordon Hayward 27 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 11 Asts: George Hill 7 Pts: Chris Paul 28 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 12 Asts: Chris Paul 9 Jazz leads series, 3–2 Staples Center , Los Angeles , California Attendance: 19,171 Referees: Scott Foster, Ron Garretson , John Goble ESPN April 28 10:30 PM Boxscore Los Angeles Clippers 98 , Utah Jazz 93 Scoring by quarter: 20– 22 , 27 –23, 31 –25, 20– 23 Pts: Chris Paul 29 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 18 Asts: Chris Paul 8 Pts: Gordon Hayward 31 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 9 Asts: Gordon Hayward 4 Series tied at, 3–3 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah Attendance: 19,911 Referees: Monty McCutchen , James Capers, Tom Washington ABC April 30 3:30 PM Boxscore Utah Jazz 104 , Los Angeles Clippers 91 Scoring by quarter: 24–24, 22 –15, 33 –24, 25– 28 Pts: Gordon Hayward 26 Rebs: Derrick Favors 11 Asts: Hill , Johnson 5 each Pts: DeAndre Jordan 24 Rebs: DeAndre Jordan 17 Asts: Chris Paul 9 Utah wins series, 4–3 Staples Center , Los Angeles , California Attendance: 19,060 Referees: Danny Crawford , Tony Brothers , Bill Kennedy Game 7 is Paul Pierce 's final NBA game. It is also Chris Paul 's final game with the Clippers before being traded to the Rockets during the offseason. Regular-season series show L.A. Clippers won 3–1 in the regular-season series October 30, 2016 Recap Utah Jazz 75, Los Angeles Clippers 88 Staples Center , Los Angeles , California February 13, 2017 Recap Los Angeles Clippers 88 , Utah Jazz 72 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah March 13, 2017 Recap Los Angeles Clippers 108, Utah Jazz 114 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah March 25, 2017 Recap Utah Jazz 95, Los Angeles Clippers 108 Staples Center , Los Angeles , California This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Jazz winning the previous two meetings. Previous playoff series [25] show Utah leads 2–0 in all-time playoff series 1992 Los Angeles Clippers 2, Utah Jazz 3 1992 Western Conference First Round 1997 Los Angeles Clippers 0, Utah Jazz 3 1997 Western Conference First Round Conference Semifinals [ edit ] Eastern Conference Semifinals [ edit ] (1) Boston Celtics vs. (4) Washington Wizards [ edit ] ABC April 30 1:00 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 111, Boston Celtics 123 Scoring by quarter: 38 –24, 26– 35 , 16– 36 , 31 –28 Pts: Bradley Beal 27 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 13 Asts: John Wall 16 Pts: Isaiah Thomas 33 Rebs: Al Horford 9 Asts: Al Horford 10 Celtics leads series, 1–0 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Scott Foster, Courtney Kirkland, Zach Zarba TNT May 2 8:00 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 119, Boston Celtics 129 (OT) Scoring by quarter: 42 –29, 25– 35 , 22 –20, 25– 30 , Overtime: 5– 15 Pts: John Wall 40 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 10 Asts: John Wall 13 Pts: Isaiah Thomas 53 Rebs: Al Horford 12 Asts: Marcus Smart 5 Celtics leads series, 2–0 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Marc Davis, Rodney Mott , Tom Washington ESPN May 4 8:00 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 89, Washington Wizards 116 Scoring by quarter: 17– 39 , 23– 24 , 29– 32 , 20– 21 Pts: Al Horford 16 Rebs: Jae Crowder 7 Asts: Isaiah Thomas 4 Pts: John Wall 24 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 16 Asts: John Wall 8 Celtics leads series, 2–1 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. Attendance: 20,356 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Tony Brown, James Capers TNT May 7 6:30 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 102, Washington Wizards 121 Scoring by quarter: 24 –20, 24– 28 , 20– 42 , 34 –31 Pts: Isaiah Thomas 19 Rebs: Crowder , Rozier 7 each Asts: Marcus Smart 6 Pts: Bradley Beal 29 Rebs: Markieff Morris 10 Asts: John Wall 12 Series tied at, 2–2 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. Attendance: 20,356 Referees: Danny Crawford , Sean Corbin, Ron Garretson TNT May 10 8:00 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 101, Boston Celtics 123 Scoring by quarter: 21– 33 , 30– 34 , 25– 26 , 25– 30 Pts: John Wall 21 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 11 Asts: three players 4 each Pts: Avery Bradley 29 Rebs: Marcus Smart 11 Asts: Isaiah Thomas 9 Celtics leads series, 3–2 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Mike Callahan, Ed Malloy, Sean Wright ESPN May 12 8:00 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 91, Washington Wizards 92 Scoring by quarter: 17– 22 , 25 –19, 27 –25, 22– 26 Pts: Bradley , Thomas 27 each Rebs: Kelly Olynyk 8 Asts: Jae Crowder 8 Pts: Bradley Beal 33 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 13 Asts: John Wall 8 Series tied at, 3–3 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. Attendance: 20,356 Referees: Ken Mauer , Tony Brothers , John Goble In Game 6, John Wall hits the game-winning 3-pointer with 3.5 seconds left. TNT May 15 8:00 PM Boxscore Washington Wizards 105, Boston Celtics 115 Scoring by quarter: 23– 27 , 32 –26, 24– 32 , 26– 30 Pts: Bradley Beal 38 Rebs: Marcin Gortat 11 Asts: John Wall 11 Pts: Isaiah Thomas 29 Rebs: Horford , Smart 6 each Asts: Isaiah Thomas 12 Boston wins series, 4–3 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Derrick Stafford, Zach Zarba Regular-season series show Tied 2–2 in the regular-season series November 9, 2016 Recap Boston Celtics 93, Washington Wizards 118 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. January 11, 2017 Recap Washington Wizards 108, Boston Celtics 117 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts January 24, 2017 Recap Boston Celtics 108, Washington Wizards 123 Verizon Center , Washington, D.C. March 20, 2017 Recap Washington Wizards 102, Boston Celtics 110 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning two of the first three meetings. Memorably, during the first quarter of Game 1, Isaiah Thomas was struck in the mouth by the elbow of Otto Porter , immediately knocking out one tooth, and causing further damage to his mouth. As Porter prepared to shoot a pair of free throws, Thomas calmly retrieved and pocketed his fallen tooth, then hit two three-point field goals in the following two minutes, before being pulled from the game for medical attention. Thomas went on to play the entire seven-game series, including a 53-point effort to lead his team to an overtime victory in game 2, all while wearing temporary protection in his mouth. He underwent extensive oral surgery after the playoffs to mitigate the damage. Previous playoff series [26] show Boston leads time playoff series 1975 Boston Celtics 2, Washington Bullets 4 1975 Eastern Conference Finals 1982 Boston Celtics 4, Washington Bullets 1 1982 Eastern Conference Semifinals 1984 Boston Celtics 3, Washington Bullets 1 1984 Eastern Conference First Round (2) Cleveland Cavaliers vs. (3) Toronto Raptors [ edit ] TNT May 1 7:00 PM Boxscore Toronto Raptors 105, Cleveland Cavaliers 116 Scoring by quarter: 18– 30 , 30– 32 , 25– 34 , 31 –20 Pts: Kyle Lowry 20 Rebs: P. J. Tucker 11 Asts: Kyle Lowry 11 Pts: LeBron James 35 Rebs: Tristan Thompson 14 Asts: Kyrie Irving 10 Cavaliers leads series, 1–0 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Eric Lewis, Derrick Stafford TNT May 3 7:00 PM Boxscore Toronto Raptors 103, Cleveland Cavaliers 125 Scoring by quarter: 22– 34 , 26– 28 , 25– 37 , 30 –26 Pts: Jonas Valančiūnas 23 Rebs: Cory Joseph 6 Asts: Kyle Lowry 5 Pts: LeBron James 39 Rebs: Tristan Thompson 9 Asts: Kyrie Irving 11 Cavaliers leads series, 2–0 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Danny Crawford , Sean Corbin, Sean Wright ESPN May 5 7:00 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 115 , Toronto Raptors 94 Scoring by quarter: 28 –24, 21– 28 , 30 –25, 36 –17 Pts: LeBron James 35 Rebs: Kevin Love 13 Asts: LeBron James 7 Pts: DeMar DeRozan 37 Rebs: Jonas Valančiūnas 8 Asts: Cory Joseph 6 Cavaliers leads series, 3–0 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario Attendance: 20,384 Referees: Mike Callahan, Kane Fitzgerald, Bill Kennedy ABC May 7 3:30 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 109 , Toronto Raptors 102 Scoring by quarter: 28–28, 33 –21, 24– 31 , 24 –22 Pts: LeBron James 35 Rebs: LeBron James 9 Asts: Kyrie Irving 9 Pts: Serge Ibaka 23 Rebs: P. J. Tucker 12 Asts: Cory Joseph 12 Cleveland wins series, 4–0 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario Attendance: 20,307 Referees: Scott Foster, Tony Brothers , Pat Fraher Regular-season series show Cleveland won 3–1 in the regular-season series October 28, 2016 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 94 , Toronto Raptors 91 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario November 15, 2016 Recap Toronto Raptors 117, Cleveland Cavaliers 121 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio December 5, 2016 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 116 , Toronto Raptors 112 Air Canada Centre , Toronto , Ontario April 12, 2017 Recap Toronto Raptors 98 , Cleveland Cavaliers 83 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with Cleveland winning the first meeting in 2016. [27] Previous playoffs series show Cleveland leads 1–0 in all-time playoff series 2016 Toronto Raptors 2, Cleveland Cavaliers 4 2016 Eastern Conference Finals Western Conference Semifinals [ edit ] (1) Golden State Warriors vs. (5) Utah Jazz [ edit ] TNT May 2 10:30 PM Boxscore Utah Jazz 94, Golden State Warriors 106 Scoring by quarter: 21– 27 , 25– 31 , 27 –26, 21– 22 Pts: Rudy Gobert 13 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 13 Asts: three players 4 each Pts: Stephen Curry 22 Rebs: Draymond Green 8 Asts: David West 7 Warriors leads series, 1–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Mike Callahan, John Goble, David Guthrie ESPN May 4 10:30 PM Boxscore Utah Jazz 104, Golden State Warriors 115 Scoring by quarter: 15– 33 , 32 –27, 35 –32, 22– 23 Pts: Gordon Hayward 33 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 16 Asts: Hayward , Mack 4 each Pts: Kevin Durant 25 Rebs: Kevin Durant 11 Asts: Curry , Durant 7 each Warriors leads series, 2–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Derrick Stafford, Derrick Collins, Zach Zarba ABC May 6 8:30 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 102 , Utah Jazz 91 Scoring by quarter: 27 –17, 22– 33 , 23 –20, 30 –21 Pts: Kevin Durant 38 Rebs: Kevin Durant 13 Asts: Draymond Green 5 Pts: Gordon Hayward 29 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 15 Asts: Gordon Hayward 6 Warriors leads series, 3–0 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah Attendance: 19,911 Referees: Ken Mauer , Bennie Adams , Ed Malloy TNT May 8 9:00 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 121 , Utah Jazz 95 Scoring by quarter: 39 –17, 21– 35 , 33 –27, 28 –16 Pts: Stephen Curry 30 Rebs: Draymond Green 10 Asts: Draymond Green 11 Pts: Gordon Hayward 25 Rebs: Rudy Gobert 13 Asts: Hayward , Ingles 3 each Golden State wins series, 4–0 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah Attendance: 19,911 Referees: Monty McCutchen , James Capers, James Williams Regular-season series show Golden State won 2–1 in the regular-season series December 8, 2016 Recap Golden State Warriors 106 , Utah Jazz 99 Vivint Smart Home Arena , Salt Lake City , Utah December 20, 2016 Recap Utah Jazz 74, Golden State Warriors 104 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California April 10, 2017 Recap Utah Jazz 105 , Golden State Warriors 99 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Warriors winning two of the first three meetings. Previous playoff series [28] show Golden State leads 2–1 in all-time playoff series 1987 Golden State Warriors 3, Utah Jazz 2 1987 Western Conference First Round 1989 Golden State Warriors 3, Utah Jazz 0 1989 Western Conference First Round 2007 Golden State Warriors 1, Utah Jazz 4 2007 Western Conference Semifinals (2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (3) Houston Rockets [ edit ] TNT May 1 9:30 PM Boxscore Houston Rockets 126 , San Antonio Spurs 99 Scoring by quarter: 34 –23, 35 –16, 27– 28 , 30– 32 Pts: Trevor Ariza 23 Rebs: Clint Capela 13 Asts: James Harden 14 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 21 Rebs: Kawhi Leonard 11 Asts: Kawhi Leonard 6 Rockets leads series, 1–0 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,418 Referees: Ken Mauer , Ed Malloy, Josh Tiven TNT May 3 9:30 PM Boxscore Houston Rockets 96, San Antonio Spurs 121 Scoring by quarter: 30– 33 , 25– 32 , 28 –23, 13– 33 Pts: Ryan Anderson 18 Rebs: Ryan Anderson 8 Asts: James Harden 10 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 34 Rebs: Pau Gasol 13 Asts: Kawhi Leonard 8 Series tied at, 1–1 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,418 Referees: Scott Foster, Tony Brothers , Bill Spooner ESPN May 5 9:30 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 103 , Houston Rockets 92 Scoring by quarter: 19– 21 , 24 –18, 29 –27, 31 –26 Pts: Aldridge , Leonard 26 each Rebs: Kawhi Leonard 10 Asts: Kawhi Leonard 7 Pts: James Harden 43 Rebs: Clint Capela 16 Asts: Ariza , Harden 5 each Spurs leads series, 2–1 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas Attendance: 18,187 Referees: Danny Crawford , Marc Davis, Brian Forte TNT May 7 9:00 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 104, Houston Rockets 125 Scoring by quarter: 22– 34 , 31 –23, 23– 34 , 28– 34 Pts: Jonathon Simmons 17 Rebs: Pau Gasol 7 Asts: Patty Mills 5 Pts: James Harden 28 Rebs: Clint Capela 9 Asts: James Harden 12 Series tied at, 2–2 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas Attendance: 18,055 Referees: Mike Callahan, John Goble, Sean Wright TNT May 9 8:00 PM Boxscore Houston Rockets 107, San Antonio Spurs 110 (OT) Scoring by quarter: 29– 32 , 31 –26, 25– 28 , 16 –15, Overtime: 6– 9 Pts: James Harden 33 Rebs: Capela , Harden 11 each Asts: James Harden 10 Pts: Kawhi Leonard 22 Rebs: Kawhi Leonard 15 Asts: Manu Ginóbili 5 Spurs leads series, 3–2 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,418 Referees: Derrick Stafford, Rodney Mott , Zach Zarba In Game 5, Manu Ginóbili blocks James Harden 's game-tying 3-point attempt in overtime before the buzzer sounded. ESPN May 11 8:00 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 114 , Houston Rockets 75 Scoring by quarter: 31 –24, 30 –18, 26 –22, 27 –11 Pts: LaMarcus Aldridge 34 Rebs: LaMarcus Aldridge 12 Asts: Patty Mills 7 Pts: Trevor Ariza 20 Rebs: Clint Capela 12 Asts: James Harden 7 San Antonio wins series, 4–2 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas Attendance: 18,055 Referees: Scott Foster, James Capers, Ron Garretson Regular-season series show San Antonio won 3–1 in the regular-season series November 9, 2016 Recap Houston Rockets 101 , San Antonio Spurs 99 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas November 12, 2016 Recap San Antonio Spurs 106 , Houston Rockets 100 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas December 20, 2016 Recap San Antonio Spurs 102 , Houston Rockets 100 Toyota Center , Houston , Texas March 6, 2017 Recap Houston Rockets 110, San Antonio Spurs 112 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Rockets winning the first three meetings. Previous playoff series [29] show Houston leads 3–0 in all-time playoff series 1980 Houston Rockets 2, San Antonio Spurs 1 1980 Eastern Conference First Round 1981 Houston Rockets 4, San Antonio Spurs 3 1981 Western Conference Semifinals 1995 Houston Rockets 4, San Antonio Spurs 2 1995 Western Conference Finals Conference Finals [ edit ] Eastern Conference Finals [ edit ] (1) Boston Celtics vs. (2) Cleveland Cavaliers [ edit ] TNT May 17 8:30 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 117 , Boston Celtics 104 Scoring by quarter: 30 –19, 31 –20, 31– 36 , 25– 29 Pts: LeBron James 38 Rebs: Kevin Love 12 Asts: LeBron James 7 Pts: Bradley , Crowder 21 each Rebs: Jaylen Brown 9 Asts: Isaiah Thomas 10 Cavaliers leads series, 1–0 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Mike Callahan, John Goble, Sean Wright TNT May 19 8:30 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 130 , Boston Celtics 86 Scoring by quarter: 32 –18, 40 –13, 31 –28, 27– 29 Pts: LeBron James 30 Rebs: Kevin Love 12 Asts: LeBron James 7 Pts: Jaylen Brown 19 Rebs: three players 5 each Asts: Marcus Smart 7 Cavaliers leads series, 2–0 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Scott Foster, Tony Brothers , Ron Garretson TNT May 21 8:00 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 111 , Cleveland Cavaliers 108 Scoring by quarter: 24– 35 , 26– 31 , 32 –21, 29 –21 Pts: Marcus Smart 27 Rebs: Jae Crowder 11 Asts: Marcus Smart 7 Pts: Kyrie Irving 29 Rebs: Tristan Thompson 13 Asts: Kyrie Irving 7 Cavaliers leads series, 2–1 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Danny Crawford , Marc Davis, David Guthrie In Game 3, Avery Bradley gets a very friendly roll on a game-winning three-pointer with 0.1 seconds left. TNT May 23 8:30 PM Boxscore Boston Celtics 99, Cleveland Cavaliers 112 Scoring by quarter: 29 –19, 28–28, 23– 40 , 19– 25 Pts: Avery Bradley 19 Rebs: Jae Crowder 8 Asts: Al Horford 7 Pts: Kyrie Irving 42 Rebs: Kevin Love 17 Asts: LeBron James 6 Cavaliers leads series, 3–1 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Pat Fraher, Derrick Stafford TNT May 25 8:30 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 135 , Boston Celtics 102 Scoring by quarter: 43 –27, 32 –30, 34 –17, 26– 28 Pts: LeBron James 35 Rebs: Kevin Love 11 Asts: LeBron James 8 Pts: Avery Bradley 23 Rebs: Jae Crowder 6 Asts: Terry Rozier 7 Cleveland wins series, 4–1 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts Attendance: 18,624 Referees: Ken Mauer , Kane Fitzgerald, Ed Malloy Regular-season series show Cleveland won 3–1 in the regular-season series November 3, 2016 Recap Boston Celtics 122, Cleveland Cavaliers 128 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio December 29, 2016 Recap Boston Celtics 118, Cleveland Cavaliers 124 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio March 1, 2017 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 99, Boston Celtics 103 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts April 5, 2017 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 114 , Boston Celtics 91 TD Garden , Boston , Massachusetts This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning four of the first six meetings. Previous playoff series [30] show Boston leads 4–2 in all-time playoff series 1976 Boston Celtics 4 , Cleveland Cavaliers 2 1976 Eastern Conference Finals 1985 Boston Celtics 3 , Cleveland Cavaliers 1 1985 Eastern Conference First Round 1992 Cleveland Cavaliers 4 , Boston Celtics 3 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals 2008 Boston Celtics 4 , Cleveland Cavaliers 3 2008 Eastern Conference Semifinals 2010 Cleveland Cavaliers 2, Boston Celtics 4 2010 Eastern Conference Semifinals 2015 Cleveland Cavaliers 4 , Boston Celtics 0 2015 Eastern Conference First Round Western Conference Finals [ edit ] (1) Golden State Warriors vs. (2) San Antonio Spurs [ edit ] ABC May 14 3:30 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 111, Golden State Warriors 113 Scoring by quarter: 30 –16, 32 –26, 28– 39 , 21– 32 Pts: LaMarcus Aldridge 28 Rebs: Aldridge , Leonard 8 each Asts: three players 3 each Pts: Stephen Curry 40 Rebs: Zaza Pachulia 9 Asts: Draymond Green 7 Warriors leads series, 1–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Danny Crawford , Marc Davis, Tom Washington ESPN May 16 9:00 PM Boxscore San Antonio Spurs 100, Golden State Warriors 136 Scoring by quarter: 16– 33 , 28– 39 , 31– 34 , 25– 30 Pts: Jonathon Simmons 22 Rebs: Dewayne Dedmon 9 Asts: Dejounte Murray 6 Pts: Stephen Curry 29 Rebs: Draymond Green 9 Asts: Stephen Curry 7 Warriors leads series, 2–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Ken Mauer , Kane Fitzgerald, Ed Malloy ESPN May 20 9:00 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 120 , San Antonio Spurs 108 Scoring by quarter: 29– 33 , 35 –22, 36 –33, 20–20 Pts: Kevin Durant 33 Rebs: Kevin Durant 10 Asts: Draymond Green 7 Pts: Manu Ginóbili 21 Rebs: Pau Gasol 10 Asts: Patty Mills 6 Warriors leads series, 3–0 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,792 Referees: Monty McCutchen , James Capers, Bill Kennedy ESPN May 22 9:00 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 129 , San Antonio Spurs 115 Scoring by quarter: 31 –19, 34 –32, 31 –27, 33– 37 Pts: Stephen Curry 36 Rebs: Kevin Durant 12 Asts: Draymond Green 8 Pts: Kyle Anderson 20 Rebs: Pau Gasol 9 Asts: Ginóbili , Murray 7 each Golden State wins series, 4–0 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas Attendance: 18,466 Referees: Mike Callahan, Sean Corbin, Zach Zarba Regular-season series show San Antonio won 2–1 in the regular-season series. October 25, 2016 Recap San Antonio Spurs 129 , Golden State Warriors 100 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California March 11, 2017 Recap Golden State Warriors 85, San Antonio Spurs 107 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas March 29, 2017 Recap Golden State Warriors 110 , San Antonio Spurs 98 AT&T Center , San Antonio , Texas This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams, with each team winning one series. San Antonio led by as many as 25 points in game 1 before Kawhi Leonard had to leave the game and the series after he landed on Zaza Pachulia 's foot, re-aggravated his existing ankle injury. Previous playoff series [31] show Tied 1–1 in all-time playoff series 1991 Golden State Warriors 3, San Antonio Spurs 1 1991 Western Conference First Round 2013 Golden State Warriors 2, San Antonio Spurs 4 2013 Western Conference Semifinals 2017 NBA Finals: (E2) Cleveland Cavaliers vs. (W1) Golden State Warriors [ edit ] Main article: 2017 NBA Finals ABC June 1 9:00 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 91, Golden State Warriors 113 Scoring by quarter: 30– 35 , 22– 25 , 20– 33 , 19– 20 Pts: LeBron James 28 Rebs: Kevin Love 21 Asts: LeBron James 8 Pts: Kevin Durant 38 Rebs: Draymond Green 11 Asts: Stephen Curry 10 Warriors leads series, 1–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Danny Crawford , Derrick Stafford, Zach Zarba ABC June 4 8:00 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 113, Golden State Warriors 132 Scoring by quarter: 34– 40 , 30 –27, 24– 35 , 25– 30 Pts: LeBron James 29 Rebs: LeBron James 11 Asts: LeBron James 14 Pts: Kevin Durant 33 Rebs: Kevin Durant 13 Asts: Stephen Curry 11 Warriors leads series, 2–0 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Scott Foster, Tony Brothers , James Capers ABC June 7 9:00 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 118 , Cleveland Cavaliers 113 Scoring by quarter: 39 –32, 28– 29 , 22– 33 , 29 –19 Pts: Kevin Durant 31 Rebs: Stephen Curry 13 Asts: Draymond Green 7 Pts: LeBron James 39 Rebs: Kevin Love 13 Asts: LeBron James 9 Warriors leads series, 3–0 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Monty McCutchen , Ed Malloy, Ken Mauer ABC June 9 9:00 PM Boxscore Golden State Warriors 116, Cleveland Cavaliers 137 Scoring by quarter: 33– 49 , 35– 37 , 28– 29 , 20– 22 Pts: Kevin Durant 35 Rebs: Draymond Green 14 Asts: Stephen Curry 10 Pts: Kyrie Irving 40 Rebs: James , Thompson 10 each Asts: LeBron James 11 Warriors leads series, 3–1 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland , Ohio Attendance: 20,562 Referees: Mike Callahan, Marc Davis, John Goble ABC June 12 9:00 PM Boxscore Cleveland Cavaliers 120, Golden State Warriors 129 Scoring by quarter: 37 –33, 23– 38 , 33 –27, 27– 31 Pts: LeBron James 41 Rebs: LeBron James 13 Asts: LeBron James 8 Pts: Kevin Durant 39 Rebs: Draymond Green 12 Asts: Stephen Curry 10 Golden State wins series, 4–1 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California Attendance: 19,596 Referees: Danny Crawford , Ed Malloy, Derrick Stafford Regular-season series show Tied 1–1 in the regular-season series December 25, 2016 Recap Golden State Warriors 108, Cleveland Cavaliers 109 Quicken Loans Arena , Cleveland, Ohio January 16, 2017 Recap Cleveland Cavaliers 91, Golden State Warriors 126 Oracle Arena , Oakland, California This was the third meeting in the NBA Finals between the Warriors and Cavaliers with each team winning one series. Previous playoff series [32] show Teams tied 1–1 in all-time playoff series 2015 Golden State Warriors 4 , Cleveland Cavaliers 2 2015 NBA Finals 2016 Golden State Warriors 3, Cleveland Cavaliers 4 2016 NBA Finals Statistical leaders [ edit ] Category Game High Average Player Team High Player Team Avg. GP Points Isaiah Thomas Boston Celtics 53 Russell Westbrook Oklahoma City Thunder 37.4 5 Rebounds Kevin Love Cleveland Cavaliers 21 DeAndre Jordan Los Angeles Clippers 14.4 7 Assists John Wall Washington Wizards 16 Russell Westbrook Oklahoma City Thunder 10.8 5 Steals Thaddeus Young Kawhi Leonard Stephen Curry Kevin Love Indiana Pacers San Antonio Spurs Golden State Warriors Cleveland Cavaliers 6 Russell Westbrook André Roberson Oklahoma City Thunder 2.40 5 Blocks Draymond Green Golden State Warriors 6 André Roberson Oklahoma City Thunder 3.40 5 Media coverage [ edit ] Television [ edit ] ESPN , TNT , ABC , and NBA TV broadcast the playoffs nationally in the United States. In the first round, regional sports networks affiliated with the teams can also broadcast the games, except for games televised on ABC. Throughout the first two rounds, TNT televised games Saturday through Thursday, ESPN televised games Friday and Saturday, and ABC televised selected games on Saturday and Sunday, usually in the afternoon. NBA TV has aired select weekday games in the first round. TNT televised the Eastern Conference Finals. Game 1 of the Western Conference Finals was televised on ABC, while Games 2 through 4 were televised on ESPN. ABC had exclusive television rights to the NBA Finals for the 15th consecutive year. [33] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"Warriors cruise past Nets without Kevin Durant to secure a playoff berth\" . ESPN.com . Retrieved February 25, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Kyrie Irving scores 46 and Cavs clinch playoff berth in 125-120 win over Lakers\" . Cleveland.com . Retrieved March 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Playoff bound! Boston Celtics clinch postseason berth\" . Wcvb.com . Retrieved March 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Celtics clinch No. 1 seed in East, beat Bucks 112-94\" . ESPN.com . Retrieved April 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"James, Cavs score 112-105 victory over Hornets; clinch Central Division title\" . Fox8.com . Retrieved March 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Raptors clinch Eastern playoff spot with win over Mavs\" . Thestar.com . Retrieved March 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Wizards beat Lakers 119-108 to clinch division title\" . ESPN.com . Retrieved March 28, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Warriors Clinch Pacific Division Title\" . Warriors.com . Retrieved March 16, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Golden State Warriors clinch West's No. 1 seed for third consecutive season\" . cbssports.com . Retrieved April 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Kawhi Leonard helps Spurs beat Timberwolves in OT\" . ESPN.com . Retrieved March 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Russ Registers 39th TD But Spurs Clinch Comeback Victory; DeRozan Powers Raptors\" . India.NBA.com . Retrieved April 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Houston Rockets Clinch Playoff Berth\" . Spacecityscoop.com . Retrieved March 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Clippers clinch playoff berth with 108-95 victory over Jazz\" . ESPN.com . March 25, 2017 . Retrieved March 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Utah Jazz Clinch Playoff Berth with Nuggets' Loss to Pelicans\" . Bleacherreport.com . Retrieved March 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Oklahoma City Thunder Clinch Playoff Berth With Victory Over Magic\" . Bleacherreport.com . March 29, 2017 . Retrieved March 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Grizzlies clinch playoff spot with 99-90 win over Mavericks\" . ESPN.com . March 31, 2017 . Retrieved April 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ Holdahl, Casey. \"Trail Blazers Clinch 8th Seed With Nuggets Loss, Will Face Warriors In First Round\" . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Thomsen, Ian. \"Sister of Boston Celtics star Isaiah Thomas killed in one-car accident | NBA.com\" . NBA.com . Retrieved 2018-04-12 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Boston Celtics versus Chicago Bulls (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Toronto Raptors versus Milwaukee Bucks (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Atlanta Hawks versus Washington Wizards (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Golden State Warriors versus Portland Trail Blazers (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Memphis Grizzlies versus San Antonio Spurs (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Houston Rockets versus Oklahoma City Thunder (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Los Angeles Clippers versus Utah Jazz (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Boston Celtics versus Washington Wizards (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 28, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Cleveland Cavaliers versus Toronto Raptors (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Golden State Warriors versus Utah Jazz (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Houston Rockets versus San Antonio Spurs (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Cleveland Cavaliers versus Boston Celtics (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved May 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Team Rivalry Finder — Golden State Warriors versus San Antonio Spurs (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved May 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Golden State Warriors versus Cleveland Cavaliers (Playoffs)\" . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved May 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"2017 NBA PLAYOFFS TV SCHEDULE ON ESPN, ABC, TNT AND NBA TV\" . Sportsmediawatch.com . Retrieved March 25, 2017 . External links [ edit ] National Basketball Association portal Official website of the NBA show v t e NBA playoffs List of playoff series Conference Finals Finals 60 Greatest Playoff Moments Game sevens Streaks Droughts Records Scoring Leaders Assists Leaders 3 Pt Leaders Rebound Leaders WNBA playoffs 1940s 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 show v t e 2016–17 NBA season by team Draft Summer League All-Star Game Playoffs Finals Transactions D-League Eastern Atlantic Boston Brooklyn New York Philadelphia Toronto Central Chicago Cleveland Detroit Indiana Milwaukee Southeast Atlanta Charlotte Miami Orlando Washington Western Northwest Denver Minnesota Oklahoma City Portland Utah Pacific Golden State L.A. Clippers L.A. Lakers Phoenix Sacramento Southwest Dallas Houston Memphis New Orleans San Antonio Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2017_NBA_Playoffs&oldid=850087092 \" Categories : 2016–17 NBA season National Basketball Association playoffs Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Português Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2018, at 14:21 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Dawn of the Dead (2004 film) - Wikipedia Dawn of the Dead (2004 film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Dawn of the Dead Promotional poster, still under the original release date Directed by Zack Snyder Produced by Richard P. Rubinstein Marc Abraham Eric Newman Screenplay by James Gunn Based on Dawn of the Dead by George A. Romero Starring Sarah Polley Ving Rhames Jake Weber Mekhi Phifer Music by Tyler Bates Cinematography Matthew F. Leonetti Edited by Niven Howie Production company Strike Entertainment New Amsterdam Entertainment Distributed by Universal Pictures Release date March 19, 2004 ( 2004-03-19 ) Running time 100 minutes [1] Country United States Language English Budget $26 million [2] Box office $102.4 million [2] Dawn of the Dead is a 2004 American horror film directed by Zack Snyder in his feature film directorial debut . A remake of George A. Romero 's 1978 film of the same name , it was written by James Gunn and stars Sarah Polley , Ving Rhames , Jake Weber , and Mekhi Phifer . [3] The special effects were done by Heather Langenkamp and David LeRoy Anderson , who co-own AFX Studio. [4] [5] The film depicts a handful of human survivors living in a shopping mall located in the fictional town of Everett, Wisconsin surrounded by swarms of zombies . The movie was produced by Strike Entertainment in association with New Amsterdam Entertainment, released by Universal Pictures and includes cameos by original cast members Ken Foree , Scott Reiniger , and Tom Savini . Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Deleted scenes 3.2 Additional material 4 Release 5 Reception 6 Comparisons to the original 7 Cancelled and potential sequel 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Plot [ edit ] After finishing a long shift as a nurse, Ana Clark returns to her suburban Milwaukee neighborhood and her husband, Luis. Caught up in a scheduled date night, they miss an emergency news bulletin. The next morning, a neighborhood girl named Vivian enters their bedroom, looking mutilated. Luis approaches her to see what's wrong and she suddenly bites him on the neck. Ana locks Vivian out of the room and tries to tend to Luis who goes into shock, then dies. She attempts to call the hospital only to find that there is no connection; as she keeps ringing, Luis rises up, now infected with the same disease and immediately goes after Ana. She flees in her car and drives away, seeing chaos all around her neighborhood, but eventually crashes and passes out. The intro scene rolls in, depicting riots and war in the major cities and the downfall of human civilization. Upon waking, Ana is confronted by Police Sergeant Kenneth Hall, electronics salesman Michael, petty criminal Andre and his pregnant wife, Luda and joins them, after they prove she is still alive. They break into a nearby mall and are attacked by a zombified security guard, who scratches Luda. Kenneth is also badly injured while wrestling with the zombie, which Ana subdues with his shotgun. They are then confronted by three living guards — C.J., Bart, and Terry — who make them surrender their weapons in exchange for refuge. They split into groups to secure the mall and then go to the roof where they see another survivor, Andy, who is stranded alone in his gun store across the zombie-infested parking lot. The next day, a delivery truck carrying more survivors enters the lot, with zombies in close pursuit. C.J. and Bart wish to turn them away but are overruled and disarmed. The newcomers include Norma, Steve Marcus, Tucker, Monica, Glen, Frank and his daughter, Nicole. Another woman is too ill to walk; she is wheeled inside via wheelbarrow only to die. As Ana drapes her with a cloth, however, the woman reanimates and attacks her, getting stabbed with a poker. Ana theorizes with the group that the disease is passed by bites from the infected individuals, as she had already seen it happen with Luis. Andre leaves to see Luda, who has kept her scratch hidden from the group. They realize that Frank has been bitten and is a potential threat. After some debate, Frank elects to be isolated. When he dies and turns, Kenneth shoots him. Over time, Kenneth and Andy start a friendship by way of messages written on a whiteboard; romance also buds between Ana and Michael (ultimately, consummating the relationship offscreen), and Nicole and Terry. One day, the power goes out. CJ, Bart, Michael, and Kenneth go to the parking garage to activate the emergency generator and find a friendly dog inside. Zombies attack and kill Bart, forcing the others to douse the zombies in gas and set them ablaze. Meanwhile, Luda—tied up by Andre—gives birth and dies. She reanimates as Norma checks on the couple, killing the zombified Luda. Andre snaps; they exchange gunfire and both are killed. The others arrive to find a zombie baby, which they kill immediately. The group decides to fight their way to the local marina, and travel on Steve's yacht to an island on Lake Michigan . They begin reinforcing two shuttle buses from the parking garage for their escape. However, they also need to pick up Andy, who is starving. They strap food and a walkie-talkie onto the dog, Chips, and lower him into the parking lot; the zombies have no interest in him. Chips gets into Andy's store safely but a zombie follows through the dog door, ultimately biting Andy. Nicole, fond of Chips, crashes the delivery truck into the gun store, where she is trapped by a zombified Andy. Kenneth, Michael, Tucker, Terry, and C.J. reach the gun store via the sewers and kill Andy, rescuing Nicole. They grab ammunition and go back to the mall. Along the way, Tucker breaks his legs and C.J. shoots him out of mercy. Once inside, they are unable to lock the door, forcing an evacuation. Everyone boards the buses and navigate through the zombie-infested city. Glen loses control of a chainsaw, accidentally killing himself and Monica; blood splatters on the windshield causing the bus to crash. C.J. exits the first van to look for survivors with Kenneth and Terry. They encounter the undead Steve but Ana kills him. She retrieves his boat keys and they take the remaining bus to the marina where C.J sacrifices himself so the rest of the group can escape. Michael reveals a bite wound and kills himself as Ana, Kenneth, Nicole, Terry, and Chips flee on the yacht. During the credits, footage from a camcorder found on the boat begins with Steve's escapades before the outbreak and concludes with the group running out of supplies before finally arriving at an island, where they are attacked by another swarm of zombies. The camcorder drops, recording dozens of zombies chasing them, accompanied by the song Down with the Sickness by Disturbed . Cast [ edit ] Sarah Polley as Ana Clark Ving Rhames as Kenneth Hall Jake Weber as Michael Mekhi Phifer as Andre Ty Burrell as Steve Marcus Michael Kelly as C.J. Kevin Zegers as Terry Michael Barry as Bart Lindy Booth as Nicole Jayne Eastwood as Norma Boyd Banks as Tucker Inna Korobkina as Luda R. D. Reid as Glen Kim Poirier as Monica Matt Frewer as Frank Bruce Bohne as Andy Louis Ferreira as Luis Hannah Lochner as Vivian Ermes Blarasin as Bloated Woman Ken Foree as TV Evangelist Tom Savini as Sheriff Cahill Scott Reiniger as The General Blu as Chips Production [ edit ] James Gunn is partially responsible for the screenplay although he received a solo writing credit. After he left the project to concentrate on Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed , Michael Tolkin and Scott Frank were brought in for rewriting. [6] In a commentary track on the Ultimate Edition DVD for the original George A. Romero's Dawn of the Dead , Richard P. Rubinstein, producer of the original and the remake, explained that Tolkin further developed the characters, while Frank provided some of the bigger and upbeat action sequences. The mall scenes and rooftop scenes were shot in the former Thornhill Square Shopping Centre in Thornhill, Ontario , and the other scenes were shot in the Aileen-Willowbrook neighborhood of Thornhill. The set for Ana and Luis's bedroom was constructed in a back room of the mall. [7] The mall was defunct, which is the reason the production used it; the movie crew completely renovated the structure, and stocked it with fictitious stores after Starbucks and numerous other corporations refused to let their names be used [7] (two exceptions to this are Roots and Panasonic ). Most of the mall was demolished shortly after the film was shot. The fictitious stores include a coffee shop called Hallowed Grounds (a lyric from Johnny Cash 's song \" The Man Comes Around \", which was used over the opening credits), and an upscale department store called Gaylen Ross (an in-joke reference to one of the stars of the original 1978 film). The first half of the film was shot almost entirely in chronological order , [7] while the final sequences on the boat and island were shot much later and at a different location ( Universal Studios Hollywood ) than the rest of the film, after preview audiences objected to the sudden ending of the original print. [7] Dawn of the Dead is the second film that co-starred actresses Lindy Booth and Kim Poirier . They first worked together on American Psycho 2 . Deleted scenes [ edit ] Deleted scenes were added back for the \"Unrated Director's Cut\" DVD edition. [8] Along with gore effects removed to obtain an MPAA R rating, [9] they include a clearer depiction of how the survivors originally break into the mall, and a short scene where the character of Glen regales the imprisoned C.J. and Bart with his reminiscing about his homosexual coming-of-age. Additional material [ edit ] The DVD release includes, as a bonus feature, the short film We Interrupt This Program , an expanded version of the fictional live broadcasts shown in the mall's televisions, which chronicles the worldwide effects of the zombie plague and the impact it has on a newscaster. Aside from featuring additional footage of cameos by actors from the original film, the film features Richard Biggs as the newscaster (in his final performance before his death in May 2004), and a voiceover cameo by Bruce Boxleitner as the President of the United States. It also featured another short film titles The Lost Tape: Andy's Terrifying Last Days Revealed . Release [ edit ] In the United Kingdom, Dawn of the Dead and Shaun of the Dead were originally scheduled to be released the same week, but due to the similarity in the names of the two films and plot outline, UIP opted to push back Shaun 's release by two weeks. It was screened out of competition at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival . [10] The film grossed $59 million at the US box office and $102 million worldwide. [2] Reception [ edit ] Rotten Tomatoes , a review aggregator , reports that 75% of 182 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 6.7/10. The site's consensus reads: \"A kinetic, violent and surprisingly worthy remake of George Romero's horror classic that pays homage to the original while working on its own terms.\" [11] Metacritic rated it 59/100 based on 37 reviews. [12] Roger Ebert said the film \"works and it delivers just about what you expect when you buy your ticket\" but felt that it \"lacks the mordant humor of the Romero version\" and the \"plot flatlines compared to the 1979 version, which was trickier, wittier and smarter.\" [13] Scott Foundas of Variety described it as an unnecessary remake that will appeal mostly to young adult audiences who have not seen the original film. [14] Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film \"has no patience for such subtleties\" as Romero's thematic concerns or suspense-building. [15] Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote, \"Mr. Snyder's blood feast is strictly by the numbers: this second-rater could be the world's most expensive Troma film.\" [16] Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times wrote, \"Good zombie fun, the remake of George A. Romero's \"Dawn of the Dead\" is the best proof in ages that cannibalizing old material sometimes works fiendishly well.\" [17] Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote, \"Instead, the new \"Dawn of the Dead\" satirizes itself and satirizes its genre, and, on its own unambitious terms, the movie succeeds. It's silly, witty and good-natured, not scary so much as icky, and not horrifying or horrible but consistently amusing.\" [18] Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly rated it \"A\" and wrote, \"Commercial director Zack Snyder, making a killer feature debut, trades homemade cheesiness for knowing style, revels in the sophistication of modern special effects, and stomps off with the best remake – er, ”re-envisioning” – of a horror classic in memory.\" [19] Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club wrote that the remake streamlines the original film \"by discarding everything special about it in favor of pure visceral effect\". [20] Bloody Disgusting ranked the film eighth in their list of the \"Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade\", with the article saying \"Truly, you can analogize the two films [original and remake] based on their zombies alone – where Romero's lumbered and took their time (in a good way), Snyder's came at us, fast, with teeth bared like rabid dogs.\" [21] Rolling Stone ranked it #3 in their \"Top 10 Best Zombie Movies\". [22] It was third in Dread Central 's \"Best Horror Films of the Decade\". [23] George A. Romero said, \"It was better than I expected. ... The first 15, 20 minutes were terrific, but it sort of lost its reason for being. It was more of a video game. I'm not terrified of things running at me; it's like Space Invaders . There was nothing going on underneath.\" [24] South Park parodied the film in the episode, \" Night of the Living Homeless \". The show's creators, Trey Parker and Matt Stone , called the film \"amazing\" in the episode's DVD commentary. [25] Comparisons to the original [ edit ] This section possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2015) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In the original film, the zombies moved very slowly and were most menacing when they collected in large groups. In the remake, the zombies are fast and agile. Many admirers of the original, as well as Romero himself, protested this change, feeling that it limited the impact of the undead. [26] This is somewhat borne out by the fact that the remake has almost no close-up shots of zombies that last more than a second or two. Snyder mentions this in the commentary track of the remake's DVD, pointing out that they seem too human when the camera lingers upon them for longer. However, it was for this change that Wizard Magazine ranked the zombies #5 on their \"100 Greatest Villains Ever\" list. The original had a smaller cast than the remake, allowing more screen time for each character. Many fans and critics criticized the resulting loss of character development. [27] In the original version, the story unfolds over several months, indicated by the advancing stages of Fran's pregnancy. In the remake, the events transpire within approximately one month, as evidenced by the supplemental feature The Lost Tape: Andy's Terrifying Last Days Revealed , located on the DVD in the special features section. Another big change from the original is that unlike Romero, Snyder treats zombification more like a disease, pointing to the bites as the source, instead of anyone who is dead turning into a zombie. Three actors from the original film have cameos in the remake, appearing on the televisions the survivors watch: Ken Foree , who played Peter from the original, plays an evangelist who asserts that God is punishing mankind; Scott H. Reiniger , who played Roger in the original, plays an army general telling everyone to stay at home for safety; and Tom Savini , who did the special effects for many of Romero's films and played the motorcycle gang member Blades in the original Dawn of the Dead , plays the Monroeville Sheriff explaining the only way to kill the zombies is to \"shoot 'em in the head\". Monroeville is also the location of the mall used in the 1978 film. In addition, a store shown in the mall is called \"Gaylen Ross\", an obvious tribute to actress Gaylen Ross , who played Francine in the original film. In the beginning of the film, a helicopter that is very similar to the one in the original flies across the screen. In The Zombie Encyclopedia, Volume 2 , academic Peter Dendle said that the original film \"served as a bridge between the talky, slow-paced 1970s horror and the fast-paced splatter to come in the 1980s\", whereas the 2004 remake \"generally forsakes slow-mounting suspense in favor of frenetic action\". [28] Cancelled and potential sequel [ edit ] A sequel was planned but was later cancelled. [29] Zack Snyder stated that he would only be producing the sequel instead of reprising his role as the director due to working on Watchmen when he announced the film. [30] The script of Army of the Dead was written by Zack Snyder and Joby Harold . Filming for Army of the Dead was to start once they got a director as the producing studios had approved the script. Also according to Deborah Snyder, the film was set in Las Vegas, and the town had to be contained to stop the outbreak of zombies. [31] [32] The film's producing studios were Universal Studios (who released the first) and Warner Bros. Entertainment (who released most of Snyder's films since 300 ) and the film was set to be directed by Matthijs van Heijningen Jr. , director of The Thing , the 2011 prequel to John Carpenter 's 1982 cult classic of the same name . [33] See also [ edit ] List of zombie films List of zombie short films The Lost Tape: Andy's Terrifying Last Days Revealed Survivalism in fiction Last Judgment References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \" DAWN OF THE DEAD (18)\" . British Board of Film Classification . March 26, 2004 . Retrieved December 3, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Dawn of the Dead\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ J.C. Maçek III (2012-06-15). \"The Zombification Family Tree: Legacy of the Living Dead\" . PopMatters . Jump up ^ \" \" Scream Queens\": Did You Know Heather Langenkamp Is Behind the Devil Mask?!\" . Bloody Disgusting . Retrieved October 7, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Where Are They Now? : Heather Langenkamp\" . Horror Society . July 13, 2012 . Retrieved October 7, 2016 . Jump up ^ James Rocchi. \"Super: Critics' Reviews\" . MSN.com . Retrieved 2011-10-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d DVD Commentary by director Snyder and producer Newman Jump up ^ Snyder, Zack (Director) (25 October 2004). Dawn Of The Dead: Unrated Director's Cut (Fullscreen) . Universal Studios (DVD) . Retrieved 2 October 2013 . UPC 025192582028 Jump up ^ DVD-only introduction by director Snyder Jump up ^ \"Festival de Cannes: Dawn of the Dead\" . festival-cannes.com . Retrieved 2009-12-05 . [ permanent dead link ] Jump up ^ \"Dawn of the Dead (2005) reviews\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 2009-06-16 . Jump up ^ \"Dawn of the Dead\" . Metacritic . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (March 19, 2004). \"Review\" . Chicago Sun-Times . Retrieved 2007-06-15 . Jump up ^ Foundas, Scott (2004-03-18). \"Review: 'Dawn of the Dead ' \" . Variety . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ Rechtshaffen, Michael (2004-03-19). \" ' Dawn of the Dead'.(Movie Review)\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2015-03-06 – via Highbeam Research . (Subscription required ( help )) . Jump up ^ Mitchell, Elvis (2004-03-19). \"A Cautionary Tale for Those Dying to Shop\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ Dargis, Manohla (2004-03-19). \" ' Dawn of the Dead' rises to the occasion\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ LaSalle, Mick (2004-03-19). \"The zombies are back, and still hungry, and a mall full of Muzak is the only refuge\" . San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ Schwarzbaum, Lisa (2004-03-18). \"Dawn of the Dead (Movie - 2004)\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ Tobias, Scott (2004-03-23). \"Dawn Of The Dead\" . The A.V. Club . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ \"00's Retrospect: Bloody Disgusting's Top 20 Films of the Decade...Part 3\" . Bloody Disgusting . Retrieved 2010-01-03 . Jump up ^ Travers, Peter (2012-10-12). \"The 10 Best Zombie Movies\" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ Barton, Steve (2010-01-01). \"Dread Central's Best Horror Films of the Decade\" . Dread Central . Retrieved 2015-03-06 . Jump up ^ \"Simon Pegg interviews George A Romero\" . Archived from the original on February 17, 2007 . Retrieved 2007-03-18 . Jump up ^ \"Night of the Living Homeless\" Episode Commentary on South Park Season 11 DVD boxset; 2008 Jump up ^ \"John Leguizamo on Land of the Dead\" . ComingSoon.net . Archived from the original on October 29, 2008 . Retrieved 2009-06-16 . Jump up ^ \"Dawn of the Dead\" . Archived from the original on December 8, 2008 . Retrieved 2009-06-16 . Jump up ^ Dendle, Peter (2012). The Zombie Movie Encyclopedia, Volume 2: 2000–2010 . McFarland & Company . pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-0-7864-6163-9 . Jump up ^ Dawn of the Dead sequel Army of the Dead will not reanimate Jump up ^ \"Zack Snyder NOT directing \"Army of the Dead \" \" . bloodydisgusting.com . June 5, 2008. Archived from the original on June 3, 2010 . Retrieved June 29, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Army of the Dead is not dead\" . moviefone . Oct 30, 2007 . Retrieved June 29, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"EXCL: Snyder's Army of the Dead Update!\" . shocktillyoudrop.com . October 26, 2007 . Retrieved June 29, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Matthijs van Heijningen set to direct \"Army of the Dead \" \" . slashfilm.com . June 4, 2008 . Retrieved June 29, 2011 . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Dawn of the Dead (2004 film) Dawn of the Dead on IMDb Dawn of the Dead at Rotten Tomatoes Dawn of the Dead at Metacritic [ show ] v t e Living Dead films Romero's Dead series Night of the Living Dead (1968) Dawn of the Dead (1978) Day of the Dead (1985) Land of the Dead (2005) Diary of the Dead (2007) Survival of the Dead (2009) Dead series remakes Night of the Living Dead (1990) Dawn of the Dead (2004) Night of the Living Dead 3D (2006) Day of the Dead (2008) Return of the Living Dead series The Return of the Living Dead (1985) Return of the Living Dead Part II (1988) Return of the Living Dead 3 (1993) Return of the Living Dead: Necropolis (2005) Return of the Living Dead: Rave to the Grave (2005) Unofficial sequels Zombi series Zombi 2 (1979) Zombi 3 (1988) Zombi 4: After Death (1989) Zombi 5: Killing Birds (1988) Other unofficial sequels Children of the Living Dead (2001) Day of the Dead 2: Contagium (2005) Night of the Living Dead 3D: Re-Animation (2012) Night of the Living Dead: Darkest Dawn (2015) Parodies Night of the Living Bread (1990) Poultrygeist: Night of the Chicken Dead (2006) Night of the Living Carrots (2011) Homages Flesheater (1988) Shaun of the Dead (2004) Fido (2006) Flight of the Living Dead: Outbreak on a Plane (2007) Dance of the Dead (2008) Zone of the Dead (2009) Juan of the Dead (2011) Mimesis: Night of the Living Dead (2011) Related topics Dawn of the Dead in popular culture Dawn of the Dead (soundtracks) \" Night of the Living Dead \" (1979 song) Document of the Dead (1979/1989/2012 documentary) Escape of the Living Dead (2005 comic book) Land of the Dead: Road to Fiddler's Green (2005 video game) City of the Dead (cancelled video game) Birth of the Living Dead (2012 documentary) Empire of the Dead (2014–2015 comic book) [ show ] v t e Zack Snyder Films directed Dawn of the Dead (2004) 300 (2006) Watchmen (2009) Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole (2010) Sucker Punch (2011) Man of Steel (2013) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Justice League (2017) Films produced 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) Wonder Woman (2017) See also Cruel and Unusual Films Deborah Snyder [ show ] v t e James Gunn Films written and directed Slither (2006) Super (2010) Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017) Films written Tromeo and Juliet (1996) The Specials (2000) Scooby-Doo (2002) Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (2004) Dawn of the Dead (2004) LolliLove (2004) The Belko Experiment (2017) TV and web series created The Tromaville Cafe (1997–2000) James Gunn's PG Porn (2008–2009) Other All I Need to Know about Filmmaking I Learned from the Toxic Avenger Lollipop Chainsaw Movie 43 (2013) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dawn_of_the_Dead_(2004_film)&oldid=809035217 \" Categories : 2004 films English-language films 2004 horror films 2000s action films American film remakes American films American zombie films American remakes of Italian films Action horror films Apocalyptic films Directorial debut films Films set in 2004 Films set in Wisconsin Films shot in Ontario Horror film remakes Living Dead films Suicide in films Screenplays by James Gunn Universal Pictures films Film scores by Tyler Bates Films directed by Zack Snyder Films produced by Marc Abraham Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Pages containing links to subscription-only content Use mdy dates from December 2014 Articles that may contain original research from March 2015 All articles that may contain original research Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Dansk Deutsch Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2017, at 19:12. 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{ "text": "Turn and slip indicator - Wikipedia Turn and slip indicator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Illustration of the face of a turn-and-slip indicator In aviation , the turn and slip indicator ( T/S , a.k.a. turn and bank indicator ) and the turn coordinator (TC) variant are essentially two aircraft flight instruments in one device. One indicates the rate of turn, or the rate of change in the aircraft's heading, the other part indicates whether the aircraft is in coordinated flight , showing the slip or skid of the turn. The slip indicator is actually an inclinometer that at rest displays the angle of the aircraft's transverse axis with respect to horizontal, and in motion displays this angle as modified by the acceleration of the aircraft. [1] Contents 1 Name 2 Operation 2.1 Turn indicator 2.2 Inclinometer 2.3 Turn coordinator 3 Practical implications 4 See also 5 References Name [ edit ] The turn and slip indicator can be referred to as the turn and bank indicator, although the instrument does not respond directly to bank angle. Neither does the turn coordinator, but it does respond to roll rate, which enables it to respond more quickly to the start of a turn. [2] Operation [ edit ] Graphic of a turn and slip indicator and a turn coordinator Turn indicator [ edit ] The turn indicator is a gyroscopic instrument that works on the principle of precession . The gyro is mounted in a gimbal . The gyro's rotational axis is in-line with the transverse (pitch) axis of the aircraft, while the gimbal has limited freedom around the longitudinal (roll) axis of the aircraft. As the aircraft yaws , a torque force is applied to the gyro around the vertical axis, due to aircraft yaw, which causes gyro precession around the roll axis. The gyro spins on an axis that is 90 degrees relative to the direction of the applied yaw torque force. The gyro and gimbal rotate (around the roll axis) with limited freedom against a calibrated spring. The torque force against the spring reaches an equilibrium and the angle that the gimbal and gyro become positioned is directly connected to the display needle, thereby indicating the rate of turn. [3] In the turn coordinator, the gyro is canted 30 degrees from the horizontal so it responds to roll as well as yaw. The display contains hash marks for the pilot's reference during a turn. When the needle is lined up with a hash mark, the aircraft is performing a \"standard rate turn\" which is defined as three degrees per second, known in some countries as \"rate one\". This translates to two minutes per 360 degrees of turn (a complete circle). Indicators are marked as to their sensitivity, [4] with \"2 min turn\" for those whose hash marks correspond to a standard rate or two-minute turn, and \"4 min turn\" for those, used in faster aircraft, that show a half standard rate or four-minute turn. The supersonic Concorde jet aircraft and many military jets are examples of aircraft that use 4 min. turn indicators. The hash marks are sometimes called \"dog houses\", because of their distinct shape on various makes of turn indicators. Under instrument flight rules , using these figures allows a pilot to perform timed turns in order to conform with the required air traffic patterns. For a change of heading of 90 degrees, a turn lasting 30 seconds would be required to perform a standard rate or \"rate one\" turn. Inclinometer [ edit ] Coordinated flight indication is obtained by using an inclinometer , which is recognized as the \"ball in a tube\". An inclinometer contains a ball sealed inside a curved glass tube, which also contains a liquid to act as a damping medium. The original form of the indicator is in effect a spirit level with the tube curved in the opposite direction and a bubble replacing the ball. [5] In some early aircraft the indicator was merely a pendulum with a dashpot for damping.\nThe ball gives an indication of whether the aircraft is slipping, skidding or in coordinated flight. The ball's movement is caused by the force of gravity and the aircraft's centripetal acceleration. When the ball is centered in the middle of the tube, the aircraft is said to be in coordinated flight. If the ball is on the inside (wing down side) of a turn, the aircraft is slipping. And finally, when the ball is on the outside (wing up side) of the turn, the aircraft is skidding. A simple alternative to the balance indicator used on gliders is a yaw string , which allows the pilot to simply view the string's movements as rudimentary indication of aircraft balance. Turn coordinator [ edit ] Image showing the face of a turn coordinator during a standard rate coordinated right turn. The turn coordinator (TC) is a further development of the turn and slip indicator (T/S) with the major difference being the display and the axis upon which the gimbal is mounted. The display is that of a miniature airplane as seen from behind. This looks similar to that of an attitude indicator. \"NO PITCH INFORMATION\" is usually written on the instrument to avoid confusion regarding the aircraft's pitch, which can be obtained from the artificial horizon instrument. In contrast to the T/S, the TC's gimbal is pitched up 30 degrees from the transverse axis. This causes the instrument to respond to roll as well as yaw. This allows the instrument to display a change more quickly as it will react to the change in roll before the aircraft has even begun to yaw. Although this instrument reacts to changes in the aircraft's roll, it does not display the roll attitude. The turn coordinator may be used as a performance instrument when the attitude indicator has failed. This is called \"partial panel\" operations. It can be unnecessarily difficult or even impossible if the pilot does not understand that the instrument is showing roll rates as well as turn rates. The usefulness is also impaired if the internal dashpot is worn out. In the latter case, the instrument is underdamped and in turbulence will indicate large full-scale deflections to the left and right, all of which are actually roll rate responses. Practical implications [ edit ] Skidding. The corrective action is to press the \"left\" pedal adequately. Slipping and skidding within a turn is sometimes referred to as a sloppy turn, due to the perceptive discomfort it can cause to the pilot and passengers. When the aircraft is in a balanced turn (ball is centered), passengers experience gravity directly in line with their seat (force perpendicular to seat). With a well balanced turn, passengers may not even realize the aircraft is turning unless they are viewing objects outside the aircraft. While aircraft slipping and skidding are often undesired in a usual turn that maintains altitude, slipping of the aircraft can be used for practical purposes. Intentionally putting an aircraft into a slip is used as a forward slip and a sideslip . These slips are performed by applying opposite inputs of the aileron and rudder controls. A forward slip allows a pilot to quickly drop altitude without gaining unnecessary speed, while a sideslip is one method utilized to perform a crosswind landing . See also [ edit ] Flight dynamics References [ edit ] Advisory Circular AC 61-23C, Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge , U.S. Federal Aviation Administration , Revised 1997. FAA-H-8083-15 Instrument Flying Handbook , U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (IFH), (Update 25 Nov 05) Operation demonstration of a Turn & slip indicator. The indicator cover is removed and gyro is displayed as it operates. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-11 . Retrieved 2014-02-28 . Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-24 . Retrieved 2015-02-05 . Jump up ^ \"How Aircraft Instruments Work.\" Popular Science , March 1944, pp. 117. Jump up ^ \"MS28041 H SHEET INDICATOR TURN SLIP 28V DC 1-7/8 INCH\" . Archived from the original on 2015-11-20. Jump up ^ A. C. Kermode (2006). Mechanics of Flight . Pitman Boots LTD. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-4058-2359-3 . show v t e Flight instruments Pitot-static Altimeter Airspeed indicator Machmeter Variometer Gyroscopic Attitude indicator Heading indicator Horizontal situation indicator Turn and slip indicator Turn coordinator Turn indicator Navigational Course deviation indicator Horizontal situation indicator Inertial navigation system Magnetic compass Satellite navigation SIGI Related topics Air data inertial reference unit EFIS Glass cockpit Primary flight display V speeds Yaw string show v t e Aircraft components and systems Airframe structure Aft pressure bulkhead Cabane strut Canopy Cruciform tail Dope Empennage Fabric covering Fairing Flying wires Former Fuselage Hardpoint Interplane strut Jury strut Leading edge Lift strut Longeron Nacelle Rib Ring tail Spar Stabilizer Stressed skin Strut T-tail Tailplane Trailing edge Triple tail Twin tail Vertical stabilizer V-tail Y-tail Wing root Wing tip Wingbox Flight controls Aileron Airbrake Artificial feel Autopilot Canard Centre stick Deceleron Dive brake Electro-hydraulic actuator Elevator Elevon Flaperon Flight control modes Fly-by-wire Gust lock Rudder Servo tab Side-stick Spoiler Spoileron Stabilator Stick pusher Stick shaker Trim tab Wing warping Yaw damper Yoke Aerodynamic and high-lift devices Active Aeroelastic Wing Adaptive compliant wing Blown flap Channel wing Dog-tooth Droop Flap Gouge flap Gurney flap Krueger flap Leading edge cuff LEX Slats Slot Stall strips Strake Variable-sweep wing Vortex generator Vortilon Wing fence Winglet Avionic and flight instrument systems ACAS Air data computer Airspeed indicator Altimeter Annunciator panel Attitude indicator Compass Course deviation indicator EFIS EICAS Flight management system Glass cockpit GPS Heading indicator Horizontal situation indicator INS Pitot-static system Radar altimeter TCAS Transponder Turn and slip indicator Vertical Speed Indicator Yaw string Propulsion controls, devices and fuel systems Autothrottle Drop tank FADEC Fuel tank Gascolator Inlet cone Intake ramp NACA cowling Self-sealing fuel tank Splitter plate Throttle Thrust lever Thrust reversal Townend ring Wet wing Landing and arresting gear Aircraft tire Arrestor hook Autobrake Conventional landing gear Drogue parachute Landing gear Landing gear extender Oleo strut Tricycle landing gear Tundra tire Escape systems Ejection seat Escape crew capsule Other systems Aircraft lavatory Auxiliary power unit Bleed air system Deicing boot Emergency oxygen system Flight data recorder Entertainment system Environmental control system Hydraulic system Ice protection system Landing lights Navigation light Passenger service unit Ram air turbine Weeping wing show v t e Sensors Acoustic, sound, vibration Geophone Hydrophone Microphone Seismometer Automotive, transportation Air–fuel ratio meter Blind spot monitor Crankshaft position sensor Curb feeler Defect detector Engine coolant temperature sensor Hall effect sensor MAP sensor Mass flow sensor Omniview technology Oxygen sensor Parking sensors Radar gun Speed sensor Speedometer Throttle position sensor Tire-pressure monitoring system Torque sensor Transmission fluid temperature sensor Turbine speed sensor Variable reluctance sensor Vehicle speed sensor Water sensor Wheel speed sensor Chemical Breathalyzer Carbon dioxide sensor Carbon monoxide detector Catalytic bead sensor Chemical field-effect transistor Electrochemical gas sensor Electrolyte–insulator–semiconductor sensor Electronic nose Fluorescent chloride sensors Holographic sensor Hydrocarbon dew point analyzer Hydrogen sensor Hydrogen sulfide sensor Infrared point sensor Ion selective electrode Microwave chemistry sensor Nitrogen oxide sensor Nondispersive infrared sensor Olfactometer Optode Oxygen sensor Pellistor pH glass electrode Potentiometric sensor Redox electrode Smoke detector Zinc oxide nanorod sensor Electric, magnetic, radio Current sensor Electroscope Galvanometer Hall effect sensor Hall probe Magnetic anomaly detector Magnetometer MEMS magnetic field sensor Metal detector Planar Hall sensor Radio direction finder Test light Environment, weather, moisture Actinometer Bedwetting alarm Ceilometer Dew warning Electrochemical gas sensor Fish counter Frequency domain sensor Gas detector Hook gauge evaporimeter Humistor Hygrometer Leaf sensor Psychrometer Pyranometer Pyrgeometer Rain gauge Rain sensor SNOTEL Snow gauge Soil moisture sensor Stream gauge Tide gauge Weather radar Flow, fluid velocity Air flow meter Anemometer Flow sensor Gas meter Mass flow sensor Water metering Ionising radiation, subatomic particles Bubble chamber Cloud chamber Geiger–Müller tube Geiger counter Ionization chamber Neutron detection Particle detector Proportional counter Scintillation counter Semiconductor detector Scintillator Thermoluminescent dosimeter Wire chamber Navigation instruments Airspeed indicator Machmeter Altimeter Attitude indicator Depth gauge Fluxgate compass Gyroscope Inertial navigation system Inertial reference unit Magnetic compass MHD sensor Ring laser gyroscope Turn coordinator Variometer Vibrating structure gyroscope Yaw-rate sensor Position, angle, displacement Accelerometer Angular rate sensor Auxanometer Capacitive displacement sensor Capacitive sensing Gravimeter Inclinometer Integrated circuit piezoelectric sensor Laser rangefinder Laser surface velocimeter Lidar Linear encoder Linear variable differential transformer Liquid capacitive inclinometers Odometer Photoelectric sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer Position sensor Rotary encoder Rotary variable differential transformer Selsyn Sudden Motion Sensor Tachometer Tilt sensor Ultrasonic thickness gauge Variable reluctance sensor Velocity receiver Optical, light, imaging Active pixel sensor Angle–sensitive pixel Back-illuminated sensor Charge-coupled device Contact image sensor Electro-optical sensor Flame detector Infrared Kinetic inductance detector LED as light sensor Light-addressable potentiometric sensor Nichols radiometer Optical fiber Photodetector Photodiode Photoelectric sensor Photoionization detector Photomultiplier Photoresistor Photoswitch Phototransistor Phototube Position sensitive device Scintillometer Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor Single-photon avalanche diode Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector Transition edge sensor Tristimulus colorimeter Visible-light photon counter Wavefront sensor Pressure Barograph Barometer Boost gauge Bourdon gauge Hot-filament ionization gauge Ionization gauge McLeod gauge Oscillating U-tube Permanent Downhole Gauge Piezometer Pirani gauge Pressure gauge Pressure sensor Tactile sensor Time pressure gauge Force, density, level Bhangmeter Force gauge Hydrometer Level sensor Load cell Magnetic level gauge Nuclear density gauge Piezoelectric sensor Strain gauge Torque sensor Viscometer Thermal, heat, temperature Bimetallic strip Bolometer Calorimeter Exhaust gas temperature gauge Flame detection Gardon gauge Golay cell Heat flux sensor Infrared thermometer Microbolometer Microwave radiometer Net radiometer Quartz thermometer Resistance thermometer Silicon bandgap temperature sensor Special sensor microwave/imager Thermistor Thermocouple Thermometer Proximity, presence Alarm sensor Doppler radar Motion detector Occupancy sensor Passive infrared sensor Proximity sensor Reed switch Stud finder Touch switch Triangulation sensor Wired glove Sensor technology Active pixel sensor Back-illuminated sensor Biochip Biosensor Capacitance probe Carbon paste electrode Catadioptric sensor Digital sensors Displacement receiver Electromechanical film Electro-optical sensor Fabry–Pérot interferometer Fisheries acoustics Image sensor Image sensor format Inductive sensor Intelligent sensor Lab-on-a-chip Leaf sensor Machine vision Microelectromechanical systems Photoelasticity Quantum sensor Radar Ground-penetrating radar Synthetic aperture radar Radar tracker Sensor array Sensor fusion Sensor grid Sensor node Soft sensor Sonar Staring array Transducer Ultrasonic sensor Video sensor technology Visual sensor network Wheatstone bridge Wireless sensor network Related List of sensors Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turn_and_slip_indicator&oldid=845281079 \" Categories : Aircraft instruments Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Čeština Deutsch Hrvatski Nederlands Norsk Polski Română Русский Slovenščina Türkçe 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2018, at 18:46 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Turn and slip indicator", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Turn_and_slip_indicator&amp;oldid=845281079" }

{ "text": "Cell-mediated immunity - Wikipedia Cell-mediated immunity From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies , but rather involves the activation of phagocytes , antigen -specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes , and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Historically, the immune system was separated into two branches: humoral immunity , for which the protective function of immunization could be found in the humor (cell-free bodily fluid or serum ) and cellular immunity , for which the protective function of immunization was associated with cells. CD4 cells or helper T cells provide protection against different pathogens. Naive T cells , mature T cells that have yet to encounter an antigen , are converted into activated effector T cells after encountering antigen-presenting cells (APCs). These APCs, such as macrophages , dendritic cells , and B cells in some circumstances, load antigenic peptides onto the MHC of the cell, in turn presenting the peptide to receptors on T cells. The most important of these APCs are highly specialized dendritic cells; conceivably operating solely to ingest and present antigens. [1] Activated Effector T cells can be placed into three functioning classes, detecting peptide antigens originating from various types of pathogen : The first class being Cytotoxic T cells , which kill infected target cells by apoptosis without using cytokines, the second class being TH1 cells , which primarily function to activate macrophages, and the third class being TH2 cells , which primarily function to stimulate B cells into producing antibodies . [2] The innate immune system and the adaptive immune system each comprise both humoral and cell-mediated components. Cellular immunity protects the body by: T-cell mediated immunity or T-cell immunity : activating antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that are able to induce apoptosis in body cells displaying epitopes of foreign antigen on their surface, such as virus -infected cells, cells with intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells displaying tumor antigens; activating macrophages and natural killer cells , enabling them to destroy pathogens; and stimulating cells to secrete a variety of cytokines that influence the function of other cells involved in adaptive immune responses and innate immune responses. [ citation needed ] Cell-mediated immunity is directed primarily at microbes that survive in phagocytes and microbes that infect non-phagocytic cells. It is most effective in removing virus-infected cells, but also participates in defending against fungi , protozoans , cancers , and intracellular bacteria. It also plays a major role in transplant rejection . References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Janeway, Charles; Travers, Paul; Walport, Mark; Shlomchik, Mark (2001). Immunobiology (5th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3642-X . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Janeway, Charles; Travers, Paul; Walport, Mark; Shlomchik, Mark (2001). Immunobiology (5th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3642-X . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Cell-mediated immunity (Encyclopædia Britannica) Chapter 8:T Cell-Mediated Immunity Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition. Further reading [ edit ] Cell-Mediated Immunity. Murphy Cell-mediated immunity: How T cells recognize and respond to foreign antigens show v t e Main cell types in blood Myeloid Granulocytes CFU-G Band cell Neutrophil Basophil CFU-Baso Eosinophil CFU-Eos Mast cell CFU-Mast Monocytes Macrophages Histiocytes Kupffer cells Alveolar macrophage Microglia Osteoclasts Epithelioid cells giant cells Langhans giant cells , Foreign-body giant cell Touton giant cells Other Antigen presenting cells Dendritic cells Langerhans cell CFU-DL CFU-M MPS Platelets CFU-Meg Megakaryoblast Promegakaryocyte Megakaryocyte Red blood cells Reticulocyte Normoblast CFU-E Other Precursor cells CFU-GM Megakaryocyte–erythroid progenitor cell CFU-GEMM Myelomonocyte Other Plasma Hematopoietic stem cell show v t e Immunology : lymphocytic adaptive immune system and complement Lymphoid Antigens Antigen Superantigen Allergen Hapten Epitope Linear Conformational Mimotope Antigen presentation / Professional APCs : Dendritic cell Macrophage B cell Immunogen Antibodies Antibody Monoclonal antibodies Polyclonal antibodies Autoantibody Microantibody Polyclonal B cell response Allotype Isotype Idiotype Immune complex Paratope Immunity vs. tolerance action: Immunity Autoimmunity Alloimmunity Allergy Hypersensitivity Inflammation Cross-reactivity inaction: Tolerance Central Peripheral Clonal anergy Clonal deletion Tolerance in pregnancy Immunodeficiency Immunogenetics Affinity maturation Somatic hypermutation Clonal selection V(D)J recombination Junctional diversity Immunoglobulin class switching MHC / HLA Lymphocytes Cellular T cell Humoral B cell NK cell Substances Cytokines Opsonin Cytolysin show v t e Hypersensitivity and autoimmune diseases ( 279.5–6 ) Type I / allergy / atopy ( IgE ) Foreign Atopic eczema Allergic urticaria Allergic rhinitis (Hay fever) Allergic asthma Anaphylaxis Food allergy common allergies include: Milk Egg Peanut Tree nut Seafood Soy Wheat Penicillin allergy Autoimmune Eosinophilic esophagitis Type II / ADCC IgM IgG Foreign Hemolytic disease of the newborn Autoimmune Cytotoxic Autoimmune hemolytic anemia Immune thrombocytopenic purpura Bullous pemphigoid Pemphigus vulgaris Rheumatic fever Goodpasture syndrome Guillain–Barré syndrome \" Type V \"/ receptor Graves' disease Myasthenia gravis Pernicious anemia Type III ( Immune complex ) Foreign Henoch–Schönlein purpura Hypersensitivity vasculitis Reactive arthritis Farmer's lung Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis Serum sickness Arthus reaction Autoimmune Systemic lupus erythematosus Subacute bacterial endocarditis Rheumatoid arthritis Type IV / cell-mediated ( T cells ) Foreign Allergic contact dermatitis Mantoux test Autoimmune Diabetes mellitus type 1 Hashimoto's thyroiditis Multiple sclerosis Coeliac disease Giant-cell arteritis Postorgasmic illness syndrome Reactive arthritis GVHD Transfusion-associated graft versus host disease Unknown/ multiple Foreign Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis Transplant rejection Latex allergy (I+IV) Autoimmune Sjögren syndrome Autoimmune hepatitis Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome APS1 APS2 Autoimmune adrenalitis Systemic autoimmune disease Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell-mediated_immunity&oldid=828003312 \" Categories : Immunology Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 February 2018, at 00:10 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Cell-mediated immunity", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cell-mediated_immunity&amp;oldid=828003312" }

{ "text": "Quintanilla - Wikipedia Quintanilla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Quintanilla is a Spanish surname . Notable people with the name include: Abraham Quintanilla, Jr. (born 1939), American singer-songwriter and record producer, father of Selena Quintanilla-Pérez Abraham Quintanilla III (born 1963), American singer-songwriter and record producer, brother of Selena Quintanilla-Pérez Antonio de Quintanilla (1787–1863), Spanish brigadier and Governor of Chiloé Armando Quintanilla (born 1968), Mexican long-distance runner Beto Quintanilla (1948–2007), Mexican singer, songwriter and musician Carl Quintanilla (born 1970) is an American journalist and CNBC anchor Carlos Quintanilla (1888–1964), President of Bolivia Diego Quintanilla (born 1991), Ecuadorian footballer Eleuterio Quintanilla (1886–1966), Spanish anarchist and educator Eliseo Quintanilla (born 1983), Salvadoran footballer Enmanuel Quintanilla (born 1989), Salvadoran footballer Enrique Perea Quintanilla (1956–2006), Mexican journalist, crime reporter, and magazine founder Francisco Javier Quintanilla (born 1833), Chilean priest Hector Quintanilla (1923–1998), United States Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Isabel Quintanilla (born 1938), Spanish visual artist José Quintanilla (1947–1977), Salvadoran footballer José Alberto Quintanilla (born 1997), Bolivian swimmer Mauricio Quintanilla (disambiguation) , multiple people, including: Mauricio Quintanilla (footballer, born 1952) (born 1952), Salvadoran football forward Mauricio Quintanilla (footballer, born 1981) (born 1981), Salvadoran football defender Omar Quintanilla (born 1981), American baseball player Rolando Quintanilla (born 1977), Mexican racing driver Selena Quintanilla-Pérez (1971–1995), American singer, songwriter, spokesperson, actress, and fashion designer José Antonio Quintanilla Pardo (1902-1941), Spanish Republican commandant, killed in the franquist concentration camp of Valdenoceda. Find and identified in a mass grave in 2010 This page lists people with the surname Quintanilla . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintanilla&oldid=780179345 \" Categories : Surnames Spanish-language surnames Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Cebuano Deutsch Español Italiano Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2017, at 14:16. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Quintanilla", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Quintanilla&amp;oldid=780179345" }

{ "text": "List of fatal snake bites in the United States - Wikipedia List of fatal snake bites in the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it . This is a list of people who received a fatal snake bite in the United States by decade in reverse chronological order. The eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( Crotalus adamanteus ) kills the most people in the US, with the western diamondback rattlesnake ( Crotalus atrox ) ranking second. [1] However, some authorities believe the western diamondback is responsible for the most deaths. [2] [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Snake species 2 2010s 3 2000s 4 1990s 5 1980s 6 1970s 7 1950s 8 1940s 9 1920s 10 1910s 11 1900s 12 Before 1900 13 See also 14 External links Snake species [ edit ] The United States has about 20 species of venomous snakes, which include 16 species of rattlesnakes, two species of coral snakes, one species of cottonmouth (or water moccasin), and one species of copperhead. At least one type of venomous snake is found in every state except Alaska and Hawaii. [4] It has been estimated that 7,000–8,000 people per year receive venomous bites in the United States, and about five of those people die. [5] Most fatal bites are attributed to the eastern and western diamondback rattlesnake . Copperheads account for more cases of venomous snake bite than any other North American species; however, their venom is the least toxic, so their bite is seldom fatal. [6] Venomous snakes are distributed unevenly throughout the United States — the vast majority of snake bites occur in warm weather states. States like Florida and Texas have a wide variety and large population of venomous snakes. Bites from venomous snakes are extremely rare in the states near the Canada–US border . Maine , for example, has only one species ( timber rattlesnake ); they are rarely seen, and then only in the southern part of the state, but the species is likely extinct in Maine, with the last sighting in 1901. [7] 2010s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Daniel Hohs, 31, male October 7, 2017 Rattlesnake Hohs was bitten on the ankle while hiking near Golden, Colorado . [8] Wayne Grooms, 71, male June 12, 2016 Rattlesnake (likely timber rattlesnake ) Grooms was in the Santee National Wildlife Refuge in South Carolina when a rattlesnake bit his lower left leg. [9] He collapsed and died within 15 minutes. He may have had an undisclosed condition which contributed to the severity of his reaction to the bite. [10] Timber rattlesnakes are the most common in this refuge, but eastern diamondback rattlesnakes are adaptable, could potentially be found on this refuge, and are more likely to cause serious bites than timbers, due to their disposition and venomous potential. [11] Paula Halfacre, 39, female September 20, 2015 Green mojave rattlesnake Halfacre was with several friends near her camp in the Azusa Canyon Mountains, Azusa, California . She returned to her campsite alone to retrieve a tool when she was bitten by a rattlesnake. She attempted to hike back down to her friends, but collapsed on the path. She managed to get close enough that someone heard her faint call for help. A friend of Halfacre's picked her up and carried her down to where her other friends could help her. Unable to speak, Halfacre was not able to let anyone know she had been bitten. An ambulance was called and as paramedics were loading her into the ambulance, she was finally able to get out the words \"snake bite\". Halfacre was taken to nearby Foothill Presbyterian Hospital in Glendora, California, where she died a short time later. [ citation needed ] David Brock, 60, male July 28, 2015 Unknown (almost certainly timber rattlesnake) Brock was bitten during a religious service at a Pentecostal Church in Jenson, Kentucky. He refused treatment and died in his brother's home. [12] Russell E. Davis, 39, male July 19, 2015 Timber rattlesnake Davis was sitting by a fire at his family's camp in Elk County, Pennsylvania when he was bitten by a rattlesnake. He was taken to a hospital and from there airlifted to a Pittsburgh-area hospital. While in the helicopter, Davis suffered a cardiac arrest and was subsequently pronounced dead upon arrival to the hospital. The cause of death was an anaphylactic reaction from the snake's venom. No autopsy was performed and the death was ruled accidental. [13] Grant Thompson, 18, male July 14, 2015 Monocled cobra Thompson was found unresponsive in his car in a Lowe's store parking lot in North Austin, Texas. He was taken to a hospital where he was pronounced dead. A monocled cobra that he was known to own was missing and was later found dead nearby, having been run over by a car [14] An autopsy was performed and Thompson's death was ruled a suicide. [15] Gilbert De Leon, 37, male May 23, 2015 Cottonmouth De Leon was bitten on each leg while wading in the James River near Nixa, Missouri . After the bite, he did not seek medical attention and died the next day. [16] David Giles, 59, male May 20, 2015 Unknown, but likely rattlesnake Giles, of Watkinsville, Georgia , was bitten while he was alone in Arnoldsville, Georgia . He normally carried a snakebite kit, but did not have it with him this time. He drove to a nearby house to seek help, and collapsed. A timber rattlesnake would have been the normal suspect, but since he was weakened by Lyme disease it could have been a pygmy, cottonmouth, or copperhead. [17] Timothy Levins, 52, male July 8, 2014 Copperhead While camping at Sam A. Baker State Park in Missouri, Levins walked outside, saw a snake, and brought it to his son's attention. When he picked it up, the snake bit him. Levins walked back into the cabin, washed his hand at the kitchen sink and sat down on the couch. When he became sick, someone from a neighboring cabin came over to help and performed CPR. Levins was later pronounced dead at an area hospital. [18] Brayden Bullard, 4, male June 20, 2014 Timber rattlesnake Bitten while planting watermelons in his backyard in Bryceville, Florida. [19] He was rushed to the hospital, but died 2 weeks later [20] Jamie Coots , 42, male Feb 15, 2014 Rattlesnake Coots was bitten on the right hand during a service at his Full Gospel Tabernacle in Jesus Name church in Middlesboro, Kentucky . After the bite, Coots dropped the snakes, but then picked them back up and continued the ceremony. Later, he was driven to his home. When paramedics arrived, his relatives refused medical treatment for him, saying it was inconsistent with his religion. He died at home. Daniel Frank Mitchell, 53, male Sept. 20, 2013 Rattlesnake (probably eastern diamondback, but possibly timber) Salem, Alabama [21] Ernest Burch, 80, male July 2, 2013 [22] Timber rattlesnake Burch found the snake in his garage in Armuchee, Georgia . Not wanting to kill it, he tried moving it out with a broom but lost his balance, fell on top of the snake, and was bitten on his left arm. He was rushed to the hospital and received eight vials of antivenom, but died 30 hours later. [23] Believed to be Jack Redmond, male, 70 October 2, 2012 Unknown He was likely killed by one of the 24 venomous snakes he kept in his home in Chesterfield, Virginia. [24] Terry Brown, 50, male July 2012 Copperhead Brown died of a heart attack one day after he was bitten by a copperhead snake while camping on the Current River, Missouri. The coroner's office listed the cause of death as a heart attack, with the snake bite as a contributing factor. Witnesses told investigators that Brown had seen a snake in one of the tents and was trying to remove it when the snake bit him on the right thumb. [25] Mark Randall Wolford, 44, male May 28, 2012 Timber rattlesnake Wolford was bitten on the thigh while handling a timber rattlesnake as part of an outdoor religious service at Panther State Forest in McDowell County, West Virginia . [26] [27] Wolford did not initially seek medical treatment for his injury, but was taken to Bluefield Regional Medical Center when his condition began to deteriorate some eight hours later. [26] Wolford was a pastor and often handled his pet snake during church services. [26] Wolford's father, Mack Wolford, died in 1983 under similar circumstances. [28] Aleta Stacy, 56, female June 2011 presumably Black Mamba Found dead in her home in Putnam Co., NY. She illegally kept numerous venomous snakes in her home, one of which was a Black Mamba. [29] Some suspect that her death was a suicide. [30] Mark Shaw, 47, male April 5, 2011 Rattlesnake (probably western diamondback, but possibly timber) Shaw was bitten by a rattlesnake he was trying to kill in Bastrop County, Texas. [31] Wade Westbrook, 26, male January 29, 2011 Copperhead Westbrook was bitten just above the right elbow while handling a copperhead; he had been attempting to determine the snake's sex. [32] According to witnesses, he \"tried to extract the venom with a tool after he was bitten, then he began coughing and vomiting before he collapsed.\" [33] Westbrook was pronounced dead on arrival at Erlanger Hospital in Chattanooga, Tennessee . [33] The cause of death was determined to be \"anaphylactic shock as a result of the snake bite.\" Westbrook had been bitten previously by a Copperhead, which may have made him hypersensitive to snake venom. [33] William Price, 67, male October 13, 2010 Rattlesnake, probably a Southern Pacific rattlesnake Price was bitten above the right ankle while wading across a stream near Cuyamaca Reservoir in Cuyamaca, California . [34] He had been taking part in a study of steelhead trout that was funded by a state Department of Fish and Game grant. [34] According to witnesses, Price \"stopped breathing within minutes\" of being bitten. The bite marks on his foot were reportedly an inch and a half across. [34] Price was airlifted to Palomar Medical Center , but later died. Peyton Hood, 1, female Aug. 11, 2010 Western diamondback rattlesnake Accidentally stepped on baby Western Diamondback while climbing down ladder at Possum Kingdom Lake, Texas. The snake struck her main artery. [35] She was rushed to the hospital, but died within a few hours. [36] George Yancy, 35, male May 9, 2010 Rattlesnake (probably western diamondback, but possibly timber) Yancy was bitten while pulling up his pants in Smithville, Texas. [31] 2000s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Richard Rupert, 68, male October 10, 2009 Timber rattlesnake Rupert was hunting with his grandson in Oglethorpe County, Georgia . [37] Pfc. Norman M. Murburg, 29, male June 9, 2008 Cottonmouth The Army claimed that Murburg was bitten during special forces selection at Fort Bragg , North Carolina . [38] Jackie Ledwell, 63, female October, 2007 Mojave rattlesnake Ledwell was bitten while taking a walk in Paulden, Arizona. [39] Inocenio Hernandez-Hernandez, 29, male June 10, 2006 Eastern coral snake Hernandez-Hernandez became the first person to die in the United States from a fatal coral snake bite since 1967. He and Jesus Moreida, both of Bonita Springs, Florida , were bitten by a coral snake they tried to kill. [40] Former police officer from Madison County, Texas 2006 Copperhead [41] Joe Guidry, 54, male October 2005 Eastern diamondback rattlesnake Guidry, the Putnam County, Florida fire marshal, went to help a neighbor who had spotted a rattlesnake while mowing grass. He shot at the snake; it went under a shed and Guidry was bitten when he reached for it. [42] Margaret Wilson White, 54, female July 2005 Rattlesnake White was bitten in Hays County, Texas near Wimberley along Ranch Road 12, about a quarter mile west of County Road 213. [43] [44] [45] Trent Leprette, 31, male June 2004 Copperhead Leprette was bitten on each hand while swimming in Saugahatchee Creek near Lochapoka, Alabama. He was admitted to East Alabama Medical Center in Opelika ; he developed complications and died after several days of treatment. [46] Professor Chavez, 34, male May 2003 Rattlesnake Professor Chavez was killed in Riverside County, California . Ross Cooke, 50, male May 2003 Southern Pacific rattlesnake Cooke was killed in Lyle Creek, San Bernardino County, California , having stepped on a snake he mistook for a log. Pat Hughes, 45, male August 2002 Rattlesnake Hughed was bitten on the finger by a small snake in his own garage. He was admitted to Sierra Vista Regional Health Center in Sierra Vista, Arizona and treated with antivenom but died of \"complications associated with the bite\". [47] Derek Lema, 2, male September 16, 2000 Eastern diamondback rattlesnake Lema was bitten in the thigh by rattlesnake while helping his father Victor Lema in their Lakewood Ranch Florida backyard. [48] 1990s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Anita Finch, 33, female Reported December 17, 1999 Gaboon viper or hog-nosed sand viper Finch was bitten by either of these snakes she kept as pets in her Van Nuys, California home. [49] 1980s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Adult male 1980s Rattlesnake A single fatal rattlesnake bite was reported in Utah during this decade. Curtis Davison, 22, male August 19, 1989 Eastern diamondback rattlesnake Davison was bitten on the top of his right hand as he transferred a six-foot rattlesnake from one cage to another at Silver Springs Nature Park near Ocala, Florida. [50] Mack Ray Wolford, 39, male August 28, 1983 Timber rattlesnake Wolford was bitten on the arm by a timber rattlesnake during religious services at the Lord Jesus Temple in Mile Branch, near Iaeger, West Virginia . [28] Wolford did not initially seek medical treatment. [51] An ambulance was summoned eight hours after Wolford had been bitten, but he died during transport to Stevens Clinic in Welch, West Virginia . [28] Wolford's son, Mark Wolford, died in 2012 under similar circumstances. [26] John Holbrook, 38, male August 1982 Rattlesnake Reverend Holbrook was bitten while handling a rattlesnake during religious services in Oceana, West Virginia . [28] [52] Holbrook reportedly refused medical assistance because his religion did not permit it. [28] [52] 1970s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Gordon D. Ball, 34, male August 5, 1973 Rattlesnake Ball was presumably bitten by a snake, possibly a massasauga , while traveling alone through Bergen-Byron Swamp on a \"picture-taking expedition\". [53] A five-day police search recovered Ball's body from a small clearing \"near Warboys Road, on the swamp's northern perimeter.\" [53] An autopsy report listed snakebite as the presumptive cause of death. [53] [54] 1950s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Karl P. Schmidt , 67, male September 26, 1957 Boomslang Schmidt, a renowned herpetologist, died while documenting the effects of a venomous bite of a snake he was trying to identify. The snake was later identified as a juvenile African Boomslang. [55] George Went Hensley , 74, male July 25, 1955 Unknown Hensley died from a bite sustained while handling snakes during a religious service in Florida. 1940s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Mrs. Floyd Butterbaugh, 22, Female July 18, 1947 Timber rattlesnake Mrs. Butterbaugh was bitten by a timber rattler at her home on Piney Creek, 12 miles east of Chillicothe, Ohio near the Tar Hollow State Forest. She was picking beans in her garden when she was bitten. She died the next day. This is the last known fatality from a wild snake bite in the state of Ohio. [56] Jerry Frier, 7, male June 22, 1943 Rattlesnake Frier died from rattlesnake bite in Lafayette County, Florida . [57] 1920s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Maggie Collins, 33, female May 29, 1929 Rattlesnake Collins died from a rattlesnake bite while picking blackberries in Grady County, Georgia. Rebecca Nimmons, 19, female July 1928 Rattlesnake Nimmons was killed by a rattlesnake in Pickens County, South Carolina . Jane Lancaster, 66, female August 21, 1921 Probably a timber rattlesnake The bite occurred in Franklin Township at Snake Hollow, near the present-day Scioto Trails State Forest, southeast of Chillicothe, Ohio, in Ross County . An article in the Chillicothe Gazette explained that it could not be confirmed whether the bite Lancaster suffered was from a copperhead or rattlesnake. Given the severity of her wounds, it was likely a timber rattlesnake. [58] 1910s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Helen Moomey, 4, female September 23, 1915 Rattlesnake Moomey died from a rattlesnake bite she received while playing with friends near her house in Billings County, North Dakota . [59] The prairie rattlesnake is the only venomous snake in North Dakota. Two Wilson children June 1913 Prairie rattlesnake The children were bitten and died while their family was sleeping on the North Dakota prairie. 1900s [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Mary Bull, 12, female July 9, 1907 Rattlesnake Bull died from a rattlesnake bite in Shenandoah County, Virginia . The timber rattlesnake is the only species of rattlesnake in this region. Frank Benham, 2, male September 25, 1903 Prairie rattlesnake Benham died from a rattlesnake bite in Adams County, Colorado, 17 miles north of Deer Trail. Edward Comstock, 39, male September 25, 1900 Rattlesnake Comstock died as result of a bite from a rattlesnake during a snake handling exhibition on Water Street in Chillicothe, Ohio . A newspaper article read: \"Edward Comstock, manager of a snake show, was bitten by a rattlesnake at Chilll- cothe, O., last week and died, in terrible agony. His hand and arm swelled to an enormous size. Every known antidote was tried without avail. He was changing the snakes and put his hand into a box, when the rattler bit him. He had handled snakes for years.\" [60] Before 1900 [ edit ] Name, age, gender Date Species Location, comments Belinda Rourke, 6, female June 1891 Rattlesnake Rourke died from a bite while playing near a pile of rocks near the family's ranch in the Purgatory River Valley of southern Colorado. The child survived for a day after the bite. Rebecca O. Andrews, approximately 28, female c. 1890 Rattlesnake Andrews died from a rattlesnake bite in Kansas . James Ananias Brannon, 2, male July 1882 Rattlesnake Brannon died from a rattlesnake bite received while lying on a blanket in Texas . George Sides, 6, male May 30, 1873 Rattlesnake Sides died in Texas of a rattlesnake bite. Frederick Louis Niemann, male 1873 Rattlesnake Niemann died in Saline County, Kansas , from a rattlesnake bite. William A. Perrin, male 1859 Rattlesnake Perrin was killed by a rattlesnake at Stribling Springs in Augusta County, Virginia . The timber rattlesnake is the only rattlesnake in the state. Maggie Lee, female October 24, 1854 Rattlesnake She was the first child to die of a snakebite in Parker County, Texas . H. M. Pettigrew, 31, male August 15, 1841 Rattlesnake Pettigrew died from a rattlesnake bite while clearing land in Fannin County, Texas . [61] Richardson, infant son of Wm. & Ella 1796 Rattlesnake Richardson Cemetery (Town of Springport, NY) Unknown person 1791 Timber rattlesnake This was the last fatal snakebite in the state of Massachusetts . [62] Child, 5 or 6 August 28, 1790 Rattlesnake A child was bitten by a rattlesnake, and died the next day, in Hardwick, Massachusetts . [63] See also [ edit ] Snakebite Venomous snakes Snake handling Epidemiology of snakebites Species: List of fatal bear attacks in North America List of fatal cougar attacks in North America List of fatal shark attacks in the United States List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States List of wolf attacks in North America Fatal dog attacks in the United States Footnotes Jump up ^ Norris R. 2004. Venom Poisoning in North American Reptiles. In Campbell JA, Lamar WW. 2004. The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere . Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London. 870 pp. 1500 plates. ISBN 0-8014-4141-2 . [ page needed ] Jump up ^ Conant, Roger and Joseph T. Collins (1998). Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern/Central North America . New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 412. ISBN 0-395-90452-8 . Jump up ^ Foster, Steven, and Roger Caras (1994). A Field Guide to Venomous Animals and Poisonous Plants: North America North of Mexico . New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. plate 2. Jump up ^ George, David W. \"Venomous Snakes of the United States by State\" . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Venomous Snakes\" . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Copperhead snake page\" . Snakesandfrogs.com. Archived from the original on 2000-09-16 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Timber Rattlesnakes\" . Jump up ^ \"Hiker from Golden dies after being bitten by rattlesnake\" . Denver Post . Retrieved 9 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"SC conservationist dies after rattlesnake bite at nature preserve\" . Retrieved 2016-07-17 . Jump up ^ \"Autopsy confirms snake bite killed SC conservationist, coroner says\" . June 14, 2016. Jump up ^ Foster, Steven, and Roger Caras (1994). A Field Guide to Venomous Animals and Poisonous Plants: North America North of Mexico . New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 14, 18. ISBN 0-395-51594-7 . Jump up ^ \"Kentucky man dies from snake bite at church service\" . Jump up ^ \"Man Killed by Elk County Rattlesnake\" . Jump up ^ \"Temple man killed by Cobra in Austin\" . Statesman Online . 15 July 2015. Archived from the original on 18 July 2015 . Retrieved 15 July 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Autopsy: Teen used cobra to commit suicide\" . Jump up ^ \"Missouri woman wakes to find boyfriend dead after he was bitten by water snake\" . Mail Online . 27 May 2015 . Retrieved 31 May 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Snakebite claims life of Watkinsville man\" . Jump up ^ Dean, Dana; Aja J., Williams; Zigman, Leisa (July 13, 2014). \"Snakebite kills Missouri man\" . USAToday . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Winslow, Hailey (June 13, 2014). \"4-year-old boy bitten by rattlesnake\" . News4Jax . Jump up ^ \"Two weeks after rattlesnake bite, Nassau County boy, 4, dies\" . jacksonville.com . Retrieved 2016-03-15 . Jump up ^ \"Cherokee County man dies from rattlesnake bite, a rare occurrence in Alabama\" . AL.com . Retrieved 2016-03-15 . Jump up ^ \"Armuchee man dies from rattlesnake bite\" . Jump up ^ \"Family remembers man bitten by timber rattlesnake\" . Jump up ^ \"Venomous snakes removed from home, man's death under investigation\" . Jump up ^ Tim O'Neil (July 4, 2012). \"Camper dies after Copperhead bite along Current River\" . stltoday.com . Retrieved 31 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Snake-handling W.Va. preacher dies after suffering bite during outdoor service\" . The Washington Post. The Associated Press. May 31, 2012 . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . [ dead link ] Jump up ^ \"Snake-handling pastor dies after bite\" . The Boston Globe . June 1, 2012 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 – via HighBeam Research. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Web Extra: 1983 Daily Telegraph story detailing the death of Wolford's father, also from a snake bite\" . Bluefield Daily Telegraph. August 30, 1983 . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . Jump up ^ Jaslow, Ryan (June 20, 2011). \"Did bite from black mamba kill New York woman?\" . CBS News . Jump up ^ \"Did she commit 'suicide by snake'? Woman killed by African black mamba she kept in New York home along with 75 others\" . Daily Mail . 20 June 2011. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Paige man dies from rattlesnake bite\" . Jump up ^ Ghianni, Tim (January 31, 2011). \"Tennessee man dies from poisonous copperhead snake bite\" . Reuters . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Nicholson, Ken (January 31, 2011). \"Updated: Official cause of death determined in snake bite case\" . Chattanooga, Tennessee: WRCB . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Repard, Pauline (October 15, 2010). \"La Jolla man dies from rattlesnake bite\" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Snake Bite Season\" . www.newschannel6now.com . Retrieved 2016-03-15 . Jump up ^ Miller, Bill (August 11, 2010). \"Girl dies after snake bite near Possum Kingdom Lake\" . Jump up ^ Christian Boone (Oct 13, 2009). \"Boy couldn't save snakebit grandpa\" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . ajc.com . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Special Forces soldier killed by snake bites\" . WRAL.com . September 17, 2008. Jump up ^ \"Snakebite Deaths Still Rare but are Mounting\" . tucsoncitizen.com . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Southeastern Outdoors – Fatal Coral Snake Bites\" . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The copperhead snake\" . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . [ not specific enough to verify ] Jump up ^ Lise Fisher (October 11, 2005). \"Snake bite is deadly for Putnam fire official\" . The Gainesville Sun . Retrieved 31 May 2015 . Jump up ^ \"July 29, 2005 - Search for missing woman in Hays County\" . Jump up ^ Anita Miller (Jul 27, 2005). \"Wimberley Woman Missing\" . SAN MARCOS DAILY RECORD . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Missing woman found dead, bitten by snake\" . myplainview.com . August 1, 2005. Jump up ^ \"Fatal Snake Bite\" . WTVY.com. June 23, 2004 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Snake bite kills Sierra Vista man\" . Tucson Citizen. August 20, 2002 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Zucco, Tom (November 13, 2004). \"Trial calls Animal Planet host\" . St. Petersburg Times . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Zoo volunteer killed by deadly snake bite\" . Sacramento Bee . December 17, 1999 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Vicki Vaughan (August 28, 1989). \"22-year-old snake handler has died in the first..\" The Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved 13 November 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Snake Bite Proves Fatal\" . Daily Sitka Sentinel . Sitka, Alaska. 31 Aug 1983. p. 7 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Jump up to: a b Mathews, Garret (April 3, 1983). \" ' Praise-the-Lord-and-pass-the-snake' service is a trip, if you can handle it\" . The Chicago Tribune . p. J3 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Graczyk, Mark (5 February 2012). \"Hidden History: Snake bite kills man in Bergen swamp, 1973\" . The Daily News Online . Batavia, New York. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012 . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Coroner Says Snake Bite Fatal\" . The Times Record . Troy, New York. 13 Aug 1973. p. 7 – via Newspapers.com. Jump up ^ \"He documented his own death by snakebite instead of going to the hospital\" . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Dies Of Snake Bite\" . The Evening Review . East Liverpool, Ohio: Newspapers.com. 1947-07-19. p. 6 . Retrieved 2014-08-20 . Jump up ^ \"Burval Genealogy - Person Page\" . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . Jump up ^ \"First Death from Snake Bite in Ross County Since Records Of Mortality Has Been Kept in This County\" . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Little Girl is Mortally Bitten by a Rattlesnake\" . The Marmarth Mail . VIII (42). September 24, 1915 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 – via USGENWEB ARCHIVES. Jump up ^ \"Seeking Relatives\" . The Billboard . 12, 13. Mocavo.com. Jul–Dec 1900. p. 97 . Retrieved 2014-08-20 . Jump up ^ \"Fannin Co. TX Pettigrew Cemetery N. of Windom\" . USGENWEB ARCHIVES . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Timber Rattlesnake: Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program\" (PDF) . Jump up ^ \"We Hear from Hardwick\". Gazette of the United-States . New York, New York. September 25, 1790. General references Southeastern Outdoors – Fatal Rattlesnake Bites External links [ edit ] Venomous Snakebites in the United States: Management Review and Update from American Family Physician website Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_fatal_snake_bites_in_the_United_States&oldid=817730820 \" Categories : Deaths due to animal attacks in the United States Lists of people by cause of death Deaths due to snake bites Death in the United States-related lists Death-related lists Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2013 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2014 Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from August 2014 Incomplete lists from August 2008 Use dmy dates from September 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 30 December 2017, at 06:29. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of fatal snake bites in the United States", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_fatal_snake_bites_in_the_United_States&amp;oldid=817730820" }

{ "text": "Supreme Court of the United States - Wikipedia Supreme Court of the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"SCOTUS\" redirects here. For other uses, see SCOTUS (disambiguation) . Supreme Court of the United States Established March 4, 1789 ; 229 years ago ( 1789-03-04 ) [1] Country United States Location Washington, D.C. , U.S. Coordinates 38°53′26″N 77°00′16″W  /  38.89056°N 77.00444°W  / 38.89056; -77.00444 Coordinates : 38°53′26″N 77°00′16″W  /  38.89056°N 77.00444°W  / 38.89056; -77.00444 Composition method Presidential nomination with Senate confirmation Authorized by United States Constitution Judge term length Life tenure No. of positions 9, by statute Website www .supremecourt .gov Chief Justice of the United States Currently John Roberts Since September 29, 2005 ; 12 years ago ( 2005-09-29 ) This article is part of the series on the United States Supreme Court The Court Decisions Procedure History Court Building Current membership Chief Justice John Roberts Associate Justices Anthony Kennedy Clarence Thomas Ruth Bader Ginsburg Stephen Breyer Samuel Alito Sonia Sotomayor Elena Kagan Neil Gorsuch Retired Associate Justices John Paul Stevens Sandra Day O'Connor David Souter All members List of all justices by court by seat by time in office by education List of Chief Justices List of Associate Justices Specialty lists All nominations Unsuccessful nominations Nominations late in presidency Court demographics Justices who served in Congress Ideological leanings of justices Court functionaries Clerks Reporter of Decisions Marshal of the Court Supreme Court Police Other countries Law Portal v t e The Supreme Court of the United States (sometimes colloquially referred to by the acronym SCOTUS [2] ) is the highest federal court of the United States . Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary ) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States , the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution , but it may act only within the context of a case in which it has jurisdiction. The Court may decide cases having political overtones but does not have power to decide nonjusticiable political questions , and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government. According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate . Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed after impeachment (though no justice has ever been removed). [3] In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative , moderate , or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation . Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting that while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have often come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 1.1 Earliest beginnings to Marshall 1.2 From Taney to Taft 1.3 The New Deal era 1.4 Warren and Burger 1.5 Rehnquist and Roberts 2 Composition 2.1 Size of the Court 2.2 Appointment and confirmation 2.2.1 Recess appointments 2.3 Tenure 3 Membership 3.1 Current justices 3.2 Court demographics 3.3 Retired justices 3.4 Seniority and seating 3.5 Salary 3.6 Judicial leanings 4 Facilities 5 Jurisdiction 5.1 Justices as Circuit Justices 6 Process 6.1 Case selection 6.2 Oral argument 6.3 Supreme Court bar 6.4 Decision 6.5 Published opinions 6.5.1 Citations to published opinions 7 Institutional powers and constraints 8 Law clerks 8.1 Politicization of the Court 9 Criticism 9.1 Judicial activism 9.2 Failing to protect individual rights 9.3 Supreme Court has too much power 9.4 Courts are poor check on executive power 9.5 Federal versus state power 9.6 Secretive proceedings 9.7 Judicial interference in political disputes 9.8 Not choosing enough cases to review 9.9 Lifetime tenure 9.10 Accepting gifts 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links History [ edit ] Main article: History of the Supreme Court of the United States Supreme Court of the United States The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution . The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by Congress . Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of \"justice\" to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as \"judge\", even though it is the term used in the Constitution. [4] The Court first convened on February 2, 1790, [5] with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: \"[T]he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices — William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia — sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home.\" [6] The sixth member, James Iredell , was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two-thirds (voting four to two). [7] However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789. [8] Earliest beginnings to Marshall [ edit ] Main articles: Jay Court , Rutledge Court , Ellsworth Court , and Marshall Court Under Chief Justices Jay , Rutledge , and Ellsworth (1789–1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving a procedural issue. [9] The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige, [10] a situation not helped by the highest-profile case of the era, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment . [11] Chief Justice Marshall The Court's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801–35). [12] Under Marshall, the Court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress, [13] including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution ( Marbury v. Madison ) [14] [15] and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and the states (prominently, Martin v. Hunter's Lessee , McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden ). [16] [17] [18] [19] The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim , [20] a remnant of British tradition, [21] and instead issuing a single majority opinion. [20] Also during Marshall's tenure, although beyond the Court's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804–05 helped cement the principle of judicial independence . [22] [23] From Taney to Taft [ edit ] Main articles: Taney Court , Chase Court , Waite Court , Fuller Court , White Court , and Taft Court The Taney Court (1836–64) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill , which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects. [24] Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford , [25] which helped precipitate the Civil War . [26] In the Reconstruction era , the Chase , Waite , and Fuller Courts (1864–1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution [19] and developed the doctrine of substantive due process ( Lochner v. New York ; [27] Adair v. United States ). [28] Under the White and Taft Courts (1910–30), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states ( Gitlow v. New York ), [29] grappled with the new antitrust statutes ( Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States ), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription ( Selective Draft Law Cases ) [30] and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee ( Adkins v. Children's Hospital ). [31] The New Deal era [ edit ] Main articles: Hughes Court , Stone Court , and Vinson Court During the Hughes , Stone , and Vinson Courts (1930–53), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935 [32] and changed its interpretation of the Constitution , giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish , Wickard v. Filburn , United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler ). [33] [34] [35] During World War II , the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens ( Korematsu v. United States ) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance ( Minersville School District v. Gobitis ). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated ( West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette ), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend. Warren and Burger [ edit ] Main articles: Warren Court and Burger Court The Warren Court (1953–69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties . [36] It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection ( Brown v. Board of Education , Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd. ) [37] and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote ( Reynolds v. Sims ). It created a general right to privacy ( Griswold v. Connecticut ), [38] limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp ), [39] [40] incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States—prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule ) and Gideon v. Wainwright ( right to appointed counsel ), [41] [42] —and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police ( Miranda v. Arizona ). [43] At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures ( New York Times v. Sullivan ) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories. [44] The Burger Court (1969–86) marked a conservative shift. [45] It also expanded Griswold' s right to privacy to strike down abortion laws ( Roe v. Wade ), [46] but divided deeply on affirmative action ( Regents of the University of California v. Bakke ) [47] and campaign finance regulation ( Buckley v. Valeo ), [48] and dithered on the death penalty , ruling first that most applications were defective ( Furman v. Georgia ), [49] then that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional ( Gregg v. Georgia ). [49] [50] [51] Rehnquist and Roberts [ edit ] Main articles: Rehnquist Court and Roberts Court Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court in 2005 The Rehnquist Court (1986–2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism , [52] emphasizing the limits of the Constitution's affirmative grants of power ( United States v. Lopez ) and the force of its restrictions on those powers ( Seminole Tribe v. Florida , City of Boerne v. Flores ). [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] It struck down single-sex state schools as a violation of equal protection ( United States v. Virginia ), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process ( Lawrence v. Texas ), [58] and the line item veto ( Clinton v. New York ), but upheld school vouchers ( Zelman v. Simmons-Harris ) and reaffirmed Roe' s restrictions on abortion laws ( Planned Parenthood v. Casey ). [59] The Court's decision in Bush v. Gore , which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000 , was especially controversial. [60] [61] The Roberts Court (2005–present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court. [62] [63] Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption ( Wyeth v. Levine ), civil procedure ( Twombly - Iqbal ), abortion ( Gonzales v. Carhart ), [64] climate change ( Massachusetts v. EPA ), same-sex marriage ( United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges ) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission ( First Amendment ), [65] Heller - McDonald ( Second Amendment ) [66] and Baze v. Rees ( Eighth Amendment ). [67] [68] Composition [ edit ] Size of the Court [ edit ] Article III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six \"judges\". Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807 , nine in 1837 , and ten in 1863 . [69] In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase , Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine, [70] where it has since remained. President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to \"pack\" the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt's New Deal . [71] The plan, usually called the \" court-packing plan \", failed in Congress. [72] Nevertheless, the Court's balance began to shift within months when Justice van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black . By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice. [73] Appointment and confirmation [ edit ] Main article: Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States The Roberts Court (April 2017 – present). Front row (left to right): Ruth Bader Ginsburg , Anthony Kennedy , John Roberts (Chief Justice), Clarence Thomas , and Stephen Breyer . Back row (left to right): Elena Kagan , Samuel A. Alito , Sonia Sotomayor , and Neil Gorsuch . The U.S. Constitution states that the President \"shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate , shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court.\" [74] Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice's decisions may end up being contrary to a president's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation. In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street , and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955. [75] Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork , nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987. Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. [76] [77] This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations. [78] Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland ; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch . [79] Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office. [80] The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing-in date. [81] Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past. [82] According to the Congressional Research Service , the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months). [83] [84] Recess appointments [ edit ] When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed. [85] No president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts. [86] In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a \"sense of the Senate\" resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in \"unusual circumstances.\" [87] Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress's views in the hope of guiding executive action. [87] [88] The Supreme Court's 2014 decision in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Writing for the Court, Justice Breyer stated, \"We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business.\" [89] This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions . [90] Tenure [ edit ] The Constitution provides that justices \"shall hold their offices during good behavior\" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term \"good behavior\" is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign , or retire . [91] Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives ( Samuel Chase , March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805). [92] Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign. [93] Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II , who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer 's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died). Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor ( John Tyler ) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor ( Millard Fillmore ) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson , who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court . Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment. Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. Andrew Jackson , Abraham Lincoln , and Franklin D. Roosevelt . [94] Membership [ edit ] See also: List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States Current justices [ edit ] The court is currently filled with nine Justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was Neil Gorsuch , who was nominated by President Donald Trump on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the U.S. Senate. Name Birth Appointed by Senate confirmation vote Age at appointment Current age First day / Length of service Previous positions Succeeded Roberts, John John Roberts ( Chief Justice ) 000000001955-01-27-0000 January 27, 1955 Buffalo, New York Bush, George W. George W. Bush 78–22 50 7001630000000000000♠ 63 000000002005-09-29-0000 September 29, 2005 12 years, 6 months Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (2003–2005); Principal Deputy Solicitor General (1989–1993); Associate Counsel to the President (1982–1986) William Rehnquist Kennedy, Anthony Anthony Kennedy 000000001936-07-23-0000 July 23, 1936 Sacramento, California Reagan, Ronald Ronald Reagan 97–0 51 7001810000000000000♠ 81 000000001988-02-18-0000 February 18, 1988 30 years, 1 month Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (1975–1988); Private practice (1963–1975) Lewis Powell Thomas, Clarence Clarence Thomas 000000001948-06-23-0000 June 23, 1948 Pin Point, Georgia Bush, George H. W. George H. W. Bush 52–48 43 7001690000000000000♠ 69 000000001991-10-23-0000 October 23, 1991 26 years, 5 months Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1990–1991); Chairman, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1982–1990); Assistant Attorney General in Missouri under State Attorney General John Danforth (1974–1977) Thurgood Marshall Ginsburg, Ruth Bader Ruth Bader Ginsburg 000000001933-03-15-0000 March 15, 1933 Brooklyn, New York Clinton, Bill Bill Clinton 96–3 60 7001850000000000000♠ 85 000000001993-08-10-0000 August 10, 1993 24 years, 7 months Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1980–1993); General Counsel, American Civil Liberties Union (1973–1980) Byron White Breyer, Stephen Stephen Breyer 000000001938-08-15-0000 August 15, 1938 San Francisco, California 87–9 55 7001790000000000000♠ 79 000000001994-08-03-0000 August 3, 1994 23 years, 8 months Chief Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1990–1994); Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1980–1990) Harry Blackmun Alito, Samuel Samuel Alito 000000001950-04-01-0000 April 1, 1950 Trenton, New Jersey George W. Bush 58–42 55 7001680000000000000♠ 68 000000002006-01-31-0000 January 31, 2006 12 years, 2 months Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit (1990–2006); U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey (1987–1990); Deputy Assistant Attorney General (1985–1987); Assistant to the Solicitor General (1981–1985) Sandra Day O'Connor Sotomayor, Sonia Sonia Sotomayor 000000001954-06-25-0000 June 25, 1954 The Bronx, New York Obama, Barack Barack Obama 68–31 55 7001630000000000000♠ 63 000000002009-08-08-0000 August 8, 2009 8 years, 8 months Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1998–2009); District Judge, District Court for the Southern District of New York (1992–1998) David Souter Kagan, Elena Elena Kagan 000000001960-04-28-0000 April 28, 1960 Manhattan, New York 63–37 50 7001570000000000000♠ 57 000000002010-08-07-0000 August 7, 2010 7 years, 8 months Solicitor General of the United States (2009–2010); Dean of Harvard Law School (2003–2009); Associate White House Counsel (1995–1999); Deputy Director of the Domestic Policy Council (1995–1999); John Paul Stevens Gorsuch, Neil Neil Gorsuch 000000001967-08-29-0000 August 29, 1967 Denver, Colorado Trump, Donald Donald Trump 54–45 49 7001500000000000000♠ 50 000000002017-04-10-0000 April 10, 2017 11 months and 30 days Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit (2006–2017); Principal Deputy Associate Attorney General and Acting Associate Attorney General (2005–2006); Antonin Scalia Court demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States The Court currently has six male and three female justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African-American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito's parents were born in Italy, [95] [96] and Justice Ginsburg's father was born in Russia. [97] At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish ; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. [98] The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an Ivy League background. [99] Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado. [100] In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity. [101] Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians , 19 Presbyterians , 10 Unitarians , 5 Methodists , and 3 Baptists . [102] [103] The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836, [104] and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis . [105] Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices, and three Jewish justices. [98] Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967. [105] Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981. [105] Marshall was succeeded by African-American Clarence Thomas in 1991. [106] O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993. [107] After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor , the first Hispanic and Latina justice; [105] and in 2010 by Elena Kagan , for a total of four female justices in the Court's history. [107] There have been six foreign-born justices in the Court's history: James Wilson (1789–1798), born in Caskardy , Scotland ; James Iredell (1790–1799), born in Lewes , England ; William Paterson (1793–1806), born in County Antrim , Ireland ; David Brewer (1889–1910), born in Smyrna , Turkey ; George Sutherland (1922–1939), born in Buckinghamshire , England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939–1962), born in Vienna , Austria . [105] Retired justices [ edit ] There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens , Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter . As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals . Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice , on request of the chief judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit , the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court. The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status , and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria. In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role. [108] [109] The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like-minded successor would be appointed. [110] [111] Name Date of birth Appointed by Retired under Confirmation vote Age at appointment Current age First day Date of retirement Length of tenure John Paul Stevens 000000001920-04-20-0000 April 20, 1920 Chicago , Illinois Gerald Ford Barack Obama 98–0 55 7001970000000000000♠ 97 December 19, 1975 June 29, 2010 (age 90) 34 years, 6 months and 10 days Sandra Day O'Connor 000000001930-03-26-0000 March 26, 1930 El Paso, Texas Ronald Reagan George W. Bush 99–0 51 7001880000000000000♠ 88 September 25, 1981 January 31, 2006 (age 75) 24 years, 4 months and 6 days David Souter 000000001939-09-17-0000 September 17, 1939 Melrose, Massachusetts George H. W. Bush Barack Obama 90–9 51 7001780000000000000♠ 78 000000001990-10-09-0000 October 9, 1990 June 29, 2009 (age 69) 18 years, 8 months and 20 days Seniority and seating [ edit ] Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by seniority of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service. The interior of the United States Supreme Court During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch). In the justices' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk. [112] Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind serving from August 3, 1994, to January 31, 2006, for a total of 4,199 days. [113] Justice Elena Kagan comes in at a distant third serving from August 6, 2010, to April 10, 2017, for a total of 2439 days. Salary [ edit ] Main article: Federal judge salaries in the United States As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300. [114] Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements , the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement. Judicial leanings [ edit ] See also: Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice. Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas , Alito , and Gorsuch , appointed by Republican presidents, comprise the Court's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg , Breyer , Sotomayor and Kagan , appointed by Democratic presidents, comprise the Court's liberal wing. Justice Kennedy , appointed by Republican president Reagan , is generally considered \"a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals\", [115] and up until Justice Scalia's death, he was often the swing vote that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings. [116] [117] [118] Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit. [119] Tom Goldstein argued in an article in SCOTUSblog in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is \"in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions.\" [120] He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20% were decided by a 5-to-4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal/conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court. [121] Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal-defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation. According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22%) were decided by a 5–4 vote, with an average of 70% of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15% of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62% of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44% of all the 5–4 decisions. [122] In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case). [123] [124] Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court , and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General . Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48%, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9–0 or 8–0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5–4 vote (about 20%, compared to 18% in the October 2009 term, and 29% in the October 2008 term). [125] However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5–4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the \"swing vote\"). This represents 87% of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63% of the 5–4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts Court . [123] [126] [127] [128] [129] In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44%) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20%, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5–4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times. [122] [130] [131] In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions . 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49% of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51% of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5–4 in 23 cases (29% of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96%) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54%) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5–4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83%) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91%) cases during the term, in line with his position as the \"swing vote\" of the Court. [132] [133] Facilities [ edit ] The present U.S. Supreme Court building as viewed from the front From the 1860s until the 1930s, the court sat in the Old Senate Chamber of the U.S. Capitol . Main article: United States Supreme Court Building The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants' Exchange Building in New York City . When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home. The four-story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress , and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive law library , various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol , but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police . [134] Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue, [135] [136] the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4:30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays . [135] Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half-hour informational film. [134] When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9:30 am to 3:30 pm and reservations are not necessary. [134] When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two-week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first-come first-served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available. [137] The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30-minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis. [134] Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions. [135] Jurisdiction [ edit ] Inscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from Marbury v. Madison , in which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review Main article: Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states, [138] but may decline to hear such cases. [139] It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear \"all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens.\" [140] In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp . [141] The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court's history. [142] [143] The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga , Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob—aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded—and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson's body reading: \"To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now.\" [142] The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail. [142] [143] [144] In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states. [ citation needed ] The Court's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari , certiorari before judgment , and certified questions ), [145] the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari), [146] the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari), [147] the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari), [148] the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari), [149] and \"final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had\" (through certiorari). [149] In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B. J. F. , or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions. [150] The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so-called \"collateral review\" of state cases. It has to be noted that this \"collateral review\" often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system. [151] Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain \"cases\" or \"controversies\", the Supreme Court cannot decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions , as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard , 416 U.S. 312 (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is \"capable of repetition yet evading review\", the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade , 410 U.S. 113 (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff's need for relief. [152] Justices as Circuit Justices [ edit ] The United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals , each of which is assigned a \"circuit justice\" from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789 , each justice was required to \"ride circuit\", or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891. Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death-penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus , and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it \"granted\" or \"denied\" or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion—referred to as an in-chambers opinion —in such matters if he or she wishes. A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit. The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit . Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits. As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is: [153] Circuit Justice District of Columbia Circuit Chief Justice Roberts First Circuit Justice Breyer Second Circuit Justice Ginsburg Third Circuit Justice Alito Fourth Circuit Chief Justice Roberts Fifth Circuit Justice Alito Sixth Circuit Justice Kagan Seventh Circuit Justice Kagan Eighth Circuit Justice Gorsuch Ninth Circuit Justice Kennedy Tenth Circuit Justice Sotomayor Eleventh Circuit Justice Thomas Federal Circuit Chief Justice Roberts Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit). Process [ edit ] Main article: Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as \"sittings\" and \"recesses.\" Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses. Case selection [ edit ] Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari , commonly referred to as \"cert\". The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals \"by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case.\" [154] Court may only review \"final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had\" if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law. [155] The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent . All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent , regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda . If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court , when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona . There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas , a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee , a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford , [156] parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact. [157] Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware , and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado . A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference . A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices' clerks are excluded. The rule of four permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition. The court grants a petition for cert only for \"compelling reasons\", spelled out in the court's Rule 10. Such reasons include: Resolving a conflict in the interpretation of a federal law or a provision of the federal Constitution Correcting an egregious departure from the accepted and usual course of judicial proceedings Resolving an important question of federal law, or to expressly review a decision of a lower court that conflicts directly with a previous decision of the Court. When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a \"circuit split.\" If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case. To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the \" cert pool .\" Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool. [158] [159] [160] [161] Oral argument [ edit ] When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae , or \"friends of the court\", may also file briefs. The Court holds two-week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare), [162] and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case. Supreme Court bar [ edit ] In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys. [163] Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument. [164] Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library. [165] Decision [ edit ] At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions , [166] circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building , the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns . [167] [168] It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante . For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices. [169] If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case cannot be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there. [170] This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945). [171] Published opinions [ edit ] The Court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports , the official series of books in which the final version of the Court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports—or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations—to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily. As of the beginning of October 2016 term [ref] , there are: 564 final bound volumes of U.S. Reports , covering cases through the end of October 2010 term, which ended on September 28, 2011. [172] 16 volumes' worth of opinions available in slip opinion form (volumes 565–580) [173] As of March 2012 [update] , the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012. [ citation needed ] This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, Parents v. Seattle , where Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, Miranda v. Arizona actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York , Westover v. United States , and California v. Stewart ). A more unusual example is The Telephone Cases , which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports . Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter , published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters ), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition (simply known as Lawyers' Edition ), published by LexisNexis . In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n , 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with \"S. Ct.\" representing the Supreme Court Reporter , and \"L. Ed.\" representing the Lawyers' Edition . [174] [175] Citations to published opinions [ edit ] Main article: Case citation § Supreme Court of the United States Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form \" vol U.S. page , pin ( year )\", where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to \"pinpoint\" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports . For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with \"___\". Institutional powers and constraints [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review , in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way. [176] Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78 , Alexander Hamilton wrote: \"A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute.\" The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances . In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution. [176] Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being \"the most separated and least checked of all branches of government.\" [177] Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure \"during good behavior\", and their pay may \"not be diminished\" while they hold their position ( Section 1 of Article Three ). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government. [176] The Supreme Court, it is noted, cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court's decision in Worcester v. Georgia . President Andrew Jackson , who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, \" John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!\"; [178] however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education . More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes . Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling. Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions: Chisholm v. Georgia (1793) – overturned by the Eleventh Amendment (1795) Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) – overturned by the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) and the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895) – overturned by the Sixteenth Amendment (1913) Minor v. Happersett (1875) – overturned by the Nineteenth Amendment (1920) Oregon v. Mitchell (1970) – overturned by the Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act , superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials. [179] In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted \"with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.\" The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871). On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974). Law clerks [ edit ] See also: Law clerk and List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States Each Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari , research them, prepare bench memorandums , and draft opinions . Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four. [180] Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years. The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882. [180] [181] Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a \"stenographer-secretary\". [182] Most law clerks are recent law school graduates. The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen , hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas . [180] The first African-American, William T. Coleman, Jr. , was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter . [180] A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School. [180] Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice. [183] Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson , John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge , William Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson , Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg , John Roberts for William Rehnquist , Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall and Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy . Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked. Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John Roberts for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , and Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia . Politicization of the Court [ edit ] Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. \"Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s\", according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School. [184] [185] \"As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts\", former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said. [184] David J. Garrow , professor of history at the University of Cambridge , stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. \"We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives\", Professor Garrow said. \"Each side is putting forward only ideological purists.\" [184] According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is \"a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law.\" [184] A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44% of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three-quarters said justices' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views. [186] Criticism [ edit ] The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them: Judicial activism [ edit ] The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism , rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint . Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology. [187] An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York , which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork , Justice Antonin Scalia , and Chief Justice John Roberts , [187] [188] and which was reversed in the 1930s. [189] [190] [191] An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the \"right to privacy\" inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment , a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous. [187] Legal scholars, [192] [193] justices, [194] and presidential candidates [195] have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan [196] and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater . [197] More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations. [198] Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became \"irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court...the people will have ceased to be their own rulers.\" [199] Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: \"You do what you think is right and let the law catch up.\" [200] During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions. [201] [202] Critics from both sides complain that activist-judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead. [203] [204] [205] Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano , [206] Phyllis Schlafly , [207] Mark R. Levin , [208] Mark I. Sutherland, [209] and James MacGregor Burns . [210] [211] Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt , Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan. [212] [213] Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: \"What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, – slow-moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless.\" [214] Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, \"their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like.\" [215] One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects \"certainly a legislative body.\" [216] Failing to protect individual rights [ edit ] Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery; [217] Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal ; [218] Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine , as undermining property rights. [219] [220] Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has \"become increasingly hostile to voters\" by siding with Indiana's voter identification laws which tend to \"disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver's licenses, especially poor and minority voters\", according to one report. [221] Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for \"eroding individual rights.\" [215] However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was \"limited\" to sovereign territory. [222] Supreme Court has too much power [ edit ] This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an \"increasingly central role in American governance.\" [223] It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009. [224] A reporter wrote that \"Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg 's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy\" left open the \"possibility of further judicial review\" but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch. [224] Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice , argued that since the Supreme Court has such \"unreviewable power\" it is likely to \"self-indulge itself\" and unlikely to \"engage in dispassionate analysis\". [225] Larry Sabato wrote \"excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court.\" [226] Courts are poor check on executive power [ edit ] British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened. [227] [228] In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request. Federal versus state power [ edit ] There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison [229] and Alexander Hamilton [230] argued in The Federalist Papers that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments, [231] [232] [233] [234] others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes. [235] The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants \"powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\" The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005. [236] Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was \"complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution.\" [237] Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is \"quite broad.\" [238] Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today. [237] Advocates of states' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis , in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy . [239] One critic wrote \"the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law.\" [240] However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends \"protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level.\" [241] Secretive proceedings [ edit ] The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view. [242] According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin 's expose The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court ; \"Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed 'cartel', only revealing itself through 'public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings.' [243] The reviewer writes: \"few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives.\" [243] Larry Sabato complains about the Court's \"insularity.\" [226] A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61% of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would \"be good for democracy\", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised. [244] [245] In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists. [246] [247] In a 2009 interview on C-SPAN , journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today ) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog ) argued that the Court is a \"very open\" institution with only the justices' private conferences inaccessible to others. [246] In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur. Judicial interference in political disputes [ edit ] Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore , has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals . [243] [248] [249] [250] [251] [252] Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting : in Baker v. Carr , the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a \"scathing dissent\" argued against the court wading into so-called political questions . [253] Not choosing enough cases to review [ edit ] Senator Arlen Specter said the Court should \"decide more cases\". [215] On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts. [246] Lifetime tenure [ edit ] Critic Larry Sabato wrote: \"The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day.\" [226] Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity. [254] James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has \"produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times.\" [210] Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson [255] and Sabato [226] [256] as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein , [257] among others. [258] However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote \"nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office.\" [259] Accepting gifts [ edit ] The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday. [260] Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors. [261] Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications. [262] Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause , said: \"There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial.\" [261] See also [ edit ] Supreme Court of the United States portal Government of the United States portal Law portal Donald Trump Supreme Court candidates Federal judicial appointment history List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition by seat by time in office List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices List of United States Chief Justices by time in office Lists of United States Supreme Court cases Oyez Project Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States Segal–Cover score Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States Landmark Supreme Court decisions (selection) Marbury v. Madison (1803, judicial review) McCulloch v. Maryland (1819, implied powers) Gibbons v. Ogden (1824, interstate commerce) Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857, slavery) Plessy v. Ferguson (1896, separate but equal treatment of races) Brown v. Board of Education (1954, school segregation of races) Engel v. Vitale (1962, state-sponsored prayers in public schools ) Abington School District v. Schempp (1963, Bible readings and recitation of the Lord's prayer in U.S. public schools) Gideon v. Wainwright (1963, right to an attorney) Griswold v. Connecticut (1965, privacy in marriage ) Miranda v. Arizona (1966, rights of those detained by police) In re Gault (1967, rights of juvenile suspects) Loving v. Virginia (1967, interracial marriage) Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971, religious activities in public schools) New York Times Co. v. United States (1971, freedom of the press) Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972, privacy for unmarried people) Roe v. Wade (1973, abortion) Miller v. California (1973, obscenity) United States v. Nixon (1974, executive privilege) Buckley v. Valeo (1976, campaign finance) Bowers v. Hardwick (1986, sodomy) Bush v. Gore (2000, presidential election) Lawrence v. Texas (2003, sodomy, privacy) District of Columbia v. Heller (2008, gun rights) Citizens United v. FEC (2010, campaign finance) United States v. Windsor (2013, same-sex marriage) Shelby County v. Holder (2013, voting rights) Obergefell v. Hodges (2015, same-sex marriage) References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Lawson, Gary; Seidman, Guy (2001). \"When Did the Constitution Become Law?\" . Notre Dame Law Review . 77 : 1–37. Jump up ^ Safire, William, \"On language: POTUS and FLOTUS,\" New York Times, October 12, 1997 . Retrieved August 27, 2013. Jump up ^ \"The Court as an Institution – Supreme Court of the United States\" . www.supremecourt.gov . Retrieved February 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ Johnson, Barnabas. Almanac of the Federal Judiciary , p. 25 (Aspen Law & Business, 1988). Jump up ^ \"A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court\" (PDF) . United States Supreme Court . Retrieved December 31, 2009 . Jump up ^ Bordewich, Fergus (2016). The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government . Simon & Schuster. p. 195. ISBN 1451691939 . Jump up ^ Shugerman, Jed. \"A Six-Three Rule: Reviving Consensus and Deference on the Supreme Court\", Georgia Law Review , Vol. 37, p. 893 (2002–03). Jump up ^ Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court , p. 101 (Penguin 2006). Jump up ^ Ashmore, Anne (August 2006). \"Dates of Supreme Court decisions and arguments, United States Reports volumes 2–107 (1791–82)\" (PDF) . Library, Supreme Court of the United States . Retrieved April 26, 2009 . Jump up ^ Scott Douglas Gerber (editor) (1998). \"Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall\" . New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3114-7 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . (page 3) Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Manning, John F. (2004). \"The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts\". Yale Law Journal . 113 (8): 1663–1750. doi : 10.2307/4135780 . Jump up ^ Epps, Garrett (October 24, 2004). \"Don't Do It, Justices\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected Jump up ^ The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case Ware v. Hylton , (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain. Jump up ^ Rosen, Jeffrey (July 5, 2009). \"Black Robe Politics\" (book review of Packing the Court by James MacGregor Burns) . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its \"supremacy\" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's \"brilliant political coup\" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws. Jump up ^ \"The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America – Marbury v. Madison (1803)\" . U.S. News & World Report . 2003. Archived from the original on September 20, 2003 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of \"checks and balances\" created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void. Jump up ^ Sloan, Cliff; McKean, David (February 21, 2009). \"Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters\" . Newsweek . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate. Jump up ^ \"The Constitution In Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court\" (PDF) . The New York Times . February 27, 1893 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The decision … in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ... Jump up ^ Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Souter, Breyer (December 13, 2000). \"Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore\" . USA Today . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court … The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816). CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to: a b \"Decisions of the Supreme Court – Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred an Eleven Years\" (PDF) . The New York Times . February 3, 1901 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Supreme Quiz\" . The Washington Post . October 2, 2000. Archived from the original on May 30, 2012 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions – each issuing one – so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual \"concurring\" and \"dissenting\" opinions. Jump up ^ Slater, Dan (April 18, 2008). \"Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled\" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions–a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch. Jump up ^ Suddath, Claire (December 19, 2008). \"A Brief History Of Impeachment\" . Time . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair … But Chase never committed a crime — he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 10, 1996). \"Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives … This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III\" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said Jump up ^ Edward Keynes; with Randall K. Miller (1989). \"The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion\" . Duke University Press . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . (page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction. Jump up ^ Ifill, Sherrilyn A. (May 27, 2009). \"Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense\" . U.S. News & World Report . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had \"no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect\", has ensured his place in history—not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive Jump up ^ Irons, Peter (2006). A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution . United States: Penguin Books. pp. 176–177. ISBN 0-14-303738-2 . The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p.176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p.177) Jump up ^ \"Liberty of Contract?\" . Exploring Constitutional Conflicts. October 31, 2009. Archived from the original on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The term \"substantive due process\" is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner—the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships. Jump up ^ \"Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161\" . Cornell University Law School. 1908 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 --- Decided: January 27, 1908 Jump up ^ Bodenhamer, David J.; James W. Ely (1993). The Bill of Rights in modern America . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-253-35159-3 . … of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection. Jump up ^ White, Edward Douglass . \"Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366\" . Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement. Jump up ^ Siegan, Bernard H. (1987). The Supreme Court's Constitution . Transaction Publishers. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-88738-671-8 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . In the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital, the court invalidated a classification based on gender as inconsistent with the substantive due process requirements of the fifth amendment. At issue was congressional legislation providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and minors in the District of Columbia. (p.146) Jump up ^ Biskupic, Joan (March 29, 2005). \"Supreme Court gets makeover\" . USA Today . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935. Jump up ^ Justice Roberts (September 21, 2005). \"Responses of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the Written Questions of Senator Joseph R. Biden\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . I agree that West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish correctly overruled Adkins. Lochner era cases – Adkins in particular – evince an expansive view of the judicial role inconsistent with what I believe to be the appropriately more limited vision of the Framers. [ dead link ] Jump up ^ Lipsky, Seth (October 22, 2009). \"All the News That's Fit to Subsidize\" . Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . He was a farmer in Ohio … during the 1930s, when subsidies were brought in for farmers. With subsidies came restrictions on how much wheat one could grow—even, Filburn learned in a landmark Supreme Court case, Wickard v. Filburn (1942), wheat grown on his modest farm. Jump up ^ Cohen, Adam (December 14, 2004). \"What's New in the Legal World? A Growing Campaign to Undo the New Deal\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Some prominent states' rights conservatives were asking the court to overturn Wickard v. Filburn, a landmark ruling that laid out an expansive view of Congress's power to legislate in the public interest. Supporters of states' rights have always blamed Wickard … for paving the way for strong federal action... Jump up ^ United Press International (September 25, 1971). \"Justice Black Dies at 85; Served on Court 34 Years\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Justice Black developed his controversial theory, first stated in a lengthy, scholarly dissent in 1947, that the due process clause applied the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights to the states. Jump up ^ \"100 Documents that Shaped America Brown v. Board of Education (1954)\" . U.S. News & World Report . May 17, 1954. Archived from the original on November 6, 2009 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of the \"separate but equal\" … and served as a catalyst for the expanding civil rights movement... Jump up ^ \"Essay: In defense of privacy\" . Time . July 15, 1966 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The biggest legal milestone in this field was last year's Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which overthrew the state's law against the use of contraceptives as an invasion of marital privacy, and for the first time declared the \"right of privacy\" to be derived from the Constitution itself. Jump up ^ Gibbs, Nancy (December 9, 1991). \"America's Holy War\" . Time . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . In the landmark 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, the high court threw out a brief nondenominational prayer composed by state officials that was recommended for use in New York State schools. \"It is no part of the business of government\", ruled the court, \"to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite.\" Jump up ^ Mattox, William R., Jr; Trinko, Katrina (August 17, 2009). \"Teach the Bible? Of course\" . USA Today . Archived from the original on August 20, 2009 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Public schools need not proselytize — indeed, must not — in teaching students about the Good Book … In Abington School District v. Schempp, decided in 1963, the Supreme Court stated that \"study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education\", was permissible under the First Amendment. Jump up ^ \"The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle\" . Time Magazine . June 18, 1965 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision—Mapp v. Ohio (1961). Jump up ^ \"The Supreme Court: Now Comes the Sixth Amendment\" . Time . April 16, 1965 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Sixth Amendment's right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright in 1963). … the court said flatly in 1904: 'The Sixth Amendment does not apply to proceedings in state criminal courts.\" But in the light of Gideon … ruled Black, statements 'generally declaring that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to states can no longer be regarded as law.' Jump up ^ \"Guilt and Mr. Meese\" . The New York Times . January 31, 1987 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . 1966 Miranda v. Arizona decision. That's the famous decision that made confessions inadmissible as evidence unless an accused person has been warned by police of the right to silence and to a lawyer, and waived it. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on June 21, 2017 . Retrieved February 6, 2016 . Jump up ^ Earl M. Maltz, The Coming of the Nixon Court: The 1972 Term and the Transformation of Constitutional Law (University Press of Kansas; 2016) Jump up ^ O'Connor, Karen (January 22, 2009). \"Roe v. Wade: On Anniversary, Abortion Is out of the Spotlight\" . U.S. News & World Report . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The shocker, however, came in 1973, when the Court, by a vote of 7 to 2, relied on Griswold's basic underpinnings to rule that a Texas law prohibiting abortions in most situations was unconstitutional, invalidating the laws of most states. Relying on a woman's right to privacy... Jump up ^ \"Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose\" . Time . July 10, 1978 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'… Jump up ^ \"Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo\" . The New York Times . November 12, 1998 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . ...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers. ^ Jump up to: a b Staff writer (June 29, 1972). \"Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Furman v. Georgia … Rehnquist dissents from the Supreme Court conclusion that many state laws on capital punishment are capricious and arbitrary and therefore unconstitutional. Jump up ^ History of the Court, in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (eds) The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press , 1992, ISBN 0-19-505835-6 Jump up ^ \"A Supreme Revelation\" . The Wall Street Journal . April 19, 2008 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Thirty-two years ago, Justice John Paul Stevens sided with the majority in a famous \"never mind\" ruling by the Supreme Court. Gregg v. Georgia, in 1976, overturned Furman v. Georgia, which had declared the death penalty unconstitutional only four years earlier. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (January 8, 2009). \"The Chief Justice on the Spot\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The federalism issue at the core of the new case grows out of a series of cases from 1997 to 2003 in which the Rehnquist court applied a new level of scrutiny to Congressional action enforcing the guarantees of the Reconstruction amendments. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (September 4, 2005). \"William H. Rehnquist, Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Is Dead at 80\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . United States v. Lopez in 1995 raised the stakes in the debate over federal authority even higher. The decision declared unconstitutional a Federal law, the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990, that made it a federal crime to carry a gun within 1,000 feet of a school. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (June 12, 2005). \"The Rehnquist Court and Its Imperiled States' Rights Legacy\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Intrastate activity that was not essentially economic was beyond Congress's reach under the Commerce Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote for the 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Morrison. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (March 22, 2005). \"Inmates Who Follow Satanism and Wicca Find Unlikely Ally\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . His (Rehnquist's) reference was to a landmark 1997 decision, City of Boerne v. Flores, in which the court ruled that the predecessor to the current law, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, exceeded Congress's authority and was unconstitutional as applied to the states. Jump up ^ Amar, Vikram David (July 27, 2005). \"Casing John Roberts\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . SEMINOLE TRIBE v. FLORIDA (1996) In this seemingly technical 11th Amendment dispute about whether states can be sued in federal courts, Justice O'Connor joined four others to override Congress's will and protect state prerogatives, even though the text of the Constitution contradicts this result. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 1, 1999). \"Justices Seem Ready to Tilt More Toward States in Federalism\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The argument in this case, Alden v. Maine, No. 98-436, proceeded on several levels simultaneously. On the surface … On a deeper level, the argument was a continuation of the Court's struggle over an even more basic issue: the Government's substantive authority over the states. Jump up ^ Lindenberger, Michael A. \"The Court's Gay Rights Legacy\" . Time . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The decision in the Lawrence v. Texas case overturned convictions against two Houston men, whom police had arrested after busting into their home and finding them engaged in sex. And for the first time in their lives, thousands of gay men and women who lived in states where sodomy had been illegal were free to be gay without being criminals. Jump up ^ Justice Sotomayor (July 16, 2009). \"Retire the 'Ginsburg rule' – The 'Roe' recital\" . USA Today . Archived from the original on August 22, 2009 . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . The court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey reaffirmed the court holding of Roe. That is the precedent of the court and settled, in terms of the holding of the court. Jump up ^ Kamiya, Gary (July 4, 2001). \"Against the Law\" . Salon . Retrieved November 21, 2012 . ...the remedy was far more harmful than the problem. By stopping the recount, the high court clearly denied many thousands of voters who cast legal votes, as defined by established Florida law, their constitutional right to have their votes counted. … It cannot be a legitimate use of law to disenfranchise legal voters when recourse is available. … Jump up ^ Krauthammer, Charles (December 18, 2000). \"The Winner in Bush v. Gore?\" . Time . Retrieved October 31, 2009 . Re-enter the Rehnquist court. Amid the chaos, somebody had to play Daddy. … the Supreme Court eschewed subtlety this time and bluntly stopped the Florida Supreme Court in its tracks—and stayed its willfulness. By, mind you, … Jump up ^ Babington, Charles; Baker, Peter (September 30, 2005). \"Roberts Confirmed as 17th Chief Justice\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2009 . John Glover Roberts Jr. was sworn in yesterday as the 17th chief justice of the United States, enabling President Bush to put his stamp on the Supreme Court for decades to come, even as he prepares to name a second nominee to the nine-member court. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (July 1, 2007). \"In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right\" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 1, 2009 . It was the Supreme Court that conservatives had long yearned for and that liberals feared … This was a more conservative court, sometimes muscularly so, sometimes more tentatively, its majority sometimes differing on methodology but agreeing on the outcome in cases big and small. Jump up ^ Savage, Charlie (July 14, 2009). \"Respecting Precedent, or Settled Law, Unless It's Not Settled\" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 1, 2009 . Gonzales v. Carhart — in which the Supreme Court narrowly upheld a federal ban on the late-term abortion procedure opponents call \"partial birth abortion\" — to be settled law. Jump up ^ \"A Bad Day for Democracy\" . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved January 22, 2010 . Jump up ^ Barnes, Robert (October 1, 2009). \"Justices to Decide if State Gun Laws Violate Rights\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2009 . The landmark 2008 decision to strike down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession was the first time the court had said the amendment grants an individual right to own a gun for self-defense. But the 5 to 4 opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller... Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 18, 2008). \"Justice Stevens Renounces Capital Punishment\" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 1, 2009 . His renunciation of capital punishment in the lethal injection case, Baze v. Rees, was likewise low key and undramatic. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (June 26, 2008). \"Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape\" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 1, 2009 . The death penalty is unconstitutional as a punishment for the rape of a child, a sharply divided Supreme Court ruled Wednesday … The 5-to-4 decision overturned death penalty laws in Louisiana and five other states. Jump up ^ Federal Judiciary Act (1789) , National Archives and Records Administration , retrieved 2017-09-12 Jump up ^ 16 Stat. 44 Jump up ^ Mintz, S. (2007). \"The New Deal in Decline\" . Digital History . University of Houston. Archived from the original on May 5, 2008 . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ Hodak, George (2007). \"February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan\" . ABAjournal.com . American Bar Association . Retrieved January 29, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Justices, Number of\", in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press 1992, ISBN 0-19-505835-6 Jump up ^ See Article Two of the United States Constitution . Jump up ^ \"United States Senate. \"Nominations \" \" . Jump up ^ Jim Brunner (March 24, 2017). \"Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court\" . The Seattle Times . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans' refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama's nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist — and went on to lambaste President Trump's conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she's \"deeply troubled\" by Gorsuch's \"extreme conservative perspective on women's health,\" citing his \"inability\" to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the \"Hobby Lobby\" decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage. Jump up ^ McCaskill, Claire (March 31, 2017). \"Gorsuch: Good for corporations, bad for working people\" . Medium . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . I cannot support Judge Gorsuch because a study of his opinions reveal a rigid ideology that always puts the little guy under the boot of corporations. He is evasive, but his body of work isn't. Whether it is a freezing truck driver or an autistic child, he has shown a stunning lack of humanity. And he has been an activist – for example, writing a dissent on a case that had been settled, in what appears to be an attempt to audition for his current nomination. Jump up ^ Matt Flegenheimer (April 6, 2017). \"Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch\" . The New York Times. After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump's nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority. Jump up ^ \"U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789\" . United States Senate . Retrieved April 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ See 5 U.S.C. § 2902 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 4 . If two justices are commissioned on the same date, then the oldest one has precedence. Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. \"The passionate intensity of the confirmation process\" . Jurist. Archived from the original on December 18, 2007 . Retrieved February 13, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"The Stakes Of The 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher\" . The Huffington Post . Retrieved February 14, 2016 . Jump up ^ McMillion, Barry J. (October 19, 2015). \"Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote\" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service . Retrieved February 14, 2016 . Jump up ^ Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). \"Appendix Two\". Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States . Oxford University Press. pp. 965–971. ISBN 0-19-505835-6 . Jump up ^ See, e.g., Evans v. Stephens, 387 F.3d 1220 (11th Cir. 2004), which concerned the recess appointment of William Pryor . Concurring in denial of certiorari, Justice Stevens observed that the case involved \"the first such appointment of an Article III judge in nearly a half century\" 544 U.S. 942 (2005) (Stevens, J., concurring in denial of cert) (internal quotation marks deleted). ^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Louis (September 5, 2001). \"Recess Appointments of Federal Judges\" (PDF) . CRSN Report for Congress . Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress. RL31112: 16 . Retrieved August 6, 2010 . Resolved , That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court's business. Jump up ^ The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines; Democrats supported the resolution 48–4, and Republicans opposed it 33–0. Jump up ^ \"National Relations Board v. Noel Canning et al\" (PDF) . pp. 34, 35. The Court continued, \"In our view, however, the pro forma sessions count as sessions, not as periods of recess. We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. The Senate met that standard here.\" Later, the opinion states: \"For these reasons, we conclude that we must give great weight to the Senate's own determination of when it is and when it is not in session. But our deference to the Senate cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it so declares.\" Jump up ^ \"Obama Won't Appoint Scalia Replacement While Senate Is Out This Week\" . NPR . Retrieved January 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"How the Federal Courts Are Organized: Can a federal judge be fired?\" . Federal Judicial Center . fjc.gov. Archived from the original on September 15, 2012 . Retrieved March 18, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"History of the Federal Judiciary: Impeachments of Federal Judges\" . Federal Judicial Center fjc.gov . Retrieved March 18, 2012 . Jump up ^ Appel, Jacob M. (August 22, 2009). \"Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice\" . The Huffington Post . Retrieved August 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Ali, Ambreen (June 16, 2010). \"How Presidents Influence the Court\" . Congress.org . Archived from the original on June 18, 2010 . Retrieved June 16, 2010 . Jump up ^ Walthr, Matthew (April 21, 2014). \"Sam Alito: A Civil Man\" . The American Spectator . Retrieved June 15, 2017 – via The ANNOTICO Reports. Jump up ^ DeMarco, Megan (February 14, 2008). \"Growing up Italian in Jersey: Alito reflects on ethnic heritage\" . The Times . Trenton, New Jersey. Archived from the original on July 30, 2017 . Retrieved June 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ Halberstam, Malvina (March 1, 2009). \"Ruth Bader Ginsburg\" . Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia . Jewish Women's Archive . Retrieved June 15, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Neil Gorsuch was raised Catholic, but attends an Episcopalian church. It is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant. Burke, Daniel (March 22, 2017). \"What is Neil Gorsuch's religion? It's complicated\" . CNN . Springer said she doesn't know whether Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. \"I have no evidence that Judge Gorsuch considers himself an Episcopalian, and likewise no evidence that he does not.\" Gorsuch's younger brother, J.J., said he too has \"no idea how he would fill out a form. He was raised in the Catholic Church and confirmed in the Catholic Church as an adolescent, but he has been attending Episcopal services for the past 15 or so years.\" Jump up ^ Baker, Peter (August 7, 2010). \"Kagan Is Sworn in as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court\" . The New York Times . Retrieved August 8, 2010 . Jump up ^ Mark Sherman, Is Supreme Court in need of regional diversity? (May 1, 2010). Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2003). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (6th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. p. 46. ISBN 0-393-93218-4 . Jump up ^ \"Religion of the Supreme Court\" . adherents.com. January 31, 2006 . Retrieved July 9, 2010 . Jump up ^ Segal, Jeffrey A.; Spaeth, Harold J. (2002). The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited . Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 183. ISBN 0-521-78971-0 . Jump up ^ Schumacher, Alvin. \"Roger B. Taney\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved May 3, 2017 . He was the first Roman Catholic to serve on the Supreme Court. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\" . Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from the original on March 20, 2017 . Retrieved May 3, 2017 . Jump up ^ de Vogue, Ariane (October 22, 2016). \"Clarence Thomas' Supreme Court legacy\" . CNN . Retrieved May 3, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Four Justices\" . Smithsonian Institution . Archived from the original on August 20, 2016 . Retrieved May 3, 2017 . Jump up ^ David N. Atkinson, Leaving the Bench (University Press of Kansas 1999) ISBN 0-7006-0946-6 Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (September 9, 2010). \"An Invisible Chief Justice\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 9, 2010 . Had [O'Connor] anticipated that the chief justice would not serve out the next Supreme Court term, she told me after his death, she would have delayed her own retirement for a year rather than burden the court with two simultaneous vacancies. […] Her reason for leaving was that her husband, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, needed her care at home. Jump up ^ Ward, Artemus (2003). Deciding to Leave: The Politics of Retirement from the United States Supreme Court . SUNY Press. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-7914-5651-4 . One byproduct of the increased [retirement benefit] provisions [in 1954], however has been a dramatic rise in the number of justices engaging in succession politics by trying to time their departures to coincide with a compatible president. The most recent departures have been partisan, some more blatantly than others, and have bolstered arguments to reform the process. A second byproduct has been an increase in justices staying on the Court past their ability to adequately contribute. [1] p. 9 Jump up ^ Stolzenberg, Ross M.; Lindgren, James (May 2010). \"Retirement and Death in Office of U.S. Supreme Court Justices\" . Demography . 47 (2): 269–298. doi : 10.1353/dem.0.0100 . PMC 3000028 . PMID 20608097 . If the incumbent president is of the same party as the president who nominated the justice to the Court, and if the incumbent president is in the first two years of a four-year presidential term, then the justice has odds of resignation that are about 2.6 times higher than when these two conditions are not met. Jump up ^ See for example Sandra Day O'Connor:How the first woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice , by Joan Biskupic , Harper Collins, 2005, p. 105. Also Rookie on the Bench: The Role of the Junior Justice by Clare Cushman, Journal of Supreme Court History 32 no. 3 (2008), pp. 282–296. Jump up ^ \"Breyer Just Missed Record as Junior Justice\" . Retrieved January 11, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Judicial Compensation\" . United States Courts . Retrieved May 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ Lane, Charles (January 31, 2006). \" Kennedy Seen as The Next Justice In Court's Middle \" . The Washington Post . If, as many expect, Alito forms a four-vote conservative bloc with Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, that would leave Justice Anthony M. Kennedy – a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals on gay rights, the death penalty and abortion – as the court's least predictable member. Jump up ^ Toobin, Jeffrey (2007). The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court . Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51640-1 . Jump up ^ \"End-of-Term Statistical Analysis – October Term 2011\" (PDF) . Supreme Court of the United States Blog (SCOTUSblog). June 30, 2012. Justice Kennedy is, for the fourth consecutive Term, the Justice most likely to appear in the majority. Jump up ^ See also SCOTUSblog's Stat Pack: Bhatia, Kedar (June 30, 2012). \"Final October Term 2011 Stat Pack and Summary Memo\" . Jump up ^ Mears, Bill (March 20, 2017). \"Take a look through Neil Gorsuch's judicial record\" . Fox News . A Fox News analysis of that record – including some 3,000 rulings he has been involved with – reveals a solid, predictable conservative philosophy, something President Trump surely was attuned to when he nominated him to fill the open ninth seat. The record in many ways mirrors the late Justice Antonin Scalia's approach to constitutional and statutory interpretation. Jump up ^ Goldstein, Tom (June 30, 2010). \"Everything you read about the Supreme Court is wrong (except here, maybe)\" . SCOTUSblog . Retrieved July 7, 2010 . Jump up ^ Among the examples mentioned by Goldstein for the 2009 term were: Dolan v. United States , which interpreted judges' prerogatives broadly, typically a \"conservative\" result. The majority consisted of the five junior Justices: Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, Alito, and Sotomayor. Magwood v. Patterson , which expanded habeas corpus petitions, a \"liberal\" result, in an opinion by Thomas, joined by Stevens, Scalia, Breyer, and Sotomayor. Shady Grove Orthopedic Associates v. Allstate Insurance Co. , which yielded a pro-plaintiff result in an opinion by Scalia joined by Roberts, Stevens, Thomas, and Sotomayor. Goldstein notes that in the 2009 term, the justice most consistently pro-government was Alito, and not the commonly perceived \"arch-conservatives\" Scalia and Thomas. ^ Jump up to: a b \"October 2011 Term, Five to Four Decisions\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012 . Retrieved July 2, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Final October 2010 Stat Pack available\" . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011 . Retrieved June 28, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"End of Term statistical analysis – October 2010\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. July 1, 2011 . Retrieved July 2, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Cases by Vote Split\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011 . Retrieved June 28, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Justice agreement – Highs and Lows\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011 . Retrieved June 28, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Justice agreement\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011 . Retrieved June 28, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Frequency in the majority\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011 . Retrieved June 28, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Five-to-Four cases\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011 . Retrieved June 28, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"October 2011 term, Cases by votes split\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012 . Retrieved July 2, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"October 22011 term, Strength of the Majority\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012 . Retrieved July 2, 2012 . Jump up ^ Bhatia, Kedar (June 29, 2013). \"October Term 2012 summary memo\" . SCOTUSblog . Retrieved June 29, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Final October Term 2012 Stat Pack\" (PDF) . SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2013 . Retrieved June 27, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Plan Your Trip (quote:) \"In mid-May, after the oral argument portion of the Term has concluded, the Court takes the Bench Mondays at 10AM for the release of orders and opinions. \" \" . US Senator John McCain. October 24, 2009 . Retrieved October 24, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Visiting the Court\" . Supreme Court of the United States. March 18, 2010 . Retrieved March 19, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Visiting-Capitol-Hill\" . docstoc. October 24, 2009. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 24, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"How The Court Works\" . The Supreme Court Historical Society . October 24, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2014 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1251(a) Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (March 21, 2016). \"Supreme Court Declines to Hear Challenge to Colorado's Marijuana Laws\" . The New York Times . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1251(b) Jump up ^ United States v. Shipp , 203 U.S. 563 (Supreme Court of the United States 1906). ^ Jump up to: a b c Curriden, Mark (June 2, 2009). \"A Supreme Case of Contempt\" . ABA Journal . American Bar Association . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . On May 28, [U.S. Attorney General William] Moody did something unprecedented, then and now. He filed a petition charging Sheriff Shipp, six deputies and 19 leaders of the lynch mob with contempt of the Supreme Court. The justices unanimously approved the petition and agreed to retain original jurisdiction in the matter. ... May 24, 1909, stands out in the annals of the U.S. Supreme Court. On that day, the court announced a verdict after holding the first and only criminal trial in its history. ^ Jump up to: a b Hindley, Meredith (November 2014). \"Chattanooga versus the Supreme Court: The Strange Case of Ed Johnson\" . Humanities . National Endowment for the Humanities . 35 (6) . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . United States v. Shipp stands out in the history of the Supreme Court as an anomaly. It remains the only time the Court has conducted a criminal trial. Jump up ^ Linder, Douglas. \"United States v. Shipp (U.S. Supreme Court, 1909)\" . Famous Trials . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1254 Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1259 Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1258 Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1260 ^ Jump up to: a b 28 U.S.C. § 1257 Jump up ^ Brannock, Steven; Weinzierl, Sarah (2003). \"Confronting a PCA: Finding a Path Around a Brick Wall\" (PDF) . Stetson Law Review . XXXII: 368–369, 387–390 . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 306 (1989) Jump up ^ Gutman, Jeffrey. \"Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys: 3.3 Mootness\" . Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys . Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law . Retrieved April 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ Allotment Order dated June 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1254 Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1257 ; see also Adequate and independent state grounds Jump up ^ James, Robert A. (1998). \"Instructions in Supreme Court Jury Trials\" (PDF) . The Green Bag . 2d. 1 (4): 378 . Retrieved February 5, 2013 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1872 See Georgia v. Brailsford , 3 U.S. 1 (1794), in which the Court conducted a jury trial. Jump up ^ Mauro, Tony (October 21, 2005). \"Roberts Dips Toe Into Cert Pool\" . Legal Times . Retrieved October 31, 2007 . Jump up ^ Mauro, Tony (July 4, 2006). \"Justice Alito Joins Cert Pool Party\" . Legal Times . Retrieved October 31, 2007 . Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (September 25, 2008). \"A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The 'Cert. Pool ' \" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 17, 2008 . Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (May 1, 2017). \"Gorsuch, in sign of independence, is out of Supreme Court's clerical pool\" . The New York Times . Retrieved May 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ For example, the arguments on the constitutionality of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act took place over three days and lasted over six hours, covering several issues; the arguments for Bush v. Gore were 90 minutes long; oral arguments in United States v. Nixon lasted three hours; and the Pentagon papers case was given a two-hour argument. Christy, Andrew (November 15, 2011). \" ' Obamacare' will rank among the longest Supreme Court arguments ever\" . NPR . Retrieved March 31, 2011 . The longest modern-day oral arguments were in the case of California v. Arizona , in which oral arguments lasted over sixteen hours over four days in 1962. Bobic, Igor (March 26, 2012). \"Oral arguments on health reform longest in 45 years\" . Talking Points Memo . Retrieved January 31, 2014 . Jump up ^ Glazer, Eric M.; Zachary, Michael (February 1997). \"Joining the Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court\" . Volume LXXI, No. 2 . Florida Bar Journal. p. 63 . Retrieved February 3, 2014 . Jump up ^ Gresko, Jessica (March 24, 2013). \"For lawyers, the Supreme Court bar is vanity trip\" . Florida Today . Melbourne, Florida . pp. 2A. Archived from the original on March 23, 2013. Jump up ^ \"How The Court Works; Library Support\" . The Supreme Court Historical Society . Retrieved February 3, 2014 . Jump up ^ See generally , Tushnet, Mark, ed. (2008) I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases , Malaysia: Beacon Press, pp. 256, ISBN 978-0-8070-0036-6 Jump up ^ Kessler, Robert. \"Why Aren't Cameras Allowed at the Supreme Court Again?\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved March 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Johnson, Benny. \"The 2016 Running of the Interns\" . Independent Journal Review . Retrieved March 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1 Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 2109 Jump up ^ Pepall, Lynne; Richards, Daniel L.; Norman, George (1999). Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice . Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing. pp. 11–12. Jump up ^ \"Cases adjudged in the Supreme Court at October Term, 2010\" (PDF) . United States Reports . Washington D.C.: Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States . 564 . October 2016 . Retrieved May 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Sliplists\" . Supreme Court of the United States . Retrieved May 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Supreme Court Research Guide\" . law.georgetown.edu . Georgetown Law Library . Retrieved August 22, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"How to Cite Cases: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions\" . lib.guides.umd.edu . University of Maryland University Libraries . Retrieved August 22, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch . New York City: Oxford University Press. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-0-19-530917-1 . Jump up ^ Mendelson, Wallace (1992). \"Separation of Powers\". In Hall, Kermit L. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States . Oxford University Press. p. 775. ISBN 0-19-505835-6 . Jump up ^ The American Conflict by Horace Greeley (1873), p. 106; also in The Life of Andrew Jackson (2001) by Robert Vincent Remini Jump up ^ Vile, John R. (1992). \"Court curbing\". In Hall, Kermit L. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States . Oxford University Press. p. 202. ISBN 0-19-505835-6 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Peppers, Todd C. (2006). Courtiers of the Marble Palace: The Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk . Stanford University Press. pp. 195, 1, 20, 22, and 22–24 respectively. ISBN 978-0-8047-5382-1 . Jump up ^ Weiden, David; Ward, Artemus (2006). Sorcerers' Apprentices: 100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9404-3 . Jump up ^ Chace, James (2007). Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World . New York City: Simon & Schuster (published 1998). p. 44. ISBN 978-0-684-80843-7 . Jump up ^ List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States ^ Jump up to: a b c d Liptak, Adam (September 7, 2010). \"Polarization of Supreme Court Is Reflected in Justices' Clerks\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 7, 2010 . Jump up ^ William E. Nelson; Harvey Rishikof; I. Scott Messinger; Michael Jo (November 2009). \"The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation?\" (PDF) . Vanderbilt Law Review . p. 1749. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2010 . Retrieved September 7, 2010 . Jump up ^ Liptak and Kopicki, The New York Times , June 7, 2012 Approval Rating for Justices Hits Just 44% in New Poll ^ Jump up to: a b c See for example \"Judicial activism\" in The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States , edited by Kermit Hall; article written by Gary McDowell Jump up ^ Root, Damon W. (September 21, 2009). \"Lochner and Liberty\" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Bernstein, David. Only One Place of Redress: African Americans, Labor Regulations, and the Courts from Reconstruction to the New Deal , p. 100 (Duke University Press, 2001): \"The Court also directly overturned Lochner by adding that it is no 'longer open to question that it is within the legislative power to fix maximum hours.'\" Jump up ^ Dorf, Michael and Morrison, Trevor. Constitutional Law , p. 18 (Oxford University Press, 2010). Jump up ^ Patrick, John. The Supreme Court of the United States: A Student Companion , p. 362 (Oxford University Press, 2006). Jump up ^ Steinfels, Peter (May 22, 2005). \" ' A Church That Can and Cannot Change': Dogma\" . The New York Times: Books . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Savage, David G. (October 23, 2008). \"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on October 23, 2008 . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . a lack of judicial authority to enter an inherently political question that had previously been left to the states Jump up ^ Lewis, Neil A. (September 19, 2002). \"Judicial Nominee Says His Views Will Not Sway Him on the Bench\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . he has written scathingly of Roe v. Wade Jump up ^ \"Election Guide 2008: The Issues: Abortion\" . The New York Times . 2008 . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Buchanan, Pat (July 6, 2005). \"The judges war: an issue of power\" . Townhall.com . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . The Brown decision of 1954, desegregating the schools of 17 states and the District of Columbia, awakened the nation to the court's new claim to power. Jump up ^ Clymer, Adam (May 29, 1998). \"Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Stone, Geoffrey R. (March 26, 2012). \" Citizens United and conservative judicial activism\" (PDF) . University of Illinois Law Review . University of Illinois. 2012 (2): 485–500. Jump up ^ Lincoln, Abraham (March 4, 1861). \"First Inaugural Address\" . National Center. Archived from the original on October 9, 2009 . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . At the same time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal. Jump up ^ Will, George F. (May 27, 2009). \"Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Thurgood Marshall quote taken from the Stanford Law Review, summer 1992 Jump up ^ Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court . London: Penguin, 1999. ISBN 0-670-87006-4 Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (January 31, 2009). \"To Nudge, Shift or Shove the Supreme Court Left\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Every judge who's been appointed to the court since Lewis Powell...in 1971...has been more conservative than his or her predecessor Jump up ^ Babington, Charles (April 5, 2005). \"Senator Links Violence to 'Political' Decisions\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (February 2, 2006). \"A Court Remade in the Reagan Era's Image\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Savage, David G. (July 13, 2008). \"Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Andrew P. Napolitano (February 17, 2005). \"No Defense\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Edsall, Thomas B.; Fletcher, Michael A. (September 5, 2005). \"Again, Right Voices Concern About Gonzales\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Lane, Charles (March 20, 2005). \"Conservative's Book on Supreme Court Is a Bestseller\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Mark I. Sutherland; Dave Meyer; William J. Federer; Alan Keyes; Ed Meese; Phyllis Schlafly; Howard Phillips; Alan E. Sears; Ben DuPre; Rev. Rick Scarborough; David C. Gibbs III; Mathew D. Staver; Don Feder; Herbert W. Titus (2005). Judicial Tyranny: The New Kings of America . St. Louis, Missouri: Amerisearch Inc. p. 242. ISBN 0-9753455-6-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b Kakutani, Michiko (July 6, 2009). \"Appointees Who Really Govern America\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ Emily Bazelon (July 6, 2009). \"The Supreme Court on Trial: James MacGregor Burns takes aim at the bench\" . Slate . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ Special keynote address by President Ronald Reagan, November 1988, at the second annual lawyers convention of the Federalist Society , Washington, D.C. Jump up ^ Stuart Taylor Jr. (October 15, 1987). \"Reagan Points to a Critic, Who Points Out It Isn't So\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Kelley Beaucar Vlahos (September 11, 2003). \"Judge Bork: Judicial Activism Is Going Global\" . Fox News . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . What judges have wrought is a coup d'état – slow moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless. ^ Jump up to: a b c Naftali Bendavid (July 13, 2009). \"Franken: 'An Incredible Honor to Be Here ' \" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Hazard, Geoffrey C. Jr. (1978–79). \"Supreme Court as a Legislature\" . 64 . Cornell L. Rev.: 1. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Jump up ^ William Safire (April 24, 2005). \"Dog Whistle\" . New York Times Magazine . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ David G. Savage (October 23, 2008). \"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on October 23, 2008 . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Laura Mansnerus (October 16, 2005). \"Diminished Eminence In a Changed Domain\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Ronald Smothers (October 16, 2005). \"In Long Branch, No Olive Branches\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Adam Cohen (January 15, 2008). \"Editorial Observer – A Supreme Court Reversal: Abandoning the Rights of Voters\" . New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ David G. Savage (July 13, 2008). \"Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 30, 2009 . This suggests that the right of habeas corpus was not limited to English subjects … protects people who are captured … at Guantanamo … Wrong, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote in dissent. He said English history showed that the writ of habeas corpus was limited to sovereign English territory Jump up ^ George F. Will (May 27, 2009). \"Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b James Taranto (June 9, 2009). \"Speaking Ruth to Power\" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Woodward, Bob; Scott Armstrong (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court . United States of America: Simon & Schuster. p. 541. ISBN 978-0-7432-7402-9 . A court which is final and unreviewable needs more careful scrutiny than any other ^ Jump up to: a b c d Larry Sabato (September 26, 2007). \"It's Time to Reshape the Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country\" . The Huffington Post . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Christopher Moore (November 1, 2008). \"Our Canadian Republic – Do we display too much deference to authority … or not enough?\" . Literary Review of Canada . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Tomkins, Adam (2002). \"In Defence of the Political Constitution\". United Kingdom: 22 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 157. Bush v. Gore Jump up ^ Madison, James (1789). \"The Federalist Papers/No. 45 The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered\" . Wikisource . Retrieved October 24, 2009 . the States will retain, under the proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sovereignty Jump up ^ Alexander Hamilton (aka Publius) (1789). \"Federalist No. 28\" . Independent Journal . Retrieved October 24, 2009 . Power being almost always the rival of power; the General Government will at all times stand ready to check the usurpations of the state government; and these will have the same disposition toward the General Government. Jump up ^ Madison, James (January 25, 1788). \" The Federalist \" . Independent Journal (44 (quote: 8th para)) . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . seems well calculated at once to secure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion. Jump up ^ Madison, James (February 16, 1788). \" The Federalist No. 56 (quote: 6th para)\" . Independent Journal . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . In every State there have been made, and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and reduce them in one general act. Jump up ^ Alexander Hamilton (December 14, 1787). \" The Federalist No. 22 (quote: 4th para)\" . New York Packet . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States, contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to others, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and extended till they became not less serious sources of animosity and discord than injurious impediments to the intercourse between the different parts of the Confederacy. Jump up ^ Madison, James (January 22, 1788). \" The Federalist Papers \" . New York Packet . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . The regulation of commerce with the Indian tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or infringe the legislative right of any State within its own limits. Jump up ^ Akhil Reed Amar (1998). \"The Bill of Rights – Creation and Reconstruction\" . The New York Times: Books . Retrieved October 24, 2009 . many lawyers embrace a tradition that views state governments as the quintessential threat to individual and minority rights, and federal officials—especially federal courts—as the special guardians of those rights. Jump up ^ Scott Gold (June 14, 2005). \"Justices Swat Down Texans' Effort to Weaken Species Protection Law\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved March 24, 2012 . Purcell filed a $60-million lawsuit against the U.S. government in 1999, arguing that cave bugs could not be regulated through the commerce clause because they had no commercial value and did not cross state lines. 'I'm disappointed,' Purcell said. ^ Jump up to: a b Robert B. Reich (September 13, 1987). \"The Commerce Clause; The Expanding Economic Vista\" . New York Times Magazine . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ FDCH e-Media (January 10, 2006). \"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 30, 2009 . I don't think there's any question at this point in our history that Congress' power under the commerce clause is quite broad, and I think that reflects a number of things, including the way in which our economy and our society has developed and all of the foreign and interstate activity that takes place – Samuel Alito Jump up ^ Cohen, Adam (December 7, 2003). \"Editorial Observer; Brandeis's Views on States' Rights, and Ice-Making, Have New Relevance\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 30, 2009 . But Brandeis's dissent contains one of the most famous formulations in American law: that the states should be free to serve as laboratories of democracy Jump up ^ Graglia, Lino (July 19, 2005). \"Altering 14th Amendment would curb court's activist tendencies\" . University of Texas School of Law. Archived from the original on December 4, 2010 . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ Hornberger, Jacob C. (October 30, 2009). \"Freedom and the Fourteenth Amendment\" . The Future of Freedom Foundation . Retrieved October 30, 2009 . Fourteenth Amendment. Some argue that it is detrimental to the cause of freedom because it expands the power of the federal government. Others contend that the amendment expands the ambit of individual liberty. I fall among those who believe that the Fourteenth Amendment has been a positive force for freedom. Jump up ^ James Vicini (April 24, 2008). \"Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling\" . Reuters . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . The nine-member Supreme Court conducts its deliberations in secret and the justices traditionally won't discuss pending cases in public ^ Jump up to: a b c Margolick, David (September 23, 2007). \"Meet the Supremes\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Beat reporters and academics initially denounced the court's involvement in that case, its hastiness to enter the political thicket and the half-baked and strained decision that resulted. Jump up ^ \"Public Says Televising Court Is Good for Democracy\" . PublicMind.fdu.edu . March 9, 2010 . Retrieved December 14, 2010 . Jump up ^ Mauro, Tony (March 9, 2010). \"Poll Shows Public Support for Cameras at the High Court\" . The National Law Journal . Retrieved December 18, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"C-SPAN Supreme Court Week\" . CSPAN. October 4, 2009 . Retrieved October 25, 2009 . Jump up ^ James Vicini (April 24, 2008). \"Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling\" . Reuters . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Scalia was interviewed for the CBS News show \"60 Minutes Jump up ^ David G. Savage (October 23, 2008). \"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on October 23, 2008 . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . UC Berkeley law professor Goodwin Liu described the decision as 'utterly lacking in any legal principle\" and added that the court was \"remarkably unashamed to say so explicitly.' Jump up ^ McConnell, Michael W. (June 1, 2001). \"Two-and-a-Half Cheers for Bush v Gore\" . University of Chicago Law Review . Retrieved February 16, 2016 . Jump up ^ CQ Transcriptions (Senator Kohl) (July 14, 2009). \"Key Excerpt: Sotomayor on Bush v. Gore\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Many critics saw the Bush v. Gore decision as an example of the judiciary improperly injecting itself into a political dispute\" Jump up ^ Adam Cohen (Opinion section) (March 21, 2004). \"Justice Rehnquist Writes on Hayes vs. Tilden, With His Mind on Bush v. Gore\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on May 11, 2011 . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . The Bush v. Gore majority, made up of Mr. Rehnquist and his fellow conservatives, interpreted the equal protection clause in a sweeping way they had not before, and have not since. And they stated that the interpretation was 'limited to the present circumstances,' words that suggest a raw exercise of power, not legal analysis. Jump up ^ Kevin McNamara (letter to the editor) (June 3, 2009). \"Letters – Supreme Court Activism?\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 23, 2009 . Jump up ^ CQ Transcriptions (January 13, 2006). \"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 28, 2009 . ...Baker v. Carr, the reapportionment case. We heard Justice Frankfurter who delivered a scathing dissent in that... Jump up ^ Linda Greenhouse (September 10, 2007). \"New Focus on the Effects of Life Tenure\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Jump up ^ Levinson, Sanford (February 9, 2009). \"Supreme court prognosis – Ruth Bader Ginsburg's surgery for pancreatic cancer highlights why US supreme court justices shouldn't serve life terms\" . The Guardian . Manchester . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Jump up ^ See also Arthur D. Hellman, \"Reining in the Supreme Court: Are Term Limits the Answer?\", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices ( Carolina Academic Press , 2006), p. 291. Jump up ^ Richard Epstein , \"Mandatory Retirement for Supreme Court Justices\", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices ( Carolina Academic Press , 2006), p. 415. Jump up ^ Brian Opeskin, Models of Judicial Tenure: Reconsidering Life Limits, Age Limits and Term Limits for Judges , Oxford J Legal Studies 2015 35: 627–663. Jump up ^ Alexander Hamilton (June 14, 1788). \"The Federalist No. 78\" . Independent Journal . Retrieved October 28, 2009 . and that as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security. Jump up ^ O'Brien, Reity (June 20, 2014). \"Justice Obscured: Supreme court justices earn quarter-million in cash on the side\" . Center for Public Integrity . ^ Jump up to: a b Lipton, Eric (February 26, 2016). \"Scalia Took Dozens of Trips Funded by Private Sponsors\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Berman, Mark; Markon, Jerry (February 17, 2016). \"Why Justice Scalia was staying for free at a Texas resort\" . The Washington Post . Bibliography [ edit ] Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States , 5 vols., Detroit [etc.] : Macmillan Reference USA, 2008 The Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States (2013 ed.) (PDF). Biskupic, Joan and Elder Witt. (1997). Congressional Quarterly 's Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly . ISBN 1-56802-130-5 Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6 . Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch . New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530917-1 . Harvard Law Review Assn., (2000). The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , 17th ed. [18th ed., 2005. ISBN 978-600-01-4329-9 ] Irons , Peter. (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court . New York: Viking Press . ISBN 0-670-87006-4 . Rehnquist , William. (1987). The Supreme Court. New York: Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 0-375-40943-2 . Skifos, Catherine Hetos. (1976). \"The Supreme Court Gets a Home\" , Supreme Court Historical Society 1976 Yearbook. [in 1990, renamed The Journal of Supreme Court History (ISSN 1059-4329)] Warren , Charles. (1924). The Supreme Court in United States History. (3 volumes). Boston: Little, Brown and Co. Woodward, Bob and Armstrong, Scott . The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court (1979). ISBN 978-0-7432-7402-9 . Supreme Court Historical Society. \"The Court Building\" (PDF) . Retrieved February 13, 2008 . Further reading [ edit ] Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3 . Beard , Charles A. (1912). The Supreme Court and the Constitution. New York: Macmillan Company. Reprinted Dover Publications , 2006. ISBN 0-486-44779-0 . Corley, Pamela C.; Steigerwalt, Amy; Ward, Artemus. (2013). The Puzzle of Unanimity: Consensus on the United States Supreme Court . Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-8472-6 . Cushman, Barry. (1998). Rethinking the New Deal Court . Oxford University Press. Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 978-1-56802-126-3 . Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions . Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56802-126-3 . Garner, Bryan A. (2004). Black's Law Dictionary . Deluxe 8th ed. Thomson West . ISBN 0-314-15199-0 . Greenburg, Jan Crawford , Jan. (2007). Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control for the United States Supreme Court. New York: Penguin Press . ISBN 978-1-59420-101-1 . Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography . Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 0-87187-554-3 . McCloskey, Robert G. (2005). The American Supreme Court. 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0-226-55682-4 . O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-93218-4 . Spaeth, Harold J. (1979). Supreme Court Policy Making: Explanation and Prediction (3rd ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7167-1012-7 . Toobin , Jeffrey. The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court. Doubleday , 2007. ISBN 0-385-51640-1 . Urofsky, Melvin and Finkelman, Paul . (2001). A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States . 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 0-19-512637-8 & ISBN 0-19-512635-1 . Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary . New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1 . Supreme Court Historical Society . \"The Court Building\" (PDF) . Retrieved February 13, 2008 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Supreme Court of the United States . 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{ "text": "Resource - Wikipedia Resource From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other uses, see Resource (disambiguation) . A resource is a source or supply from which a benefit is produced. Resources can be broadly classified on the basis upon their availability they are renewable and non renewable resources. They can also be classified as actual and potential on the basis of level of development and use, on the basis of origin they can be classified as biotic and abiotic, and on the bases of their distribution, as ubiquitous and localized( private resources ,community own ,resources ,natural resources ,international resources) .An item becomes a resource with time and developing technology. Typically resources are materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge, or other assets that are transformed to produce benefit and in the process may be consumed or made unavailable. Benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth or wants, proper functioning of a system, or enhanced well being. From a human perspective a natural resource is anything obtained from the environment to satisfy human needs and wants. [1] From a broader biological or ecological perspective a resource satisfies the needs of a living organism (see biological resource ). [2] The concept of resources has been applied in diverse realms, with respect to economics , biology and ecology , computer science , management , and human resources , and is linked to the concepts of competition , sustainability , conservation , and stewardship . In application within human society , commercial or non-commercial factors require resource allocation through resource management . Resources have three main characteristics: utility , limited availability , and potential for depletion or consumption . Resources have been variously categorized as biotic versus abiotic , renewable versus non-renewable , and potential versus actual, with more elaborate classification. Contents [ hide ] 1 Economic resources 2 Biological 3 Economic versus biological 4 Computer resources 5 Natural 6 Labour or human resources 7 Capital or infrastructure 8 Tangible versus intangible 9 Use and sustainable development 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Economic resources [ edit ] In economics a resource is defined as a service or other asset used to produce goods and services that meet human needs and wants. [3] Economics itself has been defined as the study of how society manages its scarce resources. [4] Classical economics recognizes three categories of resources, also referred to as factors of production : land, labour, and capital. [5] Land includes all natural resources and is viewed as both the site of production and the source of raw materials . Labour or human resources consists of human effort provided in the creation of products, paid in wage . Capital consists of human-made goods or means of production (machinery, buildings, and other infrastructure ) used in the production of other goods and services, paid in interest . Biological [ edit ] In biology and ecology a resource is defined as a substance that is required by a living organism for normal growth , maintenance , and reproduction (see biological resource ). The main essential resources for animals are food, water, and territory. For plants key resources include sunlight, nutrients, water, and a place to grow. [2] Resources, can be consumed by an organism and, as a result, become unavailable to other organisms. Competition for resources vary from complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size) to perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources.The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities. Economic versus biological [ edit ] There are three fundamental differences between economic versus ecological views: 1) the economic resource definition is human-centered ( anthropocentric ) and the biological or ecological resource definition is nature-centered ( biocentric or ecocentric ); 2) the economic view includes desire along with necessity, whereas the biological view is about basic biological needs; and 3) economic systems are based on markets of currency exchanged for goods and services, whereas biological systems are based on natural processes of growth, maintenance, and reproduction. [1] Computer resources [ edit ] Main article: Resource (computer science) A computer resource is any physically or virtual component of limited availability within a computer or information management system. Computer resources include means for input, processing, output, communication, and storage. [6] Natural [ edit ] Natural resources are derived from the environment . Many natural resources are essential for human survival, while others are used for satisfying human desire. Conservation is the management of natural resources with the goal of sustainability . Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. [1] Resources can be categorized on the basis of origin: Abiotic resources comprise non-living things (e.g., land , water , air and minerals such as gold, iron, copper, silver). Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere . Forests and their products, animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms are important examples. Minerals such as coal and petroleum are sometimes included in this category because they were formed from fossilized organic matter, though over long periods of time. Natural resources are also categorized based on the stage of development: Potential resources are known to exist and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India and Kuwait that have sedimentary rocks, but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource. Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined, and are being used in present times. For example, petroleum and natural gas is actively being obtained from the Mumbai High Fields. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual resource that can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve resource, while that part that can not be developed profitably because of lack of technology is called a stock resource. Natural resources can be categorized on the basis of renewability: Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological periods . Minerals and fossils are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be replenished, once they are depleted . Out of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Renewable resources , such as forests and fisheries, can be replenished or reproduced relatively quickly. The highest rate at which a resource can be used sustainably is the sustainable yield . Some resources, like sunlight, air, and wind, are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. Their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take even longer. Dependent upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or total and everlasting destruction of a resource. Important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. Such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource, or as a subtype of renewable resources. Conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long term use of such resources is within the so-called zero ecological footprint , wherein human use less than the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. Natural resources are also categorized based on distribution: Ubiquitous resources are found everywhere (e.g., air, light, water). Localized resources are found only in certain parts of the world (e.g., copper and iron ore, geothermal power). Actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows: Actual resources are those resources whose location and quantity are known and we have the technology to exploit and use them. Potential resources are the ones of which we have insufficient knowledge or we do not have the technology to exploit them at present. On the basis of ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international. Labour or human resources [ edit ] In economics, labour or human resources refers to the human effort in production of goods and rendering of services. Human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge. [5] In a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan. [7] Capital or infrastructure [ edit ] In social studies , capital refers to already-produced durable goods used in production of goods or services . In essence, capital refers to human-made resources created using knowledge and expertise based on utility or perceived value. Common examples of capital include buildings, machinery, railways, roads, and ships. As resources, capital goods may or may not be significantly consumed, though they may depreciate in the production process and they are typically of limited capacity or unavailable for use by others. Tangible versus intangible [ edit ] Whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have actual physical existence, intangible resources such as corporate images, brands and patents, and other intellectual property exist in abstraction. [8] Generally the economic value of a resource is controlled by supply and demand. Some view this as a narrow perspective on resources because there are many intangibles that cannot be measured in money. Natural resources such as forests and mountains have aesthetic value. Resources also have an ethical value. This paragraph needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Use and sustainable development [ edit ] Typically resources cannot be consumed in their original form, but rather through resource development they must be processed into more usable commodities and usable things. With increasing population, the demand for resources is increasing. There are marked differences in resource distribution and associated economic inequality between regions or countries, with developed countries using more natural resources than developing countries. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment . [1] Sustainable development means that we should exploit our resources carefully to meet our present requirement without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The practice of the three R's – reduce, reuse and recycle must be followed in order to save and extend the availability of resources. Various problems relate to the usage of resources: Environmental degradation Over-consumption Resource curse Resource depletion Tragedy of the commons Myth of superabundance Various benefits can result from the wise usage of resources: Economic growth Ethical consumerism Prosperity Quality of life Sustainability Wealth See also [ edit ] Natural resource management Resource-based view Resource slack References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d Miller, G.T. & S. Spoolman (2011). Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions (17th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole. ISBN 0-538-73534-1 . ^ Jump up to: a b Ricklefs, R.E. (2005). The Economy of Nature (6th ed.). New York, NY: WH Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-8697-4 . Jump up ^ McConnell, C.R., S.L. Brue, and S.M. Flynn. 2011. Economics: principles, problems, and policies, 19th ed. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, NY. ISBN 0-07-351144-7 . Jump up ^ Mankiw, N.G. 2008. Principles of Economics, 5th ed. South-Western College Publishing, Boston, MA. ISBN 1-111-39911-5 . ^ Jump up to: a b Samuelson, P.A. and W.D. Nordhaus. 2004 . Economics, 18th ed. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, Boston, MA. ISBN 0-07-287205-5 . Jump up ^ Morley, D. 2010. Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, 13th ed. Course Technology, Stamford, CT. ISBN 0-538-74810-9 . Jump up ^ Hut, PM (2008-09-07). \"Getting and Estimating Resource Requirements - People\" . Pmhut.com . Retrieved 2012-01-02 . Jump up ^ Berry, John. 2004. Tangible Strategies for Intangible Assets . McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0071412865 . External links [ edit ] The dictionary definition of resource at Wiktionary [ show ] v t e Natural resources Air Pollution / quality Ambient standards (USA) Index Indoor developing nations Law Clean Air Act (USA) Ozone depletion Emissions Airshed Trading Deforestation (REDD) Energy Law Resources Fossil fuels ( peak oil ) Geothermal Nuclear Solar sunlight shade Tidal Wave Wind Land Arable peak farmland Degradation Law property Management habitat conservation Minerals mining law sand peak rights Soil conservation fertility health resilience Use planning reserve Life Biodiversity Bioprospecting Biosphere Bushfood Bushmeat Fisheries law management Food Forests genetic resources law management Game law Gene bank Herbalist plants Marine conservation Non-timber forest products Rangeland Seed bank Wildlife conservation management Wood Water Types / location Aquifer storage and recovery Drinking Fresh Groundwater pollution recharge remediation Hydrosphere Ice bergs glacial polar Irrigation Rain harvesting Stormwater Surface water Wastewater reclaimed Aspects Desalination Floods Law Leaching Sanitation Conflict Conservation Peak water Pollution Privatization Quality Right Resources management policy Related Commons enclosure global land tragedy of Economics ecological land Ecosystem services Exploitation overexploitation Earth Overshoot Day Management adaptive Natural capital accounting Nature reserve Systems ecology Urban ecology Wilderness Resource Common-pool Conflict (perpetuation) Curse Depletion Extraction Nationalism Renewable / Non-renewable Portals Agriculture and agronomy Energy Environment Fishing Forestry Mining Water Wetlands Category agencies law management ministries organizations Colleges Natural resources Authority control GND : 4076675-5 NDL : 00570898 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resource&oldid=843308557 \" Categories : Resources Resource economics Ecology Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from September 2014 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca भोजपुरी Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית Basa Jawa Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Shqip Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська 粵語 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2018, at 08:28. 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{ "text": "Omega-3 fatty acid - Wikipedia Omega-3 fatty acid From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Types of fats in food Unsaturated fat Monounsaturated fat ω−7 ω−9 Polyunsaturated fat ω−3 ω−6 Trans fat Saturated fat Interesterified fat See also Fatty acid Essential fatty acid Conditionally essential fatty acid Cholesterol v t e Omega−3 fatty acids —also called ω−3 fatty acids or n −3 fatty acids [1] —are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with a double bond (C=C) at the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain. [2] [3] The fatty acids have two ends, the carboxylic acid (-COOH) end, which is considered the beginning of the chain, thus \"alpha\", and the methyl (-CH 3 ) end, which is considered the \"tail\" of the chain, thus \"omega\"; the double bond is at omega minus 3 (not dash 3). One way in which a fatty acid is named is determined by the location of the first double bond, counted from the methyl end , that is, the omega (ω-) or the n- end. However, the standard (IUPAC) chemical nomenclature system starts from the carboxyl end. The three types of omega−3 fatty acids involved in human physiology are α-linolenic acid (ALA) (found in plant oils), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) , and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (both commonly found in marine oils). [2] Marine algae and phytoplankton are primary sources of omega−3 fatty acids. Common sources of plant oils containing the omega−3 ALA fatty acid include walnut , edible seeds, clary sage seed oil, algal oil , flaxseed oil , Sacha Inchi oil, Echium oil, and hemp oil , while sources of animal omega−3 EPA and DHA fatty acids include fish, fish oils , eggs from chickens fed EPA and DHA, squid oils, and krill oil . Dietary supplementation with omega−3 fatty acids does not appear to affect the risk of death, cancer or heart disease . [4] [5] Furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes . [6] Omega−3 fatty acids are important for normal metabolism . [7] Mammals are unable to synthesize omega−3 fatty acids, but can obtain the shorter-chain omega−3 fatty acid ALA (18 carbons and 3 double bonds) through diet and use it to form the more important long-chain omega−3 fatty acids, EPA (20 carbons and 5 double bonds) and then from EPA, the most crucial, DHA (22 carbons and 6 double bonds). [7] The ability to make the longer-chain omega−3 fatty acids from ALA may be impaired in aging. [8] [9] In foods exposed to air, unsaturated fatty acids are vulnerable to oxidation and rancidity . [10] Contents [ hide ] 1 Health effects 1.1 Cancer 1.2 Cardiovascular disease 1.3 Inflammation 1.4 Developmental disabilities 1.5 Mental health 1.6 Cognitive aging 1.7 Brain and visual functions 1.8 Atopic diseases 1.9 Risk of deficiency 1.10 Asthma 2 Chemistry 2.1 List of omega−3 fatty acids 3 Forms 4 Biochemistry 4.1 Transporters 5 Mechanism of action 5.1 Interconversion 5.1.1 Conversion efficiency of ALA to EPA and DHA 5.1.2 Omega−6 to omega−3 ratio 6 History 7 Dietary sources 7.1 Dietary recommendations 7.2 Contamination 7.3 Fish 7.3.1 Fish oil 7.4 Krill 7.5 Plant sources 7.6 Eggs 7.7 Meat 7.8 Seal oil 7.9 Other sources 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Health effects [ edit ] Supplementation does not appear to be associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality. [4] [11] Cancer [ edit ] The evidence linking the consumption of marine omega−3 fats to a lower risk of cancer is poor. [7] [12] With the possible exception of breast cancer, [7] [13] [14] there is insufficient evidence that supplementation with omega−3 fatty acids has an effect on different cancers. [5] [15] In people with advanced cancer and cachexia , omega−3 fatty acids supplements may be of benefit, improving appetite, weight, and quality of life . [16] The effect of consumption on prostate cancer is not conclusive. [7] [14] There is a decreased risk with higher blood levels of DPA , but an increased risk of more aggressive prostate cancer was shown with higher blood levels of combined EPA and DHA . [17] Cardiovascular disease [ edit ] Evidence in the population generally does not support a beneficial role for omega−3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death ) or stroke . [4] [18] [19] However, omega−3 fatty acid supplementation greater than one gram daily for at least a year may be protective against cardiac death, sudden death, and myocardial infarction in people who have a history of cardiovascular disease. [20] No protective effect against the development of stroke or all-cause mortality was seen in this population. [20] Eating a diet high in fish that contain long chain omega−3 fatty acids does appear to decrease the risk of stroke. [21] Fish oil supplementation has not been shown to benefit revascularization or abnormal heart rhythms and has no effect on heart failure hospital admission rates. [22] Furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. [6] Evidence suggests that omega−3 fatty acids modestly lower blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) in people with hypertension and in people with normal blood pressure. [23] Some evidence suggests that people with certain circulatory problems, such as varicose veins , may benefit from the consumption of EPA and DHA, which may stimulate blood circulation and increase the breakdown of fibrin , a protein involved in blood clotting and scar formation. [24] [25] Omega−3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. [26] [27] The American Heart Association position (2011) is that borderline elevated triglycerides, defined as 150–199 mg/dL, can be lowered by 0.5-1.0 grams of EPA and DHA per day; high triglycerides 200–499 mg/dL benefit from 1-2 g/day; and >500 mg/dL be treated under a physician's supervision with 2-4 g/day using a prescription product. [28] ALA does not confer the cardiovascular health benefits of EPA and DHAs. [29] The effect of omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on stroke is unclear, with a possible benefit in women. [30] Inflammation [ edit ] A 2013 systematic review found tentative evidence of benefit for lowering inflammation levels in healthy adults and in people with one or more biomarkers of metabolic syndrome . [31] Consumption of omega−3 fatty acids from marine sources lowers blood markers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein , interleukin 6 , and TNF alpha . [32] For rheumatoid arthritis , one systematic review found consistent, but modest, evidence for the effect of marine n−3 PUFAs on symptoms such as \"joint swelling and pain, duration of morning stiffness, global assessments of pain and disease activity\" as well as the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. [33] The American College of Rheumatology has stated that there may be modest benefit from the use of fish oils, but that it may take months for effects to be seen, and cautions for possible gastrointestinal side effects and the possibility of the supplements containing mercury or vitamin A at toxic levels. The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health has concluded that \"[n]o dietary supplement has shown clear benefits for rheumatoid arthritis\", but that there is preliminary evidence that fish oil may be beneficial, but needs further study. [34] Developmental disabilities [ edit ] Although not supported by current scientific evidence as a primary treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism , and other developmental disabilities, [35] [36] omega−3 fatty acid supplements are being given to children with these conditions. [35] One meta-analysis concluded that omega−3 fatty acid supplementation demonstrated a modest effect for improving ADHD symptoms. [37] A Cochrane review of PUFA (not necessarily omega−3) supplementation found \"there is little evidence that PUFA supplementation provides any benefit for the symptoms of ADHD in children and adolescents\", [38] while a different review found \"insufficient evidence to draw any conclusion about the use of PUFAs for children with specific learning disorders\". [39] Another review concluded that the evidence is inconclusive for the use of omega−3 fatty acids in behavior and non-neurodegenerative neuropsychiatric disorders such as ADHD and depression. [40] Fish oil has only a small benefit on the risk of premature birth. [41] [42] A 2015 meta-analysis of the effect of omega−3 supplementation during pregnancy did not demonstrate a decrease in the rate of preterm birth or improve outcomes in women with singleton pregnancies with no prior preterm births. [43] A systematic review and meta-analysis published the same year reached the opposite conclusion, specifically, that omega−3 fatty acids were effective in \"preventing early and any preterm delivery\". [44] Mental health [ edit ] There is some evidence that omega−3 fatty acids are related to mental health , [45] including that they may tentatively be useful as an add-on for the treatment of depression associated with bipolar disorder . [46] Significant benefits due to EPA supplementation were only seen, however, when treating depressive symptoms and not manic symptoms suggesting a link between omega−3 and depressive mood. [46] There is also preliminary evidence that EPA supplementation is helpful in cases of depression . [47] The link between omega−3 and depression has been attributed to the fact that many of the products of the omega−3 synthesis pathway play key roles in regulating inflammation such as prostaglandin E3 which have been linked to depression. [48] This link to inflammation regulation has been supported in both in vitro [49] and in vivo studies as well as in meta-analysis studies. [31] The exact mechanism in which omega−3 acts upon the inflammatory system is still controversial as it was commonly believed to have anti-inflammatory effects. [50] There is, however, significant difficulty in interpreting the literature due to participant recall and systematic differences in diets. [51] There is also controversy as to the efficacy of omega−3, with many meta-analysis papers finding heterogeneity among results which can be explained mostly by publication bias . [52] [53] A significant correlation between shorter treatment trials was associated with increased omega−3 efficacy for treating depressed symptoms further implicating bias in publication. [53] A study in 2013, (Stafford, Jackson, Mayo-Wilson, Morrison, Kendall), stated the following in its conclusion: \"Although evidence of benefits for any specific intervention is not conclusive, these findings suggest that it might be possible to delay or prevent transition to psychosis. Further research should be undertaken to establish conclusively the potential for benefit of psychological interventions in the treatment of people at high risk of psychosis.\"` [54] Cognitive aging [ edit ] Epidemiological studies are inconclusive about an effect of omega−3 fatty acids on the mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease . [55] There is preliminary evidence of effect on mild cognitive problems , but none supporting an effect in healthy people or those with dementia . [56] [57] [58] Brain and visual functions [ edit ] Brain function and vision rely on dietary intake of DHA to support a broad range of cell membrane properties, particularly in grey matter , which is rich in membranes. [59] [60] A major structural component of the mammalian brain, DHA is the most abundant omega−3 fatty acid in the brain. [61] It is under study as a candidate essential nutrient with roles in neurodevelopment , cognition , and neurodegenerative disorders . [59] Atopic diseases [ edit ] Results of studies investigating the role of LCPUFA supplementation and LCPUFA status in the prevention and therapy of atopic diseases (allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, atopic dermatitis and allergic asthma) are controversial; therefore, at the present stage of our knowledge (as of 2013) we cannot state either that the nutritional intake of n−3 fatty acids has a clear preventive or therapeutic role, or that the intake of n-6 fatty acids has a promoting role in context of atopic diseases. [62] Risk of deficiency [ edit ] People with PKU often have low intake of omega−3 fatty acids, because nutrients rich in omega−3 fatty acids are excluded from their diet due to high protein content. [63] Asthma [ edit ] As of 2015 there was no evidence that taking omega 3 supplements can prevent asthma attacks in children. [64] Chemistry [ edit ] Chemical structure of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an essential omega−3 fatty acid, (18:3Δ9c,12c,15c, which means a chain of 18 carbons with 3 double bonds on carbons numbered 9, 12, and 15). Although chemists count from the carbonyl carbon (blue numbering), biologists count from the n (ω) carbon (red numbering). Note that, from the n end (diagram right), the first double bond appears as the third carbon-carbon bond (line segment), hence the name \" n -3\". This is explained by the fact that the n end is almost never changed during physiological transformations in the human body, as it is more energy-stable, and other compounds can be synthesized from the other carbonyl end, for example in glycerides, or from double bonds in the middle of the chain. Chemical structure of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) Chemical structure of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) An omega−3 fatty acid is a fatty acid with multiple double bonds , where the first double bond is between the third and fourth carbon atoms from the end of the carbon atom chain. \"Short chain\" omega−3 fatty acids have a chain of 18 carbon atoms or less, while \"long chain\" omega−3 fatty acids have a chain of 20 or more. Three omega−3 fatty acids are important in human physiology, α-linolenic acid (18:3, n -3; ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5, n -3; EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6, n -3; DHA). [65] These three polyunsaturates have either 3, 5, or 6 double bonds in a carbon chain of 18, 20, or 22 carbon atoms, respectively. As with most naturally-produced fatty acids, all double bonds are in the cis -configuration, in other words, the two hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond; and the double bonds are interrupted by methylene bridges (- CH 2 -), so that there are two single bonds between each pair of adjacent double bonds. List of omega−3 fatty acids [ edit ] This table lists several different names for the most common omega−3 fatty acids found in nature. Common name Lipid name Chemical name Hexadecatrienoic acid (HTA) 16:3 ( n -3) all - cis -7,10,13-hexadecatrienoic acid α-Linolenic acid (ALA) 18:3 ( n -3) all - cis -9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid Stearidonic acid (SDA) 18:4 ( n -3) all - cis -6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid Eicosatrienoic acid (ETE) 20:3 ( n -3) all - cis -11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid Eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA) 20:4 ( n -3) all - cis -8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 20:5 ( n -3) all - cis -5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid Heneicosapentaenoic acid (HPA) 21:5 ( n -3) all-cis -6,9,12,15,18-heneicosapentaenoic acid Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), Clupanodonic acid 22:5 ( n -3) all - cis -7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 22:6 ( n -3) all - cis -4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid Tetracosapentaenoic acid 24:5 ( n -3) all - cis -9,12,15,18,21-tetracosapentaenoic acid Tetracosahexaenoic acid (Nisinic acid) 24:6 ( n -3) all - cis -6,9,12,15,18,21-tetracosahexaenoic acid Forms [ edit ] Omega−3 fatty acids occur naturally in two forms, triglycerides and phospholipids . In the triglycerides, they, together with other fatty acids, are bonded to glycerol. Phospholipid omega−3 is composed of two fatty acids attached to a phosphate and choline, versus the three fatty acids attached to glycerol in triglycerides. The triglycerides can be converted to the free fatty acid or to methyl or ethyl esters, and the individual esters of omega−3 fatty acids are available. Biochemistry [ edit ] Transporters [ edit ] DHA in the form of lysophosphatidylcholine is transported into the brain by a membrane transport protein , MFSD2A , which is exclusively expressed in the endothelium of the blood–brain barrier . [66] [67] Mechanism of action [ edit ] The 'essential' fatty acids were given their name when researchers found that they are essential to normal growth in young children and animals. The omega−3 fatty acid DHA, also known as docosahexaenoic acid, is found in high abundance in the human brain. [68] It is produced by a desaturation process, but humans lack the desaturase enzyme, which acts to insert double bonds at the ω 6 and ω 3 position. [68] Therefore, the ω 6 and ω 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized and are appropriately called essential fatty acids. [68] In 1964 it was discovered that enzymes found in sheep tissues convert omega−6 arachidonic acid into the inflammatory agent called prostaglandin E 2 [69] which both causes the sensation of pain and expedites healing and immune response in traumatized and infected tissues. [70] By 1979 more of what are now known as eicosanoids were discovered: thromboxanes , prostacyclins , and the leukotrienes . [70] The eicosanoids, which have important biological functions, typically have a short active lifetime in the body, starting with synthesis from fatty acids and ending with metabolism by enzymes. If the rate of synthesis exceeds the rate of metabolism, the excess eicosanoids may, however, have deleterious effects. [70] Researchers found that certain omega−3 fatty acids are also converted into eicosanoids, but at a much slower rate. Eicosanoids made from omega−3 fatty acids are often referred to as anti-inflammatory, but in fact they are just less inflammatory than those made from omega−6 fats. If both omega−3 and omega−6 fatty acids are present, they will \"compete\" to be transformed, [70] so the ratio of long-chain omega−3:omega−6 fatty acids directly affects the type of eicosanoids that are produced. [70] Interconversion [ edit ] Conversion efficiency of ALA to EPA and DHA [ edit ] Humans can convert short-chain omega−3 fatty acids to long-chain forms (EPA, DHA) with an efficiency below 5%. [71] [72] The omega−3 conversion efficiency is greater in women than in men, but less studied. [73] Higher ALA and DHA values found in plasma phospholipids of women may be due to the higher activity of desaturases, especially that of delta-6-desaturase. [74] These conversions occur competitively with omega−6 fatty acids, which are essential closely related chemical analogues that are derived from linoleic acid. They both utilize the same desaturase and elongase proteins in order to synthesize inflammatory regulatory proteins. [48] The products of both pathways are vital for growth making a balanced diet of omega−3 and omega−6 important to an individual's health. [75] A balanced intake ratio of 1:1 was believed to be ideal in order for proteins to be able to synthesize both pathways sufficiently, but this has been controversial as of recent research. [76] The conversion of ALA to EPA and further to DHA in humans has been reported to be limited, but varies with individuals. [77] [78] Women have higher ALA-to-DHA conversion efficiency than men, which is presumed [79] to be due to the lower rate of use of dietary ALA for beta-oxidation. One preliminary study showed that EPA can be increased by lowering the amount of dietary LA, and DHA can be increased by elevating intake of dietary ALA. [80] Omega−6 to omega−3 ratio [ edit ] Main article: Essential fatty acid interactions Human diet has changed rapidly in recent centuries resulting in a reported increased diet of omega−6 in comparison to omega−3. [81] The rapid evolution of human diet away from a 1:1 omega−3 and omega−6 ratio, such as during the Neolithic Agricultural Revolution , has presumably been too fast for humans to have adapted to biological profiles adept at balancing omega−3 and omega−6 ratios of 1:1. [82] This is commonly believed to be the reason why modern diets are correlated with many inflammatory disorders. [81] While omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may be beneficial in preventing heart disease in humans, the level of omega−6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (and, therefore, the ratio) does not matter. [76] [83] Both omega−6 and omega−3 fatty acids are essential: humans must consume them in their diet. Omega−6 and omega−3 eighteen-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids compete for the same metabolic enzymes, thus the omega−6:omega−3 ratio of ingested fatty acids has significant influence on the ratio and rate of production of eicosanoids, a group of hormones intimately involved in the body's inflammatory and homeostatic processes, which include the prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and thromboxanes , among others. Altering this ratio can change the body's metabolic and inflammatory state. [15] In general, grass-fed animals accumulate more omega−3 than do grain-fed animals, which accumulate relatively more omega−6. [84] Metabolites of omega−6 are more inflammatory (esp. arachidonic acid) than those of omega−3. This necessitates that omega−6 and omega−3 be consumed in a balanced proportion; healthy ratios of omega−6:omega−3, according to some authors, range from 1:1 to 1:4. [85] Other authors believe that a ratio of 4:1 (4 times as much omega−6 as omega−3) is already healthy. [86] [87] Studies suggest the evolutionary human diet, rich in game animals, seafood, and other sources of omega−3, may have provided such a ratio. [88] [89] Typical Western diets provide ratios of between 10:1 and 30:1 (i.e., dramatically higher levels of omega−6 than omega−3). [90] The ratios of omega−6 to omega−3 fatty acids in some common vegetable oils are: canola 2:1, hemp 2–3:1, [91] soybean 7:1, olive 3–13:1, sunflower (no omega−3), flax 1:3, [92] cottonseed (almost no omega−3), peanut (no omega−3), grapeseed oil (almost no omega−3) and corn oil 46:1. [93] History [ edit ] Although omega−3 fatty acids have been known as essential to normal growth and health since the 1930s, awareness of their health benefits has dramatically increased since the 1980s. [94] [95] On September 8, 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration gave \"qualified health claim\" status to EPA and DHA omega−3 fatty acids, stating, \"supportive but not conclusive research shows that consumption of EPA and DHA [omega−3] fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease\". [96] This updated and modified their health risk advice letter of 2001 (see below). The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has recognized the importance of DHA omega−3 and permits the following claim for DHA: \"DHA, an omega−3 fatty acid, supports the normal physical development of the brain, eyes and nerves primarily in children under two years of age.\" [97] Historically, whole food diets contained sufficient amounts of omega−3, but because omega−3 is readily oxidized, the trend to shelf-stable , processed foods has led to a deficiency in omega−3 in manufactured foods. [98] Dietary sources [ edit ] Grams of omega−3 per 3oz (85g) serving [99] [100] Common name grams omega−3 Flax 11.4 [101] Hemp 11.0 Herring , sardines 1.3–2 Mackerel: Spanish / Atlantic / Pacific 1.1–1.7 Salmon 1.1–1.9 Halibut 0.60–1.12 Tuna 0.21–1.1 Swordfish 0.97 Greenshell/lipped mussels 0.95 [101] Tilefish 0.9 Tuna (canned, light) 0.17–0.24 Pollock 0.45 Cod 0.15–0.24 Catfish 0.22–0.3 Flounder 0.48 Grouper 0.23 Mahi mahi 0.13 Red snapper 0.29 Shark 0.83 King mackerel 0.36 Hoki (blue grenadier) 0.41 [101] Gemfish 0.40 [101] Blue eye cod 0.31 [101] Sydney rock oysters 0.30 [101] Tuna, canned 0.23 [101] Snapper 0.22 [101] Mutton 0.12 [102] Eggs, large regular 0.109 [101] Strawberry or Kiwifruit 0.10-0.20 Broccoli 0.10-0.20 Barramundi, saltwater 0.100 [101] Giant tiger prawn 0.100 [101] Lean red meat 0.031 [101] Turkey 0.030 [101] Milk, regular 0.00 [101] Dietary recommendations [ edit ] In the United States, the Institute of Medicine publishes a system of Dietary Reference Intakes , which includes Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for individual nutrients, and Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for certain groups of nutrients, such as fats. When there is insufficient evidence to determine an RDA, the institute may publish an Adequate Intake (AI) instead, which has a similar meaning, but is less certain. The AI for α-linolenic acid is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women, while the AMDR is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy. Because the physiological potency of EPA and DHA is much greater than that of ALA, it is not possible to estimate one AMDR for all omega−3 fatty acids. Approximately 10 percent of the AMDR can be consumed as EPA and/or DHA. [103] The Institute of Medicine has not established a RDA or AI for EPA, DHA or the combination, so there is no Daily Value (DVs are derived from RDAs), no labeling of foods or supplements as providing a DV percentage of these fatty acids per serving, and no labeling a food or supplement as an excellent source, or \"High in...\" [ citation needed ] As for safety, there was insufficient evidence as of 2005 to set an upper tolerable limit for omega−3 fatty acids, [103] although the FDA has advised that adults can safely consume up to a total of 3 grams per day of combined DHA and EPA, with no more than 2 g from dietary supplements. [7] The American Heart Association (AHA) has made recommendations for EPA and DHA due to their cardiovascular benefits: individuals with no history of coronary heart disease or myocardial infarction should consume oily fish two times per week; and \"Treatment is reasonable\" for those having been diagnosed with coronary heart disease. For the latter the AHA does not recommend a specific amount of EPA + DHA, although it notes that most trials were at or close to 1000 mg/day. The benefit appears to be on the order of a 9% decrease in relative risk. [104] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved a claim \"EPA and DHA contributes to the normal function of the heart\" for products that contain at least 250 mg EPA + DHA. The report did not address the issue of people with pre-existing heart disease. The World Health Organization recommends regular fish consumption (1-2 servings per week, equivalent to 200 to 500 mg/day EPA + DHA) as protective against coronary heart disease and ischaemic stroke. Contamination [ edit ] Heavy metal poisoning by the body's accumulation of traces of heavy metals, in particular mercury , lead , nickel , arsenic , and cadmium , is a possible risk from consuming fish oil supplements. [ medical citation needed ] Also, other contaminants ( PCBs , furans , dioxins , and PBDEs) might be found, especially in less-refined fish oil supplements. [ citation needed ] However, heavy metal toxicity from consuming fish oil supplements is highly unlikely, because heavy metals selectively bind with protein in the fish flesh rather than accumulate in the oil. An independent test in 2005 of 44 fish oils on the US market found all of the products passed safety standards for potential contaminants. [105] [ unreliable source? ] Throughout their history, the Council for Responsible Nutrition and the World Health Organization have published acceptability standards regarding contaminants in fish oil. The most stringent current standard is the International Fish Oils Standard. [106] [ non-primary source needed ] Fish oils that are molecularly distilled under vacuum typically make this highest-grade; levels of contaminants are stated in parts per billion per trillion. [ citation needed ] [107] Fish [ edit ] The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is oily fish , such as salmon , herring , mackerel , anchovies , menhaden , and sardines . Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much omega−3 as omega−6. Other oily fish, such as tuna , also contain n -3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat-soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins, which are known to accumulate up the food chain . After extensive review, researchers from Harvard's School of Public Health in the Journal of the American Medical Association (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks. Although fish are a dietary source of omega−3 fatty acids, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae ( microalgae in particular) or plankton in their diets. [108] Fish oil [ edit ] See also: Fish oil and Cod liver oil Fish oil capsules Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in content of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA. [109] They also differ in their effects on organ lipids. [109] Not all forms of fish oil may be equally digestible. Of four studies that compare bioavailability of the glyceryl ester form of fish oil vs. the ethyl ester form, two have concluded the natural glyceryl ester form is better, and the other two studies did not find a significant difference. No studies have shown the ethyl ester form to be superior, although it is cheaper to manufacture. [110] [111] Krill [ edit ] Krill oil is a source of omega−3 fatty acids. [112] The effect of krill oil, at a lower dose of EPA + DHA (62.8%), was demonstrated to be similar to that of fish oil on blood lipid levels and markers of inflammation in healthy humans. [113] While not an endangered species , krill are a mainstay of the diets of many ocean-based species including whales, causing environmental and scientific concerns about their sustainability. [114] [115] [116] Plant sources [ edit ] Chia is grown commercially for its seeds rich in ALA. Flax seeds contain linseed oil which has high ALA content Table 1. ALA content as the percentage of the seed oil. [117] Common name Alternative name Linnaean name % ALA Kiwifruit seed oil Chinese gooseberry Actinidia deliciosa 63 [118] Perilla shiso Perilla frutescens 61 Chia seed chia sage Salvia hispanica 58 Flax linseed Linum usitatissimum 53 [81] – 59 [119] Lingonberry Cowberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea 49 Fig seed oil Common Fig Ficus carica 47.7 [120] Camelina Gold-of-pleasure Camelina sativa 36 Purslane Portulaca Portulaca oleracea 35 Black raspberry Rubus occidentalis 33 Hemp Cannabis sativa 19 Canola Rapeseed oil mostly Brassica napus 9 [81] – 11 Table 2. ALA content as the percentage of the whole food. [81] [121] Common name Linnaean name % ALA Flaxseed Linum usitatissimum 18.1 Hempseed Cannabis sativa 8.7 Butternuts Juglans cinerea 8.7 Persian walnuts Juglans regia 6.3 Pecan nuts Carya illinoinensis 0.6 Hazel nuts Corylus avellana 0.1 Flaxseed (or linseed) ( Linum usitatissimum ) and its oil are perhaps the most widely available botanical source of the omega−3 fatty acid ALA. Flaxseed oil consists of approximately 55% ALA, which makes it six times richer than most fish oils in omega−3 fatty acids. [122] A portion of this is converted by the body to EPA and DHA, though the actual converted percentage may differ between men and women. [123] In 2013 Rothamsted Research in the UK reported they had developed a genetically modified form of the plant Camelina that produced EPA and DHA. Oil from the seeds of this plant contained on average 11% EPA and 8% DHA in one development and 24% EPA in another. [124] [125] Eggs [ edit ] Eggs produced by hens fed a diet of greens and insects contain higher levels of omega−3 fatty acids than those produced by chickens fed corn or soybeans. [126] In addition to feeding chickens insects and greens, fish oils may be added to their diets to increase the omega−3 fatty acid concentrations in eggs. [127] The addition of flax and canola seeds to the diets of chickens, both good sources of alpha-linolenic acid, increases the omega−3 content of the eggs, predominantly DHA. [128] The addition of green algae or seaweed to the diets boosts the content of DHA and EPA, which are the forms of omega−3 approved by the FDA for medical claims. A common consumer complaint is \"Omega−3 eggs can sometimes have a fishy taste if the hens are fed marine oils\". [129] Meat [ edit ] Omega−3 fatty acids are formed in the chloroplasts of green leaves and algae. While seaweeds and algae are the source of omega−3 fatty acids present in fish, grass is the source of omega−3 fatty acids present in grass fed animals. [130] When cattle are taken off omega−3 fatty acid rich grass and shipped to a feedlot to be fattened on omega−3 fatty acid deficient grain, they begin losing their store of this beneficial fat. Each day that an animal spends in the feedlot, the amount of omega−3 fatty acids in its meat is diminished. [131] The omega−6:omega−3 ratio of grass-fed beef is about 2:1, making it a more useful source of omega−3 than grain-fed beef, which usually has a ratio of 4:1. [84] In a 2009 joint study by the USDA and researchers at Clemson University in South Carolina, grass-fed beef was compared with grain-finished beef. The researchers found that grass-finished beef is higher in moisture content, 42.5% lower total lipid content, 54% lower in total fatty acids, 54% higher in beta-carotene, 288% higher in vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), higher in the B-vitamins thiamin and riboflavin, higher in the minerals calcium, magnesium, and potassium, 193% higher in total omega−3s, 117% higher in CLA (cis-9 trans-11, which is a potential cancer fighter), 90% higher in vaccenic acid (which can be transformed into CLA), lower in the saturated fats linked with heart disease, and has a healthier ratio of omega−6 to omega−3 fatty acids (1.65 vs 4.84). Protein and cholesterol content were equal. [84] In most countries, commercially available lamb is typically grass-fed, and thus higher in omega−3 than other grain-fed or grain-finished meat sources. In the United States, lamb is often finished (i.e., fattened before slaughter) with grain, resulting in lower omega−3. [132] The omega−3 content of chicken meat may be enhanced by increasing the animals' dietary intake of grains high in omega−3, such as flax, chia, and canola. [133] Kangaroo meat is also a source of omega−3, with fillet and steak containing 74 mg per 100 g of raw meat. [134] Seal oil [ edit ] Seal oil is a source of EPA, DPA , and DHA. According to Health Canada , it helps to support the development of the brain, eyes, and nerves in children up to 12 years of age. [135] Like all seal products , it is not allowed to be imported into the European Union. [136] Other sources [ edit ] A recent trend has been to fortify food with omega−3 fatty acid supplements. Global food companies have launched omega−3 fatty acid fortified bread, mayonnaise, pizza, yogurt, orange juice, children's pasta, milk, eggs, popcorn, confections, and infant formula. [ citation needed ] The microalgae Crypthecodinium cohnii and Schizochytrium are rich sources of DHA but not EPA, and can be produced commercially in bioreactors . Oil from brown algae (kelp) is a source of EPA. [137] The alga Nannochloropsis also has high levels of EPA. [138] In 2006 the Journal of Dairy Science published a study which found that butter made from the milk of grass-fed cows contains substantially more α-linolenic acid than butter made from the milk of cows that have limited access to pasture. [139] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Omega−3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha-linolenic acid: Related terms\" . Omega−3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha-linolenic acid . Mayo Clinic . Retrieved June 20, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Essential Fatty Acids\" . Micronutrient Information Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. May 2014 . Retrieved 24 May 2017 . 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Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care . 5 (2): 127–32. doi : 10.1097/00075197-200203000-00002 . PMID 11844977 . Jump up ^ Burdge GC, Calder PC (September 2005). \"Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human adults\". Reprod. Nutr. Dev . 45 (5): 581–97. doi : 10.1051/rnd:2005047 . PMID 16188209 . Jump up ^ Lohner, S.; Fekete, K.; Marosvölgyi, T.; Decsi, T. (2013). \"Gender differences in the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status: systematic review of 51 publications\". Ann Nutr Metab . 62 (2): 98–112. doi : 10.1159/000345599 . PMID 23327902 . Jump up ^ Simopoulos AP (2001). \"The importance of the omega−3/omega−6 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases\". Experimental Biology and Medicine . 233 (6): 674–88. doi : 10.3181/0711-MR-311 . PMID 18408140 . ^ Jump up to: a b Griffin BA (2008). \"How relevant is the ratio of dietary omega−6 to omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to cardiovascular disease risk? Evidence from the OPTILIP study\". Current Opinion in Lipidology . 19 (1): 57–62. doi : 10.1097/MOL.0b013e3282f2e2a8 . PMID 18196988 . Jump up ^ \"Essential Fatty Acids-Metabolism and Bioavailability\" . Micronutrient Information Center, Oregon State University. May 2014. Jump up ^ \"Conversion Efficiency of ALA to DHA in Humans\" . Retrieved 21 October 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Women have better ALA conversion efficiency\" . DHA EPA omega−3 Institute . Retrieved 21 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Goyens PL, Spilker ME, Zock PL, Katan MB, Mensink RP (1 July 2006). \"Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid in humans is influenced by the absolute amounts of alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid in the diet and not by their ratio\" . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 84 (1): 44–53. PMID 16825680 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e DeFilippis, Andrew P.; Sperling, Laurence S. (March 2006). \"Understanding omega−3's\" (PDF) . American Heart Journal . 151 (3): 564–70. doi : 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.03.051 . PMID 16504616 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2007. Jump up ^ Hofmeijer-Sevink MK, Batelaan NM, van Megen HJ, Penninx BW, Cath DC, van den Hout MA, van Balkom AJ (2012). \"Clinical relevance of comorbidity in anxiety disorders: A report from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA)\". Journal of Affective Disorders . 137 (1–3): 106–12. doi : 10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.008 . PMID 22240085 . Jump up ^ Willett WC (2007). \"The role of dietary n-6 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease\". J Cardiovasc Med . 8 : Suppl 1:S42–5. doi : 10.2459/01.JCM.0000289275.72556.13 . PMID 17876199 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Duckett SK, Neel JP, Fontenot JP, Clapham WM (2009). \"Effects of winter stocker growth rate and finishing system on: III. Tissue proximate, fatty acid, vitamin and cholesterol content\" (PDF) . Journal of Animal Science . 87 (9): 2961–70. doi : 10.2527/jas.2009-1850 . PMID 19502506 . Jump up ^ Lands, WEM (2005). Fish, omega−3 and human health . American Oil Chemists' Society . ISBN 978-1-893997-81-3 . Jump up ^ Simopoulos AP (October 2002). \"The importance of the ratio of omega−6/omega−3 essential fatty acids\". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy . 56 (8): 365–79. doi : 10.1016/S0753-3322(02)00253-6 . PMID 12442909 . Jump up ^ Daley, C. A.; Abbott, A.; Doyle, P.; Nader, G.; and Larson, S. (2004). \"A literature review of the value-added nutrients found in grass-fed beef products\" . California State University, Chico (College of Agriculture) . Retrieved 2008-03-23 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Simopoulos AP (September 2003). \"Importance of the ratio of omega−6/omega−3 essential fatty acids: evolutionary aspects\". World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics . World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics. 92 : 1–174. doi : 10.1159/000073788 . ISBN 3-8055-7640-4 . PMID 14579680 . Jump up ^ Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem N (2000). \"Workshop Statement on the essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for n -6 and n -3 fatty acids\". Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids . 63 (3): 119–21. doi : 10.1054/plef.2000.0176 . PMID 10991764 . Jump up ^ Hibbeln JR, Nieminen LR, Blasbalg TL, Riggs JA, Lands WE (2006). \"Healthy intakes of n−3 and n-6 fatty acids: Estimations considering worldwide diversity\". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 83 (6 Suppl): 1483S–93S. PMID 16841858 . Jump up ^ Martina Bavec; Franc Bavec (2006). Organic Production and Use of Alternative Crops . London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. p. 178. ISBN 1-4200-1742-X . Retrieved 2013-02-18 . Jump up ^ Erasmus, Udo, Fats and Oils. 1986. Alive books, Vancouver, ISBN 0-920470-16-5 p. 263 (round-number ratio within ranges given.) Jump up ^ \"Oil, vegetable, corn, industrial and retail, all purpose salad or cooking; USDA Nutrient Data, SR-21\" . Conde Nast . Retrieved 12 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Dusheck J (October 1985). \"Fish, Fatty Acids, and Physiology\" . Science News . 128 (16): 241–256. doi : 10.2307/3970056 . Jump up ^ Holman RT (February 1998). \"The slow discovery of the importance of omega−3 essential fatty acids in human health\". J. Nutr . 128 (2 Suppl): 427S–33S. PMID 9478042 . Jump up ^ \"FDA announces qualified health claims for omega−3 fatty acids\" (Press release). United States Food and Drug Administration. September 8, 2004 . Retrieved 2006-07-10 . Jump up ^ Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Acceptable nutrient function claims . Accessed 30 April 2015 Jump up ^ Simopoulos, Artemis P. (Mar 2016). \"An Increase in the Omega−6/Omega−3 Fatty Acid Ratio Increases the Risk for Obesity\" . Nutrients . 8 (3): 8. doi : 10.3390/nu8030128 . PMC 4808858 . PMID 26950145 . Jump up ^ \"Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega−3 Fatty Acids\" . American Heart Association . Retrieved October 6, 2010 . Jump up ^ Kris-Etherton, PM; Harris, WS; Appel, LJ (2002). \"Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega−3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease\" . Circulation . 106 (21): 2747–57. doi : 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 . PMID 12438303 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n \"Omega−3 Centre\" . Omega−3 sources . Omega−3 Centre. Archived from the original on 2008-07-18 . Retrieved 2008-07-27 . Jump up ^ http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=117 ^ Jump up to: a b Food and Nutrition Board (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes For Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (PDF) . Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. pp. 423, 770. ISBN 0-309-08537-3 . Jump up ^ Siscovick DS, Barringer TA, Fretts AM, Wu JH, Lichtenstein AH, Costello RB, Kris-Etherton PM, Jacobson TA, Engler MB, Alger HM, Appel LJ, Mozaffarian D (2017). \"Omega−3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (Fish Oil) Supplementation and the Prevention of Clinical Cardiovascular Disease: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association\". Circulation . 135 : e867–e884. doi : 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000482 . PMID 28289069 . Jump up ^ \"Product Review: Omega−3 Fatty Acids (EPA and DHA) from Fish/Marine Oils\" . ConsumerLab.com . 2005-03-15 . Retrieved 2007-08-14 . Jump up ^ \"IFOS Home – The International Fish Oil Standards Program\" . Jump up ^ Shahidi, Fereidoon; Wanasundara, Udaya N (1998-06-01). \"Omega−3 fatty acid concentrates: nutritional aspects and production technologies\" . Trends in Food Science & Technology . 9 (6): 230–240. doi : 10.1016/S0924-2244(98)00044-2 . Jump up ^ Falk-Petersen, S.; et al. (1998). \"Lipids and fatty acids in ice algae and phytoplankton from the Marginal Ice Zone in the Barents Sea\". Polar Biology . 20 (1): 41–47. doi : 10.1007/s003000050274 . ISSN 0722-4060 . INIST : 2356641 . ^ Jump up to: a b Innis SM, Rioux FM, Auestad N, Ackman RG (September 1995). \"Marine and freshwater fish oil varying in arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids differ in their effects on organ lipids and fatty acids in growing rats\". The Journal of Nutrition . 125 (9): 2286–93. PMID 7666244 . Jump up ^ Lawson LD, Hughes BG (1988). \"Absorption of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oil triacylglycerols or fish oil ethyl esters co-ingested with a high-fat meal\". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun . 156 (2): 960–63. doi : 10.1016/S0006-291X(88)80937-9 . PMID 2847723 . Jump up ^ Beckermann B, Beneke M, Seitz I (1990). \"Comparative bioavailability of eicosapentaenoic acid and docasahexaenoic acid from triglycerides, free fatty acids and ethyl esters in volunteers\". Arzneimittel-Forschung (in German). 40 (6): 700–04. PMID 2144420 . Jump up ^ Tur JA, Bibiloni MM, Sureda A, Pons A (2012). \"Dietary sources of omega−3 fatty acids: public health risks and benefits\". Br J Nutr . 107 (Suppl 2): S23–52. doi : 10.1017/S0007114512001456 . PMID 22591897 . CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Ulven SM, Kirkhus B, Lamglait A, Basu S, Elind E, Haider T, Berge K, Vik H, Pedersen JI (January 2011). \"Metabolic Effects of Krill Oil are Essentially Similar to Those of Fish Oil but at Lower Dose of EPA and DHA, in Healthy Volunteers\" . Lipids . 46 (1): 37–46. doi : 10.1007/s11745-010-3490-4 . PMC 3024511 . PMID 21042875 . Jump up ^ Atkinson A, Siegel V, Pakhomov E, Rothery P (2004). \"Long-term decline in krill stock and increase in salps within the Southern Ocean\" . Nature . 432 (4 November 2004): 100–03. Bibcode : 2004Natur.432..100A . doi : 10.1038/nature02996 . PMID 15525989 . CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Orr A (2014). \"Malnutrition behind whale strandings\" . Stuff, Fairfax New Zealand Limited . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Krill fisheries and sustainability\" . Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Tasmania, Australia. 2015 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Seed Oil Fatty Acids – SOFA Database Retrieval\" . In German. Google translation Jump up ^ http://www.osel.co.nz/content/Product_Flyers/Kiwifruit.pdf Jump up ^ http://www.osel.co.nz/content/Product_Flyers/FlaxSeedOil.pdf Jump up ^ Soltana, H; Tekaya, M; Amri, Z; El-Gharbi, S; Nakbi, A; Harzallah, A; Mechri, B; Hammami, M (2016). \"Characterization of fig achenes' oil of Ficus carica grown in Tunisia\" . Food Chemistry . 196 : 1125–30. doi : 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.10.053 . PMID 26593597 . Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Jennifer. \"Nut Grower's Guide: The Complete Handbook for Producers and Hobbyists\" (PDF) . Retrieved 21 October 2007 . Jump up ^ Thomas Bartram (September 2002). Bartram's Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine: The Definitive Guide to the Herbal Treatments of Diseases . Da Capo Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-1-56924-550-7 . Jump up ^ Decsi T, Kennedy K (2011). \"Sex-specific differences in essential fatty acid metabolism\". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 94 (6_Suppl): 1914S–19S. doi : 10.3945/ajcn.110.000893 . PMID 22089435 . Jump up ^ Ruiz-Lopez N, Haslam RP, Napier JA, Sayanova O (January 2014). \"Successful high-level accumulation of fish oil omega−3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in a transgenic oilseed crop\" . The Plant Journal . 77 (2): 198–208. doi : 10.1111/tpj.12378 . PMC 4253037 . PMID 24308505 . Jump up ^ Coghlan, Andy (4 January 2014) \" Designed plant oozes vital fish oils \" New Scientist , volume 221, issue 2950, page 12 Jump up ^ \"How Omega−6s Usurped Omega−3s In US Diet\" . Jump up ^ Trebunová A, Vasko L, Svedová M, Kastel' R, Tucková M, Mach P (July 2007). \"The influence of omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids feeding on composition of fatty acids in fatty tissues and eggs of laying hens\". Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift . 114 (7): 275–79. PMID 17724936 . Jump up ^ Cherian, G. Effect of feeding full fat flax and canola seeds to laying hens on the fatty acids composition of eggs, embryos, and newly hatched chicks. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=1991%2FUS%2FUS91146.xml%3BUS9138554 Jump up ^ Sterling, Colin (2010-06-03). \"Washington Post's Egg Taste Test Says Homegrown And Factory Eggs Taste The Same [UPDATED, POLL]\" . Huffingtonpost.com . Retrieved 2011-01-03 . Jump up ^ Garton, G. A. (1960). \"Fatty Acid Composition of the Lipids of Pasture Grasses\". Nature . 187 (4736): 511–12. Bibcode : 1960Natur.187..511G . doi : 10.1038/187511b0 . Jump up ^ Duckett SK, Wagner DG, Yates LD, Dolezal HG, May SG (1993). \"Effects of time on feed on beef nutrient composition\". J Anim Sci . 71 (8): 2079–88. PMID 8376232 . Jump up ^ \"Specially Labeled Lamb\" . Jump up ^ Azcona, J.O., Schang, M.J., Garcia, P.T., Gallinger, C., R. Ayerza (h), and Coates, W. (2008). \"Omega−3 enriched broiler meat: The influence of dietary alpha-linolenic omega−3 fatty acid sources on growth, performance and meat fatty acid composition\". Canadian Journal of Animal Science . 88 (2): 257–69. doi : 10.4141/CJAS07081 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Gourment Game – Amazing Nutrition Facts\" . Jump up ^ \"Natural Health Product Monograph – Seal Oil\" . Health Canada. June 22, 2009 . Retrieved June 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ European Parliament (9 November 2009). \"MEPs adopt strict conditions for the placing on the market of seal products in the European Union\" . Hearings . European Parliament . Retrieved 12 March 2010 . Jump up ^ van Ginneken VJ, Helsper JP, de Visser W, van Keulen H, Brandenburg WA (2011). \"Polyunsaturated fatty acids in various macroalgal species from north Atlantic and tropical seas\" . Lipids in Health and Disease . 10 (104): 104. doi : 10.1186/1476-511X-10-104 . PMC 3131239 . PMID 21696609 . Jump up ^ Collins ML, Lynch B, Barfield W, Bull A, Ryan AS, Astwood JD (2014). \"Genetic and acute toxicological evaluation of an algal oil containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and palmitoleic acid\". Food and Chemical Toxicology . 72 : 162–68. doi : 10.1016/j.fct.2014.07.021 . PMID 25057807 . Jump up ^ Couvreur S, Hurtaud C, Lopez C, Delaby L, Peyraud JL (June 2006). \"The linear relationship between the proportion of fresh grass in the cow diet, milk fatty acid composition, and butter properties\" . Journal of Dairy Science . 89 (6): 1956–69. doi : 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72263-9 . PMID 16702259 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . Further reading [ edit ] Allport, Susan. The Queen of Fats: Why Omega−3s Were Removed from the Western Diet and What We Can Do to Replace Them . University of California Press, September 2006. ISBN 978-0-520-24282-1 . Chow, Ching Kuang. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications . Routledge Publishing. New York. 2001. Clover, Charles. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat . Ebury Press, London 2004. ISBN 0-09-189780-7 Stoll, Andrew L. The Omega−3 Connection: how you can restore your body's natural balance and treat depression . Simon & Schuster 2001. ISBN 0-684-87138-6 . External links [ edit ] University of Maryland Medical Center, Omega−3 Fatty Acids [ hide ] v t e Types of lipids General Saturation : Saturated fat Unsaturated fat Monounsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fat Essential fatty acid Other : Fat Oil Geometry Trans fat Omega-3 fatty acid Omega-6 fatty acid Omega-9 fatty acid Eicosanoids Arachidonic acid Prostaglandins Prostacyclin Thromboxane Leukotrienes Fatty acids Caprylic acid Capric acid Lauric acid Myristic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid Arachidic acid Behenic acid Lignoceric acid Glycerides Monoglyceride Diglyceride Triglyceride Triheptanoin Trimyristin Tripalmitin Tristearin Trilinolein Triolein Phospholipids Phosphatidylserine Phosphatidylinositol Phosphatidyl ethanolamine Cardiolipin Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine Sphingolipids Ceramide Steroids Cholesterol Corticosteroids Sex steroids Secosteroids Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omega-3_fatty_acid&oldid=826179000 \" Categories : Fatty acids Biologically-based therapies Alkenoic acids Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from September 2012 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from September 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Scots සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Walon 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 February 2018, at 18:04. 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{ "text": "The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) - Wikipedia The Mother ( How I Met Your Mother ) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Tracy McConnell How I Met Your Mother character The Mother appearing in \" The Locket \" First appearance \" Lucky Penny (unseen)\" \" Something New \" (seen) Last appearance \" Last Forever \" Created by Carter Bays Craig Thomas Portrayed by Cristin Milioti Information Aliases The Mother, Tracy Mcconnell Gender Female Spouse(s) Ted Mosby Significant other(s) Max (deceased former boyfriend) Louis (ex-boyfriend) Children Penny Mosby (daughter, born in 2015, played by Lyndsy Fonseca ) Luke Mosby (son, born in 2017, played by David Henrie ) Nationality American Tracy McConnell (colloquial: \" The Mother \") is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother . The show, narrated by Future Ted , tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from \" Lucky Penny \" to \" The Time Travelers \" as an unseen character ; she was first seen fully in \" Something New \" and was promoted to a main character in season 9 . The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti . The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky 's wedding; this scene is shown in \" Last Forever \", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans. An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. [1] [2] In the video, future Ted is heard saying, \"...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...\", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby. [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Casting 2 Character history 2.1 Name 3 Death 4 Notes 5 References Casting [ edit ] During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that \"We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience\", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had \"kept the show alive\" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call . [4] [5] They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once ; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene—for the last episode of season 8 —having never watched How I Met Your Mother ; she recalled, \"I had ignorance on my side. So I didn’t know what it meant.\" Milioti learned of the character's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer. [5] [6] Character history [ edit ] The Mother was born on September 19, 1984. [note 1] The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love. [7] In \" Wait for It \", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In \" No Tomorrow \", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college. [7] On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale \" The Leap \", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, \" Definitions \", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in \" How Your Mother Met Me \", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy ( Rachel Bilson ), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom. Later, in \" Girls Versus Suits \", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, \"this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back.\" In \" How Your Mother Met Me \", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian , it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time. Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band. [7] In the season 6 opener \" Big Days \" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife \"the day of\" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode \" False Positive \" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode \" Challenge Accepted \", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, \" The Magician's Code \" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother \"the day of\" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the \" Farhampton \" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar. In the season 8 episode \" Band or DJ? ,\" Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding. The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in \" How Your Mother Met Me \" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after. The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in \" Platonish \". In \" The Locket \", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey. In \" Bass Player Wanted \", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall , carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom's best man punched him for \"no reason.\" Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger. In \" How Your Mother Met Me \", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings \" La Vie en Rose \". Ted hears her singing from his room next door. In \" Gary Blauman \", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the \"weirdest place on earth\" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date. In a flashforward in \" The Lighthouse \", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in \" Unpause \", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton. Name [ edit ] The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, \" Last Forever \". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode \" Belly Full of Turkey \", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says \"...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother\". The children react encouraged and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking, [9] which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother's name is Tracy. [10] Death [ edit ] See also: Last Forever In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she \"became sick\" and his children saying that she has been \"gone\" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother's death. [11] Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. [12] Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was \"an amazing character\" [9] and that \"over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. [13] Kuchman said that \"asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request\", that the finale \"advanced too quickly\" and that \" HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue\". [9] A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. [14] [15] On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. [16] [17] In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. [18] [1] Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that \" Pilot \" is set. [7] The pilot is set on September 19, 2005. [8] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Debnath, Neela (7 September 2014). \"How I Met Your Mother alternative finale leaks online ahead of DVD release\" . The Independent . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). \"Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending\" . Rolling Stone . Jump up ^ MacGregor, Rachel (September 23, 2014). \"8 reasons why How I Met Your Mother should've used its alternative ending\" . Metro UK . Jump up ^ Stransky, Tanner (2013-05-13). \" ' How I Met Your Mother': Burning questions about the mother\" . Entertainment Weekly . ^ Jump up to: a b Fallon, Kevin (2013-05-14). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' Mother Revealed: Meet Cristin Milioti\" . The Daily Beast . Jump up ^ Fallon, Kevin (2015-11-03). \"How Cristin Milioti Met 'Fargo'—And Left 'How I Met Your Mother' Behind\" . The Daily Beast . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \" How Your Mother Met Me \". How I Met Your Mother . Season 9. Episode 16. January 27, 2014. Jump up ^ \" Pilot \". How I Met Your Mother . Season 1. Episode 1. September 19, 2005. CBS . ^ Jump up to: a b c Kuchman, Bill (April 4, 2014). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' 'Last Forever' Recap: A Divisive Finale and What It Means for 'HIMYM ' \" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rullo, Samantha (10 March 2014). \"What is The Mother's Name on 'How I Met Your Mother'? Episode Title Might Hold the Secret\" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"HIMYM Tomatometer Watch: Series Finale Currently Rotten - Majority of critics disappointed by 'Last Forever ' \" . Rotten Tomatoes . April 2, 2014 . Retrieved April 3, 2014 . Jump up ^ http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/cristin-milioti-sobbed-found-characters-fate-met-mother/story?id=25947923 Jump up ^ Kuchman, Bill (March 31, 2014). \" ' HIMYM' Finale Instant Reaction\" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Guerrero, Danger (April 4, 2014). \"Now There's A Petition To 'Rewrite And Reshoot' The 'How I Met Your Mother' Ending\" . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Maresca, Rachel (April 3, 2014). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' series finale sparks online petition from fans who want ending changed\" . New York Daily News . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Update for those who've been asking: Alt #himym ending will be on s9 DVD and also in the series box set. https://twitter.com/CarterBays/status/452299544995184640 Jump up ^ James, Lauren (April 5, 2014). \" ' How I Met Your Mother' May Get Alternate Ending After Petition, Says Carter Bays\" . Contact Music . Retrieved July 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). \"Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending\" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved November 16, 2014 . [ hide ] v t e How I Met Your Mother Episodes Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Season 9 Characters Ted Mosby Marshall Eriksen Lily Aldrin Barney Stinson Robin Scherbatsky Tracy McConnell Soundtracks How I Met Your Music Related articles Awards and nominations The Bro Code Cheerleader effect \" Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Mother_(How_I_Met_Your_Mother)&oldid=820689799 \" Categories : How I Met Your Mother characters Fictional characters introduced in 2013 Fictional female musicians Hidden categories: Pages using deprecated image syntax Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Magyar Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2018, at 01:42. 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{ "text": "Erikson's stages of psychosocial development - Wikipedia Erikson's stages of psychosocial development From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Part of a series of articles on Psychoanalysis Concepts [hide] Psychosexual development Psychosocial development (Erikson) Unconscious Preconscious Consciousness Psychic apparatus Id, ego and super-ego Libido Drive Transference Countertransference Ego defenses Resistance Projection Denial Dreamwork Important figures [show] Alfred Adler Michael Balint Wilfred Bion Josef Breuer Nancy Chodorow Max Eitingon Erik Erikson Ronald Fairbairn Paul Federn Otto Fenichel Sándor Ferenczi Anna Freud Sigmund Freud Erich Fromm Harry Guntrip Karen Horney Edith Jacobson Ernest Jones Carl Jung Abram Kardiner Heinz Kohut Melanie Klein Jacques Lacan Ronald Laing Margaret Mahler Jacques-Alain Miller Sandor Rado Otto Rank Wilhelm Reich Joan Riviere Isidor Sadger Ernst Simmel Sabina Spielrein James Strachey Harry Stack Sullivan Susan Sutherland Isaacs Donald Winnicott Important works [show] The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901) Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905) Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920) The Ego and the Id (1923) Schools of thought [show] Self psychology Lacanian Jungian Object relations Interpersonal Reichian Relational Ego psychology Training [show] Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis British Psychoanalytic Council British Psychoanalytical Society Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research International Psychoanalytical Association World Association of Psychoanalysis Psychology portal v t e Erikson's stages of psychosocial development , as articulated by Erik Erikson , in collaboration with Joan Erikson , [1] is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages , in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood . All stages are present at birth but only begin to unfold according to both a natural scheme and one's ecological and cultural upbringing. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future. However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. The outcome of one stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experiences. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue. For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages. [2] Contents [ hide ] 1 Stages 1.1 Hope: trust vs. mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, 0–2 years) 1.2 Will: autonomy vs. shame and doubt (early childhood, 2–4 years) 1.3 Purpose: initiative vs. guilt (locomotor-genital, preschool, 4–5 years) 1.4 Competence: industry vs. inferiority (latency, school age, 5–12 years) 1.5 Fidelity: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, 13–19 years) 1.6 Love: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, 20-39 years) 1.7 Care: generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood, 40–64 years) 1.8 Wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair (maturity, 65 – death) 1.9 Ninth stage 2 Development of post-Freudian theory 3 Critique 4 See also 5 References 6 Publications Stages [ edit ] Approximate Age Virtues Psychosocial crisis [3] Significant relationship Existential question [4] Examples [4] Infancy 0 -18 months Hope Basic trust vs. mistrust Mother Can I trust the world? Feeding, abandonment Early childhood 2–4 years Will Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Parents Is it okay to be me? Toilet training, clothing themselves Preschool age 4–5 years Purpose Initiative vs. guilt Family Is it okay for me to do, move, and act? Exploring, using tools or making art School age 5–12 years Competence Industry vs. inferiority Neighbors, school Can I make it in the world of people and things? School, sports Adolescence 13–19 years Fidelity Identity vs. role confusion Peers, role model Who am I? Who can I be? Social relationships Early adulthood 20–39 years Love Intimacy vs. isolation Friends, partners Can I love? Romantic relationships Adulthood 40–64 years Care Generativity vs. stagnation Household, workmates Can I make my life count? Work, parenthood Maturity 65-death Wisdom Ego integrity vs. despair Mankind, my kind Is it okay to have been me? Reflection on life Hope: trust vs. mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, 0–2 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Can I Trust the World? The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is \"an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness.\" [5] The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. A child's first trust is always with the parent or caregiver; whomever that might be; however, even the caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a sense of mistrust will result. [6] Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence. [5] According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust—that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust—that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of infant or toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust: the child's number one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for. [6] Will: autonomy vs. shame and doubt (early childhood, 2–4 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me? As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities , they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety. At this age children develop their first interests. For example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy—a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems. Purpose: initiative vs. guilt (locomotor-genital, preschool, 4–5 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act? Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results. The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), [6] the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits. Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things. With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative—independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires. [7] Competence: industry vs. inferiority (latency, school age, 5–12 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things? The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play . The fundamentals of technology are developed. The failure to master trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority. [8] The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence. \"Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals.\" They work hard at \"being responsible, being good and doing it right.\" They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) [9] also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values , recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance. [9] At this stage, children might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious. Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence . Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things—drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities. [2] At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. They may become \"couch potatoes\" if they are not allowed to develop interests. Fidelity: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, 13–19 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be? The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity . As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion. Erikson is credited with coining the term \" identity crisis \". [10] :39 Each stage that came before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because \"Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these.\" [11] This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has come to be' and 'the person society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will be established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads: What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change—the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life. [10] Adolescents \"are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world\". [12] This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of 'identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to \"find themselves\", and this state is called 'the moratorium': The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions—and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore—what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who he or she is. [12] As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised, one's personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and often parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ‘foreclose' on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of \"What have I got?\" and \"What am I going to do with it?\" he or she has established their identity: [10] Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems . (Italics in original) [12] Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has \"come of age\". In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth , Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively: Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood's tasks in our technological world. So… we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties. [10] Love: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, 20-39 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Can I Love? The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it. Erikson also argues that \"Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations\" (1950). Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships—perhaps because of their own needs—a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst. Care: generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood, 40–64 years) [ edit ] Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count? Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. The adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. \"Generativity, then is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity.\" [13] During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity—a sense of productivity and accomplishment—results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation—a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. Central tasks of middle adulthood Express love through more than sexual contacts. Maintain healthy life patterns. Develop a sense of unity with mate. Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults. Relinquish central role in lives of grown children. Accept children's mates and friends. Create a comfortable home. Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse. Reverse roles with aging parents. Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility. Adjust to physical changes of middle age. Use leisure time creatively. Wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair (maturity, 65 – death) [ edit ] Existential Question: Is it Okay to Have Been Me? As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair , often leading to depression and hopelessness. The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis). Ninth stage [ edit ] Psychosocial Crises: All first eight stages in reverse quotient order Joan M. Erikson , who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version . [14] Living in the ninth stage, she wrote, \"old age in one's eighties and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties\". Addressing these new challenges requires \"designating a new ninth stage\". Erikson was ninety-three years old when she wrote about the ninth stage. [15] Joan Erikson showed that all the eight stages \"are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage\". [16] In the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced again, but with the quotient order reversed. For example, in the first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was \"Trust vs. Mistrust\" with Trust being the \"syntonic quotient\" and Mistrust being the \"diatonic\". [17] Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows. \"Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope\" In the ninth stage, \"elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities\" because one's \"body inevitably weakens\". Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that \"while there is light, there is hope\" for a \"bright light and revelation\". [18] \"Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will\" Ninth stage elders face the \"shame of lost control\" and doubt \"their autonomy over their own bodies\". So it is that \"shame and doubt challenge cherished autonomy\". [19] \"Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence\" Industry as a \"driving force\" that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. Being incompetent \"because of aging is belittling\" and makes elders \"like unhappy small children of great age\". [20] \"Identity confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity\" Elders experience confusion about their \"existential identity\" in the ninth stage and \"a real uncertainty about status and role\". [21] \"Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love\" In the ninth stage, the \"years of intimacy and love\" are often replaced by \"isolation and deprivation\". Relationships become \"overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies\". [22] \"Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care\" The generativity in the seventh stage of \"work and family relationships\", if it goes satisfactorily, is \"a wonderful time to be alive\". In one's eighties and nineties, there is less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, \"a sense of stagnation may well take over\". [23] \"Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom\" Integrity imposes \"a serious demand on the senses of elders\". Wisdom requires capacities that ninth stage elders \"do not usually have\". The eighth stage includes retrospection that can evoke a \"degree of disgust and despair\". In the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the attention demanded to one's \"loss of capacities and disintegration\". [24] Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson expressed confidence that the psychosocial crisis of the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the \"basic trust\" with which \"we are blessed\". [25] Development of post-Freudian theory [ edit ] Erikson was a student of Anna Freud , [26] the daughter of Sigmund Freud , whose psychoanalytic theory and psychosexual stages contributed to the basic outline of the eight stages, at least those concerned with childhood. Namely, the first four of Erikson's life stages correspond to Freud's oral, anal, phallic, and latency phases, respectively. Also, the fifth stage of adolescence is said to parallel the genital stage in psychosexual development: Although the first three phases are linked to those of the Freudian theory, it can be seen that they are conceived along very different lines. Emphasis is not so much on sexual modes and their consequences as on the ego qualities which emerge from each stages. There is an attempt also to link the sequence of individual development to the broader context of society. [12] Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout life, one that did not stop at adolescence. He also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the beginning of the next. Seen in its social context, the life stages were linear for an individual but circular for societal development: [27] In Freud's view, development is largely complete by adolescence. In contrast, one of Freud's students, Erik Erikson (1902–1994) believed that development continues throughout life. Erikson took the foundation laid by Freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life. [28] Critique [ edit ] This section may stray from the topic of the article . Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page . (November 2015) Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. However, Erikson states that each of these processes occur throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these \"phases\" only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent. [29] Most empirical research into Erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia . [30] Marcia's work has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory, in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence. See also [ edit ] Psychology portal Child development Developmental psychology Ethnic identity development Kohlberg's stages of moral development Neo-Freudianism Positive disintegration References [ edit ] ‹ The template below ( Library resources box ) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Library resources about Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Jump up ^ Robert Mcg. Thomas Jr., \"Joan Erikson Is Dead at 95; Shaped Thought on Life Cycles,\" New York Times obituary, August 8, 1997. Online at https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/08/us/joan-erikson-is-dead-at-95-shaped-thought-on-life-cycles.html . ^ Jump up to: a b Crain, William (2011). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN 978-0-205-81046-8 . Jump up ^ http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/ERIK/welcome.HTML ^ Jump up to: a b Macnow, Alexander Stone, ed. (2014). MCAT Behavioral Science Review . New York City: Kaplan Publishing. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-61865-485-4 . ^ Jump up to: a b http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/erikson.htm ^ Jump up to: a b c Bee, Helen; Boyd, Denise (March 2009). The Developing Child (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-205-68593-6 . Jump up ^ Axia College Materials (2010) Jump up ^ \"Stages of Social-Emotional Development – Erik Erikson\" . childdevelopmentinfo.com . Child Development Institute . Retrieved 8 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Allen, Eileen; Marotz, Lynn (2003). Developmental Profiles Pre-Birth Through Twelve (4th ed.). Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 978-0-7668-3765-2 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Gross, Francis L. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An Invitation to his Thinking . Lanham, MD: University Press of America. p. 47. ISBN 0-8191-5788-0 . Jump up ^ Wright, Jr, J. Eugene (1982). Erikson: Identity and Religion . New York, NY: Seabury Press. p. 73. ISBN 0-8164-2362-8 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Stevens, Richard (1983). Erik Erikson: An Introduction . New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-0-312-25812-2 . Jump up ^ Slater, Charles L. (2003), \"Generativity versus stagnation: An elaboration of erikson's adult stage of human development\", Journal of Adult Development , 10 (1): 53–65 Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998). Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 4, 105. Jump up ^ James Mooney, \"Erik Erikson\" in Joe L. Kincheloe, Raymond A. Horn, editors, The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology, Volume 1 (Praeger, 2007), 78. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 106. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 106-107. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 107-108. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 109. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 109-110. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 110-111. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 111-112. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 112-113. Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 112-113. Jump up ^ Wrightsman, Lawrence S. (1994). Adult Personality Development . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. p. 61. ISBN 0-8039-4400-4 . Jump up ^ Erikson, Erik H. (1993) [1950]. Childhood and Society . New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-393-31068-9 . Jump up ^ Kail, Robert V. & Cavanaugh, John C. (2004). Human development: A life-span view (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-534-59751-1 . Jump up ^ Erikson, Erik (1956). \"The problem of ego identity\" (pdf) . Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association . 4 : 56–121. doi : 10.1177/000306515600400104 . Retrieved 2012-01-28 . Jump up ^ Marcia, James E. (1966). \"Development and validation of ego identity status\" (PDF) . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 3 : 551–558. PMID 5939604 . doi : 10.1037/h0023281 . Retrieved 2012-01-28 . By: Leta Gurmessa Tafa\n July30,2016 Publications [ edit ] Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society (1st ed.). New York: Norton Erikson, Erik H. (1959) Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: International Universities Press. Erikson, Erik H. (1968) Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton. Erikson. Erik H. and Joan M. (1997) The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version . New York: W. W. Norton Sheehy, Gail (1976) Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life. New York: E. P. Dutton. Stevens, Richard (1983) Erik Erikson: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin's. [ hide ] v t e Human biological and psychological development Before birth Embryo Fetus After birth Infant Toddler Early childhood Childhood Child Preadolescence Adolescence Adulthood Middle age Old age Definitions Minor Age of majority Events and phases Gestational age Prenatal development Birth Child development stages Cognitive development of infants Human development Adult development Puberty Ageing Senescence Death Developmental psychology Antenatal Positive youth development Young adult Positive adult development Maturity Theorists and theories Freud (1856–1939) ( Psychosexual development ) Piaget (1896–1980) ( Theory of cognitive development ) Vygotsky (1896–1934) ( Cultural-historical psychology ) Erikson (1902–1994) ( Psychosocial development ) Bowlby (1907–1990) ( Attachment theory ) Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) ( Ecological systems theory ) Kohlberg (1927–1987) ( Stages of moral development ) Commons (b. 1939), Fischer (b. 1943), Kegan (b. 1946), Demetriou (b. 1950), and others ( Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development ) Evolutionary developmental psychology Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&oldid=806574200 \" Categories : Developmental psychology Psychological concepts Stage theories Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles that may have off-topic sections Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Deutsch Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी עברית ქართული Magyar Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina தமிழ் 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 October 2017, at 22:10. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Erikson's stages of psychosocial development", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&amp;oldid=806574200" }

{ "text": "Solar cooker - Wikipedia Solar cooker From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hot dogs being cooked with a solar funnel cooker A solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or pasteurise drink and other food materials. Many solar cookers currently in use are relatively inexpensive, low-tech devices, although some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional stoves, [1] and advanced, large-scale solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people. [2] Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide in order to help reduce fuel costs (especially where monetary reciprocity is low) and air pollution, and to slow down the deforestation and desertification caused by gathering firewood for cooking. Contents 1 Principles 2 Operation 3 Box and panel designs 4 Parabolic reflectors 4.1 Paraboloidal reflectors 4.2 Parabolic troughs 4.3 Spherical reflectors 4.4 Vacuum tube technology 5 Advantages and disadvantages 6 Projects 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Principles [ edit ] 1) Concentrating sunlight: A mirrored surface with high specular reflectivity is used to concentrate light from the sun on to a small cooking area. Depending on the geometry of the surface, sunlight can be concentrated by several orders of magnitude producing temperatures high enough to melt salt and smelt metal. For most household solar cooking applications, such high temperatures are not really required. Solar cooking products, thus, are typically designed to achieve temperatures of 65 °C (150 °F) (baking temperatures) to 400 °C (750 °F) (grilling/searing temperatures) on a sunny day. 2) Converting light energy to heat energy: Solar cookers concentrate sunlight onto a receiver such as a cooking pan. The interaction between the light energy and the receiver material converts light to heat. This conversion is maximized by using materials that conduct and retain heat. Pots and pans used on solar cookers should be matte black in color to maximize the absorption. 3) Trapping heat energy: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker from the air outside the cooker. Simply using a glass lid on your pot enhances light absorption from the top of the pan and provides a greenhouse effect that improves heat retention and minimizes convection loss . This \"glazing\" transmits incoming visible sunlight but is opaque to escaping infrared thermal radiation. In resource constrained settings, a high-temperature plastic bag can serve a similar function, trapping air inside and making it possible to reach temperatures on cold and windy days similar to those possible on hot days. Operation [ edit ] Solar oven in use Different kinds of solar cookers use somewhat different methods of cooking, but most follow the same basic principles. Food is prepared as if for an oven or stove top. However, because food cooks faster when it is in smaller pieces, food placed inside a solar cooker is usually cut into smaller pieces than it might otherwise be. [3] For example, potatoes are usually cut into bite-sized pieces rather than roasted whole. [4] For very simple cooking, such as melting butter or cheese, a lid may not be needed and the food may be placed on an uncovered tray or in a bowl. If several foods are to be cooked separately, then they are placed in different containers. The container of food is placed inside the solar cooker, which may be elevated on a brick, rock, metal trivet , or other heat sink , and the solar cooker is placed in direct sunlight. [3] Foods that cook quickly may be added to the solar cooker later. Rice for a mid-day meal might be started early in the morning, with vegetables, cheese, or soup added to the solar cooker in the middle of the morning. Depending on the size of the solar cooker and the number and quantity of cooked foods, a family may use one or more solar cookers. A solar oven is turned towards the sun and left until the food is cooked. Unlike cooking on a stove or over a fire, which may require more than an hour of constant supervision, food in a solar oven is generally not stirred or turned over, both because it is unnecessary and because opening the solar oven allows the trapped heat to escape and thereby slows the cooking process. If wanted, the solar oven may be checked every one to two hours, to turn the oven to face the sun more precisely and to ensure that shadows from nearby buildings or plants have not blocked the sunlight. If the food is to be left untended for many hours during the day, then the solar oven is often turned to face the point where the sun will be when it is highest in the sky, instead of towards its current position. [5] The cooking time depends primarily on the equipment being used, the amount of sunlight at the time, and the quantity of food that needs to be cooked. Air temperature, wind, and latitude also affect performance. Food cooks faster in the two hours before and after the local solar noon than it does in either the early morning or the late afternoon. Large quantities of food, and food in large pieces, take longer to cook. As a result, only general figures can be given for cooking time. With a small solar panel cooker, it might be possible to melt butter in 15 minutes, to bake cookies in 2 hours, and to cook rice for four people in 4 hours. With a high performing parabolic solar cooker, you may be able to grill a steak in minutes. However, depending on local conditions and the solar cooker type, these projects could take half as long, or twice as long. It is difficult to burn food in a solar cooker. [4] Food that has been cooked even an hour longer than necessary is usually indistinguishable from minimally cooked food. The exception to this rule is some green vegetables, which quickly change from a perfectly cooked bright green to olive drab , while still retaining the desirable texture. For most foods, such as rice, the typical person would be unable to tell how it was cooked from looking at the final product. There are some differences, however: Bread and cakes brown on their tops instead of on the bottom. Compared to cooking over a fire, the food does not have a smoky flavor. Box and panel designs [ edit ] HotPot panel solar cooker A box cooker has a transparent glass or plastic top, and it may have additional reflectors to concentrate sunlight into the box. The top can usually be removed to allow dark pots containing food to be placed inside. One or more reflectors of shiny metal or foil-lined material may be positioned to bounce extra light into the interior of the oven chamber. Cooking containers and the inside bottom of the cooker should be dark-colored or black. Inside walls should be reflective to reduce radiative heat loss and bounce the light towards the pots and the dark bottom, which is in contact with the pots. The box should have insulated sides. Thermal insulation for the solar box cooker must be able to withstand temperatures up to 150 °C (300 °F) without melting or out-gassing. Crumpled newspaper, wool, rags, dry grass, sheets of cardboard, etc. can be used to insulate the walls of the cooker. Metal pots and/or bottom trays can be darkened either with flat-black spray paint (one that is non-toxic when warmed), black tempera paint, or soot from a fire. The solar box cooker typically reaches a temperature of 150 °C (300 °F). This is not as hot as a standard oven, but still hot enough to cook food over a somewhat longer period of time. A Solar Oven made of cardboard, newspapers, and reflective tape Panel solar cookers are inexpensive solar cookers that use reflective panels to direct sunlight to a cooking pot that is enclosed in a clear plastic bag. Solar Oven science experiments are regularly done as projects in high schools and colleges, such as the \"Solar Oven Throwdown\" at the University of Arizona . [6] These projects prove that it is possible to both achieve high temperatures, as well as predict the high temperatures using mathematical models. Parabolic reflectors [ edit ] Main article: parabolic reflector Parabolic solar cookers concentrate sunlight to a single point. When this point is focused on the bottom of a pot, it can heat the pot quickly to very high temperatures which can often be comparable with the temperatures achieved in gas and charcoal grills. These types of solar cookers are widely used in several regions of the world, most notably in China and India where hundreds of thousands of families currently use parabolic solar cookers for preparing food and heating water. Some parabolic solar cooker projects in China abate between 1-4 tons of carbon dioxide per year and receive carbon credits through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Gold Standard . Solar tea kettle in Tibet Some parabolic solar cookers incorporate cutting edge materials and designs which lead to solar energy efficiencies >90%. Others are large enough to feed thousands of people each day, such as the solar bowl at Auroville in India, which makes 2 meals per day for 1,000 people. [7] If a reflector is axially symmetrical and shaped so its cross-section is a parabola , it has the property of bringing parallel rays of light (such as sunlight) to a point focus . If the axis of symmetry is aimed at the sun, any object that is located at the focus receives highly concentrated sunlight, and therefore becomes very hot. This is the basis for the use of this kind of reflector for solar cooking. Paraboloidal reflectors [ edit ] A parabolic solar cooker with segmented construction . [8] Paraboloids are compound curves , which are more difficult to make with simple equipment than single curves . Although paraboloidal solar cookers can cook as well as or better than a conventional stove, they are difficult to construct by hand. Frequently, these reflectors are made using many small segments that are all single curves which together approximate compound curves. Although paraboloids are difficult to make from flat sheets of solid material, they can be made quite simply by rotating open-topped containers which hold liquids. The top surface of a liquid which is being rotated at constant speed around a vertical axis naturally takes the form of a paraboloid. Centrifugal force causes material to move outward from the axis of rotation until a deep enough depression is formed in the surface for the force to be balanced by the levelling effect of gravity. It turns out that the depression is an exact paraboloid. (See Liquid mirror telescope .) If the material solidifies while it is rotating, the paraboloidal shape is maintained after the rotation stops, and can be used to make a reflector. [ citation needed ] This rotation technique is sometimes used to make paraboloidal mirrors for astronomical telescopes, and has also been used for solar cookers. Devices for constructing such paraboloids are known as rotating furnaces . Paraboloidal reflectors generate high temperatures and cook quickly, but require frequent adjustment and supervision for safe operation. Several hundred thousand exist, mainly in China. [ citation needed ] They are especially useful for individual household and large-scale institutional cooking. A Scheffler cooker. This reflector has an area of 16 m 2 (170 sq ft), and concentrates 3 kW of heat A Scheffler cooker (named after its inventor, Wolfgang Scheffler ) uses a large ideally paraboloidal reflector which is rotated around an axis that is parallel with the earth's using a mechanical mechanism, turning at 15 degrees per hour to compensate for the earth's rotation. The axis passes through the reflector's centre of mass, allowing the reflector to be turned easily. The cooking vessel is located at the focus which is on the axis of rotation, so the mirror concentrates sunlight onto it all day. The mirror has to be occasionally tilted about a perpendicular axis to compensate for the seasonal variation in the sun's declination . This perpendicular axis does not pass through the cooking vessel. Therefore, if the reflector were a rigid paraboloid, its focus would not remain stationary at the cooking vessel as the reflector tilts. To keep the focus stationary, the reflector's shape has to vary. It remains paraboloidal, but its focal length and other parameters change as it tilts. The Scheffler reflector is therefore flexible, and can be bent to adjust its shape. It is often made up of a large number of small plane sections, such as glass mirrors, joined together by flexible plastic. A framework that supports the reflector includes a mechanism that can be used to tilt it and also bend it appropriately. The mirror is never exactly paraboloidal, but it is always close enough for cooking purposes. [ citation needed ] Sometimes the rotating reflector is located outdoors and the reflected sunlight passes through an opening in a wall into an indoor kitchen, often a large communal one, where the cooking is done. [ citation needed ] An oblique projection of a focus-balanced parabolic reflector Paraboloidal reflectors that have their centres of mass coincident with their focal points are useful. They can be easily turned to follow the sun's motions in the sky, rotating about any axis that passes through the focus. Two perpendicular axes can be used, intersecting at the focus, to allow the paraboloid to follow both the sun's daily motion and its seasonal one. The cooking pot stays stationary at the focus. If the paraboloidal reflector is axially symmetrical and is made of material of uniform thickness, its centre of mass coincides with its focus if the depth of the reflector, measured along its axis of symmetry from the vertex to the plane of the rim, is 1.8478 times its focal length. The radius of the rim of the reflector is 2.7187 times the focal length. The angular radius of the rim, as seen from the focal point, is 72.68 degrees. [ citation needed ] Parabolic troughs [ edit ] Parabolic troughs are used to concentrate sunlight for solar-energy purposes. Some solar cookers have been built that use them in the same way. [ citation needed ] Generally, the trough is aligned with its focal line horizontal and east-west. The food to be cooked is arranged along this line. The trough is pointed so its axis of symmetry aims at the sun at noon. This requires the trough to be tilted up and down as the seasons progress. At the equinoxes, no movement of the trough is needed during the day to track the sun. [9] At other times of year, there is a period of several hours around noon each day when no tracking is needed. Usually, the cooker is used only during this period, so no automatic sun tracking is incorporated into it. This simplicity makes the design attractive, compared with using a paraboloid. Also, being a single curve , the trough reflector is simpler to construct. However, it suffers from lower efficiency. It is possible to use two parabolic troughs, curved in perpendicular directions, to bring sunlight to a point focus as does a paraboloidal reflector. [ citation needed ] The incoming light strikes one of the troughs, which sends it toward a line focus. The second trough intercepts the converging light and focuses it to a point. [ citation needed ] Compared with a single paraboloid, using two partial troughs has important advantages. Each trough is a single curve , which can be made simply by bending a flat sheet of metal. Also, the light that reaches the targeted cooking pot is directed approximately downward, which reduces the danger of damage to the eyes of anyone nearby. On the other hand, there are disadvantages. More mirror material is needed, increasing the cost, and the light is reflected by two surfaces instead of one, which inevitably increases the amount that is lost. The two troughs are held in a fixed orientation relative to each other by being both fixed to a frame. [ citation needed ] The whole assembly of frame and troughs has to be moved to track the sun as it moves in the sky. Commercially made cookers that use this method are available.In practical applications (like in car-headlights), concave mirrors are of parabolic shape Spherical reflectors [ edit ] The Solar Bowl in Auroville Spherical reflectors operate much like paraboloidal reflectors, such that the axis of symmetry is pointed towards the sun so that light is concentrated to a focus. However, the focus of a spherical reflector will not be a point focus because it suffers from a phenomenon known as spherical aberration . Some concentrating dishes (such as satellite dishes) that do not require a precise focus opt for a spherical curvature over a paraboloid. If the radius of the rim of spherical reflector is small compared with the radius of curvature of its surface (the radius of the sphere of which the reflector is a part), the reflector approximates a paraboloidal one with focal length equal to half of the radius of curvature. [10] Vacuum tube technology [ edit ] Evacuated tube solar cookers are essentially a vacuum sealed between two layers of glass. The vacuum allows the tube to act both as a \"super\" greenhouse and an insulator. The central cooking tube is made from borosilicate glass, which is resistant to thermal shock, and has a vacuum beneath the surface to insulate the interior. The inside of the tube is lined with copper, stainless steel, and aluminum nitrile to better absorb and conduct heat from the sun's rays. Some vacuum tube solar cookers incorporate lightweight designs which allow great portability (such as the GoSun stove) [11] Portable vacuum tube cookers such as the GoSun allow users to cook freshly caught fish on the beach without needing to light a fire. [12] Advantages and disadvantages [ edit ] Advantages High-performance parabolic solar cookers can attain temperatures above 290 °C (550 °F). They can be used to grill meats, stir-fry vegetables, make soup, bake bread, and boil water in minutes. Vacuum tube type cookers can heat up even in the clouds and freezing cold. Conventional solar box cookers attain temperatures up to 165 °C (325 °F). They can sterilize water or prepare most foods that can be made in a conventional oven or stove, including bread, vegetables and meat over a period of hours. Solar cookers use no fuel. This saves cost as well as reducing environmental damage caused by fuel use. Since 2.5 billion people cook on open fires using biomass fuels, solar cookers could have large economic and environmental benefits by reducing deforestation. [13] When solar cookers are used outside, they do not contribute inside heat, potentially saving fuel costs for cooling as well. Any type of cooking may evaporate grease, oil, and other material into the air, hence there may be less cleanup. Reduces your carbon footprint by cooking without the use of carbon based fuels or grid electricity from traditional sources. [14] Disadvantages Solar cookers are less useful in cloudy weather and near the poles (where the sun is low in the sky or below the horizon), so an alternative cooking source is still required in these conditions. Solar cooking advocates suggest three devices for an integrated cooking solution: a) a solar cooker; b) a fuel-efficient cookstove ; c) an insulated storage container such as a basket filled with straw to store heated food. Very hot food may continue to cook for hours in a well-insulated container. With this three-part solution, fuel use is minimized while still providing hot meals at any hour, reliably. Some solar cookers, especially solar ovens, take longer to cook food than a conventional stove or oven. Using solar cookers may require food preparation start hours before the meal. However, it requires less hands-on time during the cooking, so this is often considered a reasonable trade-off. Cooks may need to learn special cooking techniques to fry common foods, such as fried eggs or flatbreads like chapatis and tortillas . It may not be possible to safely or completely cook some thick foods, such as large roasts, loaves of bread, or pots of soup, particularly in small panel cookers; the cook may need to divide these into smaller portions before cooking. Some solar cooker designs are affected by strong winds, which can slow the cooking process, cool the food due to convective losses, and disturb the reflector. It may be necessary to anchor the reflector, such as with string and weighted objects like bricks. Projects [ edit ] Students perform an experiment using a solar cooker built out of an umbrella Cardboard, aluminium foil, and plastic bags for well over 10,000 solar cookers have been donated to the Iridimi refugee camp and Touloum refugee camps in Chad by the combined efforts of the Jewish World Watch , the Dutch foundation KoZon , and Solar Cookers International . The refugees construct the cookers themselves, using the donated supplies and locally purchased Arabic gum . [15] It has also significantly reduced the amount of time women spend tending open fires each day, with the results that they are healthier and they have more time to grow vegetables for their families and make handicrafts for export. [15] By 2007, the Jewish World Watch had trained 4,500 women and had provided 10,000 solar cookers to refugees. The project has also reduced the number of foraging trips by as much as 70 percent, thus reducing the number of attacks. [ citation needed ] Some Gazans have started to make solar cookers made from cement bricks and mud mixed with straw and two sheets of glass. About 40 to 45 Palestinian households reportedly have started using these solar cookers, including some made with mirrors. [16] See also [ edit ] Renewable energy portal Heliostat Kyoto box Liquid mirror telescope List of stoves Paraboloid#Dimensions of a paraboloidal dish Solar Cookers International Solar still Solar updraft tower Solar water disinfection References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Solar Cookers: Varieties and Styles\" . CantinaWest . Retrieved 4 June 2014 . Jump up ^ \"World's Largest 38500-meal Solar Kitchen in India\" . inhabitat . Retrieved 4 June 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Linda Frederick Yaffe (2007). Solar Cooking for Home and Camp . Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. pp. 16–20. ISBN 0-8117-3402-1 . ^ Jump up to: a b Halacy, D. S.; Halacy, Beth (1992). Cooking with the sun . La Fayette, CA: Morning Sun Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-9629069-2-1 . Jump up ^ Halacy, D. S.; Halacy, Beth (1992). Cooking with the sun . La Fayette, CA: Morning Sun Press. p. 89. ISBN 0-9629069-2-1 . Jump up ^ \"Solar Oven Throwdown Heats Up UA Mall\" . UANews . Retrieved 2016-03-18 . Jump up ^ \"The solar bowl\" . archive.org . 22 December 2014. Archived from the original on 22 December 2014. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ Solar cooker pictures Solar Cooking Atlas official website Jump up ^ Prinsloo, GJ & Dobson, RT (572). \"Solar Tracking (eBook)\": 1. doi : 10.13140/RG.2.1.4265.6329/1 . ISBN 978-0-620-61576-1 . Jump up ^ See Parabola#Focal length and radius of curvature at the vertex Jump up ^ Fincher, Johnathan. \"GoSun:Portable solar oven cooks food in as little as 10 minutes\" . Retrieved September 16, 2013 . Jump up ^ Twmffat, Tecwyn. \"Solar cooked mackerel on the rocks\" . Retrieved September 26, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"WHO: Household Air Pollution and Health\" . World Health Organization . Retrieved 15 May 2014 . Jump up ^ \"The Complete Solar Oven Guide: 6 Best Solar Oven Reviews | The Tiny Life\" . The Tiny Life . Retrieved 2018-08-11 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Solar lifeline saves Darfur women\" . CNN. 2007-09-17 . Retrieved 2008-03-06 . Jump up ^ \"Solar Cooking Ovens: Another Eco-Solution from the Gaza Strip\" . Green Prophet . Retrieved 18 July 2018 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solar cookers . The Solar Cooking Wiki Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_cooker&oldid=854405534 \" Categories : Cooking appliances Solar thermal energy Solar-powered devices Renewable energy Stoves Ovens Hidden categories: CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 24 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2018, at 03:24 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Weston-super-Mare - Wikipedia Weston-super-Mare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \"Oldmixon\" redirects here. For the writer, see John Oldmixon . Weston-super-Mare Weston-super-Mare bay and piers Weston-super-Mare Weston-super-Mare shown within Somerset Population 76,143 (2011 Census) [1] OS grid reference ST320613 Civil parish Weston-super-Mare Unitary authority North Somerset Ceremonial county Somerset Region South West Country England Sovereign state United Kingdom Post town WESTON-SUPER-MARE Postcode district BS22–BS24 Dialling code 01934 Police Avon and Somerset Fire Avon Ambulance South Western EU Parliament South West England UK Parliament Weston-super-Mare List of places UK England Somerset 51°20′46″N 2°58′37″W  /  51.346°N 2.977°W  / 51.346; -2.977 Coordinates : 51°20′46″N 2°58′37″W  /  51.346°N 2.977°W  / 51.346; -2.977 Weston-super-Mare , also known as just Weston is a seaside town in Somerset , England, on the Bristol Channel 18 miles (29 km) south west of Bristol between Worlebury Hill and Bleadon Hill . It includes the suburbs of Oldmixon, West Wick and Worle . Its population at the 2011 census was 76,143. [2] Since 1983, Weston has been twinned with Hildesheim , Germany. [3] [4] Although there is evidence in the local area of occupation since the Iron Age , it was still a small village until the 19th century when it became a seaside resort, and was connected with local towns and cities by a railway, and two piers were built. The growth continued until the second half of the 20th century, when tourism declined and some local industries closed. A regeneration programme is being undertaken with attractions including the Helicopter Museum , Weston-super-Mare Museum , Grand Pier and an aquarium . The Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral offer day sea trips from Knightstone Island to various destinations along the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary . Cultural venues include The Playhouse , the Winter Gardens and Blakehay Theatre . Partly owing to the large tidal range in the Bristol Channel, the low tide mark in Weston Bay is about 1 mile (1.6 km) from the seafront. Although the beach itself is sandy, low tide uncovers areas of thick mud, hence the colloquial name, Weston-super-Mud. [5] [6] [7] These mudflats are very dangerous to walk in and are crossed by the mouth of the River Axe . Just to the north of the town is Sand Point which marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary and the start of the Bristol Channel. It is also the site of the Middle Hope biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). In the centre of the town is Ellenborough Park , another SSSI due to the range of plant species found there. Contents 1 Toponymy 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 19th century 2.3 Architecture 2.4 20th century 2.5 21st century 3 Governance 4 Geography 5 Climate 6 Demography 7 Economy 7.1 Tourism 8 Transport 9 Education 10 Culture 11 Landmarks 12 Religious sites 13 Sport 14 Notable people 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Toponymy [ edit ] Weston comes from the Anglo-Saxon for the west tun or settlement; super mare is Latin for \"above sea\" [8] [9] and was added to distinguish it from the many [10] other settlements named Weston in the Diocese of Bath and Wells . [11] Prior to 1348 it was known as Weston-juxta-Mare (\"beside the sea\"). The name was changed by Ralph of Shrewsbury , who was the Bishop of Bath and Wells . Between the 14th and 17th centuries the \"super Mare\" part of the name disappeared and it was just known as Weston, although in 1610 it was recorded as Weston on the More; môr being the Welsh word for sea. [12] History [ edit ] Early history [ edit ] Plan of Worlebury Camp Weston's oldest structure is Worlebury Camp , on Worlebury Hill , dating from the Iron Age . [13] [14] Castle Batch was a castle that once stood overlooking the town. The present site has an earthwork mound of 160 feet (50 m) in diameter which is believed to be the remains of a motte . [15] The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred . [16] The medieval church of St John was demolished in 1824 and rebuilt on the same site, [17] though a stump of the medieval preaching cross survives by the exterior south wall. The former rectory is a 17th-century structure with later additions. Though it remains adjacent to the church, it has not been a parsonage house since the end of the 19th century. Today it is known as Glebe House and is divided into flats. [18] The Old Thatched Cottage restaurant on the seafront carries the date 1774; it is the surviving portion of a summer cottage built by the Revd. William Leeves of Wrington . [19] 19th century [ edit ] Early in the 19th century, Weston was a small village of about 30 houses, located behind a line of sand dunes fronting the sea, which had been created as an early sea wall after the Bristol Channel floods of 1607 . [20] The Pigott family of Brockley , who were the local Lords of the Manor, had a summer residence at Grove House. Weston owes its growth and prosperity to the Victorian era boom in seaside holidays. Construction of the first hotel in the village started in 1808; it was called \"Reeves\" (now the Royal Hotel). [20] Along with nearby Burnham-on-Sea , Weston benefited from proximity to Bristol , Bath and South Wales . The first attempt at an artificial harbour was made in the late 1820s at the islet of Knightstone and a slipway built from Anchor Head towards Birnbeck Island. [20] Birnbeck Pier Isambard Kingdom Brunel and his family lived in Weston, at Swiss Villa (towards the north end of Trevelyan road), while he was supervising the construction of the Bristol and Exeter Railway in the area. With the opening of the railway in 1841, thousands of visitors came to the town from Bristol, the Midlands and further afield, on works outings and bank holidays . Mining families also came across the Bristol Channel from South Wales by paddle steamer . To cater for them, Birnbeck Pier was completed in 1867, offering in its heyday amusement arcades , tea rooms, amusement rides and a photographic studio. It is now in a derelict state and has been added to English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register , [21] but visitors can still admire its structure from behind barbed wire. It was designed by Eugenius Birch with ironwork by the Isca Foundry of Newport , Monmouthshire . It is a grade II* listed building . [22] Large areas of land were released for development from the 1850s onwards. Large detached villas, for the middle classes, were built on the southern slopes of Worlebury Hill. Semi-detached and terraced housing was built on the low \"moorland\" behind the sea front in an area known as South Ward. Many of these houses have now been converted into bedsits . Most of the houses built in the Victorian era are built from stone and feature details made from Bath Stone , influenced by local architect Hans Price . In 1885, the first transatlantic telegraph cable of the Commercial Cable Company was brought ashore and the company started a long association with the town, ending in 1962. [23] Guglielmo Marconi , the inventor of wireless telegraphy, successfully transmitted radio signals across the Bristol Channel in the spring of 1897, from Penarth (near Cardiff) to Brean Down (just south west of Weston, on the other side of the River Axe ). [24] A second railway, the Weston, Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway , opened on 1 December 1897, connecting Weston to Clevedon . [25] The terminus station was at Ashcombe Road. The railway was extended to Portishead on 7 August 1907 but was closed in 1940. [25] [26] Architecture [ edit ] The Mercury Office in Waterloo Street by Hans Price Much of the character of the buildings in the town derives from the use of local stone, much of it from the Town Quarry. Notable among the architects working in the 19th century was Hans Price (1835–1912). Many examples of his work are still to be seen: the Town Hall, the Mercury Office, the Constitutional Club (originally the Lodge of St Kew), villas and numerous other domestic dwellings. The Odeon Cinema by Thomas Cecil Howitt is notable for fully retaining many Art Deco features both internally and externally, and retaining its original theatre organ , a Compton from 1935. It is believed to be the only cinema organ in the West Country left working in its original location and is still in regular use. [27] Other organs by Compton in Weston-super-Mare can be found at Victoria Methodist Church and All Saints' Church by George Bodley (modelled on that in Downside Abbey ). [28] 20th century [ edit ] Local traders, unhappy that visitors were not coming as far as the centre of the town, built a new pier closer to the main streets. Opened in 1904, and known as the Grand Pier , it was designed to be 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long. [29] Further development occurred after World War I , with the Winter Gardens Pavilion in 1927, [30] the open air pool , with its arched concrete diving board, [31] and an airfield dating from the inter-war period. Art Deco influences can be seen in much of the town's architecture from this period. During World War II over 10,000 official evacuees were accommodated in the town, however only 130 spent four or more years in the town. [32] The area was also home to war industries, such as aircraft and pump manufacture, and a Royal Air Force station at RAF Locking . The town was also on the return route of bombers targeting Bristol and was itself bombed by the Luftwaffe . The first bombs fell in June 1940, but the worst attacks were in January 1941 and in June 1942. Large areas of the town were destroyed, particularly Orchard Street and the Boulevard. On 3 and 4 January 1941, incendiary bombs fell on the town. [33] The Air Ministry set up a \" Q-station \" decoy at Bleadon in an attempt to divert the bombers to an unpopulated area. [34] In the later part of the war, United States Army troops were billeted in the area, but they were relocated in the run-up to D-Day . The Helicopter Museum RAF Weston-super-Mare was opened in 1936 by No. 24 Group, with a single tarmac runway. It served as a flying candidates selection and initial training facility, and as a relief airport during World War II , latterly as the Polish Air Force Staff College from April 1944 to April 1946. [35] After the war it served as a logistics supply station, with helicopter makers Westland Helicopters on site until closure in 1987. [36] Today there is an operational heliport on site used occasionally by the RAF Search and Rescue service. The former Westland site, which closed in 2002, houses the Helicopter Museum featuring examples of Westland aircraft. Pride of place is given to an immaculate Westland Wessex HCC Mk.4, formerly of the Queen's Flight . [37] Residential areas outside the town centre include the Oldmixon, Coronation, and Bournville housing estates , built in the mid to late 20th century. Newer housing has since been built towards the east of the town in North Worle and Locking Castle, nearer to the M5 motorway . Weston-super-Mare has expanded to include the established villages of Milton, Worle , Uphill , Oldmixon, West Wick and Wick St. Lawrence , as well as new areas such as St. Georges and Locking Castle. In 1986, Weston General Hospital was opened on the edge of Uphill village, replacing the Queen Alexandra Memorial Hospital on The Boulevard, which was opened in 1928. [38] 21st century [ edit ] Silica A structure known as Silica was installed at Big Lamp Corner during 2006. [39] It is a piece of public art, an advertising sign, a retail kiosk selling newspapers and hot food, as well as a bus shelter. It has been criticised by local residents who liken it to a carrot [40] or a space ship, although it is meant to symbolise man's harmony with the sea. This was part of North Somerset Council 's ongoing civic pride initiative that has sought to revitalise Weston-super-Mare's public spaces, which had suffered a period of decline. Other public space improvements have been made throughout the town such as improvements to the street scene in Grove Park Village. [41] On 28 July 2008, the pavilion at the end of the Grand Pier was completely destroyed by a fire. Eleven fire engines and 80 firefighters could not contain the blaze, which is believed to have started in the north-east tower of the Pavilion. [42] A competition was held to design a new pavilion, and the project was awarded to the winning architect Angus Meek Architects of Bristol. Construction work began on the pier and new pavilion in 2009, and it was scheduled to reopen in July 2010, [43] after a £39 million rebuilding programme. After continuing problems and setbacks, with the pier not opening until a formal opening ceremony on 23 October 2010, the overall costs have reached £51 million. During the same period there was a £34 million redevelopment of the promenade, including refurbishment of the Marine Lake and pedestrianisation of Pier Square. As part of the work, a scour protection apron and splash wall were added as part of flood prevention measures. [44] Around 2000, the town saw a growth in residential drug and alcohol rehabilitation treatment centres, with attendant crime and social problems. These problems were highlighted by Weston's councillors and newspapers, and by the MP , John Penrose during his maiden speech in the House of Commons in 2005. [45] By 2009, Weston was home to around 11% of drug rehabilitation places in the UK, and North Somerset council proposed an accreditation system examining the quality of counselling, staff training, transparency of referral arrangements, along with measures of the treatment's effectiveness and site inspections. [46] Governance [ edit ] Weston-super-Mare town hall Municipal history began in 1842 when a Local Act was obtained for \"paving, lighting, watching, cleansing and otherwise improving the Town of Weston-super-Mare in the County of Somerset and for establishing a Market therein\" under the jurisdiction of eighteen appointed Commissioners. Town Commissioners gave way to an Urban District Council in 1894, and then in 1937 the town received its Royal Charter as a municipal borough . In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972 , it was merged into the Woodspring district of the Avon County Council , and became a Charter trustees town. Weston-super-Mare regained its town council in 2000, becoming a civil parish . [19] The island of Steep Holm is part of the civil parish of Weston-super-Mare. Before 1 April 1974, Weston-super-Mare came under the administration of Somerset County Council . When Avon was split up in 1996, it became the administrative headquarters of the unitary authority of North Somerset , one of the successor authorities, which remains part of the ceremonial county of Somerset. [47] There are 11 electoral wards in Weston. [48] The MP for the Weston-super-Mare parliamentary constituency is John Penrose of the Conservative Party , who won the seat from Liberal Democrat Brian Cotter (now Lord Cotter ) in the 2005 General Election . [49] Weston is within the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation . Geography [ edit ] Low and high tides The mainly flat landscape of Weston is dominated by Worlebury Hill , 109 metres (357 ft), [50] which borders the entire northern edge of the town, and Bleadon Hill , 176 metres (577 ft) [50] which together with the River Axe , and Brean Down at Uphill form its southern border. In the centre of the town is Ellenborough Park a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to the range of plant species found there. [51] The beach of Weston Bay lies on the western edge of the town. The upper part is sandy, but the sea retreats a long way at low tide, exposing large areas of mud flats (hence the colloquial name of Weston-super-Mud). [52] The tidal range in this part of the Bristol Channel is great, and since beach and mud flats are on a gentle slope, it is inadvisable to try to reach the sea at low tide, as the sand gives way to deep mud which has often resulted in loss of life over the years. Driving on the beach is permitted in certain areas, but occasionally the drivers are caught unawares as they drive too close to the sea and break through the sand into the underlying mud, and are then stuck. The tidal rise and fall in the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel can be as great as 14.5 m (48 ft), [53] second only to Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada . [54] [55] This tidal movement contributes to the deposition of natural mud in bays such as Weston. There has been concern about pollution levels from industrial areas in Wales and at the eastern end of the Bristol Channel; however this tends to be diluted by the Atlantic waters. There are measurable levels of chemical pollutants, and little is known about their effects. Of particular concern are the levels of cadmium and to a lesser degree residual pesticides and hydrocarbons. [56] Just to the north of the town is Sand Point which marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary and the start of the Bristol Channel . It is also the site of the Middle Hope 84.1-hectare (208-acre) biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest . [57] Climate [ edit ] Along with the rest of South West England , Weston has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. [58] The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 °C (50 °F ). Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 °C (70 °F). In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1–2 °C (34–36 °F) are common. [58] In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, however convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. [58] In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. Most the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which is when they are most active. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around 700 mm (28 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west. [58] hide Climate data for Weston-super-Mare, 5 m asl 1981–2010 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 8.3 (46.9) 8.7 (47.7) 10.9 (51.6) 13.4 (56.1) 16.9 (62.4) 19.8 (67.6) 21.7 (71.1) 21.4 (70.5) 19.0 (66.2) 14.9 (58.8) 11.5 (52.7) 8.4 (47.1) 14.6 (58.3) Average low °C (°F) 2.6 (36.7) 2.2 (36) 3.8 (38.8) 4.7 (40.5) 7.8 (46) 11.1 (52) 13.2 (55.8) 12.8 (55) 10.6 (51.1) 7.9 (46.2) 4.8 (40.6) 2.4 (36.3) 7.0 (44.6) Average precipitation mm (inches) 88.4 (3.48) 56.9 (2.24) 60.2 (2.37) 57.7 (2.272) 60.0 (2.362) 57.5 (2.264) 67.9 (2.673) 68.5 (2.697) 85.8 (3.378) 100.6 (3.961) 104.9 (4.13) 91.2 (3.591) 899.2 (35.402) Mean monthly sunshine hours 54.4 75.5 109.1 164.5 195.0 193.3 207.1 189.6 140.4 94.9 63.8 42.3 1,529.9 Source: Met Office [59] Demography [ edit ] According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the population of Weston-super-Mare is 76,143. [1] This makes it the largest settlement in North Somerset, which has a total population of 188,564. 20.1% of the town's population are aged 65 or over, compared with the national average of 16.5%. [1] 96.5% of the population are white, compared with 86% nationally. [1] In 1831 the town population was 1,310, [60] and in 1801 just 138. [61] In 2001, the town comprised 34,441 households, [1] while in 1829 it comprised just 250. [62] The vast majority (96.5%) of the population described themselves as white in the 2011 census. 58.2% are Christian, with 32.4% describing themselves as having no religion. No other religious groups achieved as much as 0.5%. [1] Economy [ edit ] Weston-super-Mare beach seen from the Grand Pier, showing the popularity of the town as a tourist destination on the Easter bank holiday weekend Since the 1970s, Weston has suffered a decline in popularity as a holiday destination, as have most British seaside resorts, [63] due to the advent of cheap foreign holidays and the demise of the traditional \"works holidays\" of heavy and manufacturing industries elsewhere in UK. The town had become a centre of industries such as helicopter production, and maintenance at the GKN Westland factory until its closure in 2002, [64] however the company still retains a design office under the name GKN Aerospace Engineering Services at the Winterstoke Road site. Road transport links were improved with the M5 motorway running close by, and the town now supports light industries and distribution depots, including Lidl 's distribution centre for its southern based stores, and is also a dormitory town for Bristol . [65] Vutrix, one of the largest semiconductor and video/audio distribution equipment companies in the television broadcasting industry, is based in the town. [66] Two of the town's largest employers are the local council and Weston College , which has recently begun to offer university degrees as a secondary campus of Bath Spa University . [67] Tourism [ edit ] The SeaQuarium marine aquarium on the beach Weston-super-Mare is a tourist destination, with its long sandy beach, Helicopter Museum , [68] Weston-super-Mare Museum , Grand Pier , SeaQuarium aquarium and seasonal Wheel of Weston. [69] A 2009 survey by Visit England placed the Grand Pier in the top ten free attractions in England. [70] However, as of 2014, the pier charges for admission. On the Beach Lawns was a miniature railway operated by steam and diesel locomotives, which closed in 2012. [71] The Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral offer day trips from Knightstone Island to various destinations along the Bristol Channel and Severn estuary . [72] The Art Deco Tropicana, once a very popular lido on the beach, has suffered years of neglect. It closed to the public in 2000, and despite a number of attempts to reopen it, permission was given to demolish it in 2012. [73] 'International HeliDays', in association with the Helicopter Museum, are staged at the beach lawns over a long weekend around the end of July, when up to 75 helicopters from Europe fly in for a static display. There are frequent Helicopter Air Experience flights from the Museum heliport. There is also an annual display by the Red Arrows . [74] Since the 1970s the number of visitors staying for several nights in the town has decreased, but the numbers of day visitors has increased. [75] In 1995 there were 4 million visitors but by 2005 this had risen to 5.3 million. [76] In 2007 69% of visitors to the resort were day visitors, compared to 58% in 2005. [77] The 2005 survey showed that day visitors stay in Weston-super-Mare for an average of six hours whilst overnight visitors stay for an average of five nights. The largest percentage of visitors (22%) were from the West Midlands . Weston was found to attract two distinct groups: \"grey tourists\" over the age of 60 and families with young children. [76] Weston Bike Nights are motorcycle meetings on the Promenade each Thursday during the summer. They are organised by The Royal British Legion Riders Branch to raise money for the Poppy Appeal . [78] In July 2011, North Somerset Council gave planning approval to the £50 million Leisure Dome , [79] a 210-metre (690 ft) indoor ski slope to be built on the site of RAF Locking . In 2015 the future of the project was in doubt because of the need for additional funding, [80] and no mention of the LeisureDome proposals appear on the information provided by St. Modwen Properties , the developers about their plans for Locking Parklands as the site is now known. [81] [82] [83] It was planned to include a 40-metre (130 ft) climbing wall , a vertical wind tunnel for indoor skydiving , indoor surfing, a BMX track, a health and fitness club , and a number of shops and restaurants. The ski slope will be the longest in the United Kingdom. Transport [ edit ] A \"toast rack\" tram heading into town at Madeira Cove The 2.9-mile-long (4.7 km) 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1,435 mm ) gauge Weston-super-Mare Tramways network opened on 12 May 1902. The main route ran from Birnbeck Pier along the sea front to the Sanatorium (now Royal Sands); a branch line ran to the railway station and on to the tram depot in Locking Road. The fleet originally consisted of 12 double deck cars and 4 open-sided \" toast rack \" cars. The system was bought out by the competing bus company and closed on 18 April 1937, by which time the fleet comprised 8 double deck and 6 \"toast racks\". [84] An earlier proposal for the Weston, Clevedon and Portishead Tramway to run along the streets of the town to the sea front had failed to materialise, leaving the line as an ordinary railway (the Weston, Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway ) with a terminus in Ashcombe Road. [85] Weston is close to junction 21 of the M5 motorway , to which it is linked by a dual-carriageway relief road built in the 1990s. This replaced Locking Road as the designated A370 route and avoided some of the traffic congestion along that narrower urban road. [86] The Bristol and Exeter Railway arrived in Weston-super-Mare on 14 June 1841. This was not the route that serves today's Weston-super-Mare railway station , but rather a single-track branch line from Weston Junction , midway between the present day Worle and Uphill junctions, which terminated at a small station in Regent Street close to the High Street. A second larger station was constructed in 1866 to replace this, when planning permission was gained to create a loop station from the main line. After legal action was taken by residents along the proposed route new route through issues of planning blight, the station on the current site was constructed in 1881. [87] [88] Weston-super-Mare railway station Today, the station, which is on a short loop off the Bristol to Exeter line , is situated close to the town centre and less than ten minutes walk from the sea front. It has direct services to London Paddington [89] operated by First Great Western , and also trains to stations such as Bristol , Taunton and Cardiff Central . [90] CrossCountry services run to Birmingham and the North. [91] The station has two platforms . [92] Other stations are located at Weston Milton and Worle . During the middle of the day they are served by the local trains between Taunton, Bristol and Cardiff, but during the peak periods London trains call at both stations. [90] Weston Milton station is on the single track loop and therefore has only one platform, while Worle is on the main line and has two side platforms. The Weston loop diverges just to the southwest of Worle station, and the junction is therefore known as Worle Junction. [92] Most local bus services are provided by First West of England [93] . All services call at stops in the Regent Street and Big Lamp Corner area, including some stops in the adjacent High Street. Some town services and those to Sand Bay , Wells , Burnham-on-Sea and Bristol Airport start from or run via the main railway station. The service to Sand Bay is sometimes operated by an open top bus . National Express and Bakers Dolphin operate long distance coach services, mostly from the coach terminal in Locking Road Car Park which is close to the railway station. The nearest operational airport to Weston is Bristol Airport , located 15 miles (24 km) [94] away at Lulsgate. Education [ edit ] Weston College's Knightstone Campus The Unitary authority of North Somerset, provides support for 78 schools , delivering education to approximately 28,000 pupils. [95] Infant and primary schools in Weston include: Ashcombe Primary, Becket Primary, Bournville Primary School, Castle Batch Primary school, Christ Church C of E Primary, Corpus Christi Catholic Primary, Herons' Moor Community Primary, Hutton C of E Primary, Kewstoke Primary, Mead Vale Primary, Milton Park Primary, St. Georges Church School, St Mark's VA Church of England/Methodist Ecumenical Primary School, Walliscote Primary, Windwhistle Primary and Worlebury St. Pauls C.E.V.A. First School. Secondary education is provided by Broadoak Mathematics and Computing College , Churchill Academy , Priory Community School , Worle Community School and Hans Price Academy . The town's main further education provider is Weston College , and the town's expanding higher education provision is supplied by University Centre Weston . [67] In September 2014, the North Somerset Enterprise and Technology College (NSETC) opened. From September 2015 it has provided education to 14- to 19-year-olds and specialises in the STEM fields ; science, technology, engineering and maths. [96] Nigel Leat, a teacher at Hillside First School, was jailed indefinitely in summer 2011 for Paedophile offences that happened over a 14-year period. The school's headmaster lost his job in December 2011 due to the incident. [97] [98] Culture [ edit ] The Winter Gardens The town contains several arts venues. The Playhouse serves both tourists and the local population. The Winter Gardens on the seafront hosts shows, exhibitions and conferences. The Blakehay Theatre & Community Arts Centre is a small venue housed in a former Baptist church. [99] All Saints Church hosts regular concerts, some of high national standing. This church is also used for recording, especially by the Emerald Ensemble and has featured on BBC TV programme Songs of Praise . [100] Odeon Cinema The Odeon Cinema was opened in 1935 and is a building in the modernist style designed by Thomas Cecil Howitt . It houses the only Compton theatre pipe organ in an Odeon cinema outside London and is one of only two working theatre organs left in the country still performing in their original location in commercially operating cinemas. This Compton organ was installed in 1935 and is the only one left in the West Country, the next nearest being the Odeon Leicester Square , London. All other models have been either restored and moved elsewhere, or destroyed. [101] Occasional organ concerts continue to be held at the venue. The building has Grade II Listed status. [102] An illuminated cart passes the Winter Gardens during the annual carnival Weston-super-Mare has a small number of live music venues of note. \"Scally's\" hosts more established touring rock bands, [103] while the \"Back Bar\", \"The London\", and \"The Imperial\" hold regular open mic nights which attract a wide array of local musicians, as well as artists from further afield. [104] [105] The T4 on the Beach concert had been hosted annually since 2006, up until 2012, [106] by Channel 4 youth programme T4 . Well known bands and singers perform four or fewer of their hits. However, the vocals are mimed as the event is being produced for live TV broadcast. [107] Each summer the beach is also used as the venue for the Weston-super-Mare Sand Sculpture Festival . [108] The town was the subject of a song \"Sunny Weston-super-Mare\" performed by local band The Wurzels . [109] The last scenes of The Remains of the Day , a James Ivory film of 1993, were shot at locations in the town including the Grand Pier and the Winter Gardens. [110] The Weston Arts Festival takes place each year during September and October using local venues including the Blakehay Theatre, Playhouse, All Saints, and galleries and offering a wide range of cultural events. [111] Weston is also the final event on the November West Country Carnival circuit, when a large number of brightly illuminated floats parade through the streets. [112] The town's weekly newspaper is The Weston & Somerset Mercury , which has been serving the population since 1843. It is now owned by publishing company Archant . [113] There are also two online publications The Weston Echo, and Weston super Mare People. Weston Super Television is an on-line community television channel set up in 2011. [114] [115] Its volunteers make and present studio programmes, including interviews with local councillers, musicians and community leaders, as well as filming local events in and around the town. [116] The 2011 TV comedy drama series The Cafe was co-written by Michelle Terry who was born in the town and the series was filmed in Weston-super-Mare. [117] [118] In August 2015 the artist Banksy opened the temporary art installation ' Dismaland ' at the Tropicana, Weston-super-Mare venue. [119] Landmarks [ edit ] The Grand Pier, new pavilion The Grand Pier is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the town. It previously housed funfair style attractions, a go-kart track, cafes, a fudge factory, and a host of arcade games, and underwent a £34 million re-development after a fire in 2008 destroyed the main pavilion. [120] After a harsh winter which delayed progress, the new pier pavilion reopened on 23 October 2010. [121] Weston's first pier, Birnbeck Pier , standing on a small island to the north of the bay is currently closed to the public. The current owners, Manchester -based company Urban Splash purchased the pier in 2006. A competition was held as a means to encourage redevelopment of the site for commercial use. To date, no firm plans are in place, and the future of Birnbeck Pier is uncertain. [122] The pier houses Weston-super-Mare Lifeboat Station . The Knightstone complex in 2010 Knightstone Island housed a theatre, swimming pool and sauna, [123] after having been purchased by the physician Edward Long Fox in 1830 to create a therapeutic spa with range of hot, cold and chemical baths. [124] After years of disrepair and dereliction, the area has been redeveloped by Redrow Homes . During 2006/2007, luxury apartments and commercial outlets have been built on the site. Consideration has been taken due to the listed building status of much of the site. [125] Boat trips from here include the Waverley and Balmoral and trips to Steep Holm and Flat Holm islands as well as short trips around Weston Bay. [72] The Tropicana outdoor swimming pool that is located on the southern section of the sea front has not been occupied since 2000. [126] A private developer, Henry Boot, was selected to redevelop the site with a new Life Station leisure complex, which was planned to include a six lane, 25-metre (27 yd) swimming pool, water park, 96-bed hotel, restaurant, eight-screen cinema, 14 retail units, and a 20-lane bowling alley. The redevelopment was beset by delays and controversy. [127] A group of local residents challenged the council over its decision to appoint Henry Boot, asking to put forward their own proposals for the site. [128] In November 2009, the plans were finally abandoned, [129] leaving the future of the site uncertain. In 2010 the council invited submissions from developers for a new, less ambitious, scheme to redevelop the site with a swimming pool at its heart. A decision on a new scheme was expected towards the end of 2010. [130] The local authority announced on 23 August 2011 that it was giving developers six months to propose plans for a smaller development otherwise they will arrange to demolish the Tropicana. [131] In February 2013, North Somerset Council granted planning permission to a consortium of local businesses who intend to build a new swimming pool complex on the site. [132] [133] Grove Park War Memorial The First World War memorial in Grove Park, containing a sculpture by Alfred Drury , was unveiled in 1922, with additions by Walter Cave for the Second World War. It contains the names of 402 men from the area who fell in the First World War. It consists of a winged allegorical figure of Victory holding an olive branch, which stands on an octagonal column. The memorial is a grade II listed building. [134] Religious sites [ edit ] Most of the town's churches and chapels are neo-Gothic 19th century structures. The Medieval village church of St John the Baptist was completely demolished in 1824 to make way for a new and larger place of worship. [17] All Saints Church was built between 1898 and 1902 to a design by George Frederick Bodley and completed by his pupil F. C. Eden in the 14th century style so favoured by Bodley. It is a Grade II* listed building . [135] Holy Trinity Church, designed by H Lloyd and opened in 1861, is also Grade II*. [136] There is a Greek Orthodox Church of St Andrew the Apostle in Grove Road, Milton. [137] Sport [ edit ] Football team Weston-super-Mare A.F.C. play in the National League South at the purpose-built Woodspring Stadium, which opened in August 2004. [138] There are two rugby clubs in the town; Weston-super-Mare RFC , formed in 1875, owned by Jonson Coles [139] and Hornets RFC, formed in 1962. [140] Hornets play in National League 3 [South West], whilst Weston were relegated from the same league in 2014/15 and now play in South West One division. These are national level 5 and level 6 respectively in the English rugby union system . Somerset County Cricket Club played first class and one-day matches for one week a season on a pitch prepared at Clarence Park , near the sea front. This began in 1914 and continued until the last \"festival\" in 1996. [141] Weston-super-Mare Cricket Club play at Devonshire Park Ground . [142] The town is well known amongst motocross enthusiasts for staging the Weston beach race every autumn. In addition, races are also held for youth riders, sidecarcross riders and quad bike competitors. [143] The 2008 winner of the Weston Beach Race was ten time World Motocross Champion Stefan Everts of Belgium. [144] Notable people [ edit ] See also: Category:People from Weston-super-Mare Notable current and former residents of the town include: Blue Plaque marking the birthplace of A. V. Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough Aaron Allard-Morgan : Winner of Big Brother 2011 (UK) [145] A. V. Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough : Minister of Defence in the Attlee government, raised in Weston-super-Mare [146] Jeffrey Archer : author, politician and convicted perjurer [147] Jhonn Balance : musician, founding member of Psychic TV and founder of Coil (band) [148] Ritchie Blackmore : guitarist and founding member of Deep Purple , Rainbow and Blackmore's Night . [149] Peter Christopherson : musician, founding member of Throbbing Gristle and Psychic TV [150] John Cleese : actor and member of Monty Python [151] Jill Dando : murdered broadcaster and journalist, after whom the sixth form centre at Weston College and a garden in Grove Park are named [152] Arthur Stanley Eddington : one of the foremost astrophysicists of the early 20th century, grew up in the town [153] Daphne Fowler : game show champion [154] Baron Glanely (William Tatem) , ship- and racehorse-owner, died during an air raid at 16 Malvern Road in June 1942. [155] Rupert Graves : actor, born and educated in the town 30 June 1963 [156] Bob Hope : comedian and actor, lived there as a child [157] Sean Martin : writer and film director [158] Con O'Neill : actor [159] John Oldmixon (1673–1742): historian ; born in Oldmixon [160] The Revd. Dr John Polkinghorne KBE FRS : particle physicist and theologian. [161] Hans Price : (1835–1912) architect ; [162] responsible for much of the architecture of the built environment in Weston-super-Mare and the distinctive character of the town Paulo Radmilovic : Olympic gold medal athlete [163] Gareth Taylor : footballer; born 25 February 1972 in the town [164] [165] Michelle Terry : actress and writer [166] Peter Trego : cricketer [167] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"2011 Census Profile\" . North Somerset Council. Archived from the original (Excel) on 4 January 2014 . Retrieved 4 January 2014 . Jump up ^ https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/query/asv2htm.aspx Jump up ^ \"Special service on burnt-out pier\" . BBC News. 16 August 2008 . Retrieved 1 April 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Weston Hildesheim Exchange\" . Weston-super-Mare People . 4 September 2009. Archived from the original on 6 September 2009 . Retrieved 1 April 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Weston super Mare\" . Vision of Britain . University of Portsmouth . Retrieved 10 June 2012 . 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Jump up ^ \"Group wants to buy derelict pool\" . BBC News. 10 October 2006 . Retrieved 8 January 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Cash crisis ends Tropicana plans\" . BBC News. 13 November 2009 . Retrieved 19 November 2009 . Jump up ^ \"New plans for Weston-super-Mare's Tropicana site\" . BBC. 31 August 2010 . Retrieved 7 November 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Weston Tropicana could be demolished by spring\". ITV The West Tonight. 23 August 2011. Jump up ^ \"Plans for Tropicana in Weston-super-Mare given green light\" . BBC News . 21 February 2013 . Retrieved 23 February 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Plans for Tropicana in Weston recommended for approval\" . BBC News . 14 February 2013 . Retrieved 23 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Historic England . \"Gov Park War Memorial (1430882)\" . National Heritage List for England . Retrieved 9 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Church of All Saints\" . Images of England . English Heritage . Retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Holy Trinity Church\" . National Heritage List for England . Historic England . Retrieved 16 September 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Orthodox churches in the UK\" . The Hellenic Book Service. Archived from the original on 27 January 2010 . Retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ \"History\" . Weston super Mare AFC . Retrieved 4 July 2009 . Jump up ^ \"History\" . Weston super Mare RFC . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Hornets History\" . Hornets RFC . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Campaign to bring back cricket festival\" . Weston & Somerset Mercury. 19 March 2010 . Retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Devonshire Park Ground, Weston-super-Mare\" . CricketArchive . Retrieved 13 July 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Weston Beach race cancelled after pile-up injures 21 riders\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2009 . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Mullins, Bob. \"Weston Beach Race\" . Enduro News . Retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Big Brother winner's new bar venture\" . Weston, Worle & Somerset Mercury . Retrieved 15 January 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The Papers of A V Alexander\" . Cambridge University . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Hough, Andrew (7 December 2009). \"Jeffrey Archer lands 'record £18 m deal for modern Forsyte Saga ' \" . The Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Obituary for Peter Christopherson\" . The Vinyl Factory . Retrieved 11 August 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Ritchie Blackmore\" . Ritchie Blackmore.com. Archived from the original on 20 November 2008 . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Interview in 'The Wire ' \" . The Wire. Jump up ^ \"John Cleese Biography (1939–)\" . Jump up ^ Barker, Dennis (27 April 1999). \"Jill Dando Obituary\" . London: The Guardian . Retrieved 23 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Mehra, Jagdish; Rechenberg, Helmut (2000). The Historical Development of Quantum Theory: Pt. 1, the Fundamental Equations of Quantum Mechanics, 1925–1926, Jagdish Mehra . Springer. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-387-95178-2 . Jump up ^ \"Daphne Fowler – Quiz Players\" . Archived from the original on 17 April 2009 . Retrieved 30 October 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Tatem, William James\" . Casualty Details . Commonwealth War Graves Commission . Retrieved 7 November 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Biography\" . Rupert Graves Online . Archived from the original on 2 August 2012 . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Bob (and Dolores) Hope\" . adoption.com . Retrieved 1 April 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Sean Martin\" . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"20 Questions With ... Con O'Neill\" . Whats on Stage. 19 March 2007 . Retrieved 1 April 2010 . Jump up ^ \"John Oldmixon\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Volume XX (11th ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. p. 74 . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"John Polkinghorne\" . Gifford Lectures. Archived from the original on 28 April 2010 . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"The History of the Blakehay\" . Weston super Mare Town Council. Archived from the original on 9 May 2004 . Retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Paul Radmilovic\" . Sports Reference . Retrieved 10 February 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Gareth Taylor\" . Soccerbase . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Gareth Taylor\" . Sky Sports. 7 May 2009 . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ \"The Cafe: Hoping for a big splash\" . The Stage . 18 November 2011 . Retrieved 11 July 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Peter Trego\" . Cricinfo . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Further reading [ edit ] Austin, Brian. Tales of Old Weston Vol 1 . Woodspring Museum. Austin, Brian. Tales of Old Weston Vol 2 . Woodspring Museum. Bailey, John (1986). Weston-super-Mare Look back with Laughter . Redcliffe Press. ISBN 0-948265-70-1 . Bailey, John. Weston-super-Mare The Good Old Days . Redcliffe Press. ISBN 0-905459-78-4 . Beisly, Philip (1996). Northmarsh of Somerset . Weston-super-Mare: Weston Heritage Centre. ISBN 978-0-9510368-2-2 . Beisly, Philip (1988). Weston-super-Mare: A History and Guide . Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-86299-440-2 . Beisly, Philip (2001). Weston-super-Mare Past . Phillimore & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-86077-174-3 . || Bournville Past & Present Group (1995). Bournville Memories . Harry Galloway. ISBN 1-873931-59-X . Brown, Donald (1999). Somerset v Hitler . Countryside Books. ISBN 1-85306-590-0 . Poole, Sharon (1995). Weston-super-Mare a Pictorial History . Phillimore. ISBN 0-85033-969-3 . Poole, Sharon (2002). Weston-super-Mare . Tempus History & Guide. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-2631-0 . Crockford-Hawley, John (2004). Weston-super-Mare: a History and Celebration of the Town . Frith Book Company. ISBN 978-1-904938-54-5 . Crockford-Hawley, John (1990). History of the Parish Church of All Saints, Weston-super-Mare . ISBN 978-1-872732-00-8 . Crockford-Hawley, John (1990). A History of St Saviour's Church Weston-super-Mare . Crockford-Hawley, John (2004). Weston-super-Mare An Illustrated Miscellany . Francis Frith. ISBN 1-84567-008-6 . Crockford-Hawley, John (2005). Walk Around Historic Weston-super-Mare . Francis Frith. ISBN 1-84567-675-0 . Crockford-Hawley, John (2009). Weston-super-Mare Town Cemetery . Weston-s-Mare Town Council. Crockford-Hawley, John (2010). Weston-super-Mare At War . Weston-s-Mare Town Council. Crockford-Hawley, John (2011). Weston's Heart-The Emmanuel Story . Crockford-Hawley, John (2012). Royal Weston-super-Mare . Weston-s-Mare Museum. Crockford-Hawley, John (2015). Weston-super-Mare Lifeboat Station . Poole: RNLI. Dudley & Johnson (2010). Weston-super-Mare and the Aeroplane . Amberley. ISBN 978-1-84868-221-4 . Evans, Jane (1982). Alfred Leete . Woodspring Museum. Keyes, Anthony (1995). Weston-super-Mare The sands of Time . Sigma Leisure. ISBN 1-85058-470-2 . Maggs, Colin (1964). The Weston Clevedon & Portishead Railway . Oakwood Press. Maggs, Colin (1974). Weston-super-Mare Tramways . Oakwood Press. Moore, Gillian (1999). The Good Earth A Study of Market Gardening in Worle and Milton Somerset . North Somerset Library & Museum. ISBN 0-901104-25-6 . Shorney, Jonathan (2015). Knightstone: The Story of Weston-super-Mare's 'Island' Theatre . Redcliffe Press. ISBN 978-1-908326-72-0 . Smith, Rosie & Howard (2001). Weston-super-Mare in Watercolours an alternative guide . Garret Press. ISBN 0-9541546-1-4 . Strange, Peter (1989). The Weston-Clevedon & Portishead Railway . Twelveheads Press. ISBN 0-906294-19-3 . External links [ edit ] Somerset portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Weston-super-Mare . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Weston-super-Mare . Weston-super-Mare at Curlie Weston-super-Mare town council Official Tourist Website for Weston-super-Mare show v t e Ceremonial county of Somerset Somerset Portal Unitary authorities Bath and North East Somerset North Somerset Boroughs or districts Mendip Sedgemoor South Somerset Taunton Deane West Somerset Major settlements Axbridge Bath Bridgwater Bruton Burnham-on-Sea Castle Cary Chard Clevedon Crewkerne Dulverton Frome Glastonbury Highbridge Ilminster Keynsham Langport Midsomer Norton Minehead Nailsea North Petherton Portishead Radstock Shepton Mallet Somerton Taunton Watchet Wellington Wells Weston-super-Mare Wincanton Wiveliscombe Yeovil See also: List of civil parishes in Somerset Rivers Alham Aller Avill Avon Axe rivers Bristol Channel Lyme Bay Badgworthy Water Banwell Barle Brue Cam Brook Cary Chew East Lyn Exe Fivehead Frome Haddeo Hoar Oak Water Holford Horner Huntspill Isle Land Yeo Mells Midford Brook Oare Water Parret Severn Estuary Sheppey Somer Sowy Tone Washford Wellow Brook West Lyn Whitelake Yeo rivers Congresbury South Somerset Topics Country houses County Council Culture of Somerset Economy of Somerset Flag Geography of Somerset Geology of Somerset Grade I listed buildings Grade II* listed buildings High Sheriff of Somerset History of Somerset Local nature reserves Lord Lieutenant of Somerset Museums National nature reserves Parliamentary constituencies Places Population of major settlements Scheduled monuments Schools SSSIs Transport in Somerset Geographic areas: Blackdown Hills Brendon Hills Chew Valley Exmoor Mendip Hills Polden Hills Quantock Hills Somerset Levels South West Coast Path West Somerset Coast Path Authority control WorldCat Identities GND : 4225481-4 VIAF : 129041683 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weston-super-Mare&oldid=865009068 \" Categories : Weston-super-Mare Civil parishes in Somerset Towns in North Somerset Ports and harbours of Somerset Seaside resorts in England Populated coastal places in Somerset Beaches of Somerset Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Archived copy as title Use British English from January 2013 Use dmy dates from April 2018 Articles with OS grid coordinates Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with Curlie links Good articles Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages تۆرکجه Български Cebuano Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt Volapük 中文 21 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 October 2018, at 02:43 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Mollusca - Wikipedia Mollusca From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Mollusca Temporal range: Cambrian–Recent PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N Tonicella lineata , a polyplacophoran or chiton, anterior end towards the right Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Superphylum: Lophotrochozoa Phylum: Mollusca Linnaeus , 1758 Classes See text . Diversity [1] 85,000 recognized living species. Cornu aspersum (formerly Helix aspersa ) – a common land snail The mollusc (or mollusk [note 1] / ˈ m ɒ l ə s k / ) composes the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. [2] The number of fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000 species [3] Molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms . Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats . They are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is typically divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes , of which two are entirely extinct . Cephalopod molluscs, such as squid , cuttlefish and octopus , are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates —and either the giant squid or the colossal squid is the largest known invertebrate species. The gastropods ( snails and slugs ) are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, and account for 80% of the total. The three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion , the presence of a radula (except for bivalves), and the structure of the nervous system . Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on a \"hypothetical ancestral mollusc\" (see image below). This has a single, \" limpet -like\" shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate , and is secreted by a mantle covering the whole upper surface. The underside of the animal consists of a single muscular \"foot\". Although molluscs are coelomates , the coelom tends to be small. The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates; their circulatory systems are mainly open . The \"generalized\" mollusc's feeding system consists of a rasping \"tongue\", the radula, and a complex digestive system in which exuded mucus and microscopic, muscle-powered \"hairs\" called cilia play various important roles. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords , or three in bivalves . The brain , in species that have one, encircles the esophagus . Most molluscs have eyes , and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs , from which may emerge trochophore larvae , more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago [ dead link ] . However, the evolutionary history both of molluscs' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into the well-known living and fossil forms are still subjects of vigorous debate among scientists. Molluscs have been and still are an important food source for anatomically modern humans . However there is a risk of food poisoning from toxins which can accumulate in certain molluscs under specific conditions, and because of this, many countries have regulations to reduce this risk. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls , mother of pearl , Tyrian purple dye, and sea silk . Their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities. The bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, but their sophisticated, though easily produced, venoms have become important tools in neurological research. Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever) is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious agricultural pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems . Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 2 Definition 3 Diversity 4 Hypothetical ancestral mollusc 4.1 Mantle and mantle cavity 4.2 Shell 4.3 Foot 4.4 Circulatory system 4.5 Respiration 4.6 Eating, digestion, and excretion 4.7 Nervous system 4.8 Reproduction 5 Ecology 5.1 Feeding 6 Classification 7 Evolution 7.1 Fossil record 7.2 Phylogeny 8 Human interaction 8.1 Uses by humans 8.1.1 Bioindicators 8.2 Harmful to humans 8.2.1 Stings and bites 8.2.2 Disease vectors 8.2.3 Pests 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Etymology [ edit ] The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque , which originated from the Latin molluscus , from mollis , soft. Molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotle 's τα μαλακά ( ta malaká ), \"the soft things\", which he applied to cuttlefish . The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology . [4] The name Molluscoida was formerly used to denote a division of the animal kingdom containing the brachiopods , bryozoans , and tunicates , the members of the three groups having been supposed to somewhat resemble the molluscs. As it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. [5] Definition [ edit ] The most universal features of the body structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion , and the organization of the nervous system. Many have a calcareous shell. [6] Molluscs have developed such a varied range of body structures, it is difficult to find synapomorphies (defining characteristics) to apply to all modern groups. [7] The most general characteristic of molluscs is they are unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical. [8] The following are present in all modern molluscs: [9] [10] The dorsal part of the body wall is a mantle (or pallium) which secretes calcareous spicules , plates or shells. It overlaps the body with enough spare room to form a mantle cavity . The anus and genitals open into the mantle cavity. There are two pairs of main nerve cords . [10] Other characteristics that commonly appear in textbooks have significant exceptions: Whether characteristic is found in these classes of Molluscs Supposed universal Molluscan characteristic [9] Aplacophora [11] Polyplacophora [12] Monoplacophora [13] Gastropoda [14] Cephalopoda [15] Bivalvia [16] Scaphopoda [17] Radula , a rasping \"tongue\" with chitinous teeth Absent in 20% of Neomeniomorpha Yes Yes Yes Yes No Internal, cannot extend beyond body Broad, muscular foot Reduced or absent Yes Yes Yes Modified into arms Yes Small, only at \"front\" end Dorsal concentration of internal organs (visceral mass) Not obvious Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Large digestive ceca No ceca in some Aplacophora Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Large complex metanephridia (\"kidneys\") None Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Small, simple One or more valves/ shells Primitive forms, yes; modern forms, no Yes Yes Snails, yes; slugs, mostly yes (internal vestigial) Octopuses, no; cuttlefish, nautilus, squid, yes Yes Yes Odontophore Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Diversity [ edit ] About 80% of all known mollusc species are gastropods ( snails and slugs ), including this cowry (a sea snail). [18] Estimates of accepted described living species of molluscs vary from 50,000 to a maximum of 120,000 species. [1] In 1969 David Nicol estimated the probable total number of living molluscs at 107,000 of which were about 12,000 fresh-water gastropods and 35,000 terrestrial . The Bivalvia would comprise about 14% of the total and the other five classes less than 2% of the living molluscs. [19] In 2009, Chapman estimated the number of described living species at 85,000. [1] Haszprunar in 2001 estimated about 93,000 named species, [20] which include 23% of all named marine organisms. [21] Molluscs are second only to arthropods in numbers of living animal species [18] —far behind the arthropods' 1,113,000 but well ahead of chordates ' 52,000. [22] About 200,000 living species in total are estimated, [1] [23] and 70,000 fossil species, [9] although the total number of mollusc species ever to have existed, whether or not preserved, must be many times greater than the number alive today. [24] Molluscs have more varied forms than any other animal phylum . They include snails , slugs and other gastropods ; clams and other bivalves ; squids and other cephalopods ; and other lesser-known but similarly distinctive subgroups. The majority of species still live in the oceans, from the seashores to the abyssal zone , but some form a significant part of the freshwater fauna and the terrestrial ecosystems . Molluscs are extremely diverse in tropical and temperate regions, but can be found at all latitudes . [7] About 80% of all known mollusc species are gastropods. [18] Cephalopoda such as squid , cuttlefish , and octopuses are among the neurologically most advanced of all invertebrates. [25] The giant squid , which until recently had not been observed alive in its adult form, [26] is one of the largest invertebrates , but a recently caught specimen of the colossal squid , 10 m (33 ft) long and weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb), may have overtaken it. [27] Freshwater and terrestrial molluscs appear exceptionally vulnerable to extinction. Estimates of the numbers of nonmarine molluscs vary widely, partly because many regions have not been thoroughly surveyed. There is also a shortage of specialists who can identify all the animals in any one area to species. However, in 2004 the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species included nearly 2,000 endangered nonmarine molluscs. For comparison, the great majority of mollusc species are marine, but only 41 of these appeared on the 2004 Red List. About 42% of recorded extinctions since the year 1500 are of molluscs, consisting almost entirely of nonmarine species. [28] Hypothetical ancestral mollusc [ edit ] Further information: Mollusc shell Anatomical diagram of a hypothetical ancestral mollusc Because of the great range of anatomical diversity among molluscs, many textbooks start the subject of molluscan anatomy by describing what is called an archi-mollusc , hypothetical generalized mollusc , or hypothetical ancestral mollusc ( HAM ) to illustrate the most common features found within the phylum. The depiction is visually rather similar to modern monoplacophorans , and some suggest it may resemble very early molluscs. [7] [10] [13] [29] The generalized mollusc is bilaterally symmetrical and has a single, \" limpet -like\" shell on top. The shell is secreted by a mantle covering the upper surface. The underside consists of a single muscular \"foot\". [10] The visceral mass, or visceropallium, is the soft, nonmuscular metabolic region of the mollusc. It contains the body organs. [8] Mantle and mantle cavity [ edit ] The mantle cavity, a fold in the mantle, encloses a significant amount of space. It is lined with epidermis, and is exposed, according to habitat , to sea, fresh water or air. The cavity was at the rear in the earliest molluscs, but its position now varies from group to group. The anus , a pair of osphradia (chemical sensors) in the incoming \"lane\", the hindmost pair of gills and the exit openings of the nephridia (\"kidneys\") and gonads (reproductive organs) are in the mantle cavity. [10] The whole soft body of bivalves lies within an enlarged mantle cavity. [8] Shell [ edit ] Main article: Mollusc shell The mantle edge secretes a shell (secondarily absent in a number of taxonomic groups, such as the nudibranchs [8] ) that consists of mainly chitin and conchiolin (a protein hardened with calcium carbonate ), [10] [30] except the outermost layer in almost all cases is all conchiolin (see periostracum ). [10] Molluscs never use phosphate to construct their hard parts, [31] with the questionable exception of Cobcrephora . [32] While most mollusc shells are composed mainly of aragonite , those gastropods that lay eggs with a hard shell use calcite (sometimes with traces of aragonite) to construct the eggshells. [33] The shell consists of three layers: the outer layer (the periostracum ) made of organic matter, a middle layer made of columnar calcite , and an inner layer consisting of laminated calcite, often nacreous . [8] Foot [ edit ] Play media A 50-second video of snails (most likely Natica chemnitzi and Cerithium stercusmuscaram ) feeding on the sea floor in the Gulf of California , Puerto Peñasco , Mexico The underside consists of a muscular foot, which has adapted to different purposes in different classes. [34] :4 The foot carries a pair of statocysts , which act as balance sensors. In gastropods, it secretes mucus as a lubricant to aid movement. In forms having only a top shell, such as limpets , the foot acts as a sucker attaching the animal to a hard surface, and the vertical muscles clamp the shell down over it; in other molluscs, the vertical muscles pull the foot and other exposed soft parts into the shell. [10] In bivalves, the foot is adapted for burrowing into the sediment; [34] :4 in cephalopods it is used for jet propulsion, [34] :4 and the tentacles and arms are derived from the foot. [35] Circulatory system [ edit ] Molluscs' circulatory systems are mainly open . Although molluscs are coelomates , their coeloms are reduced to fairly small spaces enclosing the heart and gonads. The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood and coelomic fluid circulate and which encloses most of the other internal organs. These hemocoelic spaces act as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton . [8] The blood contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin as an oxygen -carrier. The heart consists of one or more pairs of atria ( auricles ), which receive oxygenated blood from the gills and pump it to the ventricle , which pumps it into the aorta (main artery ), which is fairly short and opens into the hemocoel. [10] The atria of the heart also function as part of the excretory system by filtering waste products out of the blood and dumping it into the coelom as urine . A pair of nephridia (\"little kidneys\") to the rear of and connected to the coelom extracts any re-usable materials from the urine and dumps additional waste products into it, and then ejects it via tubes that discharge into the mantle cavity. [10] Respiration [ edit ] Most molluscs have only one pair of gills, or even only one gill. Generally, the gills are rather like feathers in shape, although some species have gills with filaments on only one side. They divide the mantle cavity so water enters near the bottom and exits near the top. Their filaments have three kinds of cilia, one of which drives the water current through the mantle cavity, while the other two help to keep the gills clean. If the osphradia detect noxious chemicals or possibly sediment entering the mantle cavity, the gills' cilia may stop beating until the unwelcome intrusions have ceased. Each gill has an incoming blood vessel connected to the hemocoel and an outgoing one to the heart. [10] Eating, digestion, and excretion [ edit ] Snail radula at work = Food = Radula = Muscles = Odontophore \"belt\" Members of the mollusc family use intracellular digestion to function. Most molluscs have muscular mouths with radulae , \"tongues\", bearing many rows of chitinous teeth, which are replaced from the rear as they wear out. The radula primarily functions to scrape bacteria and algae off rocks, and is associated with the odontophore , a cartilaginous supporting organ. [8] The radula is unique to the molluscs and has no equivalent in any other animal. Molluscs' mouths also contain glands that secrete slimy mucus , to which the food sticks. Beating cilia (tiny \"hairs\") drive the mucus towards the stomach, so the mucus forms a long string called a \"food string\". [10] At the tapered rear end of the stomach and projecting slightly into the hindgut is the prostyle, a backward-pointing cone of feces and mucus, which is rotated by further cilia so it acts as a bobbin, winding the mucus string onto itself. Before the mucus string reaches the prostyle, the acidity of the stomach makes the mucus less sticky and frees particles from it. [10] The particles are sorted by yet another group of cilia, which send the smaller particles, mainly minerals, to the prostyle so eventually they are excreted, while the larger ones, mainly food, are sent to the stomach's cecum (a pouch with no other exit) to be digested. The sorting process is by no means perfect. [10] Periodically, circular muscles at the hindgut's entrance pinch off and excrete a piece of the prostyle, preventing the prostyle from growing too large. The anus, in the part of the mantle cavity, is swept by the outgoing \"lane\" of the current created by the gills. Carnivorous molluscs usually have simpler digestive systems. [10] As the head has largely disappeared in bivalves, the mouth has been equipped with labial palps (two on each side of the mouth) to collect the detritus from its mucus. [8] Nervous system [ edit ] Simplified diagram of the mollusc nervous system The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main nerve cords organized around a number of paired ganglia, the visceral cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot. Most pairs of corresponding ganglia on both sides of the body are linked by commissures (relatively large bundles of nerves). The ganglia above the gut are the cerebral, the pleural, and the visceral, which are located above the esophagus (gullet). The pedal ganglia, which control the foot, are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural ganglia surround the esophagus in a circumesophageal nerve ring or nerve collar . [10] The acephalic molluscs (i.e., bivalves) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important. The bivalves have only three pairs of ganglia— cerebral, pedal, and visceral— with the visceral as the largest and most important of the three functioning as the principal center of \"thinking\". Some such as the scallops have eyes around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to distinguish between light and shadow. Reproduction [ edit ] See also: Reproductive system of gastropods Apical tuft (cilia) Prototroch (cilia) Stomach Mouth Metatroch (cilia) Mesoderm Anus /// = cilia Trochophore larva [36] The simplest molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but with more complex variations. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. Two gonads sit next to the coelom , a small cavity that surrounds the heart, into which they shed ova or sperm . The nephridia extract the gametes from the coelom and emit them into the mantle cavity. Molluscs that use such a system remain of one sex all their lives and rely on external fertilization . Some molluscs use internal fertilization and/or are hermaphrodites , functioning as both sexes; both of these methods require more complex reproductive systems. [10] The most basic molluscan larva is a trochophore , which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia around its \"equator\" to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus. New tissue grows in the bands of mesoderm in the interior, so the apical tuft and anus are pushed further apart as the animal grows. The trochophore stage is often succeeded by a veliger stage in which the prototroch , the \"equatorial\" band of cilia nearest the apical tuft, develops into the velum (\"veil\"), a pair of cilia-bearing lobes with which the larva swims. Eventually, the larva sinks to the seafloor and metamorphoses into the adult form. While metamorphosis is the usual state in molluscs, the cephalopods differ in exhibiting direct development: the hatchling is a 'miniaturized' form of the adult. [37] Ecology [ edit ] Feeding [ edit ] Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on algae or filter feeders. For those grazing, two feeding strategies are predominant. Some feed on microscopic, filamentous algae, often using their radula as a 'rake' to comb up filaments from the sea floor. Others feed on macroscopic 'plants' such as kelp, rasping the plant surface with its radula. To employ this strategy, the plant has to be large enough for the mollusc to 'sit' on, so smaller macroscopic plants are not as often eaten as their larger counterparts. [38] Filter feeders are molluscs that feed by straining suspended matter and food particle from water, typically by passing the water over their gills. Most bivalves are filter feeders. Cephalopods are primarily predatory, and the radula takes a secondary role to the jaws and tentacles in food acquisition. The monoplacophoran Neopilina uses its radula in the usual fashion, but its diet includes protists such as the xenophyophore Stannophyllum . [39] Sacoglossan sea-slugs suck the sap from algae, using their one-row radula to pierce the cell walls, [40] whereas dorid nudibranchs and some Vetigastropoda feed on sponges [41] [42] and others feed on hydroids. [43] (An extensive list of molluscs with unusual feeding habits is available in the appendix of GRAHAM, A. (1955). \"Molluscan diets\" . Journal of Molluscan Studies . 31 (3–4): 144. .) Classification [ edit ] See also: List of mollusc orders Opinions vary about the number of classes of molluscs; for example, the table below shows eight living classes, [20] and two extinct ones. Although they are unlikely to form a clade, some older works combine the Caudofoveata and solenogasters into one class, the Aplacophora . [11] [29] Two of the commonly recognized \"classes\" are known only from fossils. [18] Class Major organisms Described living species [20] Distribution Caudofoveata [11] worm-like organisms 120 seabed 200–3,000 metres (660–9,840 ft) Solenogastres [11] worm-like organisms 200 seabed 200–3,000 metres (660–9,840 ft) Polyplacophora [12] chitons 1,000 rocky tidal zone and seabed Monoplacophora [13] An ancient lineage of molluscs with cap-like shells 31 seabed 1,800–7,000 metres (5,900–23,000 ft); one species 200 metres (660 ft) Gastropoda [44] All the snails and slugs including abalone , limpets , conch , nudibranchs , sea hares , sea butterfly 70,000 marine, freshwater, land Cephalopoda [45] squid , octopus , cuttlefish , nautilus , spirula 900 marine Bivalvia [46] clams , oysters , scallops , geoducks , mussels 20,000 marine, freshwater Scaphopoda [17] tusk shells 500 marine 6–7,000 metres (20–22,966 ft) Rostroconchia † [47] fossils; probable ancestors of bivalves extinct marine Helcionelloida † [48] fossils; snail-like organisms such as Latouchella extinct marine Classification into higher taxa for these groups has been and remains problematic. A phylogenetic study suggests the Polyplacophora form a clade with a monophyletic Aplacophora. [49] Additionally, it suggests a sister taxon relationship exists between the Bivalvia and the Gastropoda. Tentaculita may also be in Mollusca (see Tentaculites ). A genus called Wiwaxia probably was in the Mollusca. Evolution [ edit ] Main article: Evolution of molluscs See also: Evolution of cephalopods The use of love darts by the land snail Monachoides vicinus is a form of sexual selection Fossil record [ edit ] Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods (e.g. Aldanella ), cephalopods (e.g. Plectronoceras , ? Nectocaris ) and bivalves ( Pojetaia , Fordilla ) towards the middle of the Cambrian period, c. 500 million years ago , though arguably each of these may belong only to the stem lineage of their respective classes [50] . However, the evolutionary history both of the emergence of molluscs from the ancestral group Lophotrochozoa , and of their diversification into the well-known living and fossil forms, is still vigorously debated. Debate occurs about whether some Ediacaran and Early Cambrian fossils really are molluscs. Kimberella , from about 555 million years ago , has been described by some paleontologists as \"mollusc-like\", [51] [52] but others are unwilling to go further than \"probable bilaterian \". [53] [54] , if that [55] There is an even sharper debate about whether Wiwaxia , from about 505 million years ago , was a mollusc, and much of this centers on whether its feeding apparatus was a type of radula or more similar to that of some polychaete worms. [53] [56] Nicholas Butterfield, who opposes the idea that Wiwaxia was a mollusc, has written that earlier microfossils from 515 to 510 million years ago are fragments of a genuinely mollusc-like radula. [57] This appears to contradict the concept that the ancestral molluscan radula was mineralized. [58] The tiny Helcionellid fossil Yochelcionella is thought to be an early mollusc [48] Spirally coiled shells appear in many gastropods . [14] However, the Helcionellids , which first appear over 540 million years ago in Early Cambrian rocks from Siberia and China, [59] [60] are thought to be early molluscs with rather snail-like shells. Shelled molluscs therefore predate the earliest trilobites . [48] Although most helcionellid fossils are only a few millimeters long, specimens a few centimeters long have also been found, most with more limpet -like shapes. The tiny specimens have been suggested to be juveniles and the larger ones adults. [61] Some analyses of helcionellids concluded these were the earliest gastropods . [62] However, other scientists are not convinced these Early Cambrian fossils show clear signs of the torsion that identifies modern gastropods twists the internal organs so the anus lies above the head. [14] [63] [64] = Septa = Siphuncle Septa and siphuncle in nautiloid shell Volborthella , some fossils of which predate 530 million years ago , was long thought to be a cephalopod, but discoveries of more detailed fossils showed its shell was not secreted, but built from grains of the mineral silicon dioxide (silica), and it was not divided into a series of compartments by septa as those of fossil shelled cephalopods and the living Nautilus are. Volborthella ' s classification is uncertain. [65] The Late Cambrian fossil Plectronoceras is now thought to be the earliest clearly cephalopod fossil, as its shell had septa and a siphuncle , a strand of tissue that Nautilus uses to remove water from compartments it has vacated as it grows, and which is also visible in fossil ammonite shells. However, Plectronoceras and other early cephalopods crept along the seafloor instead of swimming, as their shells contained a \"ballast\" of stony deposits on what is thought to be the underside, and had stripes and blotches on what is thought to be the upper surface. [66] All cephalopods with external shells except the nautiloids became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period 65 million years ago . [67] However, the shell-less Coleoidea ( squid , octopus , cuttlefish ) are abundant today. [68] The Early Cambrian fossils Fordilla and Pojetaia are regarded as bivalves . [69] [70] [71] [72] \"Modern-looking\" bivalves appeared in the Ordovician period, 488 to 443 million years ago . [73] One bivalve group, the rudists , became major reef -builders in the Cretaceous, but became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event . [74] Even so, bivalves remain abundant and diverse. The Hyolitha are a class of extinct animals with a shell and operculum that may be molluscs. Authors who suggest they deserve their own phylum do not comment on the position of this phylum in the tree of life [75] Phylogeny [ edit ] Lophotrochozoa Brachiopods Mollusca Bivalves Monoplacophorans (\"limpet-like\", \"living fossils\") Gastropods ( snails , slugs , limpets , sea hares ) Cephalopods ( nautiloids , ammonites , squid , etc.) Scaphopods (tusk shells) Aplacophorans (spicule-covered, worm-like) Polyplacophorans (chitons) Halwaxiids Wiwaxia Halkieria Orthrozanclus Odontogriphus A possible \"family tree\" of molluscs (2007). [76] [77] Does not include annelid worms as the analysis concentrated on fossilizable \"hard\" features. [76] The phylogeny (evolutionary \"family tree\") of molluscs is a controversial subject. In addition to the debates about whether Kimberella and any of the \" halwaxiids \" were molluscs or closely related to molluscs, [52] [53] [56] [57] debates arise about the relationships between the classes of living molluscs. [54] In fact, some groups traditionally classified as molluscs may have to be redefined as distinct but related. [78] Molluscs are generally regarded members of the Lophotrochozoa , [76] a group defined by having trochophore larvae and, in the case of living Lophophorata , a feeding structure called a lophophore . The other members of the Lophotrochozoa are the annelid worms and seven marine phyla . [79] The diagram on the right summarizes a phylogeny presented in 2007. Because the relationships between the members of the family tree are uncertain, it is difficult to identify the features inherited from the last common ancestor of all molluscs. [80] For example, it is uncertain whether the ancestral mollusc was metameric (composed of repeating units)—if it was, that would suggest an origin from an annelid -like worm. [81] Scientists disagree about this: Giribet and colleagues concluded, in 2006, the repetition of gills and of the foot's retractor muscles were later developments, [7] while in 2007, Sigwart concluded the ancestral mollusc was metameric, and it had a foot used for creeping and a \"shell\" that was mineralized. [54] In one particular branch of the family tree, the shell of conchiferans is thought to have evolved from the spicules (small spines) of aplacophorans ; but this is difficult to reconcile with the embryological origins of spicules. [80] The molluscan shell appears to have originated from a mucus coating, which eventually stiffened into a cuticle . This would have been impermeable and thus forced the development of more sophisticated respiratory apparatus in the form of gills. [48] Eventually, the cuticle would have become mineralized, [48] using the same genetic machinery ( engrailed ) as most other bilaterian skeletons . [81] The first mollusc shell almost certainly was reinforced with the mineral aragonite . [30] The evolutionary relationships 'within' the molluscs are also debated, and the diagrams below show two widely supported reconstructions: Molluscs Aculifera Solenogastres Caudofoveata Polyplacophorans Conchifera Monoplacophorans Bivalves Scaphopods Gastropods Cephalopods The \" Aculifera \" hypothesis [76] Molluscs Solenogastres Caudofoveata Testaria Polyplacophorans Monoplacophorans Bivalves Scaphopods Gastropods Cephalopods The \" Testaria \" hypothesis [76] Morphological analyses tend to recover a conchiferan clade that receives less support from molecular analyses, [82] although these results also lead to unexpected paraphylies, for instance scattering the bivalves throughout all other mollusc groups. [83] However, an analysis in 2009 using both morphological and molecular phylogenetics comparisons concluded the molluscs are not monophyletic ; in particular, Scaphopoda and Bivalvia are both separate, monophyletic lineages unrelated to the remaining molluscan classes; the traditional phylum Mollusca is polyphyletic , and it can only be made monophyletic if scaphopods and bivalves are excluded. [78] A 2010 analysis recovered the traditional conchiferan and aculiferan groups, and showed molluscs were monophyletic, demonstrating that available data for solenogastres was contaminated. [84] Current molecular data are insufficient to constrain the molluscan phylogeny, and since the methods used to determine the confidence in clades are prone to overestimation, it is risky to place too much emphasis even on the areas of which different studies agree. [85] Rather than eliminating unlikely relationships, the latest studies add new permutations of internal molluscan relationships, even bringing the conchiferan hypothesis into question. [86] Human interaction [ edit ] Main article: Molluscs in culture For millennia, molluscs have been a source of food for humans, as well as important luxury goods, notably pearls , mother of pearl , Tyrian purple dye, sea silk , and chemical compounds. Their shells have also been used as a form of currency in some preindustrial societies. A number of species of molluscs can bite or sting humans, and some have become agricultural pests. Uses by humans [ edit ] Further information: Seashell and List of edible molluscs Molluscs, especially bivalves such as clams and mussels , have been an important food source since at least the advent of anatomically modern humans, and this has often resulted in overfishing. [87] Other commonly eaten molluscs include octopuses and squids , whelks , oysters , and scallops . [88] In 2005, China accounted for 80% of the global mollusc catch, netting almost 11,000,000 tonnes (11,000,000 long tons; 12,000,000 short tons). Within Europe, France remained the industry leader. [89] Some countries regulate importation and handling of molluscs and other seafood , mainly to minimize the poison risk from toxins that can sometimes accumulate in the animals. [90] Saltwater pearl oyster farm in Seram, Indonesia Most molluscs with shells can produce pearls, but only the pearls of bivalves and some gastropods , whose shells are lined with nacre , are valuable. [14] [16] The best natural pearls are produced by marine pearl oysters , Pinctada margaritifera and Pinctada mertensi , which live in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Pacific Ocean . Natural pearls form when a small foreign object gets stuck between the mantle and shell. The two methods of culturing pearls insert either \"seeds\" or beads into oysters. The \"seed\" method uses grains of ground shell from freshwater mussels , and overharvesting for this purpose has endangered several freshwater mussel species in the southeastern United States. [16] The pearl industry is so important in some areas, significant sums of money are spent on monitoring the health of farmed molluscs. [91] Byzantine Emperor Justinian I clad in Tyrian purple and wearing numerous pearls Other luxury and high- status products were made from molluscs. Tyrian purple , made from the ink glands of murex shells, \"... fetched its weight in silver\" in the fourth century BC , according to Theopompus . [92] The discovery of large numbers of Murex shells on Crete suggests the Minoans may have pioneered the extraction of \"imperial purple\" during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th–18th centuries BC, centuries before the Tyrians . [93] [94] Sea silk is a fine, rare, and valuable fabric produced from the long silky threads ( byssus ) secreted by several bivalve molluscs, particularly Pinna nobilis , to attach themselves to the sea bed. [95] Procopius , writing on the Persian wars circa 550 CE , \"stated that the five hereditary satraps (governors) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were given chlamys (or cloaks) made from lana pinna . Apparently, only the ruling classes were allowed to wear these chlamys.\" [96] Mollusc shells, including those of cowries , were used as a kind of money ( shell money ) in several preindustrial societies. However, these \"currencies\" generally differed in important ways from the standardized government-backed and -controlled money familiar to industrial societies. Some shell \"currencies\" were not used for commercial transactions, but mainly as social status displays at important occasions, such as weddings. [97] When used for commercial transactions, they functioned as commodity money, as a tradable commodity whose value differed from place to place, often as a result of difficulties in transport, and which was vulnerable to incurable inflation if more efficient transport or \"goldrush\" behavior appeared. [98] Bioindicators [ edit ] Bivalve molluscs are used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of contamination status of the ecosystem. They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed. [99] Potamopyrgus antipodarum is used by some water treatment plants to test for estrogen-mimicking pollutants from industrial agriculture. Harmful to humans [ edit ] Stings and bites [ edit ] The blue-ringed octopus 's rings are a warning signal; this octopus is alarmed, and its bite can kill. [100] Some molluscs sting or bite, but deaths from mollusc venoms total less than 10% of those from jellyfish stings. [101] All octopuses are venomous, [102] but only a few species pose a significant threat to humans. Blue-ringed octopuses in the genus Hapalochlaena , which live around Australia and New Guinea, bite humans only if severely provoked, [100] but their venom kills 25% of human victims. Another tropical species, Octopus apollyon , causes severe inflammation that can last for over a month even if treated correctly, [103] and the bite of Octopus rubescens can cause necrosis that lasts longer than one month if untreated, and headaches and weakness persisting for up to a week even if treated. [104] Live cone snails can be dangerous to shell collectors, but are useful to neurology researchers. [105] All species of cone snails are venomous and can sting painfully when handled, although many species are too small to pose much of a risk to humans, and only a few fatalities have been reliably reported. Their venom is a complex mixture of toxins , some fast-acting and others slower but deadlier. [105] [101] [106] The effects of individual cone-shell toxins on victims' nervous systems are so precise as to be useful tools for research in neurology , and the small size of their molecules makes it easy to synthesize them. [105] [107] Disease vectors [ edit ] Skin vesicles created by the penetration of Schistosoma . (Source: CDC ) Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever), a disease caused by the fluke worm Schistosoma , is \"second only to malaria as the most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries. An estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease – 100 million in Africa alone.\" [108] The parasite has 13 known species, two of which infect humans. The parasite itself is not a mollusc, but all the species have freshwater snails as intermediate hosts . [109] Pests [ edit ] Some species of molluscs, particularly certain snails and slugs , can be serious crop pests, [110] and when introduced into new environments, can unbalance local ecosystems . One such pest, the giant African snail Achatina fulica , has been introduced to many parts of Asia, as well as to many islands in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean . In the 1990s, this species reached the West Indies . Attempts to control it by introducing the predatory snail Euglandina rosea proved disastrous, as the predator ignored Achatina fulica and went on to extirpate several native snail species, instead. 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CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to: a b c Butterfield, N.J. (2006). \"Hooking some stem-group \"worms\": fossil lophotrochozoans in the Burgess Shale\". BioEssays . 28 (12): 1161–6. PMID 17120226 . doi : 10.1002/bies.20507 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Sigwart, J. D.; Sutton, M. D. (October 2007). \"Deep molluscan phylogeny: synthesis of palaeontological and neontological data\" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological sciences . 274 (1624): 2413–2419. PMC 2274978 . PMID 17652065 . doi : 10.1098/rspb.2007.0701 . For a summary, see \"The Mollusca\" . University of California Museum of Paleontology . Retrieved 2 October 2008 . Jump up ^ Budd, G. E., and S. Jensen. 2016: The origin of the animals and a “Savannah” hypothesis for early bilaterian evolution. Biological Reviews 7:Online ahead of print. ^ Jump up to: a b Caron, J.B.; Scheltema, A.; Schander, C.; Rudkin, D. (July 13, 2006). \"A soft-bodied mollusc with radula from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale\". Nature . 442 (7099): 159–163. Bibcode : 2006Natur.442..159C . PMID 16838013 . doi : 10.1038/nature04894 . ^ Jump up to: a b Butterfield, N.J. (May 2008). \"An Early Cambrian Radula\". Journal of Paleontology . 82 (3): 543–554. doi : 10.1666/07-066.1 . Jump up ^ Cruz, R.; Lins, U.; Farina, M. (1998). \"Minerals of the radular apparatus of Falcidens sp. (Caudofoveata) and the evolutionary implications for the Phylum Mollusca\". Biological Bulletin . 194 (2): 224–230. JSTOR 1543051 . doi : 10.2307/1543051 . Jump up ^ Parkhaev, P. Yu. (2007). \"The Cambrian 'basement' of gastropod evolution\" . Geological Society, London, Special Publications . 286 : 415–421. Bibcode : 2007GSLSP.286..415P . ISBN 978-1-86239-233-5 . doi : 10.1144/SP286.31 . Retrieved 2009-11-01 . Jump up ^ Steiner, M.; Li, G.; Qian, Y.; Zhu, M.; Erdtmann, B.D. (2007). \"Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian small shelly fossil assemblages and a revised biostratigraphic correlation of the Yangtze Platform (China)\". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology . 254 : 67. doi : 10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.046 . Jump up ^ Mus, M.M.; Palacios, T.; Jensen, S. (2008). \"Size of the earliest mollusks: Did small helcionellids grow to become large adults?\". Geology . 36 (2): 175. Bibcode : 2008Geo....36..175M . doi : 10.1130/G24218A.1 . Jump up ^ Landing, E.; Geyer, G.; Bartowski, K. E. (2002). \"Latest Early Cambrian Small Shelly Fossils, Trilobites, and Hatch Hill Dysaerobic Interval on the Quebec Continental Slope\". Journal of Paleontology . 76 (2): 287–305. JSTOR 1307143 . doi : 10.1666/0022-3360(2002)076<0287:LECSSF>2.0.CO;2 . Jump up ^ Frýda, J.; Nützel, A. and Wagner, P.J. (2008). \"Paleozoic Gastropoda\". In Ponder, W.F.; Lindberg, D.R. Phylogeny and evolution of the Mollusca . California Press. pp. 239–264. ISBN 0-520-25092-3 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Kouchinsky, A. (2000). \"Shell microstructures in Early Cambrian molluscs\" (PDF) . Acta Palaeontologica Polonica . 45 (2): 119–150 . Retrieved 4 Nov 2009 . Jump up ^ Hagadorn, J.W. & Waggoner, B.M. (2002). \"The Early Cambrian problematic fossil Volborthella: New insights from the Basin and Range\". In Corsetti, F.A. Proterozoic-Cambrian of the Great Basin and Beyond, Pacific Section SEPM Book 93 (PDF) . SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology). pp. 135–150. Archived from the original on 2006-09-11. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ Vickers-Rich, P., Fenton, C.L., Fenton, M.A. and Rich, T.H. (1997). The Fossil Book: A Record of Prehistoric Life . Courier Dover Publications. pp. 269–272. ISBN 0-486-29371-8 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Marshall C.R.; Ward P.D. (1996). \"Sudden and Gradual Molluscan Extinctions in the Latest Cretaceous of Western European Tethys\". Science . 274 (5291): 1360–1363. Bibcode : 1996Sci...274.1360M . PMID 8910273 . doi : 10.1126/science.274.5291.1360 . Jump up ^ Monks, N. \"A Broad Brush History of the Cephalopoda\" . Retrieved 2009-03-21 . Jump up ^ Pojeta, J. (2000). \"Cambran Pelecypoda (Mollusca)\". American Malacological Bulletin . 15 : 157–166. Jump up ^ Schneider, J.A. (2001). \"Bivalve systematics during the 20th century\". Journal of Paleontology . 75 (6): 1119–1127. doi : 10.1666/0022-3360(2001)075<1119:BSDTC>2.0.CO;2 . Jump up ^ Gubanov, A.P.; Kouchinsky, A.V.; Peel, J.S. (2007). \"The first evolutionary-adaptive lineage within fossil molluscs\". Lethaia . 32 (2): 155. doi : 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1999.tb00534.x . Jump up ^ Gubanov, A.P.; Peel, J.S. (2003). \"The early Cambrian helcionelloid mollusc Anabarella Vostokova\". Palaeontology . 46 (5): 1073–1087. doi : 10.1111/1475-4983.00334 . Jump up ^ Zong-Jie, F. (2006). \"An introduction to Ordovician bivalves of southern China, with a discussion of the early evolution of the Bivalvia\". Geological Journal . 41 (3–4): 303–328. doi : 10.1002/gj.1048 . Jump up ^ Raup, D.M.; Jablonski, D. (1993). \"Geography of end-Cretaceous marine bivalve extinctions\". Science . 260 (5110): 971–973. Bibcode : 1993Sci...260..971R . PMID 11537491 . doi : 10.1126/science.11537491 . Jump up ^ Malinky, J.M. (2009). \"Permian Hyolithida from Australia: The Last of the Hyoliths?\". Journal of Paleontology . 83 : 147–152. doi : 10.1666/08-094R.1 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sigwart, J.D.; Sutton, M.D. (October 2007). \"Deep molluscan phylogeny: synthesis of palaeontological and neontological data\" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B . 274 (1624): 2413–2419. PMC 2274978 . PMID 17652065 . doi : 10.1098/rspb.2007.0701 . For a summary, see \"The Mollusca\" . University of California Museum of Paleontology . Retrieved 2008-10-02 . Jump up ^ \"The Mollusca\" . University of California Museum of Paleontology . Retrieved 2008-10-02 . ^ Jump up to: a b Goloboff, Pablo A.; Catalano, Santiago A.; Mirande, J. Marcos; Szumik, Claudia A.; Arias, J. Salvador; Källersjö, Mari; Farris, James S. (2009). \"Phylogenetic analysis of 73 060 taxa corroborates major eukaryotic groups\". Cladistics . 25 (3): 211–230. doi : 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2009.00255.x . Jump up ^ \"Introduction to the Lophotrochozoa\" . University of California Museum of Paleontology . Retrieved 2008-10-02 . ^ Jump up to: a b Henry, J.; Okusu, A.; Martindale, M. (2004). \"The cell lineage of the polyplacophoran, Chaetopleura apiculata: variation in the spiralian program and implications for molluscan evolution\". Developmental Biology . 272 (1): 145–160. PMID 15242797 . doi : 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.04.027 . ^ Jump up to: a b Jacobs, D.K.; Wray, C. G.; Wedeen, C. J.; Kostriken, R.; Desalle, R.; Staton, J. L.; Gates, R.D.; Lindberg, D.R. (2000). \"Molluscan engrailed expression, serial organization, and shell evolution\". Evolution & Development . 2 (6): 340–347. PMID 11256378 . doi : 10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00077.x . 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Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 370. ISBN 0-443-05627-7 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ \"China catches almost 11 m tonnes of molluscs in 2005\" . FAO . Retrieved 2008-10-03 . Jump up ^ \"Importing fishery products or bivalve molluscs\" . United Kingdom: Food Standards Agency . Retrieved 2008-10-02 . Jump up ^ Jones, J.B.; Creeper, J. (April 2006). \"Diseases of Pearl Oysters and Other Molluscs: a Western Australian Perspective\". Journal of Shellfish Research . 25 (1): 233–238. doi : 10.2983/0730-8000(2006)25[233:DOPOAO]2.0.CO;2 . Jump up ^ The fourth-century BC historian Theopompus , cited by Athenaeus (12:526) around 200 BC ; according to Gulick, C.B. (1941). Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99380-2 . Jump up ^ Reese, D.S. (1987). \"Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye Production in the Mediterranean Basin\". Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens . 82 : 201–6. doi : 10.1017/s0068245400020438 . Jump up ^ Stieglitz, R.R. (March 1994). \"The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple\". Biblical Archaeologist . 57 (1): 46–54. JSTOR 3210395 . doi : 10.2307/3210395 . Jump up ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary (Unabridged) 1976. G. & C. Merriam Co., p. 307. Jump up ^ Turner, R.D.; Rosewater, J. (June 1958). \"The Family Pinnidae in the Western Atlantic\". Johnsonia . 3 (38): 294. Jump up ^ Maurer, B. (October 2006). \"The Anthropology of Money\" (PDF) . Annual Review of Anthropology . 35 : 15–36. doi : 10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123127 . [ dead link ] Jump up ^ Hogendorn, J. & Johnson, M. (2003). The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521541107 . Particularly chapters \"Boom and slump for the cowrie trade\" (pages 64–79) and \"The cowrie as money: transport costs, values and inflation\" (pages 125–147) Jump up ^ Université Bordeaux; et al. \"MolluSCAN eye project\" . Retrieved 28 January 2017 . CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. ( link ) ^ Jump up to: a b Alafaci, A. \"Blue ringed octopus\" . Australian Venom Research Unit . Retrieved 2008-10-03 . ^ Jump up to: a b Williamson, J.A., Fenner, P.J., Burnett, J.W., and Rifkin, J. (1996). Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals: A Medical and Biological Handbook . UNSW Press. pp. 65–68. ISBN 0-86840-279-6 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Anderson, R.C. (1995). \"Aquarium husbandry of the giant Pacific octopus\". Drum and Croaker . 26 : 14–23. Jump up ^ Brazzelli, V.; Baldini, F.; Nolli, G.; Borghini, F.; Borroni, G. (March 1999). \" Octopus apollyon bite\". Contact Dermatitis . 40 (3): 169. PMID 10073455 . doi : 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1999.tb06025.x . Jump up ^ Anderson, R.C. (1999). \"An octopus bite and its treatment\". The Festivus . 31 : 45–46. ^ Jump up to: a b c Concar, D. (19 October 1996). \"Doctor snail—Lethal to fish and sometimes even humans, cone snail venom contains a pharmacopoeia of precision drugs\" . New Scientist . Retrieved 2008-10-03 . Jump up ^ Livett, B. \"Cone Shell Mollusc Poisoning, with Report of a Fatal Case\" . Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne . Jump up ^ Haddad Junior, V.; Paula Neto, J.O.B.D.; Cobo, V.L.J. (September–October 2006). \"Venomous mollusks: The risks of human accidents by conus snails (gastropoda: Conidae) in Brazil\". Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical . 39 (5): 498. PMID 17160331 . doi : 10.1590/S0037-86822006000500015 . Jump up ^ \"The Carter Center Schistosomiasis Control Program\" . The Carter Center . Retrieved 2008-10-03 . Jump up ^ Brown, D.S. (1994). Freshwater Snails of Africa and Their Medical Importance . CRC Press. p. 305. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5 . Jump up ^ Barker, G.M. (2002). Molluscs As Crop Pests . CABI Publications. ISBN 0-85199-320-6 . Jump up ^ Civeyrel, L.; Simberloff, D. (October 1996). \"A tale of two snails: is the cure worse than the disease?\". Biodiversity and Conservation . 5 (10): 1231–1252. doi : 10.1007/BF00051574 . Bibliography [ edit ] Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S., and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. ISBN 0-03-025982-7 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mollusca . The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Mollusca Data related to Mollusca at Wikispecies Mollusca at the Encyclopedia of Life Researchers complete mollusk evolutionary tree; 26 October 2011 Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods Rotterdam Natural History Museum Shell Image Gallery Mussel Watch Programme Online biomonitoring of bivalve activity, 24/7: MolluSCAN eye [ show ] v t e Extant phyla of kingdom Animalia Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota ( Supergroup Plant Hacrobia Heterokont Alveolata Rhizaria Excavata Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animal Fungi ) Basal Porifera (sponges) Ctenophora (comb jellies) Placozoa ( Trichoplax ) P l a n u l o z o a Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives) B i l a t e r i a Xenacoelomorpha Xenoturbellida (Xenoturbella) Acoelomorpha Acoels Nemertodermatids N e p h r o z o a Deuterostomia Chordata lancelets tunicates craniates / vertebrates Ambulacraria Echinodermata (starfish and relatives) Hemichordata Acorn worms Pterobranchs P r o t o s t o m i a Ecdysozoa Scalidophora Kinorhyncha (mud dragons) Priapulida (penis worms) Loricifera Nematoida Nematoda (roundworms) Nematomorpha (horsehair worms) Panarthropoda Arthropoda (arthropods) Tardigrada (waterbears) Onychophora (velvet worms) Spiralia Gnathifera Chaetognatha (arrow worms) Gnathostomulida (jaw worms) Micrognathozoa (Limnognathia) Syndermata Rotifera Acanthocephala Platytrochozoa Rouphozoa Platyhelminthes (flatworms) Gastrotricha (hairybacks) Mesozoans Orthonectida Dicyemida or Rhombozoa Lophotrochozoa Polyzoa Bryozoa (moss animals) Cycliophora (Symbion) Entoprocta (Kamptozoa) Trochozoa Annelida (ringed worms) Mollusca (molluscs) Nemertea (ribbon worms) Brachiozoa Brachiopoda or lamp shells Phoronida or horseshoe worms Major groups within phyla Sponges Calcareous Hexactinellid Demosponge Homoscleromorpha Cnidarians Anthozoa inc. corals Medusozoa inc. jellyfish Myxozoa Vertebrates Jawless fish Cartilaginous fish Bony fish Amphibians Reptiles / Birds Mammals Echinoderms Sea lilies Asterozoa inc. starfish Echinozoa Nematodes Chromadorea Enoplea Secernentea Arthropods Chelicerates/Arachnids Myriapods Crustaceans Hexapods/Insects Platyhelminths Turbellaria Trematoda Monogenea Cestoda Bryozoans Phylactolaemata Stenolaemata Gymnolaemata Annelids Polychaetes Clitellata Echiura Molluscs Gastropods Cephalopods Bivalves Chitons Tusk shells Phyla with ≥5000 extant species bolded See also Parazoa and Eumetazoa Radiata Platyzoa Monoblastozoa ( nomen dubium ) [ show ] v t e Living things in culture Academic disciplines Anthrozoology Ethnobiology Ethnobotany Ethnoecology Ethnoentomology Ethnoherpetology Ethnoichthyology Ethnolichenology Ethnomycology Ethnoornithology Ethnoprimatology Ethnozoology Groups Animals Arthropods Insects Topics Beekeeping Entomophagy Flea circus Insects in art Insects in literature Insects in medicine Insects in music Insects in mythology Insects in religion Sericulture Types Ant Bee Mythology Beetle Beetlewing Butterfly Cicada Cricket Dragonfly Flea Flea circus Fly Grasshopper Ladybird Louse Praying mantis Scarab Termite Wasp Woodworm Other Arthropods in film Crab Lobster Scorpion Spider Arachnophobia Tarantella Tick Molluscs Conch (instrument) Conchology Pearl Seashell Sea silk Shell money Shipworm Tyrian purple List of edible molluscs Octopus Pitar dione Vertebrates Amphibians Frog Salamander Toad Toadstone Birds Aviculture Birdwatching Bird conservation Birds in culture Cockfighting Falconry Game bird Pigeon racing Poultry Archaeopteryx Barnacle goose Eagle Fish Fishing History Fish farming Fishkeeping Recreational fishing Mammals Topics Animal husbandry Fur farming Hunting In sport In professional wrestling Laboratory animal Livestock Pack animal Working animal Types Bat Bear Baiting Hunting Teddy bear Cattle Deer Elephant Fox Horse Riding Worship Leopard Lion Primate Gorilla Gorilla suit Monkey Orangutan Seal hunting Sheep Whale Tay Whale Whaling Whale watching Wolf Werewolf Reptiles Crocodile Attacks Farming Crocodile tears Dinosaur Dragon Lizard Snake Caduceus In the Bible Rod of Asclepius Snakebite Snake charming Symbolism Worship Turtle Bixi World Turtle Other phyla Coral Jellyfish Starfish Other Aesop's Fables Animal epithet Animal husbandry In heraldry Lists of legendary creatures Zodiac Plants Agriculture History Botanical illustration Floral design Ikebana Gardening Herbalism Fictional plants Magical plants Mandrake Medicinal plants Pharmacognosy Plant epithet Sacred grove In India Sacred plants Bodhi Tree Lime tree Sacred lotus Sacred herb In mythology Barnacle tree Fig Trees Yggdrasil Fungi Medicinal fungi Amanita muscaria Edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus Psilocybin mushroom Microbes Biological warfare Fermentation In food processing List of microbes Microbial art Microbes and Man Pathogen Protein production Bacteria Economic importance Tuberculosis Protist Virus Yeast Bread Beer Wine Related Anthropomorphism Category:Biology and culture Template:Insects in culture Legendary creature Lists of fictional species Animals portal Biology portal Taxon identifiers Wd : Q25326 ADW : Mollusca EoL : 2195 Fossilworks : 7805 ITIS : 69458 NCBI : 6447 WoRMS : 51 Authority control GND : 4189417-0 NDL : 00568039 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mollusca&oldid=802214977 \" Categories : Molluscs Animal phyla Extant Cambrian first appearances Controversial taxa Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 maint: Multiple names: editors list CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: Unfit url Pages using web citations with no URL CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2017 CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. 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{ "text": "Citizenship in a Republic - Wikipedia Citizenship in a Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is part of a series about Theodore Roosevelt Political positions Electoral history Early life Family The Naval War of 1812 Rough Riders Battle of San Juan Hill Governor of New York Governorship \"The Strenuous Life\" Vice President of the United States 1900 McKinley-Roosevelt campaign \"Speak softly and carry a big stick\" President of the United States Presidency First term McKinley assassination 1st inauguration Square Deal West Wing Coal strike Booker T. Washington dinner Venezuela crisis Roosevelt Corollary Second term 1904 campaign Election 2nd inauguration Conservation Antiquities Act Forest Service Pure Food and Drug Act FDA Swift & Co. v. United States Meat Inspection Act Treaty of Portsmouth Nobel Prize FBI Panama Canal Great White Fleet 1912 election Republican Convention Progressive Party Convention New Nationalism Assassination attempt Post Presidency African Expedition River of Doubt Expedition \"Citizenship in a Republic\" WWI volunteers Legacy Memorials v t e Citizenship in a Republic is the title of a speech given by the former President of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt , at the Sorbonne in Paris, France on April 23, 1910. [1] One notable passage on page seven of the 35-page speech is referred to as \" The Man in the Arena \": [2] [3] It is not the critic who counts; not the man who points out how the strong man stumbles, or where the doer of deeds could have done them better. The credit belongs to the man who is actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood; who strives valiantly; who errs, who comes short again and again, because there is no effort without error and shortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; who knows great enthusiasms, the great devotions; who spends himself in a worthy cause; who at the best knows in the end the triumph of high achievement, and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who neither know victory nor defeat. Someone who is heavily involved in a situation that requires courage, skill, or tenacity (as opposed to someone sitting on the sidelines and watching), is sometimes referred to as \"the man in the arena\". Contents [ hide ] 1 In popular culture 2 See also 3 References 4 External links In popular culture [ edit ] The \"Man in the Arena\" passage was quoted by another US president, Richard Nixon , both in his victory speech on November 6, 1968, and in his resignation address to the nation on August 8, 1974: [4] Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, 'whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, [...] Nelson Mandela gave a copy of this speech to François Pienaar , captain of the South African rugby team , before the start of the 1995 Rugby World Cup , [5] in which the South African side eventually defeated the heavily favoured All Blacks of New Zealand. In the film based on those events , the poem \" Invictus \" is used instead. Mark DeRosa , an American professional baseball utility player then with the Washington Nationals , read the passage to teammates prior to the Nationals' pivotal Game Four versus the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2012 National League Division Series which was won on a walk-off home run by the Nationals' Jayson Werth . Since his days at the University of Pennsylvania , DeRosa would turn to those words before important games. American scholar, Brené Brown , used a somewhat abbreviated version of the quote in her March 2012 TED talk \"Listening to Shame,\" and subsequently as the inspiration for the title of her book, Daring Greatly (2012). [3] [6] When then Ferrari Formula One driver Jean Alesi was about to start the last lap of the 1995 Canadian Grand Prix (which would become his only Grand Prix win), then ESPN commentator Bob Varsha used parts of Roosevelt´s speech, saying that Alesi looked a while like being the man Roosevelt had talked about. [7] The \"Man in the Arena\" passage was used in a 2015 ad for Cadillac , ending with \"dare greatly\". [8] At the 2016 Democratic National Convention President Barack Obama cited the speech in his endorsement speech of Hillary Clinton . Lindsey Stirling 's 2016 album release Brave Enough features a song titled \"The Arena\". The inspiration for this song comes from this speech. The music video for the track also starts out with a quotation from this speech. See also [ edit ] If— Invictus The Strenuous Life References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Citizenship In A Republic\" (PDF) . Design.caltech.edu . Retrieved 2012-10-14 . Jump up ^ Works related to Citizenship in a Republic at Wikisource ^ Jump up to: a b Schawbel, Dan (2013-04-21). \"Brene Brown: How Vulnerability Can Make Our Lives Better\" . Forbes . Retrieved 2013-09-16 . Jump up ^ Works related to Richard_Nixon's resignation speech at Wikisource Jump up ^ Dominic Sandbrook (30 January 2010). \"British leaders: they're not what they were\" . The Daily Telegraph (UK). Jump up ^ \"Brené Brown: Listening to shame\" . TED.com. Jump up ^ [1] Jump up ^ David Gianatasio (February 18, 2015). \"Ad of the Day: Cadillac's 'Dare Greatly' Launch Spot Has Teddy Roosevelt but No Car\" . Adweek. External links [ edit ] \"Theodore Roosevelt Speeches:The Man in the Arena - April 23, 1910\" (PDF) . [ hide ] v t e Theodore Roosevelt 26th President of the United States, 1901–1909 25th Vice President of the United States, 1901 33rd Governor of New York, 1899–1900 Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897–1898 New York City Police Commissioner, 1895–1897 New York State Assemblyman, 1882 1883 1884 Presidency First inauguration historic site Second inauguration \" Square Deal \" Booker T. Washington dinner Conservation Newlands Reclamation Act Transfer Act of 1905 Antiquities Act Pelican Island Devils Tower National Monument Muir Woods National Monument Other National Monuments United States Forest Service , United States Reclamation Service National Wildlife Refuge System Roosevelt Arch Conference of Governors Northern Securities Company breakup court case Coal strike of 1902 Pure Food and Drug Act Food and Drug Administration Meat Inspection Act Expediting Act Elkins Act Hepburn Act Aldrich–Vreeland Act Federal Employers Liability Act Kinkaid Act Big Stick ideology Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty Panama Canal Zone Panama Canal Venezuelan crisis Roosevelt Corollary Occupation of Cuba Russo-Japanese War Treaty of Portsmouth 1906 Nobel Peace Prize Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 College football meetings Bureau of Investigation Department of Commerce and Labor Bureau of Corporations Keep Commission Inland Waterways Commission Bureau of the Census Great White Fleet Perdicaris incident Cabinet White House West Wing State of the Union Address, 1901 1906 1908 White House desk Federal judiciary appointments Other events Spanish–American War Rough Riders Battle of Las Guasimas Battle of San Juan Hill \"Bull Moose\" Progressive Party New Nationalism Assassination attempt Boone and Crockett Club Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition \"River of Doubt\" Amazonian expedition Life and homes Birthplace, boyhood home replica Sagamore Hill Home and Museum Oyster Bay Elkhorn Ranch Maltese Cross Cabin Pine Knot cabin Gravesite Writings and speeches Theodore Roosevelt bibliography The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book) \"The Strenuous Life\" (1899 speech) \"Citizenship in a Republic\" (1910 speech) \"Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual\" (1912 post-assassination-attempt speech) Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book) The Forum magazine articles Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia Archival collections Elections New York state election, 1898 Republican National Convention, 1900 1904 1912 1916 United States presidential election, 1900 1904 1912 Legacy Mount Rushmore Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library White House Roosevelt Room Theodore Roosevelt National Park Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness Theodore Roosevelt Island Roosevelt National Forest Roosevelt Study Center Theodore Roosevelt Association Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park Monument Assemblage Roosevelt River Theodore Roosevelt Award Roosevelt Road U.S. Postage stamps Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Rider sculpture Equestrian statue Popular culture Teddy bear \"Speak softly, and carry a big stick\" Books Films Roosevelt in Africa 1910 documentary The Roosevelts 2014 documentary Related Political positions \" Bully pulpit \" Ananias Club \" Nature fakers \" Progressive Era A Guest of Honor Porcellian Club \" Muckraker \" National Collegiate Athletic Association \" Roosevelt Republican \" Family Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife) Edith Kermit Carow (second wife) Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter) Theodore Roosevelt III (son) Kermit Roosevelt (son) Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter) Archibald Roosevelt (son) Quentin Roosevelt (son) Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father) Martha Stewart Bulloch (mother) Anna Roosevelt (sister) Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother) Corinne Roosevelt (sister) Cornelius Roosevelt (grandfather) James Stephens Bulloch (grandfather) James A. Roosevelt (uncle) Robert Roosevelt (uncle) James Dunwoody Bulloch (half-uncle) Irvine Bulloch (uncle) Theodore Douglas Robinson (nephew) Corinne Robinson (niece) Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece) Hall Roosevelt (nephew) ← William McKinley William Howard Taft → Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citizenship_in_a_Republic&oldid=834752825 \" Categories : 1910 speeches Speeches by Theodore Roosevelt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Português Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2018, at 14:30. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Citizenship in a Republic", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Citizenship_in_a_Republic&amp;oldid=834752825" }

{ "text": "Nagel (surname) - Wikipedia Nagel (surname) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nagel is a German and Dutch surname. Meaning \"nail\" in both languages, the surname is metonymic referring to the uccupation of a nail maker. [1] Notable people with the surname include: Aaron Nagel (born 1980), American painter and trumpet player Anne Nagel (1915–1966), American motion picture actress Bill Nagel (1915–1981), American baseball player Björn Nagel (born 1978), German-Ukrainian equestrian Carsten Nagel (born 1955), Danish writer Charles Nagel (1849–1940), American politician and lawyer Christiaan Nagel (born 1982), South African-born British street artist Christian Heinrich von Nagel (1803–1882), German mathematician Conrad Nagel (1897–1970), American actor and matinee idol David Nagel (born c. 1945), American executive De-Wet Nagel (born 1985), South African actor, musician and composer Dolf van der Nagel (1889–1949), Dutch footballer Ernest Nagel (1901–1985), American philosopher of science Gerd Nagel (born 1957), West German high jumper Heike Nagel (born 1946), West German swimmer Ivan Nagel (1931-2002), German theater scholar, critic and director Jan Nagel (born 1939), Dutch Labour Party politician Jan Nagel (painter) (c. 1560–1602), Dutch Renaissance painter Jennifer Nagel (born 1947), Canadian philosopher Jessica Nagel (born 1991), Australian soccer player Judy Nagel (born 1951), American alpine skier Lisle Nagel (1905–1971), Australian cricketer, twin-brother of Vernon Maggy Nagel (born 1957), Luxembourgish politician Morné Nagel (born 1978), South African sprinter Otto Nagel (1894-1967), German painter Patrick Nagel (1945–1984), American artist Paul C. Nagel (1926–2011), American historian and biographer Ray Nagel (1927–2015), American college football coach Rodica Nagel (born 1970), French-Romanian long-distance runner Sidney R. Nagel (born 1948), American physicist Simon Nagel (born 1985), Danish footballer Steven R. Nagel (1946–2014), American astronaut Stuart Nagel (1934–2001), American political scientist Thomas Nagel (born 1937), American philosopher Tilman Nagel (born 1942), German Orientalist Vernon Nagel (1905–1974), Australian cricketer, twin-brother of Lisle Volbrecht Nagel (1867–1921), German missionary to the Malabar coast of India See also [ edit ] Nagl Nagle References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Nagel Name Meaning in the Dictionary of American Family Names, 2013, Oxford University Press.] Surname list This page lists people with the surname Nagel . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nagel_(surname)&oldid=847219241 \" Categories : Surnames German-language surnames Dutch-language surnames Occupational surnames Hidden categories: Articles with short description All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Norsk Edit links This page was last edited on 23 June 2018, at 19:03 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Nagel (surname)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Nagel_(surname)&amp;oldid=847219241" }

{ "text": "Founding Fathers of the United States - Wikipedia Founding Fathers of the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Declaration of Independence , a painting by John Trumbull depicting the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Congress on June 28, 1776 [1] Signature page of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 that was negotiated on behalf of the Patriots by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay The Founding Fathers of the United States were descendants of immigrants settled in the Thirteen Colonies in North America who led the American Revolution against the Kingdom of Great Britain . Historian Richard B. Morris in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Alexander Hamilton , John Jay , Thomas Jefferson , James Madison , and George Washington . [2] [3] Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence . Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of The Federalist Papers , advocating ratification of the Constitution . The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) were heavily relied upon when creating language for the US Constitution. [4] Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783) that would end the American Revolutionary War . [5] Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention . All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States, with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison serving as President. Jay was the nation's first Chief Justice, Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury , and Franklin was America's most senior diplomat, and later the governmental leader of Pennsylvania. The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the embossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. [6] Signers should not be confused with the term Framers ; the Framers are defined by the National Archives as those 55 individuals who were appointed to be delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention and took part in drafting the proposed Constitution of the United States. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution. [7] [8] Two further groupings of Founding Fathers include: 1) those who signed the Continental Association , a trade ban and one of the colonists' first collective volleys protesting British control and the Intolerable Acts in 1774 [9] or 2) those who signed the Articles of Confederation , the first U.S. constitutional document. [10] The phrase \"Founding Fathers\" is a twentieth-century appellation, coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916. Prior to, and during the 19th century, they were referred to as simply the \"Fathers\". The term has been used to describe the founders and first settlers of the original royal colonies. [11] [12] Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Interesting facts and commonalities 2.1 Education 2.1.1 Colonial colleges attended 2.1.2 Advanced degrees and apprenticeships 2.1.2.1 Doctors of Medicine 2.1.2.2 Theology 2.1.2.3 Legal apprenticeships 2.1.3 Self-taught or little formal education 2.2 Demographics 2.3 Occupations 2.4 Finances 2.5 Prior political experience 2.6 Religion 2.7 Ownership of slaves and position on slavery 2.8 Attendance at conventions 2.9 Spouses and children 2.10 Charters of freedom and historical documents of the United States 2.11 Post-constitution life 2.12 Youth and longevity 2.13 Founders who were not signatories or delegates 3 Legacy 3.1 Institutions formed by Founders 3.2 Scholarship on the Founders 3.2.1 Historians who focus on the Founding Fathers 3.2.2 Noted collections of the Founding Fathers 3.3 In stage and film 3.4 Children's books 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Background [ edit ] The Albany Congress of 1754 was a conference attended by seven colonies, which presaged later efforts at cooperation. The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 included representatives from nine colonies. The First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774, consisting of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies (excluding Georgia ) that became the United States of America. Among them was George Washington , who would soon be drawn out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . Also in attendance was Patrick Henry , and John Adams , who like all delegates were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New York's John Jay . This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, established the Continental Association to administer boycott actions against Britain. When the Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, it essentially reconstituted the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second. [13] New arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses . Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. [14] The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence . Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution. [15] The newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament . The U.S. adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government with a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation , which met from 1781 to 1789. [16] The Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. [17] Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset for some including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton was to create a new frame of government rather than amending the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution and the replacement of the Continental Congress with the United States Congress . Interesting facts and commonalities [ edit ] Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States , by Howard Chandler Christy George Washington served as President of the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Benjamin Franklin , an early advocate of colonial unity, was a foundational figure in defining the U.S. ethos and exemplified the emerging nation's ideals. Alexander Hamilton wrote the Federalist papers with Jay and Madison. John Jay was President of the Continental Congress from 1778-1779 and negotiated the Treaty of Paris with Adams and Franklin. James Madison , called the \"Father of the Constitution\" by his contemporaries Peyton Randolph , as President of the Continental Congress, presided over creation of the Continental Association. Richard Henry Lee , who introduced the Lee Resolution in the Second Continental Congress calling for the colonies' independence from Great Britain A Committee of Five , composed of John Adams , Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and Robert Livingston , drafted and presented to the Continental Congress what became known as the U.S. Declaration of Independence of July 4, 1776. John Hancock , President of the Continental Congress, renowned for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence John Dickinson authored the first draft of the Articles of Confederation in 1776 while serving in the Continental Congress as a delegate from Pennsylvania, and signed them late the following year, after being elected to Congress as a delegate from Delaware. Henry Laurens was President of the Continental Congress when the Articles were passed on November 15, 1777. Roger Sherman , the only person who signed all four U.S. historical documents The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century U.S. leadership. Almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs. Virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution ; at least 29 had served in the Continental Army , most of them in positions of command. Scholars have examined the collective biography of them as well as the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution. [18] Education [ edit ] Many of the Founding Fathers attended or held degrees from the colonial colleges , most notably Columbia known at the time as \"King's College\", Princeton originally known as \"The College of New Jersey\", Harvard College , the College of William and Mary , Yale College and University of Pennsylvania . Some had previously been home schooled or obtained early instruction from private tutors or academies. [19] Others had studied abroad. Ironically, Benjamin Franklin who had little formal education himself would ultimately establish the College of Philadelphia based on European models (1740); \"Penn\" would have the first medical school (1765) in the thirteen colonies where another Founder, Benjamin Rush would eventually teach. With a limited number of professional schools established in the U.S., Founders also sought advanced degrees from traditional institutions in England and Scotland such as the University of Edinburgh , the University of St. Andrews , and the University of Glasgow . Colonial colleges attended [ edit ] College of William and Mary: Thomas Jefferson [20] Harvard College : John Adams, John Hancock and William Williams King's College (now Columbia ): John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, Gouverneur Morris, Robert R. Livingston and Egbert Benson . [21] College of New Jersey (now Princeton ): James Madison, Gunning Bedford Jr. , Aaron Burr , Benjamin Rush and William Paterson College of Philadelphia later merged into the University of Pennsylvania : Hugh Williamson Yale College: Oliver Wolcott James Wilson attended the University of St. Andrews , the University of Glasgow , [22] and the University of Edinburgh though he never received a degree. Advanced degrees and apprenticeships [ edit ] Doctors of Medicine [ edit ] University of Edinburgh: Rush [23] University of Utrecht, Netherlands: Williamson Theology [ edit ] University of Edinburgh: Witherspoon (attended, no degree) University of St. Andrews: Witherspoon (honorary doctorate) Legal apprenticeships [ edit ] Several like John Jay, James Wilson, John Williams and George Wythe [24] were trained as lawyers through apprenticeships in the colonies while a few trained at the Inns of Court in London. Self-taught or little formal education [ edit ] Franklin, Washington, John Williams and Henry Wisner had little formal education and were largely self-taught or learned through apprenticeship . Demographics [ edit ] Some of the Founding Fathers were natives of the Thirteen Colonies . Massachusetts: Adams, Franklin New York: Jay Pennsylvania: Morris Virginia: Washington, Jefferson, Madison At least nine were born outside of the Thirteen Colonies England : Robert Morris Ireland : Butler, Fitzsimons, McHenry, and Paterson West Indies : Hamilton Scotland : Wilson and Witherspoon Many of them had moved from one state to another. Eighteen had already lived, studied or worked in more than one state or colony: Baldwin, Bassett, Bedford, Davie, Dickinson, Few, Franklin, Ingersoll, Hamilton, Livingston, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mercer, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, Read, Sherman, and Williamson. Several others had studied or traveled abroad. Occupations [ edit ] The Founding Fathers practiced a wide range of high and middle-status occupations , and many pursued more than one career simultaneously. They did not differ dramatically from the Loyalists , except they were generally younger and less senior in their professions. [25] As many as thirty-five including Adams, Hamilton and Jay were trained as lawyers though not all of them practiced law. Some had also been local judges. [26] Washington trained as a land surveyor before he became commander of a small militia At the time of the convention, 13 men were merchants: Blount, Broom, Clymer, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Shields, Gilman, Gorham, Langdon, Robert Morris, Pierce, Sherman, and Wilson. Broom and Few were small farmers. Three had retired from active economic endeavors: Franklin, McHenry, and Mifflin. Franklin and Williamson were scientists, in addition to their other activities. McClurg, McHenry, Rush, and Williamson were physicians Johnson and Witherspoon were college presidents. Finances [ edit ] Historian Caroline Robbins in 1977 examined the status of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence and concluded: There were indeed disparities of wealth, earned or inherited: some Signers were rich, others had about enough to enable them to attend Congress....The majority of revolutionaries were from moderately well-to-do or average income brackets. Twice as many Loyalists belonged to the wealthiest echelon. But some Signers were rich; few, indigent.... The Signers were elected not for wealth or rank so much as because of the evidence they had already evinced of willingness for public service. [27] A few of them were wealthy or had financial resources that ranged from good to excellent, but there are other founders who were less than wealthy. On the whole they were less wealthy than the Loyalists. [28] Seven were major land speculators: Blount, Dayton, Fitzsimmons, Gorham, Robert Morris, Washington, and Wilson. Eleven speculated in securities on a large scale: Bedford, Blair, Clymer, Dayton, Fitzsimons, Franklin, King, Langdon, Robert Morris, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and Sherman. Many derived income from plantations or large farms which they owned or managed, which relied upon the labor of enslaved men and women particularly in the southern colonies: Bassett, Blair, Blount, Davie, [29] Johnson, Butler, Carroll, Jefferson, Jenifer, Madison, Mason, Charles Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , Rutledge, Spaight, and Washington. Eight of the men received a substantial part of their income from public office: Baldwin, Blair, Brearly, Gilman, Livingston, Madison, and Rutledge. Prior political experience [ edit ] Several of the Founding Fathers had extensive national, state, local and foreign political experience prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. Some had been diplomats. Several had been members of the Continental Congress or elected President of that body. Benjamin Franklin began his political career as a city councilman and then Justice of the Peace in Philadelphia. He was next elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly and was sent by them to London as a colonial agent which helped hone his diplomatic skills. Jefferson , Adams , Jay and Franklin all acquired significant political experience as ministers to countries in Europe. John Adams and John Jay drafted the Constitutions of their respective states, Massachusetts and New York, and successfully navigated them through to adoption. Jay, Thomas Mifflin and Nathaniel Gorham had served as President of the Continental Congress . Gouverneur Morris had been a member of the New York Provincial Congress . John Dickinson , Franklin, Langdon, and Rutledge had been governors or presidents of their states. Robert Morris had been a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly and President of Pennsylvania's Committee of Safety (American Revolution) . He was also a member of the Committee of Secret Correspondence . Roger Sherman had served in the Connecticut House of Representatives . Elbridge Gerry was a member of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress . Carroll served in the Maryland Senate . Wythe 's first exposure to politics was as a member of Virginia's House of Burgesses . Read 's entry into the political arena was as a commissioner of the town of Charlestown, Maryland. Clymer was a member of the Philadelphia Committee of Safety and the Continental Congress. Wilson 's time as a member of the Continental Congress in 1776 was his introduction to colonial politics. Nearly all of the 55 Constitutional Convention delegates had some experience in colonial and state government, and the majority had held county and local offices. [30] Those who lacked national congressional experience were Bassett , Blair , Brearly , Broom , Davie , Dayton , Alexander Martin , Luther Martin , Mason , McClurg , Paterson , Charles Pinckney , Strong , and Yates . Religion [ edit ] Franklin T. Lambert (2003) has examined the religious affiliations and beliefs of some of the Founders. Of the 55 delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, 28 were Anglicans (in the Church of England ; or Episcopalian , after the American Revolutionary War was won), 21 were Protestants , and two were Roman Catholics (D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons). [31] Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were Presbyterians , seven were Congregationalists , two were Lutherans , two were Dutch Reformed , and two were Methodists . [31] A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical Christians such as Thomas Jefferson, [32] [33] [34] who constructed the Jefferson Bible , and Benjamin Franklin. [35] Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid \" theistic rationalism \". [36] The Faiths of the Founding Fathers is a book that discusses the religion held by the founding fathers, written in 2006 by historian of U.S. religion David L. Holmes . Ownership of slaves and position on slavery [ edit ] Portrait of George Washington and his valet slave William Lee See also: George Washington and slavery and Thomas Jefferson and slavery One of the greatest contradictions of the Founding Fathers was their disunity with regard to slavery at a time that they were seeking liberty for themselves. This hypocrisy was as evident in the North as it was in the South for many wealthy Northerners owned domestic slaves. In her study of Thomas Jefferson , historian Annette Gordon-Reed emphasizes this irony, \"Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for freedom, \" [37] In addition to Jefferson, George Washington , John Jay and many other of the Founding Fathers practiced slavery but were also conflicted by the institution which many saw as immoral and politically divisive. [38] Franklin, though he was a key founder of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society [39] originally owned slaves whom he later manumitted . John Jay would try unsuccessfully to abolish slavery as early as 1777 in the State of New York. [40] He nonetheless founded the New York Manumission Society in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the African Free School in New York City, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. It was not until Jay was governor of New York in 1798, that he signed into law a gradual abolition law; fully ending slavery as of 1827. He freed his own slaves in 1798. Alexander Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences in life left him very familiar with slavery and its effect on slaves and on slaveholders, [41] although he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife's family, the Schuylers . [42] John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Paine never owned slaves. [43] Slaves and slavery are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that \"three fifths of all other Persons\" are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3 , slaves are referred to as \"persons held in service or labor\". [39] [44] The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery during and after the American Revolution. [44] In 1782 Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed. [45] As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia. [45] Thomas Jefferson, in 1784, proposed to ban slavery in all the Western Territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. [44] Partially following Jefferson's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 , for lands north of the Ohio River . [44] The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina , by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a Federally-enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. [46] However, the domestic slave trade was allowed, for expansion, or for diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory . [47] Attendance at conventions [ edit ] In the winter and spring of 1786–1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates; for example, Patrick Henry of Virginia thought that state politics were far more interesting and important than national politics, though during the ratification controversy of 1787–1788 he claimed, \"I smelled a rat.\" Rhode Island did not send delegates because of its politicians' suspicions of the Convention delegates' motivations. As the colony was founded by Roger Williams as a sanctuary for Baptists , Rhode Island's absence at the Convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time. [48] Spouses and children [ edit ] Most of the Founding Fathers married and had children. Many of their spouses, like Eliza Schuyler Hamilton , Martha Washington , Abigail Adams , Sarah Livingston Jay, Dolley Madison , Mary White Morris and Catherine Alexander Duer were strong women and made significant contributions of their own to the fight for liberty. [49] Sherman fathered the largest family: 15 children by two wives. At least nine (Bassett, Brearly, Johnson, Mason, Paterson, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Sherman, Wilson, and Wythe) married more than once. Four (Baldwin, Gilman, Jenifer, and Alexander Martin) were lifelong bachelors . Many of the delegates also had children conceived illegitimately . [50] George Washington, \"The Father of our Country,\" [51] had no biological descendants. Charters of freedom and historical documents of the United States [ edit ] The National Archives and Records Administration also known as NARA, defines U.S. Founding Documents, or Charters of Freedom , as the Declaration of Independence (1776), The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791). These original instruments which represent the philosophy of the United States are housed in Washington, D.C. in the NARA Rotunda. [52] The Library of Congress further identifies the Articles of Confederation, also preserved at NARA, as a primary U.S. document. [53] The Articles of Confederation served as the first constitution of the United States until its replacement by the present Constitution on March 4, 1789. Signatories of the Continental Association (CA), Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and the United States Constitution (USC)): Name Province/state CA (1774) DI (1776) AC (1777) USC (1787) Andrew Adams Connecticut Yes John Adams Massachusetts Yes Yes Samuel Adams Massachusetts Yes Yes Yes Thomas Adams Virginia Yes John Alsop New York Yes Abraham Baldwin Georgia Yes John Banister Virginia Yes Josiah Bartlett New Hampshire Yes Yes Richard Bassett Delaware Yes Gunning Bedford Jr. Delaware Yes Edward Biddle Pennsylvania Yes John Blair Virginia Yes Richard Bland Virginia Yes William Blount North Carolina Yes Simon Boerum New York Yes Carter Braxton Virginia Yes David Brearley New Jersey Yes Jacob Broom Delaware Yes Pierce Butler South Carolina Yes Charles Carroll of Carrollton Maryland Yes Daniel Carroll Maryland Yes Yes Richard Caswell North Carolina Yes Samuel Chase Maryland Yes Yes Abraham Clark New Jersey Yes William Clingan Pennsylvania Yes George Clymer Pennsylvania Yes Yes John Collins Rhode Island Yes Stephen Crane New Jersey Yes Thomas Cushing Massachusetts Yes Francis Dana Massachusetts Yes Jonathan Dayton New Jersey Yes Silas Deane Connecticut Yes John De Hart New Jersey Yes John Dickinson Delaware Yes Yes Pennsylvania Yes William Henry Drayton South Carolina Yes James Duane New York Yes Yes William Duer New York Yes Eliphalet Dyer Connecticut Yes William Ellery Rhode Island Yes Yes William Few Georgia Yes Thomas Fitzsimons Pennsylvania Yes William Floyd New York Yes Yes Nathaniel Folsom New Hampshire Yes Benjamin Franklin Pennsylvania Yes Yes Christopher Gadsden South Carolina Yes Joseph Galloway Pennsylvania Yes Elbridge Gerry Massachusetts Yes Yes Nicholas Gilman New Hampshire Yes Nathaniel Gorham Massachusetts Yes Button Gwinnett Georgia Yes Lyman Hall Georgia Yes Alexander Hamilton New York Yes John Hancock Massachusetts Yes Yes John Hanson Maryland Yes Cornelius Harnett North Carolina Yes Benjamin Harrison Virginia Yes Yes John Hart New Jersey Yes John Harvie Virginia Yes Patrick Henry Virginia Yes Joseph Hewes North Carolina Yes Yes Thomas Heyward Jr. South Carolina Yes Yes Samuel Holten Massachusetts Yes William Hooper North Carolina Yes Yes Stephen Hopkins Rhode Island Yes Yes Francis Hopkinson New Jersey Yes Titus Hosmer Connecticut Yes Charles Humphreys Pennsylvania Yes Samuel Huntington Connecticut Yes Yes Richard Hutson South Carolina Yes Jared Ingersoll Pennsylvania Yes William Jackson South Carolina Yes John Jay New York Yes Thomas Jefferson Virginia Yes Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer Maryland Yes Thomas Johnson Maryland Yes William Samuel Johnson Connecticut Yes Rufus King Massachusetts Yes James Kinsey New Jersey Yes John Langdon New Hampshire Yes Edward Langworthy Georgia Yes Henry Laurens South Carolina Yes Francis Lightfoot Lee Virginia Yes Yes Richard Henry Lee Virginia Yes Yes Yes Francis Lewis New York Yes Yes Philip Livingston New York Yes Yes William Livingston New Jersey Yes Yes James Lovell Massachusetts Yes Isaac Low New York Yes Thomas Lynch South Carolina Yes Thomas Lynch Jr. South Carolina Yes James Madison Virginia Yes Henry Marchant Rhode Island Yes John Mathews South Carolina Yes James McHenry Maryland Yes Thomas McKean Delaware Yes Yes Yes Arthur Middleton South Carolina Yes Henry Middleton South Carolina Yes Thomas Mifflin Pennsylvania Yes Yes Gouverneur Morris New York Yes Pennsylvania Yes Lewis Morris New York Yes Robert Morris Pennsylvania Yes Yes Yes John Morton Pennsylvania Yes Yes Thomas Nelson Jr. Virginia Yes William Paca Maryland Yes Yes Robert Treat Paine Massachusetts Yes Yes William Paterson New Jersey Yes Edmund Pendleton Virginia Yes John Penn North Carolina Yes Yes Charles Pinckney South Carolina Yes Charles Cotesworth Pinckney South Carolina Yes Peyton Randolph Virginia Yes George Read Delaware Yes Yes Yes Joseph Reed Pennsylvania Yes Daniel Roberdeau Pennsylvania Yes Caesar Rodney Delaware Yes Yes George Ross Pennsylvania Yes Yes Benjamin Rush Pennsylvania Yes Edward Rutledge South Carolina Yes Yes John Rutledge South Carolina Yes Yes Nathaniel Scudder New Jersey Yes Roger Sherman Connecticut Yes Yes Yes Yes James Smith Pennsylvania Yes Jonathan Bayard Smith Pennsylvania Yes Richard Smith New Jersey Yes Richard Dobbs Spaight North Carolina Yes Richard Stockton New Jersey Yes Thomas Stone Maryland Yes John Sullivan New Hampshire Yes George Taylor Pennsylvania Yes Edward Telfair Georgia Yes Matthew Thornton New Hampshire Yes Matthew Tilghman Maryland Yes Nicholas Van Dyke Delaware Yes George Walton Georgia Yes John Walton Georgia Yes Samuel Ward Rhode Island Yes George Washington Virginia Yes Yes John Wentworth Jr. New Hampshire Yes William Whipple New Hampshire Yes John Williams North Carolina Yes William Williams Connecticut Yes Hugh Williamson North Carolina Yes James Wilson Pennsylvania Yes Yes Henry Wisner New York Yes John Witherspoon New Jersey Yes Yes Oliver Wolcott Connecticut Yes Yes George Wythe Virginia Yes Post-constitution life [ edit ] Subsequent events in the lives of the Founding Fathers after the adoption of the Constitution were characterized by success or failure, reflecting the abilities of these men as well as the vagaries of fate. [54] Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison served in highest U.S. office of President. Jay would be appointed as Chief Justice of the United States and later elected to two terms as Governor of New York. Seven (Fitzsimons, Gorham, Luther Martin, Mifflin, Robert Morris, Pierce, and Wilson) suffered serious financial reversals that left them in or near bankruptcy. Robert Morris spent three of the last years of his life imprisoned following bad land deals. [49] Two, Blount and Dayton, were involved in possibly treasonous activities. Yet, as they had done before the convention, most of the group continued to render public service, particularly to the new government they had helped to create. Youth and longevity [ edit ] Death age of the Founding Fathers Many of the Founding Fathers were under 40 years old at the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776: James Armistead Lafayette was 15, Marquis de Lafayette was 18, Alexander Hamilton was 19, Aaron Burr was 20, Gouverneur Morris and Betsy Ross were 24. The oldest were Benjamin Franklin, 70, and Samuel Whittemore , 81. [55] Secretary Charles Thomson lived to the age of 94. Johnson died at 92. John Adams lived to the age of 90. A few – Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, Madison, Hugh Williamson , and George Wythe – lived into their eighties. Approximately 16 died in their seventies, 21 in their sixties, 8 in their fifties, and 5 in their forties. Three ( Alexander Hamilton , Richard Dobbs Spaight and Button Gwinnett ) were killed in duels . Friends and political adversaries John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on the same day – July 4, 1826. [56] The last remaining founders, also called the \" Last of the Romans \", lived well into the nineteenth century. [57] Founders who were not signatories or delegates [ edit ] The following men and women are also recognized by many as having been founders of the United States, based upon their contributions to the formation of American nation and democracy. Abigail Adams , advisor, First Lady and mother of a president [58] Ethan Allen , military and political leader in Vermont [59] Richard Allen , African-American bishop [60] John Bartram , botanist, horticulturist and explorer [61] Egbert Benson , politician from New York [62] Elias Boudinot , New Jersey delegate to Continental Congress [63] Aaron Burr , Vice President under Jefferson [64] George Rogers Clark , army general [65] George Clinton , New York governor and Vice President of the U.S [66] Tench Coxe , economist in the Continental Congress [67] William Richardson Davie , delegate to the Constitutional Convention (leaving before he could sign it), and Governor of North Carolina . Albert Gallatin , politician and Treasury Secretary [68] Horatio Gates , army general [65] Nathanael Greene , army general [65] Nathan Hale , captured U.S. soldier executed in 1776 [58] Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton , wife of Alexander Hamilton [69] [70] Esek Hopkins , Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Navy James Iredell , advocate for Constitution, judge [66] John Paul Jones , navy captain [65] Henry Knox , army general, Secretary of War [66] Tadeusz Kościuszko , Polish army general [68] Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette , French army general [68] Henry Lee III , army officer and Virginia governor [65] Robert R. Livingston , diplomat and jurist [58] William Maclay , Pennsylvania politician and U.S. Senator [66] Dolley Madison , spouse of President James Madison [58] John Marshall , fourth Chief Justice of the United States [58] George Mason , revolutionary writer, co-father of the Bill of Rights [71] Philip Mazzei , Italian physician, merchant and author [72] James Monroe , fifth President of the United States [73] Daniel Morgan , military hero and Virginia Congressman [65] Samuel Nicholas , Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Marines James Otis Jr. , Massachusetts lawyer and politician [74] Thomas Paine , author of Common Sense [75] [76] Andrew Pickens , army general and South Carolina congressman [65] Timothy Pickering , U.S. Secretary of State from Massachusetts [77] Israel Putnam , army general [78] Edmund Randolph , first United States Attorney General , second Secretary of State [79] Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau , French army general [68] Haym Solomon , financier and spy for Continental Army [80] Thomas Sumter , SC military hero and congressman [65] Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , Prussian officer [68] Joseph Warren , doctor, revolutionary leader [78] Mercy Otis Warren , political writer [66] Anthony Wayne , army general and politician [65] Noah Webster , writer, lexicographer , educator [81] Thomas Willing , banker [82] Paine Wingate , oldest survivor, Continental Congress [83] [84] Legacy [ edit ] Institutions formed by Founders [ edit ] Several Founding Fathers were instrumental in establishing schools and societal institutions that still exist today: Franklin founded the University of Pennsylvania, while Jefferson founded the University of Virginia . Rush founded Dickinson College and Franklin College, (today Franklin and Marshall ) as well as the College of Physicians of Philadelphia , the oldest medical society in America. Hamilton founded the New York Post , as well as the United States Coast Guard . Knox [85] helped found the Society of the Cincinnati in 1783; the society was predicated on service as an officer in the Revolutionary War and heredity. Members included Washington, Hamilton and Burr. Other Founders like Sam Adams, John Adams, Franklin and Jay criticized the formation of what they considered to be an elitist body and threat to the Constitution. Franklin would later accept an honorary membership though Jay declined. [86] Scholarship on the Founders [ edit ] Articles and books by twenty-first century historians combined with the digitization of primary sources like handwritten letters continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers. Historians who focus on the Founding Fathers [ edit ] Ron Chernow won the Pulitzer Prize for his biography of George Washington. His bestselling book about Alexander Hamilton inspired the blockbuster musical of the same name . Joseph J. Ellis – According to Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says \"the founders\", or \"the fathers\", comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s – men like Andrew Jackson , Henry Clay , Daniel Webster , and John C. Calhoun – \"the founders\" represented a heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison. We can win no laurels in a war for independence,\" Webster acknowledged in 1825. \"Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us ... [as] the founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation. [87] Joanne B. Freeman Freeman's area of expertise is the life and legacy of Alexander Hamilton as well as political culture of the revolutionary and early national eras. [88] [89] [90] Freeman has documented the often opposing visions of the Founding Fathers as they tried to build a new framework for governance, \"Regional distrust, personal animosity, accusation, suspicion, implication, and denouncement—this was the tenor of national politics from the outset.\" [91] Annette Gordon-Reed is an American historian and Harvard Law School professor. She is noted for changing scholarship on Thomas Jefferson regarding his relationship with Sally Hemings and her children. She has studied the challenges facing the Founding Fathers particularly as it relates to their position and actions on slavery. She points out \"the central dilemma at the heart of American democracy: the desire to create a society based on liberty and equality\" that yet does not extend those privileges to all.\" [37] Jack N. Rakove – Thomas Jefferson Peter S. Onuf – Thomas Jefferson Noted collections of the Founding Fathers [ edit ] Adams Papers Editorial Project Founders Online – a searchable database of over 178,000 documents authored by or addressed to George Washington, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams (and family), Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton The Selected Papers of John Jay at Columbia University The Papers of Thomas Jefferson at Princeton University The Papers of James Madison at University of Virginia The Washington Papers at University of Virginia The Franklin Papers at Yale University In stage and film [ edit ] The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the Tony Award winning musical 1776 , a stage production about the debates over, and eventual adoption of, the Declaration of Independence ; the popular performance was later turned into the 1972 film More recently, several of the Founding Fathers – Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Laurens and Burr – were reimagined in Hamilton , an acclaimed production about the life of Alexander Hamilton , with music, lyrics and book by Lin-Manuel Miranda .The show was inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow . The rap musical won 11 Tony Awards. [92] Children's books [ edit ] In their 2015 children's book, The Founding Fathers author Jonah Winter and illustrator Barry Blitt categorized 14 leading patriots into two teams based on their contributions to the formation of America - the Varsity Squad (Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, John Adams, Madison, Jay, and Hamilton) and the Junior Varsity Squad (Sam Adams, Hancock, Henry, Morris, Marshall, Rush, and Paine). [93] See also [ edit ] United States portal List of national founders (worldwide) History of the United States Constitution Rights of Englishmen Patriot (American Revolution) Sons of Liberty Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"American Revolution: Key to Declaration of Independence\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). Jump up ^ Kettler, Sarah. \"The Founding Fathers: Who Were They Really?\" . Biography . Retrieved April 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"About America, The Constitution of the United States\" (PDF) . World Book . Retrieved September 17, 2017 . Jump up ^ PBS NewsHour. \"Forgotten Founding Father\" . Jump up ^ \"Signers of the Declaration\" . National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior . Retrieved April 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ National Archives. \"Meet the Framers of the Constitution\" . Jump up ^ US Constitution Online. \"The Framers\" . Jump up ^ Carl G. Karsch. \"The First Continental Congress: A Dangerous Journey Begins\" . Carpenter's Hall. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012 . Retrieved April 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Stanfield, Jack. America's Founding Fathers: Who Are They? Thumbnail Sketches of 164 Patriots (Universal-Publishers, 2001). Jump up ^ Parham, C. P. \"From Great Wilderness to Seaway Towns: A Comparative History of Cornwall, Ontario, and Massena, New York, 1784-2001\" . SUNY Press, 2012 (chapter 1, page 7) . Retrieved 20 November 2017 . The founding fathers of Cornwall and .... Jump up ^ Jill Lepore, The Whites of Their Eyes: The Tea Party’s Revolution and the Battle American History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 16. Jump up ^ Burnett, Continental Congress , 64–67. Jump up ^ Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill , 189. Jump up ^ \"Signers of the Declaration\" . National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. p. Biography #54 . Retrieved April 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Confederation Congress\" . Ohio Historical Society . Retrieved October 23, 2010 . Jump up ^ Calvin C. Jillson (2009). American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-203-88702-8 . Jump up ^ See Brown (19764); Martin (19739); \"Data on the Framers of the Constitution,\" at [1] Jump up ^ Brown (1976); Harris (1969) Jump up ^ \"The Alma Maters of Our Founding Fathers\" . Retrieved April 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"A Brief History of Columbia\" . Columbia University. 2011 . Retrieved 2011-04-14 . Jump up ^ \"The University of Glasgow Story James Wilson\" . Retrieved March 26, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Benjamin Rush (1746 - 1813) access-date=April 9, 2017\" . Penn University Archives and Records Center. Jump up ^ \"George Wythe\" . Colonial Williamsburg . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Greene (1973) Jump up ^ Brown (1976) Jump up ^ Caroline Robbins, \"Decision in '76: Reflections on the 56 Signers\" Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Vol. 89 (1977), pp. 72-87 online quoting page 83. Jump up ^ Greene (1973). Jump up ^ William R. Davie, Blackwell P. Robinson. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1957. Jump up ^ Martin (1973); Greene (1973) ^ Jump up to: a b Lambert, Franklin T. (2003). The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (published 2006). ISBN 978-0691126029 . Jump up ^ Letter to Alexander von Humboldt, December 6, 1813 \"History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government,\" Jump up ^ Letter to Horatio G. Spafford, March 17, 1814 \"In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own.\" Jump up ^ The Religion of Thomas Jefferson Archived November 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved July 9, 2011 Jump up ^ Quoted in The New England Currant (July 23, 1722), \"Silence Dogood, No. 9; Corruptio optimi est pessima .\" \"And it is a sad Observation, that when the People too late see their Error, yet the Clergy still persist in their Encomiums on the Hypocrite; and when he happens to die for the Good of his Country, without leaving behind him the Memory of one good Action, he shall be sure to have his Funeral Sermon stuff'd with Pious Expressions which he dropt at such a Time, and at such a Place, and on such an Occasion; than which nothing can be more prejudicial to the Interest of Religion, nor indeed to the Memory of the Person deceas'd. The Reason of this Blindness in the Clergy is, because they are honourably supported (as they ought to be) by their People, and see nor feel nothing of the Oppression which is obvious and burdensome to every one else.\" Jump up ^ Frazer, Gregg L. (2012). The Religious Beliefs of America's Founders: Reason, Revelation, and Revolution . University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700620214 . ^ Jump up to: a b Annette Gordon-Reed, Engaging Jefferson: Blacks and the Founding Father , The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Jan., 2000), pp. 171-182 Jump up ^ \"The Founders and Slavery: John Jay Saves the Day\" . The Economist . Retrieved April 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Wright, William D. (2002). Critical Reflections on Black History . West Port , Connecticut : Praeger Publishers. p. 125. Jump up ^ The Selected Papers of John Jay, Columbia University, http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/inside/dev/jay/JaySlavery.html Jump up ^ Horton, James O. (2004). \"Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation\" . New York Journal of American History . New York Historical Society (3) . Retrieved October 29, 2016 . Jump up ^ Magness, Phillip. \"Alexander Hamilton's Exaggerated Abolitionism\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Freehling, William W. (February 1972). \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\". The American Historical Review . 77 (1): 87. doi : 10.2307/1856595 . JSTOR 1856595 . ^ Jump up to: a b The Cambridge History of Law in America . 2008. p. 278. Jump up ^ Freehling, William W. (February 1972). \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\". The American Historical Review . 77 (1): 88. doi : 10.2307/1856595 . JSTOR 1856595 . Jump up ^ Freehling, William W. (February 1972). \"The Founding Fathers and Slavery\". The American Historical Review . 77 (1): 85. doi : 10.2307/1856595 . JSTOR 1856595 . Jump up ^ See the discussion of the Convention in Clinton L. Rossiter, 1787: The Grand Convention (New York: Macmillan, 1966; reprint ed., with new foreword by Richard B. Morris, New York: W. W. Norton, 1987). ^ Jump up to: a b Griswold, Rufus (1855), The Republican Court, or, American Society in the Days of Washington , D. Appleton & Co. Jump up ^ Staar (January 2009). \"Our Founding Fathers\" . Huffington Post . Retrieved 22 February 2012 . Jump up ^ George Washington's Mount Vernon. \"Father of His Country\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ National Archives. \"America's Founding Documents\" . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Articles of Confederation\" . Library of Congress . Retrieved April 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Martin (1973) Jump up ^ Andrlik, Todd. \"How Old Were the Leaders of the American Revolution on July 4, 1776?\" . Jump up ^ History. \"Thomas Jefferson and John Adams Die\" . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Fox-Genovese; Eugene D. Genovese (2005). The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders' Worldview . Cambridge University Press. p. 278. ISBN 9780521850650 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Encyclopædia Britannica. Founding fathers: the essential guide to the men who made America (John Wiley and Sons, 2007). Jump up ^ McWilliams, J. (1976). \"The Faces of Ethan Allen: 1760-1860\". The New England Quarterly . 49 (2): 257–282. doi : 10.2307/364502 . JSTOR 364502 . Jump up ^ Newman, Richard. Freedom's Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers (NYU Press, 2009). Jump up ^ Jane Goodall (27 August 2013). Seeds of Hope: Wisdom and Wonder from the World of Plants. Grand Central Publishing. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-1-4555-1321-5 . Jump up ^ Ballenas, Carl. Images of America: Jamaica (Arcadia Publishing, 2011). Jump up ^ Holmes, David. The Faiths of the Founding Fathers . (Oxford University Press US, 2006). Jump up ^ Wood, Gordon S. Revolutionary Characters, What Made the Founding Fathers Different . (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 225–242. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Buchanan, John. \"Founding Fighters: The Battlefield Leaders Who Made American Independence (review)\". The Journal of Military History (Volume 71, Number 2, April 2007), pp. 522–524. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e R. B. Bernstein, The Founding Fathers Reconsidered (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). Jump up ^ Stephen Yafa (2006). Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber . Penguin. p. 75. ISBN 9780143037224 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dungan, Nicholas. Gallatin: America's Swiss Founding Father (NYU Press 2010). Jump up ^ Roberts, Cokie. \" Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation \". Harper Perennial, 2005 Jump up ^ Roberts, Cokie. \" Ladies of Liberty: The Women Who Shaped Our Nation \". Harper, 2008 Jump up ^ Broadwater, Jeff (2006). George Mason, Forgotten Founder . Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3053-6 . OCLC 67239589 . Jump up ^ LaGumina, Salvatore. The Italian American experience: an encyclopedia , page 361 (Taylor & Francis, 2000). Jump up ^ Unger, Harlow (2009). James Monroe: The Last Founding Father . New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81808-6 . Jump up ^ Kann, Mark E. (1999). The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy . ABC-CLIO. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-275-96112-1 . Jump up ^ \"Founding Father Thomas Paine: He Genuinely Abhorred Slavery\". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (48): 45. 2005. doi : 10.2307/25073236 (inactive 2018-05-22). Jump up ^ David Braff, \"Forgotten Founding Father: The Impact of Thomas Paine,\" in Joyce Chumbley. ed., Thomas Paine: In Search of the Common Good (2009) pp. 39–43 Jump up ^ Burstein, Andrew. \"Politics and Personalities: Garry Wills takes a new look at a forgotten founder, slavery and the shaping of America\", Chicago Tribune (November 09, 2003): \"Forgotten founders such as Pickering and Morris made as many waves as those whose faces stare out from our currency.\" ^ Jump up to: a b Rafael, Ray. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Founding Fathers: And the Birth of Our Nation (Penguin, 2011). Jump up ^ \"Founding Fathers: Virginia\" . FindLaw Constitutional Law Center. 2008 . Retrieved 2008-11-14 . Jump up ^ Schwartz, Laurens R. Jews and the American Revolution: Haym Solomon and Others, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 1987. Jump up ^ Kendall, Joshua. The Forgotten Founding Father: Noah Webster's Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture (Penguin 2011). Jump up ^ Wright, R. E. (1996). \"Thomas Willing (1731-1821): Philadelphia Financier and Forgotten Founding Father\". Pennsylvania History . 63 (4): 525–560. doi : 10.2307/27773931 (inactive 2018-05-22). JSTOR 27773931 . Jump up ^ \"A Patriot of Early New England\", New York Times (December 20, 1931). This book review referred to Wingate as one of the \"Fathers\" of the United States, per the book title. Jump up ^ The New Yorker , Volume I, page 398 (September 10, 1836): \"'The Last of the Romans' — This was said of Madison at the time of his decease, but there is one other person who seems to have some claims to this honorable distinction. Paine Wingate of Stratham, N.H. still survives.\" Jump up ^ \"The Founding of the Society, 1783–1784\" . Society of the Cincinnati . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"History:The Society of the Cincinnati in the State of Connecticut\" . Jump up ^ Joseph J. Ellis; Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams. (2001) p. 214. Jump up ^ Jennifer Schuessler. \" Up From the Family Basement, a Little-Seen Hamilton Trove \" . The New York Times. Jump up ^ Joanne B. Freeman. \" The Long History of Political Idiocy \" . The New York Times. Jump up ^ Joanne B. Freeman. \" How Hamilton Uses History: What Lin-Manuel Miranda Included in His Portrait of a Heroic, Complicated Founding Father—and What He Left Out \" . Slate . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Chris Bray. \" Tip and Gip Sip and Quip-The politics of never \" . The Baffler . Retrieved April 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Robert Viagas. \"Hamilton Tops Tony Awards With 11 Wins\" . Playbill . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Winter, Jonah and Blitt, Barry, The Founding Fathers!Those Horse-Ridin', Fiddle-Playin', Book-Readin', Gun-Totin' Gentlemen Who Started America Simon and Schuster, New York (2015) References [ edit ] American National Biography Online , (2000). Bailyn, Bernard. To Begin the World Anew Knopf, 2003. Bernstein, Richard B. Are We to Be a Nation? The Making of the Constitution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987. Bernstein, R.B. The Founding Fathers Reconsidered (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). Brown, Richard D. \"The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View,\" William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul. 1976), pp. 465–480 online at JSTOR . Commager,Henry Steele. \"Leadership in Eighteenth-Century America and Today,\" Daedalus 90 (Fall 1961): 650–673, reprinted in Henry Steele Commager, Freedom and Order (New York: George Braziller, 1966). Ellis, Joseph J. Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History. Ellis, Joseph J. The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution, 1783-1789 (New York: First Vintage Books Edition, May 2016). Freeman,Joanne B. Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001. Green, Steven K. Inventing a Christian America: The Myth of the Religious Founding. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2015. Greene, Jack P. \"The Social Origins of the American Revolution: An Evaluation and an Interpretation,\" Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1973), pp. 1–22 online in JSTOR . Harris, P.M.G. , \"The Social Origins of American Leaders: The Demographic Foundations, \" Perspectives in American History 3 (1969): 159–364. Lefer, David. The Founding Conservatives: How a Group of Unsung Heroes Saved the American Revolution (2013) Kann, Mark E. The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy (New York: Frederick Praeger, 1999). Adrienne Koch; Power, Morals, and the Founding Fathers: Essays in the Interpretation of the American Enlightenment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1961). K. M. Kostyal. Founding Fathers: The Fight for Freedom and the Birth of American Liberty (2014) Franklin T. Lambert, The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. (Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press, 2003). James Kirby Martin, Men in Rebellion: Higher Governmental Leaders and the coming of the American Revolution, (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1973; reprint, New York: Free Press, 1976). Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). Robert Previdi; \"Vindicating the Founders: Race, Sex, Class, and Justice in the Origins of America,\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999 Rakove, Jack. Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2010) 487 pages; scholarly study focuses on how the Founders moved from private lives to public action, beginning in the 1770s Cokie Roberts. Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation. New York: William Morrow, 2005. Gordon S. Wood. Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (New York: Penguin Press, 2006) External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Founding Fathers of the United States . Founders Online: Correspondence and Other Writings of Six Major Shapers of the United States Debunks – along with other fact finding sites – the Internet Myth of \"What Happened to The Signers of the Declaration of Independence\" (retrieved 01-30-15) \"What Would the Founding Fathers Do Today?\" at the Wayback Machine (archived January 14, 2007) \"Founding Father Quotes, Biographies, and Writings\" [ show ] Founding Fathers and their related articles [ show ] v t e John Adams 2nd President of the United States, 1797–1801 1st Vice President of the United States, 1789–1797 U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom, 1785–1788 U.S. Ambassador to the Netherlands, 1782–1788 Delegate, Second Continental Congress, 1775–1778 Delegate, First Continental Congress, 1774 Founding of the United States Braintree Instructions (1765) Boston Massacre defense Continental Association Novanglus; A History of the Dispute with America, From Its Origin in 1754 to the Present Time (1775) Thoughts on Government (1776) Declaration of Independence May 15 preamble Committee of Five Model Treaty Treaty of Amity and Commerce Treaty of Alliance Board of War Chairman of the Marine Committee, 1775-1779 Continental Navy Staten Island Peace Conference Conference House Constitution of Massachusetts (1780) Treaty of Paris, 1783 Presidency Inauguration Quasi War with France XYZ Affair Commerce Protection Act United States Marine Corps Convention of 1800 Alien and Sedition Acts Naturalization Act of 1798 Navy Department Library Treaty of Tellico Treaty of Tripoli Midnight Judges Act Marbury v. Madison State of the Union Address (1797 1798 1799 1800) Cabinet Federal judiciary appointments Other writings Massachusetts Historical Society holdings Adams Papers Editorial Project Life and homes Early life and education Adams National Historical Park John Adams Birthplace Family home and John Quincy Adams birthplace Peacefield Presidential Library Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University Presidents House, Philadelphia Co-founder and second president, American Academy of Arts and Sciences United First Parish Church and gravesite Elections United States presidential election 1788–1789 1792 1796 1800 Legacy Adams House at Harvard University John Adams Building U.S. Postage stamps Adams Memorial Popular culture Profiles in Courage (1964 series) American Primitive (1969 play) 1776 (1969 musical 1972 film) The Adams Chronicles (1976 miniseries) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2001 book 2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Related \"Adams and Liberty\" campaign song Adams' personal library American Enlightenment Congress Hall Federalist Party Federalist Era First Party System republicanism American Philosophical Society Gazette of the United States The American Museum American Revolution patriots Family Abigail Adams wife Quincy family Abigail Adams Smith (daughter) John Quincy Adams son presidency Charles Adams (son) Thomas Boylston Adams (son) George W. Adams (grandson) Charles Adams Sr. (grandson) John Adams II (grandson) John Q. Adams (great-grandson) Henry Adams (great-grandson) Brooks Adams (great-grandson) John Adams Sr. (father) Susanna Boylston (mother) Elihu Adams (brother) Samuel Adams (second cousin) Louisa Adams daughter-in-law First Lady ← George Washington Thomas Jefferson → Category [ show ] v t e Samuel Adams 4th Governor of Massachusetts, 1794—1797 Second Continental Congress, 1775—1781 First Continental Congress, 1774 Clerk of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, 1766—1774 United States founding events The Independent Advertiser Boston Caucus 1764 Sugar Act response protests 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter Probable author, 1768–1769 \"Journal of Occurrences\" Arranged Christopher Seider funeral, 1770 Co-author, 1772 Boston Pamphlet Boston Committee of Correspondence, 1772 Hutchinson Letters Affair Co-inspired and publicized, Boston Tea Party Signed, 1774 Continental Association Massachusetts Provincial Congress Co-author, 1776 Letter to the inhabitants of Canada Signed, United States Declaration of Independence Signed, Articles of Confederation 1788 Massachusetts Compromise Life Early life Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University Sons of Liberty 1789 U.S. House election 1796 presidential election Samuel Adams and Paul Revere time capsule Granary Burying Ground Related American republicanism Boston Gazette American Revolution patriots Founding Father Faneuil Hall Old South Meeting House Legacy Samuel Adams (Whitney) Adams, Massachusetts Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Family John Adams (second cousin) [ show ] v t e John Dickinson 5th President of Pennsylvania, 1782–1785 5th President of Delaware, 1781–1783 Second Continental Congress, 1775–1776, 1779–1781 First Continental Congress, 1774 Stamp Act Congress, 1765 Founding of the United States Declaration of Rights and Grievances (1765) Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767, 1768) \"The Liberty Song\" (1768 United we stand, divided we fall) Petition to the King (1774) Signee, Continental Association (1774) Pennsylvania Committee of Correspondence (1774–1776) Letter to the inhabitants of the Province of Quebec (1774) Olive Branch Petition (1775) Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms ( co-wrote , 1775) Committee of Secret Correspondence (1775–1776) Model Treaty committee (1776) Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union (1776) President, Annapolis Convention (1786) Delegate, Constitutional Convention (1787) Other events Brigadier General, Pennsylvania militia Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 Delaware Constitution of 1792 Life and homes Mary Norris Dickinson (wife) Philemon Dickinson (brother) Early life Poplar Hall home Fair Hill estate Friends Burial Ground Legacy Dickinson College Dickinson School of Law, Pennsylvania State University John Dickinson High School 1776 (1969 musical, 1972 film) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Related Claymont Stone School American Revolution patriots [ show ] v t e Benjamin Franklin January 6, 1706 – April 17, 1790 President of Pennsylvania (1785–1788) , Ambassador to France (1779–1785) Second Continental Congress (1775–1776) Founding of the United States Join, or Die (1754 political cartoon) Albany Plan of Union Albany Congress Hutchinson Letters Affair Committee of Secret Correspondence Committee of Five Declaration of Independence Model Treaty Franco-American alliance Treaty of Amity and Commerce Treaty of Alliance Staten Island Peace Conference Treaty of Paris, 1783 Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly Postmaster General Founding Fathers Inventions, other events Franklin's electrostatic machine Bifocals Franklin stove Glass armonica Gulf Stream exploration, naming, and chart Lightning rod Kite experiment Pay it forward Associators 111th Infantry Regiment Junto club American Philosophical Society Library Company of Philadelphia Pennsylvania Hospital Academy and College of Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Contributionship Union Fire Company Early American currency Fugio Cent United States Postal Service President, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Master, Les Neuf Sœurs Other social contributions and studies Gravesite Writings Silence Dogood letters (1722) A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725) The Busy-Body letters (1729) Pennsylvania Gazette (1729–1790) Poor Richard's Almanack (1732–1758) The Drinker's Dictionary (1737) \"Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress\" (1745) \"The Speech of Polly Baker\" (1747) Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc. (1751) Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1751) Birch letters (1755) The Way to Wealth (1758) Pennsylvania Chronicle (1767) Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One (1773) Proposed alliance with the Iroquois (1775) A Letter To A Royal Academy (1781) Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America (1784) The Morals of Chess (1786) An Address to the Public (1789) A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789) The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1771–90, pub. 1791) Bagatelles and Satires (pub. 1845) Franklin as a journalist Legacy Franklin Court Benjamin Franklin House Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology Benjamin Franklin National Memorial Franklin Institute Benjamin Franklin Medal Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington Benjamin Franklin statue, Washington D.C. In popular culture Ben and Me (1953 short) Ben Franklin in Paris (1964 musical play) 1776 (1969 musical 1972 film ) Benjamin Franklin (1974 miniseries) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) Benjamin Franklin (2002 documentary series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) Sons of Ben (supporters group for the Philadelphia Union soccer club Refunding Certificate Franklin half dollar One-hundred dollar bill Washington-Franklin stamps other stamps Cities, counties, schools named for Franklin Franklin Field State of Franklin Ships named USS Franklin Ben Franklin effect Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment The New-England Courant The American Museum magazine American Revolution patriots Syng inkstand Family Deborah Read (wife) Sarah Franklin Bache (daughter) Francis Franklin (son) William Franklin (son) Richard Bache Jr. (grandson) Benjamin F. Bache (grandson) Louis F. Bache (grandson) William Franklin (grandson) Andrew Harwood (great-grandson) Alexander Bache (great-grandson) Josiah Franklin (father) Jane Mecom (sister) James Franklin (brother) Mary Morrell Folger (grandmother) Peter Folger (grandfather) Richard Bache (son-in-law) Ann Smith Franklin (sister-in-law) [ show ] v t e Alexander Hamilton Senior Officer of the United States Army, 1799–1800 1st Secretary of the Treasury, 1789–1795 Delegate, Congress of the Confederation, 1782–1783, 1788–1789 United States founding events A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress (1774) The Farmer Refuted (1775) Delegate, 1786 Annapolis Convention Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention Initiated, main author, The Federalist Papers written by Hamilton Founding Father Secretary of the Treasury First Bank of the United States Revenue Marine (United States Coast Guard) United States Customs Service Hamiltonian economic program Residence Act Compromise of 1790 \"First Report on the Public Credit\", 1790 Funding Act of 1790 \"Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports\", 1790 \"Second Report on Public Credit\", a.k.a. \"Report on a National Bank\", 1790 \"Report On Manufactures\", 1791 Tariff of 1790 Tariff of 1792 Coinage Act of 1792 United States Mint Whiskey Rebellion Jay Treaty Military career New York Provincial Company of Artillery In the Revolutionary War Battles: Harlem Heights White Plains Trenton General Washington's Aide-de-Camp Princeton Brandywine Germantown Monmouth Siege of Yorktown Other events Burr–Hamilton duel Founder, Federalist Party Federalist Era Founder, Bank of New York Bank of North America Advisor, George Washington's Farewell Address President-General of the Society of the Cincinnati Founder, New-York Evening Post Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal Rutgers v. Waddington Relationship with slavery Depictions and memorials Alexander Hamilton (Fraser statue) Alexander Hamilton (Ceracchi bust) Alexander Hamilton (Conrads statue) Alexander Hamilton (Trumbull portrait) Alexander Hamilton Bridge Alexander Hamilton High School (Los Angeles) Fort Hamilton Hamilton Grange National Memorial Hamilton Hall (Columbia University) Hamilton Hall (Salem, Massachusetts) Hamilton Heights, Manhattan Hamilton, Ohio Hamilton-Oneida Academy Postage stamps Trinity Church Cemetery United States ten-dollar bill Media and popular culture Hamilton (2015 musical) Hamilton (1917 play) Alexander Hamilton (1931 film) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment American Philosophical Society Liberty Hall (New Jersey) New York Manumission Society African Free School \"American System\" economic plan American School American Revolution patriots Family Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton wife Schuyler family Philip Hamilton (oldest son) Angelica Hamilton (daughter) Alexander Hamilton Jr. (son) James Alexander Hamilton (son) John Church Hamilton (son) William S. Hamilton (son) Eliza Hamilton Holly (daughter) Philip Hamilton (youngest son) Schuyler Hamilton (grandson) Alexander Hamilton Jr. (grandson) Allan McLane Hamilton (grandson) Robert Ray Hamilton (great-grandson) [ show ] v t e John Hancock 1st and 3rd Governor of Massachusetts, 1780–1785, 1787–1793 President, 2nd Continential Congress, 1775–1777 Boston Board of Selectmen, 1766–1775 United States Founding events HMS Liberty confiscation Sons of Liberty Co-inspired, Boston Tea Party 1774 Massacre Day speech President, Massachusetts Provincial Congress Chairman, Massachusetts Committee of Safety Presided over, signed, United States Declaration of Independence signing Dunlap broadside Signed, Articles of Confederation Life Early life Hancock-Clarke House Hancock Manor Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University Boston Cadets Co-founder, American Academy of Arts and Sciences United States presidential election, 1788–89 Granary Burying Ground Related American Revolution patriots Founding Father Syng inkstand Legacy USS Hancock , 1775 USS Hancock , 1776 Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) John Hancock Center John Hancock Tower Family Dorothy Quincy (wife) John Hancock Jr. (father) Thomas Hancock (uncle) John Hancock, Sr. (grandfather) Edmund Quincy (father-in-law) [ show ] v t e Thomas Jefferson 3rd President of the United States (1801–1809) 2nd U.S. Vice President (1797–1801) 1st U.S. Secretary of State (1790–1793) U.S. Minister to France (1785–1789) 2nd Governor of Virginia (1779–1781) Delegate, Second Continental Congress (1775–1776) Founding documents of the United States A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774) Initial draft, Olive Branch Petition (1775) Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775) 1776 Declaration of Independence Committee of Five authored physical history \"All men are created equal\" \"Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness\" \"Consent of the governed\" 1786 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom freedom of religion French Revolution Co-author, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) Presidency Inaugural Address (1801 1805) Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves Louisiana Purchase Lewis and Clark Expedition Corps of Discovery timeline Empire of Liberty Red River Expedition Pike Expedition Cumberland Road Embargo Act of 1807 Chesapeake–Leopard affair Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 First Barbary War Native American policy Marbury v. Madison West Point Military Academy State of the Union Addresses (texts 1801 1802 1805) Cabinet Federal judicial appointments Other noted accomplishments Early life and career Founder, University of Virginia history Land Ordinance of 1784 Northwest Ordinance 1787 Anti-Administration party Democratic-Republican Party Jeffersonian democracy First Party System republicanism Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measure of the United States (1790) Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions A Manual of Parliamentary Practice (1801) Jeffersonian architecture Barboursville Farmington Monticello gardens Poplar Forest University of Virginia The Rotunda The Lawn Virginia State Capitol White House Colonnades Other writings Notes on the State of Virginia (1785) 1787 European journey memorandums Indian removal letters Jefferson Bible (1895) Jefferson manuscript collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment American Philosophical Society American Revolution patriots Member, Virginia Committee of Correspondence Committee of the States Founding Fathers of the United States Franco-American alliance Jefferson and education Religious views Jefferson and slavery Jefferson and the Library of Congress Jefferson disk Jefferson Pier Pet mockingbird National Gazette Residence Act Compromise of 1790 Sally Hemings Jefferson–Hemings controversy Betty Hemings Separation of church and state Swivel chair The American Museum magazine Virginia dynasty Elections United States Presidential election 1796 1800 1804 Legacy Bibliography Jefferson Memorial Mount Rushmore Birthday Thomas Jefferson Building Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression Jefferson Lecture Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Thomas Jefferson Star for Foreign Service Jefferson Lab Monticello Association Jefferson City, Missouri Jefferson College Thomas Jefferson School of Law Thomas Jefferson University Washington and Jefferson National Forests Other placenames Currency depictions Jefferson nickel Two-dollar bill Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar U.S. postage stamps Popular culture Ben and Me (1953 short) 1776 ( 1969 musical 1972 film ) Jefferson in Paris (1995 film) Thomas Jefferson (1997 film) Liberty! (1997 documentary series) Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) John Adams (2008 miniseries) Jefferson's Garden (2015 play) Hamilton (2015 musical) Jefferson–Eppes Trophy Wine bottles controversy Family Peter Jefferson (father) Jane Randolph Jefferson (mother) Lucy Jefferson Lewis (sister) Randolph Jefferson (brother) Isham Randolph (grandfather) William Randolph (great-grandfather) Martha Jefferson (wife) Martha Jefferson Randolph (daughter) Mary Jefferson Eppes (daughter) Harriet Hemings (daughter) Madison Hemings (son) Eston Hemings (son) Thomas J. Randolph (grandson) Francis Eppes (grandson) George W. Randolph (grandson) John Wayles Jefferson (grandson) Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. (son-in-law) John Wayles Eppes (son-in-law) John Wayles (father-in-law) Dabney Carr (brother-in-law) Dabney Carr (nephew) ← John Adams James Madison → Category [ show ] v t e James Madison 4th President of the United States (1809–1817) 5th U.S. Secretary of State (1801–1809) United States House of Representatives (1789–1797) Congress of the Confederation (1781–1783) Virginia House of Delegates (1776–1779, 1784–1786) \"Father of the Constitution\" Co-wrote, 1776 Virginia Constitution 1786 Annapolis Convention 1787 Constitutional Convention Virginia Plan Constitution of the United States Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 The Federalist Papers written by Madison No. 10 No. 51 Virginia Ratifying Convention United States Bill of Rights 27th amendment Constitution drafting and ratification timeline Founding Fathers Presidency First inauguration Second inauguration Tecumseh's War Battle of Tippecanoe War of 1812 origins Burning of Washington The Octagon House Treaty of Ghent Seven Buildings residence results Second Barbary War Era of Good Feelings Second Bank of the United States State of the Union Address (1810 1814 1815 1816) Cabinet Federal judiciary appointments Other noted accomplisments Co-founder, American Whig Society Supervised the Louisiana Purchase Anti-Administration party Residence Act Compromise of 1790 Democratic-Republican Party First Party System republicanism Library of Congress Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Report of 1800 Other writings The Papers of James Madison Life Early life and career Belle Grove Plantation, birthplace Montpelier Elections U.S. House of Representatives election, 1789 1790 1792 1794 U.S. presidential election, 1808 1812 Legacy and popular culture James Madison Memorial Building James Madison University James Madison College Madison, Wisconsin Madison Square Madison River Madison Street U.S. postage stamps James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation James Madison Freedom of Information Award James Madison Award James Madison Institute A More Perfect Union (1989 film) Liberty's Kids (2002 miniseries) Hamilton (2015 musical) Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment Marbury v. Madison National Gazette Paul Jennings Madisonian Model American Philosophical Society The American Museum magazine Virginia dynasty Family Dolley Madison (wife) John Payne Todd (stepson) James Madison, Sr. (father) Nelly Conway Madison (mother) William Madison (brother) Ambrose Madison (paternal grandfather) James Madison (cousin) George Madison (paternal second-cousin) Thomas Madison (paternal second-cousin) John Madison (great-grandfather) Lucy Washington (sister-in-law) ← Thomas Jefferson James Monroe → Category [ show ] v t e George Mason United States Founding events Drafted, 1769 Virginia Association resolutions Primary author, 1774 Fairfax Resolves Primary author, 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights \" All men are created equal \" Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness Freedom of the press Freedom of religion Consent of the governed Baseless search and seizure Cruel and unusual punishment Speedy trial 1776 Virginia Constitution 1785 Mount Vernon Conference 1787 Constitutional Convention Virginia Ratifying Convention Co-father, United States Bill of Rights history Founding Father Writings inspired 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France) 1789 United States Bill of Rights Life Chopawamsic plantation Gunston Hall On slavery Ohio Company Legacy George Mason Memorial George Mason University George Mason Stadium George Mason Memorial Bridge George Mason High School 18-cent postage stamp Related Age of Enlightenment American Enlightenment American Revolution patriots Wilson v. Mason Hollin Hall Woodbridge plantation Mason's Island Family George Mason V (son) William Mason (son) Thomson Mason (son) John Mason (son) Thomas Mason (son) George Mason III (father) Thomson Mason (brother) George Mason II (grandfather) [ show ] v t e Robert Morris United States Senator, Pennsylvania, 1789–1795 Superintendent of Finance of the United States, 1781–1784 Second Continental Congress, 1775–1778 United States Founding events Financier of the American Revolution Signed, Declaration of Independence Signed, Articles of Confederation Signed, United States Constitution 1776 Model Treaty Committee of Secret Correspondence, Second Continental Congress Chairman, Pennsylvania Committee of Safety U.S. Superintendent of Finance Agent of the Marine Bank of North America Philadelphia as U.S. capital city, 1790–1800 Residence Act President's House Other events Willing, Morris & Co. (Slavery) Use of the dollar sign Newburgh Conspiracy Empress of China merchant ship Old China Trade Phelps and Gorham Purchase Life Early life Summerseat home 1788 U.S. Senate election Panic of 1796–97 Christ Church, Philadelphia, burial site Legacy Robert Morris University, Pennsylvania Robert Morris University, Illinois Robert Morris statue, Philadelphia Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington Heald Square Monument , Chicago Mount Morris, New York village dam Morrisville, Pennsylvania Related Founding Fathers Thomas Willing USS Alfred Family Thomas Morris (son) Bishop William White (brother-in-law) [ show ] v t e Thomas Paine Writings Common Sense (January 1776) The American Crisis (December 1776) Rights of Man (March 1791, February 1792) The Age of Reason (1794, 1795, 1807) Agrarian Justice (1797) Life 1792 Rights of Man trial Wearmouth Bridge Thomas Paine Cottage Legacy Thomas Paine National Historical Association Thomas Paine Monument, New Rochelle, New York Institute of Thomas Paine Studies In Lambeth Liberty! A New World: A Life of Thomas Paine Related Headstrong Club [ show ] v t e George Washington 1st President of the United States , 1789–1797 Senior Officer of the Army, 1798–1799 Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army , 1775–1783 Second Continental Congress, 1775 First Continental Congress, 1774 Military career Revolutionary War Military career French and Indian War Jumonville Glen Battle of Fort Necessity Forbes Expedition Washington and the American Revolution Commander-in-chief, Continental Army Aides-de-camp Washington's headquarters Boston campaign Siege of Boston New York and New Jersey campaign Delaware River crossing Battle of Trenton Philadelphia campaign Battle of Brandywine Battle of Germantown Battle of White Marsh Valley Forge Battle of Monmouth Battles of Saratoga Sullivan Expedition Yorktown campaign Siege of Yorktown Culper spy ring Newburgh Conspiracy Newburgh letter Resignation as commander-in-chief Badge of Military Merit Purple Heart Washington Before Boston Medal Horses: Nelson and Blueskin Other U.S. founding events 1769 Virginia Association Continental Association 1774 Fairfax Resolves Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture 1785 Mount Vernon Conference Chairman, 1787 Constitutional Convention Presidency United States presidential election, 1788–89 1792 First inauguration inaugural bible Second inauguration Title of \"Mr. President\" Cabinet of the United States Secretary of State Attorney General Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of War Judiciary Act of 1789 Nonintercourse Act Whiskey Rebellion Militia Acts of 1792 Coinage Act of 1792 United States Mint Proclamation of Neutrality Neutrality Act of 1794 Jay Treaty Pinckney's Treaty Slave Trade Act of 1794 Residence Act Thanksgiving Proclamation Farewell Address State of the Union Address 1790 1791 1792 1793 1796 Cabinet Federal judicial appointments Views and public image Presidential library The Washington Papers Religious views Washington and slavery Town Destroyer Legacy Life and homes Early life Birthplace Ferry Farm boyhood home Mount Vernon Gristmill Woodlawn Plantation Samuel Osgood House, First Presidential Mansion Alexander Macomb House, Second Presidential Mansion President's House, Philadelphia Germantown White House Custis estate Potomac Company James River and Kanawha Canal Mountain Road Lottery Congressional Gold Medal Thanks of Congress President-General of the Society of the Cincinnati Washington College Washington and Lee University Electoral history of George Washington Memorials and depictions Washington, D.C. Washington state Washington Monument Mount Rushmore Washington's Birthday Purple Heart The Apotheosis of Washington George Washington (Houdon) George Washington (Ceracchi) George Washington (Trumbull) Washington Crossing the Delaware General George Washington at Trenton Washington at Verplanck's Point General George Washington Resigning His Commission Unfinished portrait Lansdowne portrait The Washington Family portrait Washington at Princeton painting Point of View sculpture George Washington University Washington University Washington Masonic National Memorial George Washington Memorial Parkway George Washington Bridge Washington and Jefferson National Forests Washington Monument, Baltimore Washington, D.C. statue List of memorials U.S. Postage stamps Washington-Franklin Issues 1932 bicentennial Currency Washington quarter Washington dollar Silver bullion coins Cultural depictions George Washington (1984 miniseries 1986 sequel) Related Bibliography Founding Fathers of the United States Republicanism Federalist Party Federalist Era Virginia dynasty Coat of arms Cherry-tree anecdote River Farm Washington's Crossing 1751 Barbados trip Category Syng inkstand General of the Armies American Philosophical Society American Revolution patriots Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Ancestry and family Martha Washington (wife) John Parke Custis (stepson) George Washington Parke Custis (step-grandson, adopted son) Eleanor Parke Custis (step-granddaughter, adopted daughter) Augustine Washington (father) Mary Ball Washington (mother) Lawrence Washington (half-brother) Augustine Washington Jr. (half-brother) Betty Washington Lewis (sister) Samuel Washington (brother) John A. Washington (brother) Charles Washington (brother) Lawrence Washington (grandfather) John Washington (great-grandfather) Bushrod Washington (nephew) John Adams → Category [ show ] v t e Historical documents of the United States [ show ] Constitution Preamble and Articles Preamble I II III IV V VI VII Amendments Ratified 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Pending Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin ( State Domestic Institutions ) Child Labor Unsuccessful Equal Rights District of Columbia Voting Rights See also List of Constitutional Amendments Bill of Rights (Amendments 1–10) Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13–15) Amendment proposals in Congress Conventions to propose amendments State ratifying conventions Formation History Articles of Confederation Mount Vernon Conference Annapolis Convention Philadelphia Convention Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan Connecticut Compromise Three-Fifths Compromise Committee of Detail Signing Independence Hall Syng inkstand The Federalist Papers Anti-Federalist Papers Massachusetts Compromise Virginia Ratifying Convention Hillsborough Convention Drafting and ratification timeline Clauses Appointments Appropriations Assistance of Counsel Bill of credit Case or Controversy Citizenship Commerce Compact Compulsory Process Confrontation Contract Copyright and Patent Double Jeopardy Due Process Equal Protection Establishment Exceptions Excessive Bail Ex post facto Extradition Free Exercise Free Speech Fugitive Slave Full Faith and Credit General Welfare Guarantee Impeachment Import-Export Ineligibility (Emolument) Militia Natural-born citizen Necessary and Proper New States No Religious Test Oath or Affirmation Origination Petition Postal Presentment Privileges and Immunities Privileges or Immunities Recommendation Self-Incrimination Speech or Debate Speedy Trial State of the Union Supremacy Suspension Take Care Takings Taxing and Spending Territorial Title of Nobility Treaty Trial by Jury Vesting Vicinage War Powers List of clauses Interpretation Concurrent powers Congressional enforcement Constitutional law Criminal procedure Criminal sentencing Dormant Commerce Clause Enumerated powers Equal footing Executive privilege Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Judicial review Nondelegation doctrine Preemption Saxbe fix Separation of church and state Separation of powers Taxation power Unitary executive theory Signatories Convention President George Washington New Hampshire John Langdon Nicholas Gilman Massachusetts Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King Connecticut William Samuel Johnson Roger Sherman New York Alexander Hamilton New Jersey William Livingston David Brearley William Paterson Jonathan Dayton Pennsylvania Benjamin Franklin Thomas Mifflin Robert Morris George Clymer Thomas Fitzsimons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson Gouverneur Morris Delaware George Read Gunning Bedford Jr. John Dickinson Richard Bassett Jacob Broom Maryland James McHenry Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer Daniel Carroll Virginia John Blair James Madison North Carolina William Blount Richard Dobbs Spaight Hugh Williamson South Carolina John Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler Georgia William Few Abraham Baldwin Convention Secretary William Jackson Display and legacy National Archives Charters of Freedom Rotunda Independence Mall Constitution Day Constitution Gardens National Constitution Center Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting) A More Perfect Union (film) Worldwide influence [ show ] Declaration of Independence Primary author Thomas Jefferson Signatories President of Congress John Hancock (Massachusetts) New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett William Whipple Matthew Thornton Massachusetts Samuel Adams John Adams Robert Treat Paine Elbridge Gerry Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins William Ellery Connecticut Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington William Williams Oliver Wolcott New York William Floyd Philip Livingston Francis Lewis Lewis Morris New Jersey Richard Stockton John Witherspoon Francis Hopkinson John Hart Abraham Clark Pennsylvania Robert Morris Benjamin Rush Benjamin Franklin John Morton George Clymer James Smith George Taylor James Wilson George Ross Delaware George Read Caesar Rodney Thomas McKean Maryland Samuel Chase William Paca Thomas Stone Charles Carroll of Carrollton Virginia George Wythe Richard Henry Lee Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Harrison Thomas Nelson Jr. Francis Lightfoot Lee Carter Braxton North Carolina William Hooper Joseph Hewes John Penn South Carolina Edward Rutledge Thomas Heyward Jr. Thomas Lynch Jr. Arthur Middleton Georgia Button Gwinett Lyman Hall George Walton See also Virginia Declaration of Rights Lee Resolution Committee of Five Document's history signing portrait Second Continental Congress \" All men are created equal \" \" Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness \" \" Consent of the governed \" Independence Hall Syng inkstand American Revolution [ show ] Articles of Confederation Signatories Primary drafter John Dickinson New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett John Wentworth Jr. Massachusetts John Hancock Samuel Adams Elbridge Gerry Francis Dana James Lovell Samuel Holten Rhode Island William Ellery Henry Marchant John Collins Connecticut Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington Oliver Wolcott Titus Hosmer Andrew Adams New York James Duane Francis Lewis William Duer Gouverneur Morris New Jersey John Witherspoon Nathaniel Scudder Pennsylvania Robert Morris Daniel Roberdeau Jonathan Bayard Smith William Clingan Joseph Reed Delaware Thomas McKean John Dickinson Nicholas Van Dyke Maryland John Hanson Daniel Carroll Virginia Richard Henry Lee John Banister Thomas Adams John Harvie Francis Lightfoot Lee North Carolina John Penn Cornelius Harnett John Williams South Carolina Henry Laurens William Henry Drayton John Mathews Richard Hutson Thomas Heyward Jr. Georgia John Walton Edward Telfair Edward Langworthy See also Continental Congress Congress of the Confederation American Revolution Perpetual Union [ show ] Continental Association Signatories President of Congress Peyton Randolph New Hampshire John Sullivan Nathaniel Folsom Massachusetts Bay Thomas Cushing Samuel Adams John Adams Robert Treat Paine Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Connecticut Eliphalet Dyer Roger Sherman Silas Deane New York Isaac Low John Alsop John Jay James Duane Philip Livingston William Floyd Henry Wisner Simon Boerum New Jersey James Kinsey William Livingston Stephen Crane Richard Smith John De Hart Pennsylvania Joseph Galloway John Dickinson Charles Humphreys Thomas Mifflin Edward Biddle John Morton George Ross The Lower Counties Caesar Rodney Thomas McKean George Read Maryland Matthew Tilghman Thomas Johnson, Junr William Paca Samuel Chase Virginia Richard Henry Lee George Washington Patrick Henry, Junr Richard Bland Benjamin Harrison Edmund Pendleton North Carolina William Hooper Joseph Hewes Richard Caswell South Carolina Henry Middleton Thomas Lynch Christopher Gadsden John Rutledge Edward Rutledge See also Virginia Association First Continental Congress Carpenters' Hall Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States&oldid=843154283 \" Categories : Words coined in the 1910s Age of Enlightenment American Revolution Articles about multiple people Patriots in the American Revolution Political leaders of the American Revolution National founders Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Pages with DOIs inactive since 2018 Use mdy dates from April 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related 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{ "text": "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington - Wikipedia Mr. Smith Goes to Washington From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mr. Smith Goes to Washington theatrical release poster Directed by Frank Capra Produced by Frank Capra Screenplay by Sidney Buchman Myles Connolly (uncredited contributor to script construction and dialogue) [1] Story by \"The Gentleman from Montana\" (unpub. story) [1] by Lewis R. Foster [2] Starring Jean Arthur James Stewart Narrated by Colin James Mackey Music by Dimitri Tiomkin Cinematography Joseph Walker Edited by Gene Havlick Al Clark Production company Columbia Pictures Distributed by Columbia Pictures Release date October 17, 1939 ( 1939-10-17 ) ( DC premiere ) Running time 125–126 or 130 minutes [1] Country United States Language English Budget $1.5 million Box office $9,000,000 [3] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington is a 1939 American political comedy-drama film directed by Frank Capra , starring Jean Arthur and James Stewart , and featuring Claude Rains and Edward Arnold . The film is about a newly appointed United States Senator who fights against a corrupt political system, and was written by Sidney Buchman , based on Lewis R. Foster 's unpublished story \"The Gentleman from Montana\". [4] The film was controversial when it was first released, but was also successful at the box office, and made Stewart a major movie star. [5] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was nominated for eleven Academy Awards , winning for Best Original Story . [6] Considered to be one of the greatest films of all time , the film was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1989, deeming it \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Impact 5 Awards and honors 5.1 Academy Awards 5.2 Other honors 6 Remakes 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Plot [ edit ] The governor of an unnamed western state, Hubert \"Happy\" Hopper ( Guy Kibbee ), has to pick a replacement for recently deceased U.S. Senator Sam Foley. His corrupt political boss , Jim Taylor ( Edward Arnold ), pressures Hopper to choose his handpicked stooge, while popular committees want a reformer, Henry Hill. The governor's children want him to select Jefferson Smith ( James Stewart ), the head of the Boy Rangers. Unable to make up his mind between Taylor's stooge and the reformer, Hopper decides to flip a coin. When it lands on edge – and next to a newspaper story on one of Smith's accomplishments – he chooses Smith, calculating that his wholesome image will please the people while his naïveté will make him easy to manipulate. Junior Senator Smith is taken under the wing of the publicly esteemed, but secretly crooked, Senator Joseph Paine ( Claude Rains ), who was Smith's late father's friend. Smith develops an immediate attraction to the senator's daughter, Susan ( Astrid Allwyn ). At Senator Paine's home, Smith has a conversation with Susan, fidgeting and bumbling, entranced by the young socialite. Smith's naïve and honest nature allows the unforgiving Washington press to take advantage of him, quickly tarnishing Smith's reputation with ridiculous front page pictures and headlines branding him a bumpkin . To keep Smith busy, Paine suggests he propose a bill. With the help of his secretary, Clarissa Saunders ( Jean Arthur ), who was the aide to Smith's predecessor and had been around Washington and politics for years, Smith comes up with a bill to authorize a federal government loan to buy some land in his home state for a national boys' camp, to be paid back by youngsters across America. Donations pour in immediately. However, the proposed campsite is already part of a dam-building graft scheme included in an appropriations bill framed by the Taylor political machine and supported by Senator Paine. Unwilling to crucify the worshipful Smith so that their graft plan will go through, Paine tells Taylor he wants out, but Taylor reminds him that Paine is in power primarily through Taylor's influence. Through Paine, the machine in his state accuses Smith of trying to profit from his bill by producing fraudulent evidence that Smith already owns the land in question. Smith is too shocked by Paine's betrayal to defend himself, and runs away. Saunders, who looked down on Smith at first, but has come to believe in him, talks him into launching a filibuster to postpone the appropriations bill and prove his innocence on the Senate floor just before the vote to expel him. In his last chance to prove his innocence, he talks non-stop for about 24 hours, reaffirming the American ideals of freedom and disclosing the true motives of the dam scheme. Yet none of the Senators are convinced. The constituents try to rally around him, but the entrenched opposition is too powerful, and all attempts are crushed. Owing to the influence of Taylor's machine, newspapers and radio stations in Smith's home state, on Taylor's orders, refuse to report what Smith has to say and even distort the facts against the senator. An effort by the Boy Rangers to spread the news in support of Smith results in vicious attacks on the children by Taylor's minions. Although all hope seems lost, the senators begin to pay attention as Smith approaches utter exhaustion. Paine has one last card up his sleeve: he brings in bins of letters and telegrams from Smith's home state, purportedly from average people demanding his expulsion. Nearly broken by the news, Smith finds a small ray of hope in a friendly smile from the President of the Senate ( Harry Carey ). Smith vows to press on until people believe him, but immediately collapses in a faint. Overcome with guilt, Paine leaves the Senate chamber and attempts to commit suicide by gunshot, but is stopped by onlooking senators. He then bursts back into the Senate chamber, shouting a confession to the whole scheme; Paine further insists that he should be expelled from the Senate and affirms Smith's innocence, to the delight of Clarissa. The President of the Senate observes the ensuing chaos with amusement. Cast [ edit ] Jean Arthur as Clarissa Saunders James Stewart as Jefferson \"Jeff\" Smith Claude Rains as Senator Joseph Harrison \"Joe\" Paine Edward Arnold as Jim Taylor Guy Kibbee as Governor Hubert \"Happy\" Hopper Thomas Mitchell as \"Diz\" Moore Eugene Pallette as Chick McGann Beulah Bondi as Ma Smith H. B. Warner as Senate Majority Leader Harry Carey as President of the Senate Astrid Allwyn as Susan Paine Ruth Donnelly as Mrs. Hopper Grant Mitchell as Senator MacPherson Porter Hall as Senator Monroe Pierre Watkin as Senate Minority Leader Charles Lane as \"Nosey\", reporter William Demarest as Bill Griffith Dick Elliott as Carl Cook The Hopper Boys: Billy Watson Delmar Watson John Russell Harry Watson Gary Watson Baby Dumpling ( Larry Simms ) H. V. Kaltenborn as himself Uncredited Russell Simpson as Kenneth Allen Dick Jones as Richard \"Dickie\" Jones, Senate Page Boy Nick Copeland\tas Senate Reporter Anne Cornwall as Senate Reporter Gino Corrado as Barber Maurice Costello as Diggs - Newsman Alec Craig as Speaker Beatrice Curtis as Paine's Secretary Lew Davis as Senate Clerk Dulcie Day as Senate Reporter Wally Dean as Paine's Friend Vernon Dent as Senate Reporter Harry Depp as Hat Salesman / Secretary Robert Middlemass as 2nd Radio Announcer Gladys Gale as Committee Woman Stanley Andrews as Senator Hodges Harlan Briggs as Mr. Edwards, howling citizen Cast notes: Among the unbilled veteran character actors seen in the film are Guy Kibbee's brother, Milton Kibbee , who has a bit as a reporter; Lafe McKee ; and Matt McHugh of the McHugh acting family. Also in the film in minor roles are Dub Taylor and Jack Carson , later well-known actors. Silent film star Hank Mann played a photographer. Production [ edit ] James Stewart and Jean Arthur in a taxicab Columbia Pictures originally purchased Lewis R. Foster 's unpublished story, variously called \"The Gentleman from Montana\" and \"The Gentleman from Wyoming\", as a vehicle for Ralph Bellamy , but once Frank Capra came on board as director – after Rouben Mamoulian had expressed interest – the film was to be a sequel to his Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , called Mr. Deeds Goes to Washington , with Gary Cooper reprising his role as Longfellow Deeds. [N 1] Because Cooper was unavailable, Capra then \"saw it immediately as a vehicle for Jimmy Stewart and Jean Arthur\", [7] and Stewart was borrowed from MGM . [4] Capra said of Stewart: \"I knew he would make a hell of a Mr. Smith ... He looked like the country kid, the idealist. It was very close to him.\" [8] Although a youth group is featured in the story, the Boy Scouts of America refused to allow their name to be used in the film and instead the fanciful \"Boy Rangers\" was used. [4] In January 1938, both Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Paramount Pictures submitted Foster's story to the censors at the Hays Office , likely indicating that both studios had an interest in the project before Columbia purchased it. Joseph Breen , the head of that office, warned the studios: \"[W]e would urge most earnestly that you take serious counsel before embarking on the production of any motion picture based on this story. It looks to us like one that might well be loaded with dynamite, both for the motion picture industry, and for the country at large.\" Breen specifically objected to \"the generally unflattering portrayal of our system of Government, which might well lead to such a picture being considered, both here, and more particularly abroad, as a covert attack on the Democratic form of government\", and warned that the film should make clear that \"the Senate is made up of a group of fine, upstanding citizens, who labor long and tirelessly for the best interests of the nation ...\" James Stewart Later, after the screenplay had been written and submitted, Breen reversed course, saying of the film, \"It is a grand yarn that will do a great deal of good for all those who see it and, in my judgment, it is particularly fortunate that this kind of story is to be made at this time. Out of all Senator Jeff's difficulties there has been evolved the importance of a democracy and there is splendidly emphasized the rich and glorious heritage which is ours and which comes when you have a government 'of the people, by the people, and for the people'\". [4] The film was in production from April 3, 1939, to July 7 of that year. [9] Some location shooting took place in Washington, D.C. , at Union Station and at the United States Capitol , as well as other locations for background use. [10] [11] In the studio, to ensure authenticity, an elaborate set was created, consisting of Senate committee rooms, cloak rooms, and hotel suites, as well as specific Washington, D.C., monuments, all based on a trip Capra and his crew made to the capital. Even the Press Club of Washington was reproduced in minute detail, [4] [12] but the major effort went into a faithful reproduction of the Senate Chamber on the Columbia lot. James D. Preston, a former superintendent of the Senate gallery, acted as technical director for the Senate set, as well as advising on political protocol. The production also utilized the \"New York street set\" on the Warner Bros. lot, using 1,000 extras when that scene was shot. [4] The ending of the film was apparently changed at some point, as the original program describes Stewart and Arthur returning to Smith's hometown, where they are met by a big parade, with the implication that they are married and starting a family. [4] In addition, the Taylor political machine is shown being crushed; Smith, riding a motorcycle, visits Senator Paine and forgives him; and a visit to Smith's mother is included. Some of this footage can be seen in the film's trailer. [13] Impact [ edit ] The film premiered in Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., on October 17, 1939, sponsored by the National Press Club , an event to which 4,000 guests were invited, including 45 senators. [8] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was attacked by the Washington press, and politicians in the U.S. Congress , as anti-American and pro- Communist for its portrayal of corruption in the American government . [14] While Capra claims in his autobiography that some senators walked out of the premiere, contemporary press accounts are unclear about whether this occurred or not, or whether senators yelled back at the screen during the film. [15] Senator Jefferson Smith addresses inattentive Senators It is known that Alben W. Barkley , a Democrat and the Senate Majority Leader, called the film \"silly and stupid\", and said it \"makes the Senate look like a bunch of crooks\". [16] He also remarked that the film was \"a grotesque distortion\" of the Senate, \"as grotesque as anything ever seen! Imagine the Vice President of the United States winking at a pretty girl in the gallery in order to encourage a filibuster!\" Barkley thought the film \"showed the Senate as the biggest aggregation of nincompoops on record!\" [16] Pete Harrison , a respected journalist and publisher of the motion picture trade journal Harrison's Reports , suggested that the Senate pass a bill allowing theater owners to refuse to show films that \"were not in the best interest of our country\". That did not happen, but one of the ways that some senators attempted to retaliate for the damage they felt the film had done to the reputation of their institution was by pushing the passage of the Neely Anti-Block Booking Bill, which eventually led to the breakup of the studio-owned theater chains in the late 1940s. Columbia responded by distributing a program which put forward the film’s patriotism and support of democracy and publicized the film’s many positive reviews. [17] Other objections were voiced as well. Joseph P. Kennedy , the American Ambassador to Great Britain, wrote to Capra and Columbia head Harry Cohn to say that he feared the film would damage \"America’s prestige in Europe\", and because of this urged that it be withdrawn from European release. Capra and Cohn responded, citing the film’s review, which mollified Kennedy to the extent that he never followed up, although he privately still had doubts about the film. [18] The film was banned in Hitler's Germany , Mussolini's Italy , Franco's Spain and Stalin's USSR . [19] According to Capra, the film was also dubbed in certain European countries to alter the message of the film so it conformed with official ideology. [19] When a ban on American films was imposed in German occupied France in 1942, some theaters chose to show Mr. Smith Goes to Washington as the last movie before the ban went into effect. One theater owner in Paris reportedly screened the film nonstop for 30 days after the ban was announced. [20] The critical response to the film was more measured than the reaction by politicians, domestic and foreign. The critic for The New York Times , for instance, Frank S. Nugent , wrote that \"[Capra] is operating, of course, under the protection of that unwritten clause in the Bill of Rights entitling every voting citizen to at least one free swing at the Senate. Mr. Capra’s swing is from the floor and in the best of humor; if it fails to rock the august body to its heels – from laughter as much as from injured dignity – it won’t be his fault but the Senate's, and we should really begin to worry about the upper house.\" [21] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington has been called one of the quintessential whistleblower films in American history. Dr. James Murtagh and Dr. Jeffrey Wigand cited this film as a seminal event in U.S. history at the first \" Whistleblower Week in Washington \" (May 13–19, 2007). [22] [23] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington has often been listed as among Capra’s best, but it has been noted that it \"marked a turning point in Capra’s vision of the world, from nervous optimism to a darker, more pessimistic tone. Beginning with American Madness (1932), such Capra films as Lady for a Day (1933), It Happened One Night (1934), Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), and You Can’t Take It With You (1938) had trumpeted their belief in the decency of the common man. In Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , however, the decent common man is surrounded by a venal, petty and thuggish group of crooks. Everyone in the film – except for Jefferson Smith and his tiny cadre of believers – is either in the pay of the political machine run by Edward Arnold’s James Taylor or complicit in Taylor’s corruption through their silence, and they all sit by as innocent people, including children, are brutalized and intimidated, rights are violated, and the government is brought to a halt\". [24] Nevertheless, Smith’s filibuster and the tacit encouragement of the Senate President are both emblematic of the director's belief in the difference that one individual can make. This theme would be expanded further in Capra's It's a Wonderful Life (1946) and other films. Awards and honors [ edit ] Academy Awards [ edit ] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was nominated for 11 Academy Awards but won only one. [25] Award Result Winner Outstanding Production Nominated Columbia Pictures ( Frank Capra ) Winner was David O. Selznick - Gone with the Wind Best Director Nominated Frank Capra Winner was Victor Fleming - Gone with the Wind Best Actor Nominated James Stewart Winner was Robert Donat - Goodbye, Mr. Chips Best Writing, Screenplay Nominated Sidney Buchman Winner was Sidney Howard - Gone with the Wind Best Writing, Original Story Won Lewis R. Foster Best Supporting Actor Nominated Claude Rains * Harry Carey * *Winner was Thomas Mitchell - Stagecoach Best Art Direction Nominated Lionel Banks Winner was Lyle R. Wheeler - Gone with the Wind Best Film Editing Nominated Gene Havlick , Al Clark Winner was Hal C. Kern , James E. Newcom - Gone with the Wind Best Music, Scoring Nominated Dimitri Tiomkin Winner was Herbert Stothart - The Wizard of Oz Best Sound Recording Nominated John P. Livadary Winner was Bernard B. Brown - When Tomorrow Comes Other honors [ edit ] Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was named as one of the best films of 1939 by The New York Times and Film Daily , and was nominated for Best Film by the National Board of Review . James Stewart won the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor. In 1989, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was added to the United States National Film Registry as being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\" [26] American Film Institute recognition 1998 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies #29 2003 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains : Jefferson Smith, Hero #11 Senator Joseph Paine, Villain - Nominated 2006 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers #5 2007 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) #26 Sandra Warner and Fess Parker in the 1962 TV series Remakes [ edit ] In 1949, Columbia planned, but never actually produced, a sequel to Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , called Mr. Smith Starts a Riot . They also considered doing a gender-reversed remake in 1952, with Jane Wyman playing the lead role. [4] A television series of the same name, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , ran on ABC during the 1962–1963 season, starring Fess Parker , Sandra Warner and Red Foley . Producer Frank Capra, Jr. remade the film as part of Tom Laughlin 's Billy Jack series, Billy Jack Goes to Washington (1977). [27] [28] The film was also loosely remade as The Distinguished Gentleman (1992), starring Eddie Murphy . [29] In popular culture [ edit ] The March 10, 1940 broadcast of Jack Benny 's NBC radio show featured a parody entitled \"Mr. Benny Goes to Washington.\" [30] The short-lived NBC political drama Mister Sterling (2003) was described as \"a Mr. Smith Goes to Washington for the 21st century\", with the show centering on an idealistic young senator from California, coming to grips with Washington and appointed by a scheming, underhanded governor. [4] The VHS release of Ernest Rides Again featured the opening Saturday Night Live-based short \"Mr. Bill Goes to Washington\", a spoof of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . The Simpsons episode \" Beyond Blunderdome \" includes a parodistic, fake remake of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , authored by a fictional Mel Gibson with Homer Simpson 's help. The fictional remake follows the same plot of the original (save for being set in the 21st century) until the final iconic \" filibuster scene\", replaced with a stock action scene in which a nearly exhausted Mr. Smith suddenly stands up and viciously slaughters every single senator, impaling Senator Payne with an American flag, destroying the Senate and beheading the President of the United States, mockingly quoting Marilyn Monroe 's \" Happy Birthday, Mr. President \". The Simpsons episode \" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington \" is inspired by, and contains several references to Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . The episode deals with Lisa Simpson 's disillusionment with Washington government, following her winning a trip to Washington as a prize in an essay contest. The Simpsons episode \" Mr. Spritz Goes to Washington \" is also inspired by this film. In it, the Simpsons help Krusty the Clown get elected to Congress in exchange for his help in passing a bill that would move the airport flight path away from their neighborhood. Once in Washington, they find their plans blocked by a corrupt and lazy Congress, until Walter Mondale (who is now a janitor) shows them the tricks to get their bill passed. See also [ edit ] Filibuster Machine politics Patriotism Political corruption Politics of the United States References [ edit ] Informational notes Jump up ^ Lewis Foster later testified during a lawsuit that he had written the story specifically with Gary Cooper in mind. [4] Citations ^ Jump up to: a b c Mr. Smith Goes to Washington at the American Film Institute Catalog Jump up ^ McNamer, Deidre (January 7, 2007). \"They Came From Montana\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ \"Box Office Information for Mr. Smith Goes to Washington\" . The Numbers . Retrieved: April 12, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j \"Notes\" . TCM . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Brenner, Paul. \"Overview\" . Allmovie . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Nugent, Frank (October 20, 1939) \" Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) \" . The New York Times . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Sennett 1989, p. 173. ^ Jump up to: a b Tatara, Paul. \" Mr. Smith Goes to Washington .\" TCM article . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ \"Overview.\" TCM . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Rosales 2003, pp. 102, 117, 124. Jump up ^ \"Filming locations.\" IMDB . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Sennett 1989, p. 175. Jump up ^ \"Trivia.\" TCM . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Capra 1971, pp. 254–266. Jump up ^ McBride 1992, pp. 419–420. ^ Jump up to: a b Capra 1971, p. 287. Jump up ^ Capra 1971, p. 289. Jump up ^ Capra 1971, p. 292. ^ Jump up to: a b Mr. Smith Goes to Washington on IMDb Jump up ^ “ Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939).” ReelClassics.com . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Capra 1971, p. 286. Jump up ^ Miles, Adam and Devine, Tom (2007) “Washington Whistleblower Week Starts Monday.” Archived 2007-07-02 at the Wayback Machine . whistleblower.org . Retrieved: January 10, 2010. Jump up ^ Blaylock, Dylan (May 2007) C-SPAN Highlights GAP Event in “Podcast of the Week”. whistleblower.typepad.com . Retrieved: January 10, 2010. Jump up ^ Eder, Bruce. “ Mr. Smith Goes to Washington ” Allmovie review . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Archived October 23, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"The 12th Academy Awards (1940) Nominees and Winners.\" oscars.org. Retrieved: October 16, 2011. Jump up ^ Brenner, Paul. \"Awards.\" Allmovie . Retrieved: June 26, 2009. Jump up ^ \"Billy Jack Goes to Washington\" . Variety . December 31, 1977 . Retrieved June 14, 2018 . Jump up ^ Arnold, Gary (May 12, 1977). \"Billy Jack: Running His Act Into The Ground\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved June 14, 2018 . Jump up ^ Howe, Desson (December 4, 1992). \" ' The Distinguished Gentleman' (R)\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved June 14, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"IIS Windows Server\" . Archived from the original on 2014-08-11. Bibliography Capra, Frank (1971) Frank Capra, The Name Above the Title: An Autobiography . New York: The Macmillan Company. ISBN 0-306-80771-8 . Jones, Ken D., Arthur F. McClure and Alfred E. Twomey (1970) The Films of James Stewart . New York: Castle Books. McBride, Joseph (1992) Frank Capra: The Catastrophe of Success . New York: Touchstone Books. ISBN 0-671-79788-3 . Michael, Paul, ed. (1980) The Great Movie Book: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference Guide to the Best-loved Films of the Sound Era . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. ISBN 0-13-363663-1 . Rosales, Jean (2003) DC Goes To The Movies: A Unique Guide To The Reel Washington. Bloomington, Indiana: IUniverse. ISBN 978-0-595-26797-2 . Sennett, Ted (1989) Hollywood's Golden Year, 1939: A Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration . New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-03361-3 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Mr. Smith Goes to Washington at the American Film Institute Catalog Mr. Smith Goes to Washington on IMDb Mr. Smith Goes to Washington at the TCM Movie Database Mr. Smith Goes to Washington at AllMovie Five speeches from the film (text and audio) at AmericanRhetoric.com Script (Archived) Full length review hide v t e Frank Capra Filmography Feature films directed Fultah Fisher's Boarding House The Strong Man Long Pants For the Love of Mike That Certain Thing So This Is Love? The Matinee Idol The Way of the Strong Say It with Sables The Power of the Press Submarine The Younger Generation The Donovan Affair Flight Ladies of Leisure Rain or Shine Dirigible The Miracle Woman Platinum Blonde Forbidden American Madness The Bitter Tea of General Yen Lady for a Day It Happened One Night Broadway Bill Mr. Deeds Goes to Town Lost Horizon You Can't Take It with You Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Meet John Doe Arsenic and Old Lace It's a Wonderful Life State of the Union Riding High Here Comes the Groom A Hole in the Head Pocketful of Miracles Why We Fight series Prelude to War The Nazis Strike Divide and Conquer The Battle of Britain The Battle of Russia The Battle of China War Comes to America Other works Know Your Enemy: Japan Here Is Germany Tunisian Victory Your Job in Germany Two Down and One to Go The Negro Soldier The Army–Navy Screen Magazine The Fallbrook Story The Bell Laboratory Science Series Our Mr. Sun Hemo the Magnificent Rendezvous in Space Related Bibliography Liberty Films Frank Capra Jr. (son) Five Came Back (2017 documentary) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mr._Smith_Goes_to_Washington&oldid=852009411 \" Categories : 1939 films English-language films 1930s comedy-drama films American films American comedy-drama films American black-and-white films Political comedy-drama films Films about politicians Films about the media Films adapted into television programs Films set in Washington, D.C. Films that won the Academy Award for Best Story Columbia Pictures films Films directed by Frank Capra Screenplays by Sidney Buchman Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin United States National Film Registry films Filibuster Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 24 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 July 2018, at 01:07 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mr._Smith_Goes_to_Washington&amp;oldid=852009411" }

{ "text": "Lays of Ancient Rome - Wikipedia Lays of Ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lays of Ancient Rome , 1881 edition ( ISBN 0898759366 ) Lays of Ancient Rome is a collection of narrative poems , or lays, by Thomas Babington Macaulay . Four of these recount heroic episodes from early Roman history with strong dramatic and tragic themes, giving the collection its name. Macaulay also included two poems inspired by recent history: Ivry (1824) and The Armada (1832). Contents [ hide ] 1 Overview 2 The poems 2.1 Horatius 2.2 The Battle of Lake Regillus 2.3 Virginia 2.4 The Prophecy of Capys 2.5 Ivry, A Song of the Huguenots 2.6 The Armada: A Fragment 3 In popular culture 4 References 5 External links Overview [ edit ] The Lays were composed by Macaulay in his thirties, during his spare time while he was the \"legal member\" of the Governor-General of India's Supreme Council from 1834 to 1838. He later wrote of them: The plan occurred to me in the jungle at the foot of the Neilgherry hills ; and most of the verses were made during a dreary sojourn at Ootacamund and a disagreeable voyage in the Bay of Bengal . [1] The Roman ballads are preceded by brief introductions, discussing the legends from a scholarly perspective. Macaulay explains that his intention was to write poems resembling those that might have been sung in ancient times. The Lays were first published by Longman in 1842, at the beginning of the Victorian Era . They became immensely popular, and were a regular subject of recitation, then a common pastime. The Lays were standard reading in British public schools for more than a century. Winston Churchill memorised them while at Harrow School , in order to show that he was capable of mental prodigies, notwithstanding his lacklustre academic performance. [2] The poems [ edit ] John Reinhard Weguelin , Horatius defending the Sublician bridge, from the 1881 edition. Horatius [ edit ] The first poem, Horatius , describes how Publius Horatius and two companions, Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius , held the Sublician bridge against the Etruscan army of Lars Porsena , King of Clusium . The three heroes are willing to die in order to prevent the enemy from crossing the bridge, and sacking an otherwise ill-defended Rome . While the trio close with the front ranks of the Etruscans, the Romans hurriedly work to demolish the bridge, leaving their enemies on the wrong side of the swollen Tiber . [3] This poem contains the often-quoted lines: Then out spake brave Horatius, The Captain of the Gate: \"To every man upon this earth Death cometh soon or late. And how can man die better Than facing fearful odds, For the ashes of his fathers, And the temples of his Gods .\" [4] Lartius and Herminius regain the Roman side before the bridge falls, but Horatius is stranded, and jumps into the river still wearing his full armor. Macaulay writes, And when above the surges They saw his crest appear, All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, And even the ranks of Tuscany Could scarce forbear to cheer. He reaches the Roman shore, is rewarded, and his act of bravery earns him mythic status: With weeping and with laughter Still is the story told, How well Horatius kept the bridge In the brave days of old. The Battle of Lake Regillus [ edit ] John Reinhard Weguelin , Castor and Pollux fighting at the Battle of Lake Regillus , from the 1881 edition. This poem celebrates the Roman victory over the Latin League , at the Battle of Lake Regillus . Several years after the retreat of Porsena, Rome was threatened by a Latin army led by the deposed Roman king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , together with his son, Titus Tarquinius , and his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius , prince of Tusculum . The fighting described by Macaulay is fierce and bloody, and the outcome is only decided when the twin gods Castor and Pollux descend to the battlefield on the side of Rome . This poem includes a number of finely described single-combats, in conscious imitation of Homer's Iliad . [5] Virginia [ edit ] This poem describes the tragedy of Virginia , the only daughter of Virginius, a poor Roman farmer. The wicked Appius Claudius , a member of one of Rome's most noble patrician families, and head of the college of decemvirs , desires the beautiful and virtuous Virginia. He initiates legal proceedings, claiming Virginia as his \"runaway slave\", knowing that his claim will be endorsed by the corrupt magistracy over which he and his cronies preside. Driven to despair, Virginius resolves to save his daughter from Claudius' lust by any means—even her death is preferable. Virginia's sacrifice stirs the plebeians to action: their violent outbursts lead to the overthrow of the decemvirs, and the establishment of the office of tribune of the plebs , to protect the plebeian interest from abuses by the established patrician aristocracy. [6] The Prophecy of Capys [ edit ] When Romulus and Remus arrive in triumph at the house of their grandfather, Capys, the blind old man enters a prophetic trance. He foretells the future greatness of Romulus' descendants, and their ultimate victory over their enemies in the Pyhrric and Punic wars. [7] Ivry, A Song of the Huguenots [ edit ] Originally composed in 1824, Ivry celebrates a battle won by Henry IV of France and his Huguenot forces over the Catholic League in 1590. Henry's succession to the French throne was contested by those who would not accept a Protestant king of France; his victory at Ivry against superior forces left him the only credible claimant for the crown, although he was unable to overcome all opposition until converting to Catholicism in 1593. Henry went on to issue the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting tolerance to the French Protestants, and ending the French Wars of Religion . The Armada: A Fragment [ edit ] Written in 1832, this poem describes the arrival at Plymouth in 1588 of news of the sighting of the Spanish Armada , and the lighting of beacons to send the news to London and across England, Till Skiddaw saw the fire that burnt on Gaunt's embattled pile , And the red glare on Skiddaw roused the burghers of Carlisle . The Armada was sent by Philip II of Spain with the goal of conveying an army of invasion to England, and deposing the Protestant Queen Elizabeth . The supposedly invincible fleet was thwarted by a combination of vigilance, tactics taking advantage of the size and lack of maneuverability of the Armada and its ships, and a series of other misfortunes. In popular culture [ edit ] Lays of Ancient Rome has been reprinted on numerous occasions, and is now in the public domain . An 1881 edition, lavishly illustrated by John Reinhard Weguelin , was frequently republished. Countless schoolchildren have encountered the work as a means of introducing them to history, poetry, and the moral values of courage, self-sacrifice, and patriotism emphasized in Macaulay's text. The phrase \"how can man die better\", from Horatius , was used by Benjamin Pogrund as the title of his biography of anti-apartheid activist Robert Sobukwe . The same portion of the poem was recited in an episode of Doctor Who , [8] used as a plot device in the 2013 science fiction film Oblivion , [9] and appears in the final book of Kevin J Anderson's The Saga of Seven Suns . [10] Verses 32 and 50 of Horatius are used as epigraphs in Diane Duane 's Star Trek novels, My Enemy, My Ally and The Empty Chair . [11] These words are on the epitaph at the Chushul war memorial at Rezang La in memory of the 13th Battalion, Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army . Sir Winston Churchill memorised the Horatius poem in his childhood, and used it to exhort the cabinet to stand and fight in the hardest hour World War II, when Britain was facing the threat of invasion by Germany. This scene is depicted in the movie Into The Storm , with Brendan Gleeson as Churchill; a slightly different version appears in Darkest Hour , with Gary Oldman portraying Churchill. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Peter Clarke (October 1967). A Macaulay Letter. Notes and Queries , p. 369. Jump up ^ Winston Churchill, My Early Life, chapter 2. Jump up ^ Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1847) The Lays of Ancient Rome , pp. 37ff, London: Longman Jump up ^ Longman edition. p. 56. Jump up ^ Longman edition pp. 95ff. Jump up ^ Longman edition pp. 143ff. Jump up ^ Longman edition pp. 177ff. Jump up ^ Doctor Who , \"The Impossible Planet\" (2006). Jump up ^ Richard Corliss (19 April 2013). \"Tom Cruise in Oblivion: Drones and Clones on Planet Earth\" . Time . Retrieved 31 August 2013 . Jump up ^ \" The Saga of Seven Suns , \"The Ashes of Worlds\". Jump up ^ Diane Duane , My Enemy, My Ally , Pocket Books , 1984; ISBN 0671502859 ; The Empty Chair , Pocket Books , 2006; ISBN 9781416531081 . External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Lays of Ancient Rome full text at archive.org full text at Poets' Corner full text (with illustrations by George Scharf ) at hathitrust.org The Lays of Ancient Rome public domain audiobook at LibriVox German edition (in English) digitized by Google Books Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lays_of_Ancient_Rome&oldid=847042381 \" Categories : 1842 books British poetry collections Victorian poetry Ballads Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2018 EngvarB from January 2018 Articles with LibriVox links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 22 June 2018, at 14:31 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Immigration Act of 1924 - Wikipedia Immigration Act of 1924 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Immigration Act of 1924 Nicknames Johnson-Reed Act Enacted by the 68th United States Congress Effective May 26, 1924 Legislative history Introduced in the House of Representatives as H.R. 7995 Passed the House on April 12, 1924 ( 323-71 ) Agreed to by the House on May 15, 1924 ( 308-62 ) and by the Senate on May 15, 1924 ( 69-9 ) Signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on May 24, 1924 \"Asian Exclusion Act\" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Chinese Exclusion Act . President Coolidge signs the immigration act on the White House South Lawn along with appropriation bills for the Veterans Bureau. John J. Pershing is on the President's right. The Immigration Act of 1924 , or Johnson–Reed Act , including the National Origins Act , and Asian Exclusion Act ( Pub.L. 68–139 , 43 Stat. 153 , enacted May 26, 1924), was a United States federal law that limited the annual number of immigrants who could be admitted from any country to 2% of the number of people from that country who were already living in the United States as of the 1890 census , down from the 3% cap set by the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, which used the Census of 1910 . The law was primarily aimed at further restricting immigration of Southern Europeans and Eastern Europeans , especially Italians , Slavs and Eastern European Jews . [1] [2] [3] In addition, it severely restricted the immigration of Africans and banned the immigration of Arabs and Asians . According to the U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian the purpose of the act was \"to preserve the ideal of American homogeneity\". [4] But though the Act aimed at preserving American racial homogeneity, it set no limits on immigration from other countries of the Americas . [5] Congressional opposition was minimal. According to Columbia University historian Mae Ngai , the 1924 Act put an end to a period where the United States essentially had open borders . [6] Contents [ hide ] 1 Provisions 2 History 2.1 Court decision 3 Results 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Provisions [ edit ] The Immigration Act made permanent the basic limitations on immigration into the United States established in 1921 and modified the National Origins Formula established then. In conjunction with the Immigration Act of 1917 , it governed American immigration policy until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 , which revised it completely. For the next four years, until June 30, 1927, the 1924 Act set the annual quota of any nationality at 2% of the number of foreign-born persons of such nationality resident in the United States in 1890. That revised formula reduced total immigration from 357,803 in 1923–24 to 164,667 in 1924–25. The law's impact varied widely by country. Immigration from Great Britain and Ireland fell 19%, while immigration from Italy fell more than 90%. [7] The Act established preferences under the quota system for certain relatives of U.S. residents, including their unmarried children under 21, their parents, and spouses aged 21 and over. It also preferred immigrants aged 21 and over who were skilled in agriculture, as well as their wives and dependent children under age 16. Non-quota status was accorded to: wives and unmarried children under 18 of U.S. citizens; natives of Western Hemisphere countries, with their families; non-immigrants; and certain others. Subsequent amendments eliminated certain elements of this law's inherent discrimination against women. The 1924 Act also established the \"consular control system\" of immigration, which divided responsibility for immigration between the State Department and the Immigration and Naturalization Service . It mandated that no alien should be allowed to enter the United States without a valid immigration visa issued by an American consular officer abroad. It provided that no alien ineligible to become a citizen could be admitted to the United States as an immigrant. This was aimed primarily at Japanese and Chinese aliens. [ citation needed ] It imposed fines on transportation companies who landed aliens in violation of U.S. immigration laws . It defined the term \" immigrant \" and designated all other alien entries into the United States as \"non-immigrant\", that is, temporary visitors. It established classes of admission for such non-immigrants. History [ edit ] A limitation on Southern and Eastern European immigration was first proposed in 1909 by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge . [8] In the wake of the Post-World War I recession , many Americans believed that bringing in more immigrants from other nations would only make the unemployment rate higher. [ citation needed ] The Red Scare of 1919–1921 had fueled xenophobic fears of foreign radicals migrating to undermine American values and provoke an uprising like Russia’s 1917 Bolshevik Revolution . [9] The number of immigrants entering the United States decreased for about a year from July 1919 to June 1920 but also doubled the year after that. [10] Congressman Albert Johnson and Senator David Reed were the two main architects of the act. In the wake of intense lobbying , the Act passed with strong congressional support. [11] There were nine dissenting votes in the Senate [12] and a handful of opponents in the House , the most vigorous of whom was freshman Brooklyn Representative and Jewish-American Emanuel Celler . Over the succeeding four decades, Celler made the repeal of the Act his personal crusade. Proponents of the Act sought to establish a distinct American identity by favoring native-born Americans over Jews, Southern Europeans, [ who? ] and Eastern Europeans [ who? ] in order to \"maintain the racial preponderance of the basic strain on our people and thereby to stabilize the ethnic composition of the population\". [13] [14] Reed told the Senate that earlier legislation “disregards entirely those of us who are interested in keeping American stock up to the highest standard – that is, the people who were born here”. [15] Southern/Eastern Europeans [ who? ] and Jews, he believed, arrived sick and starving and therefore less capable of contributing to the American economy, and unable to adapt to American culture. [13] People who supported the 1924 Immigration Act often used eugenics as justification for restriction of certain races or ethnicities of people in order to prevent the spread of feeblemindedness in American society. [16] Most proponents of the law were rather concerned with upholding an ethnic status quo and avoiding competition with foreign workers. [17] Samuel Gompers , a Jewish immigrant and founder of the AFL , supported the Act because he opposed the cheap labor that immigration represented, despite the fact that the Act would sharply reduce Jewish immigration. [18] The law sharply curtailed immigration from those countries that were previously host to the vast majority of the Jews in America, almost 75 percent of whom immigrated from Russia alone. [19] Because Eastern European [ which? ] immigration only became substantial in the final decades of the nineteenth century, the law's use of the population of the United States in 1890 as the basis for calculating quotas effectively made mass migration from Eastern Europe [ who? ] , where the vast majority of the Jewish diaspora lived at the time, impossible. [20] Lobbyists from California, [ who? ] where a majority of Japanese and other East Asian immigrants had settled, were especially concerned with excluding Asian immigrants. [ why? ] An 1882 law had already put an end to Chinese immigration, but as Japanese (and, to a lesser degree, Korean and Filipino) laborers began arriving and putting down roots in Western states, an exclusionary movement formed in reaction to the “ Yellow Peril .” Valentine S. McClatchy , founder of The McClatchy Company and a leader of the anti-Japanese movement, argued, “They come here specifically and professedly for the purpose of colonizing and establishing here permanently the proud Yamato race ,” citing their supposed inability to assimilate to American culture and the economic threat they posed to white businessmen and farmers. Despite some hesitation from President Calvin Coolidge and strong opposition from the Japanese government, with whom the U.S. government had previously maintained a cordial economic and political relationship, the act was signed into law on May 24, 1924. [9] Court decision [ edit ] From United States ex. rel. Turner v. Williams [21] : if an alien is not permitted to enter this country, or, having entered contrary to law, is expelled, he is in fact cut off from worshipping or speaking or publishing or petitioning in the country; but that is merely because of his exclusion therefrom. He does not become one of the people to whom these things are secured by our Constitution by an attempt to enter, forbidden by law. To appeal to the Constitution is to concede that this is a land governed by that supreme law, and as under it the power to exclude has been determined to exist, those who are excluded cannot assert the rights in general obtaining in a land to which they do not belong as citizens or otherwise. Results [ edit ] Relative proportions of immigrants from Northwestern Europe [a] (red) and Southern and Eastern Europe [b] (blue) in the decades before and after the immigration restriction legislation. The Act controlled “undesirable” immigration by establishing quotas, and barring immigrants of some specific national origins. The nationalities barred were in the “Asia–Pacific Triangle”, which included the Middle East , the Asiatic Soviet Union [c] ( Georgia , Azerbaijan and Central Asia ), [22] Japan , China , the Philippines (then under U.S. control), Siam ( Thailand ), French Indochina ( Laos , Vietnam , and Cambodia ), Singapore (then a British colony), Korea , the Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ), Burma ( Myanmar ), British India , Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ), and Malaya (mainland part of Malaysia ). [23] Following the Naturalization Act of 1790 and Naturalization Act of 1870 , the 1924 Act declared that only people of white or African descent were eligible for naturalization, and the Act forbade further immigration of any persons ineligible to be naturalized. [23] The Act set no limits on immigration from Latin American countries. [24] In 1901-1914, 2.9 million Italians immigrated, an average of 210,000 per year. [25] Under the 1924 quota, 4,000 per year were allowed. By contrast, the annual quota for Germany after the passage of the Act was over 57,000. Some 86% of the 155,000 permitted to enter under the Act were from Northern European countries, with Germany, Britain, and Ireland having the highest quotas. The new quotas for immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, and the bar on the “Asia-Pacific Triangle”, were so restrictive that in 1924 more Italians, Czechs, Yugoslavs, Greeks, Lithuanians, Hungarians, Portuguese, Romanians, Spaniards, Polish and Russian Jews, Chinese, and Japanese left the United States than arrived as immigrants. [26] The quotas were eased in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and replaced in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 . See also [ edit ] Anti-Italianism Eugenics in the United States History of laws concerning immigration and naturalization in the United States Leslie Charteris , specifically exempted from the provisions of the Act [ citation needed ] [ dubious – discuss ] List of United States Immigration Acts Racial equality proposal White Australia policy Antisemitism in the United States Yellow Peril China Swede Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Defined in the Act as immigrants from Germany , Free City of Danzig , Switzerland , Austria , Belgium , France , Luxembourg , the British Isles and Scandinavia . Jump up ^ Defined in the Act as immigrants from the Baltic States , all Slavic nations , Hungary , Romania , Italy , Spain , Portugal , Albania and Greece . Jump up ^ Armenians did receive the minimum quota of 100 immigrants per year. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)\" . U.S Department of State Office of the Historian . Retrieved 2012-02-13 . Jump up ^ Murrin, John M.; Hämäläinen, Pekka; Johnson, Paul E.; Brunsman, Denver; McPherson, James M. (2015). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Volume 2: Since 1863 . Cengage Learning. Jump up ^ Fisher, Marc (January 28, 2017). \"Open doors, slamming gates: The tumultuous politics of U.S. immigration policy\" . Washington Post . Retrieved 29 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)\" . U.S Department of State Office of the Historian . Retrieved 2012-02-13 . Jump up ^ Hayes, Helene (2001). U.S. Immigration Policy and the Undocumented . Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. p. [ page needed ] . ISBN 978-0-275-95411-6 . Jump up ^ \"Your immigrant ancestors came here legally? Are you sure?\" . Philly.com . Retrieved 2017-07-17 . Jump up ^ Murray, Robert K. (1976). The 103rd Ballot: Democrats and the Disaster in Madison Square Garden . New York: Harper & Row. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-06-013124-1 . Jump up ^ Lodge, Henry (1909). \"The Restriction of Immigration\" (PDF) . University of Wisconsin . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-06 . Retrieved 2012-03-02 . ^ Jump up to: a b Imai, Shiho. \"Immigration Act of 1924\" . Densho Encyclopedia . Retrieved 2014-08-15 . Jump up ^ Cannato, Vincent J. (2009). American Passage: The History of Ellis Island . New York: Harper. p. 331. ISBN 0-06-194039-9 . Jump up ^ \"Immigration Bill Passes Senate by Vote of 62 to 6\" . New York Times . April 19, 1924 . Retrieved February 18, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Senate Vote #126 (May 15, 1924)\" . govtrack.us . Civic Impulse, LLC . Retrieved 20 May 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Maldwyn Allen (1960). American Immigration . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 277. Jump up ^ \"Who Was Shut Out?: Immigration Quotas, 1925–1927\" . History Matters . George Mason University . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . Jump up ^ Stephenson, George M. (1964). A History of American Immigration. 1820–1924 . New York: Russel & Russel. p. 190. Jump up ^ Baynton, Douglas C. Defectives in the Land : Disability and Immigration in the Age of Eugenics . Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-36433-9 . Jump up ^ Eckerson, Helen F. (1966). \"Immigration and National Origins\". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . The New Immigration. 367 : 4–14. doi : 10.1177/000271626636700102 . JSTOR 1034838 . Jump up ^ Gompers, Samuel. \"Immigration and labor\" . Jump up ^ Stuart J. Wright, An Emotional Gauntlet: From Life in Peacetime America to the War in European Skies (University of Wisconsin Press, 2004), 163 Jump up ^ Julian Levinson, Exiles on Main Street: Jewish American Writers and American Literary Culture (Indiana University Press, 2008), 54 Jump up ^ United States ex. rel. Turner v. Williams Jump up ^ Airriess, Christopher A.; Contemporary Ethnic Geographies in America , p. 39 ISBN 1442218576 ^ Jump up to: a b Guisepi, Robert A. (January 29, 2007). \"Asian Americans\" . World History International . Jump up ^ Hayes, Helene (2001). U.S. Immigration Policy and the Undocumented . Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. p. [ page needed ] . ISBN 978-0-275-95411-6 . Jump up ^ Historical Statistics of the United States: 1789-1945 , Series B 304-330 (page 39). US Bureau of the Census, 1949. Jump up ^ Steven G. Koven, Frank Götzke, American Immigration Policy: Confronting the Nation's Challenges (Springer, 2010), 133 Further reading [ edit ] Lemay, Michael Robert; Barkan, Elliott Robert, eds. (1999). U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues: A Documentary History . Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30156-8 . Ngai, Mae M. (2004). Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16082-5 . Zolberg, Aristide (2006). A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America . Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02218-8 . External links [ edit ] Statistics of who was allowed in after the Immigration Act of 1924 \"'Shut the Door': A Senator Speaks for Immigration Restriction\" – transcript of speech given before Congress by Sen. Ellison D. 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{ "text": "Wonder Woman (2017 film) - Wikipedia Wonder Woman (2017 film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Wonder Woman Theatrical release poster Directed by Patty Jenkins Produced by Charles Roven Deborah Snyder Zack Snyder Richard Suckle Screenplay by Allan Heinberg Story by Zack Snyder Allan Heinberg Jason Fuchs Based on Wonder Woman by William Moulton Marston Starring Gal Gadot Chris Pine Robin Wright Danny Huston David Thewlis Connie Nielsen Elena Anaya Music by Rupert Gregson-Williams [1] Cinematography Matthew Jensen Edited by Martin Walsh Production company RatPac-Dune Entertainment DC Films Tencent Pictures Wanda Pictures Atlas Entertainment Cruel and Unusual Films Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures Release date May 15, 2017 ( 2017-05-15 ) ( Shanghai ) June 2, 2017 ( 2017-06-02 ) (United States) Running time 141 minutes [2] [3] Country United States Language English Budget $149 million [4] Box office $820.4 million [4] Wonder Woman is a 2017 American superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name , distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures . It is the fourth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Patty Jenkins , with a screenplay by Allan Heinberg , from a story by Heinberg, Zack Snyder , and Jason Fuchs , and stars Gal Gadot , Chris Pine , Robin Wright , Danny Huston , David Thewlis , Connie Nielsen , and Elena Anaya . Wonder Woman is the second live action theatrical film featuring the titular character, following her debut in 2016's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice . [5] Jenkins's role as director makes her the first female director of a studio superhero comic book live-action theatrical release film. [6] The film tells the story of Princess Diana , who grows up on the Amazon island of Themyscira . After American pilot Steve Trevor crashes offshore of the island and is rescued by her, he tells the Amazons about the ongoing World War . Diana then leaves her home in order to end the conflict, becoming Wonder Woman in the process. While development for the film began in 1996, Jenkins signed on to direct in 2015. Principal photography began on November 21, 2015, with filming taking place in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy before wrapping up on May 9, 2016, the 123rd anniversary of the birth of the creator, William Moulton Marston . Additional filming took place in November 2016. Wonder Woman premiered in Shanghai on May 15, 2017, and was released in the United States on June 2, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. It received largely positive reviews from critics, being praised for the direction, performances, action sequences and musical score. [7] The film set numerous box office records, including becoming the highest-grossing film directed by a woman, the biggest domestic opening for a film directed by a woman, the highest-grossing superhero origin film domestically, and the largest opening for a female-led comic book film. [8] Wonder Woman is also the fifth highest-grossing superhero film domestically and 20th highest-grossing film in the United States. It has grossed over $820 million worldwide, making it the seventh highest-grossing film of 2017 . It also helped the DCEU to push past $3 billion at the worldwide box office, making it the seventeenth highest-grossing film franchise of all time . A sequel, Wonder Woman 2 , is set to be released on December 13, 2019. [9] Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Background 3.2 Development 3.3 Casting 3.4 Filming 3.5 Post-production 4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Marketing 5.2 Home media 5.3 Controversies 5.3.1 Bans 5.3.2 Women-only screenings 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.1.1 North America 6.1.2 International 6.2 Critical response 7 Accolades 8 Sequel 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Plot [ edit ] In present-day Paris , Diana Prince receives a photographic plate of herself during World War I , which prompts her to recall her past. The daughter of Queen Hippolyta , Diana was raised on the hidden island of Themyscira , home to the Amazonian race of warrior women created by Zeus to protect mankind. Hippolyta shares the Amazonian history with Diana, including how Ares , Zeus's son, became jealous of humanity and worked to orchestrate its destruction. When the other gods of Mount Olympus attempted to stop him, Ares killed all but Zeus, who managed to hurt Ares enough to force a retreat. Zeus left the Amazons a weapon, the \"Godkiller\", to prepare them for Ares' return. Hippolyta forbids Diana to train, then relents by having her sister Antiope train Diana, but so long as her training is more difficult than that received by any other warrior in the army. As a young woman in 1918, Diana rescues American pilot Captain Steve Trevor when his plane crashes off the Themyscira coast. He is pursued by a German cruiser . The Amazons kill the crew and Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana. Steve is interrogated with the Lasso of Hestia . He reveals that a war is consuming the outside world, and that he is an Allied spy. He has stolen a notebook of the Spanish chief chemist Isabel Maru , who is attempting to engineer a deadlier form of mustard gas , under the orders of General Erich Ludendorff . Diana believes Ares is responsible for the war. She arms herself with the \"Godkiller\" sword, the lasso and her armor before leaving Themyscira with Steve to find and destroy Ares. In London , they deliver Maru's notebook to the Supreme War Council , where Sir Patrick Morgan is trying to negotiate an armistice with Germany . Diana translates Maru's notes and reveals that the Germans plan to release the deadly gas at the War Front. Although forbidden by his commanders to act, Steve, with secret funding from Sir Patrick, recruits spy Sameer, marksman Charlie, and smuggler Chief to help prevent the gas from being released. When the team reaches the Western Front in Belgium , they are halted by the enemy lines. Diana goes alone through No Man's Land and captures the enemy trench, allowing the Allied forces to help her liberate the village of Veld. The team briefly celebrates, while Diana and Steve grow closer romantically and spend the night together. The team learns a gala will be held at the nearby German High Command . Steve and Diana each infiltrate the party, with Steve intending to locate the gas and destroy it while Diana intends to kill Ludendorff, believing that he is Ares and killing him will end the war. Steve stops her to avoid jeopardizing the mission. Ludendorff then unleashes the gas on Veld, killing its inhabitants. Outraged, and blaming Steve for intervening, Diana pursues Ludendorff to a base where the gas is being loaded into a bomber aircraft bound for London. Diana fights and kills Ludendorff but is confused when his death does not stop the war. Sir Patrick appears and reveals himself as Ares. He tells Diana that although he has subtly given humans ideas and inspirations using Ludendorff and Maru as pawns, it is ultimately their decision to cause violence as they are inherently corrupt. She attempts to kill Ares with the Godkiller sword but he destroys it. Ares reveals Diana to be the \"Godkiller\", as the daughter of Zeus and Queen Hippolyta, but he fails to persuade her to help him destroy humankind to restore paradise on Earth. While the two battle, the others on Steve's team destroy Maru's laboratory. Steve pilots the bomber carrying the gas to a safe altitude and detonates it, sacrificing himself. Ares attempts to direct Diana's rage and grief at Steve's death by convincing her to kill Maru, but memories of her experience with Steve cause her to realize that mankind has good within it. She spares Maru and redirects Ares' lightning into him, killing him. Later, the team celebrates the end of the war . In the present day, Diana sends an email to Bruce Wayne thanking him for the photographic plate of her and Steve, and reaffirms her new mission to protect and give to the world. Cast [ edit ] Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman : An immortal Amazon princess, god , the daughter of Queen Hippolyta and of Zeus given to the Amazons to raise, and half-sister of Ares , contradicting the earlier claims of Diana being a \"demigoddess\". [10] Describing Wonder Woman and her appeal, Gadot said \"She's relatable. She has the heart of a human and is very compassionate, but her experiences – or lack of them, her naivete, really – make her interested in everything around her and able to view the world in a way that we'd all like to: with a genuine curiosity.\" [11] On Diana's relationship with her mother, Gadot said \"Diana is a very opinionated girl. Her mother is very opinionated. Her mother is very protective as well, and they have, you know, the very natural clash that a mother has with her daughter, with their daughters, the first time they want to leave home.\" [12] On taking on the role as Wonder Woman, Gadot stated \"I feel very privileged that I got the opportunity to portray such an iconic, strong female character. I adore this character and everything that she stands for and everything that she symbolizes.\" [13] On Diana going to the world, Gadot stated \"When Diana comes to the real world she's completely oblivious about gender and society rules, that women are not equal to men.\" [14] Describing Diana's relationship with her mother and aunts, Jenkins said \"She is the only child they raised together. And their love for her manifests in a different way for each of them.\" [15] On working with Gadot, Jenkins said \"Gal quickly became the person I wanted to talk to about everything. We'd shoot together all day. And then on weekends, we'd be like, 'What do you want to do?' That's maybe not totally normal.\" [16] Lilly Aspel was cast as the 8-year-old Diana [17] and Emily Carey was cast as the 12-year-old Diana. [18] Chris Pine as Steve Trevor : An American pilot and the love interest of Diana. [19] [20] On his role for the film, Pine said \"I am an American pilot who's a spy. It's like a boy's dream: You're either a spy or a fighter pilot. The first thing I wanted to be was a fighter pilot a long time ago. I wanted to be Goose [from Top Gun ]\". [13] As to how his mortal character would interact with an Amazon, Pine stated \"When I first read the script, it had elements of Romancing the Stone , kind of a very classic fish out of water. Two people that don't really bond well at first and they're butting heads and just fun, witty banter\". [13] When speaking about meeting the director and being cast, Pine said \"Patty is a pretty incredible human being. When we first met about the part of Steve, she sat across from me and essentially acted out the entire film over the course of a two-hour lunch. She was so specific, so articulate, and so ardent. I would've said yes just for Patty alone.\" [21] Pine went through a workout regime for the film, commenting \"I got in incredible shape for this film\" but also joking \"I was also wearing about 75 pounds of clothing. What I realized is that I made a major mistake, I got in great shape and they just put clothes over all my hard work.\" [22] Robin Wright as Antiope : The sister of Hippolyta, General of the Amazonian army, Diana's aunt, and mentor. [15] On being cast for the film, Wright said \"It's two-fold because when Patty Jenkins called me, the director, it was a three minute long conversation. She said, 'I'm doing a movie about Wonder Woman. Do you want to be her trainer?' And I was like, 'Yes. Of course.' And the general of the Amazonian army. That was pretty cool.\" [23] Describing her character mentoring and training Diana to be a warrior, Wright said \"It's a sixth sense that it is coming and I think that's also in the mythological story behind Antiope and Queen Hippolyta. They know it's coming and it's her duty as the aunt to her young niece to make sure she is the fiercest warrior of all time.\" On the Amazons fighting style, Wright said \"It's hand combat. Yes, swords and knives and arrows, but the precision that they have, right, as these warrior women; it's so nice to see that disparity between what we had in the day of just raw fighting materials and the guns and how easy that is in comparison.\" On the message of the film, Wright stated \"Is not just female empowerment. It's about love and justice. That's what the film's about. And what a great message to spread to our little ones.\" [24] [25] Commenting about training for the film, Wright said \"The most empowering was to get into that physical shape. So we were doing horseback riding training, weight training, martial arts, and 2,000 to 3,000 calories a day\". [26] Danny Huston as General Erich Ludendorff : An ambitious and iron-fisted general of the German Army during World War I. [27] Huston described Ludendorff as a \"pragmatist, realist, patriotic, fighting for his country,\" further explaining, \"he lost his son on the German front lines and was just quite tortured, diabolical, stubborn and believes that what he's doing is for the betterment of mankind.\" [28] On his character, Huston said \"Ludendorff is a believer that war is a natural habitat for humans.\" Huston stated the film as an anti-war film and \"somebody like Ludendorff would probably think that the idea that love conquers all is quite a naive concept. But finally it's true and sometimes the best way to examine mankind is from another perspective.\" On the genre of the film, Huston said \"It's Greek mythology. It's the origin of story and sometimes we need demigods to look at us to understand what our weaknesses are. It serves the mythological world.\" [29] David Thewlis as Ares : The treacherous son of Zeus and half-brother of Diana, based on the Greek mythological god of War , who masquerades as Sir Patrick Morgan, a speaker for peace on the Imperial War Cabinet as part of his deceptive master plan of conquest and destruction. [30] [31] [32] Describing the Sir Patrick persona of his character, Thewlis said \"Sir Patrick's entire drive through the other half of the story is to bring about the armistice. That's his whole intention no matter what's going on. He meets Diana and see in her somebody who is sympathetic to his cause quite vehemently so.\" [33] Connie Nielsen as Hippolyta : The Amazon Queen of Themyscira and Diana's mother. [34] On meeting the director for the role, Nielsen said \"Patty and I met in London, and we just hit it off from the get-go. We couldn't stop talking. What was supposed to be a one-hour meeting turned into a two-and-a-half-hour lunch and we just really got each other.\" [35] She described Jenkins' directing style for the film as \"She's also the kind of director that I really flourish under. She has very strong and particular and specific ideas about what it is she wants to say. She comes from a place of strength always. And so, when you are dealing with someone like that, you feel absolutely free to be vulnerable, to be creative, and I am a big researcher.\" On playing the character, Nielsen said \"It was a complete and utter pleasure and I absolutely loved every second of playing her.\" [36] On her character being Diana's mother and Amazonian queen, Nielsen stated \"I'm queen and I'm preparing my child for a world that entails a lot of responsibility. So it was important to me to bring that into the character.\" [37] She read The Amazons by Adrienne Mayor to familiarize herself with women warriors and said \"I used what I learned in Mayor's book as a rallying cry for how I approached Hippolyta. And then, of course, what is a leader who is elected by her peers every year and has been doing this for a thousand years? That too was interesting to think about\". Nielsen went through a workout regime for the film, saying \"I did six hours a day. You know, two hours of weight training, two hours of swords training, and then two hours of horseback riding\". Nicole Kidman was in negotiations for the role but was forced to drop due to scheduling conflicts with Big Little Lies . [38] Previously, Nielsen had been considered for the role of Superman 's mother, Lara Lor-Van , in Man of Steel . [39] Elena Anaya as Isabel Maru / Doctor Poison : A nefarious Spanish chief chemist associated with General Ludendorff who specializes in chemistry and poisons. [27] On her role, Anaya said \"Well, it was a small role in this big ensemble, but it is an important character in the story. I'm going to be a big nightmare\" for Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor. [40] Describing her character, Anaya said \"Dr. Maru loves rage and enjoys people's pain. She's creating terrible weapons, and her purpose in life is to kill as many people as possible, and provoke as much pain as possible\". She researched World War I and Fritz Haber , the scientist who created mustard gas, to prepare for the role. [41] On the character's facial scars, Anaya stated \"I went to Patty Jenkins and asked, 'What happened to her?' And she said, 'She did it on purpose.' I was like, 'What? Patty, you're going further than I ever imagined.' She said, 'She wants to provoke painful suffering, so she tested her own gas on her own face. She wanted to know how deep this form of her gas would go, so she put it on her own face.' You can see half of her face is completely gone. This is the sadistic side of Dr. Maru\". She also stated her character \"is quite the opposite to the lead role of this movie, one of the strongest characters ever of DC comics, Wonder Woman. I can tell you that Doctor Poison is someone with a capacity to provoke so much pain.\" [42] On Dr. Maru's relationship with General Ludendorff, Anaya said \"I think that they have a relationship based on loyalty. Ludendorff is a very tormented General that lacks self-confidence. That's why, in part, he takes these drugs that Dr. Poison gives him. They are from different worlds, but they complement each other\". [43] Lucy Davis as Etta Candy : Steve Trevor's comical, loyal, and friendly secretary who befriends Diana. [44] Describing her character, Davis said \"She's a woman in a man's world and so being heard and seen aren't the easiest things, but it kind of doesn't deter her\", adding, \"Etta is unapologetically herself and I think that that's the thing that has drawn me to her the most\". [45] When asked if she was previously familiar with the character, Davis responded \"No. I wasn't. It took me a while to know that I was auditioning for Etta because even when I found out it was Wonder Woman , I still had no idea what the role was. It took a little while then I Googled the character\". [46] On Etta Candy's relationship with Steve Trevor, Davis said \"One of the great things that Etta gets to work with Steve Trevor is because Steve is not your typical man, in that he does entrust her with things that in 1918 probably wouldn't have been entrusted to a secretary of somebody who is quite important\", further explaining, \"So I think that [Trevor] needs her just as much as she needs that because now she's been given responsibility that she wouldn't have normally be given before, and equally he has somebody who could probably fly under the radar a bit. So he can trust the person who no one's really looking at\". [47] Saïd Taghmaoui as Sameer: A French Moroccan secret agent who is a master of disguise and an ally of Steve Trevor. [48] [49] On his casting, Taghmaoui stated \"I was among hundreds of potential candidates, and I slowly became the favorite\", adding, \"It wasn't easy. It took me three months. [I'll have to go through] extensive physical training.\" [50] Ewen Bremner as Charlie: A heavy-drinking Scottish sharpshooter who has already had a tour of duty and has post-traumatic stress disorder . He is an ally of Steve Trevor. [48] On his role, Bremner said \"I play a character who's enlisted by Wonder Woman to help save the world as part of a small, unlikely band\". Describing his character, Bremner stated \"He's a shellshocked soldier who's been discharged from the war and is brought back to help on a secret mission\". [51] On working with Jenkins, Bremner commented \"Patty Jenkins is a force of nature. She has fantastic vision, strength and enthusiasm, which is completely infectious and motivates a cast and crew of thousands to really go beyond themselves.\" [52] Eugene Brave Rock as Chief Napi: A Blackfoot Native American demi-god, [53] and a smuggler who trades with both sides of the war and knows how to get people across the front lines. [48] [54] On his casting, Brave Rock said \"I had no idea it was for Wonder Woman . I lost it when I showed up and I couldn't remember my lines. I didn't take it literally until a month later, I got a call saying I got the role and they wanted me to fly to London for a fitting.\" [55] Brave Rock raised several concerns with Jenkins over the representation of the character in the film, particularly that he was not comfortable playing into stereotypes and that he was not keen on his character being simply known as \"Chief\". [56] Jenkins responded by giving him some extra creative control over his character which Brave Rock says was \"unprecedented\". [56] Lisa Loven Kongsli as Menalippe : Antiope's lieutenant and Diana's aunt. [15] Describing her character, Kongsli said \"Menalippe is a fearless warrior with a strong justice needs. She lives with the other Amazons on the island Themiscyra and exercising continuous battle to assist man in the fight for the good.\" [57] On filming, Konglsi stated \"It's a blast. I've worked damn hard to make this happen, so it's absolutely absurd and fun all at once.\" [58] [59] [60] Additionally, James Cosmo appears as Field Marshal Haig, Mayling Ng as Orana , Florence Kasumba as Acantha, Madeleine Vall Beijner as Egeria, Hayley Jane Warnes as Aella and Ann Wolfe as Artemis , all of whom are Amazons. [61] [62] [63] [64] Dutch model Doutzen Kroes portrays the Amazon Venelia. [63] Samantha Jo was cast as the Amazonian Euboea , and previously played the Kryptonina, Car-Vex, in Man of Steel . [65] Zack Snyder also makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as an unnamed soldier. [66] Production [ edit ] Background [ edit ] Development for a live action Wonder Woman feature film began in 1996, with Ivan Reitman attached as producer and possible director. [67] In 1999 the project became attached to Jon Cohen , who adapted Wonder Woman for producer Joel Silver , with the hope that Sandra Bullock would star. [68] By 2001, Todd Alcott was hired to write the screenplay, with Silver Pictures backing the project. [69] At that time, performers such as Mariah Carey and Catherine Zeta-Jones were also rumored to be possible candidates for the role of Wonder Woman. [70] Leonard Goldberg , however, focused on Bullock [71] who said that she was approached for the role. In addition, wrestler Chyna also expressed interest. Lucy Lawless , the star of Xena: Warrior Princess , was also under consideration, though she stated that she would have been more interested if Wonder Woman was portrayed as a \"flawed hero.\" [72] The screenplay went through various drafts written by Alcott, Cohen, Becky Johnston, and Philip Levens, [73] and by August 2003, Levens had been replaced by screenwriter Laeta Kalogridis . [74] In March 2005, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures announced that Joss Whedon would write and direct the film, [75] with a reported salary was of $2 to $3 million. [76] Since Whedon was directing Serenity at the time, and required time to research Wonder Woman's background, he did not begin the screenplay until late 2005. [77] [78] [79] Early drafts of his screenplay included Steve Trevor as the narrator, a fierce battle between Diana and her mother over Trevor's welfare, and after leaving Themyscira, his need to frequently rescue a Diana rendered helpless by the modern world. [80] Whedon was not able to complete a final version of his screenplay however, and left the project in 2007. [81] [82] Although Whedon stated in May 2005 that he would not cast the part of Wonder Woman until he finished the script, [83] actors such as Kate Beckinsale were linked to the part. [84] A few years later in 2010 however, Whedon admitted that he did have an actress in mind for the part, stating that \"Wonder Woman was basically Angelina Jolie .\" [80] [85] A few years later in May 2017, Indie Ground Films leaked a version of Whedon's script in-progress online. [86] Some reacted negatively to it on social media in June 2017, shortly after the release of Patty Jenkins version of the film. [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] When asked about this response to his script, Jenkins said in a June 2017 interview that she has not read it and that Whedon is \"in the DC universe now, and I don't think there's any reason to go there [...] It was what it was. I'm lucky that I'm the person who got to do it. But I don't see what would be beneficial about comparing what he would've done versus what I would have done.\" [92] [93] A day before Whedon's departure from Wonder Woman , Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures purchased a spec script for the film written by Matthew Jennison and Brent Strickland. Set during World War II, the script impressed executives at Silver Pictures. [82] However, Silver stated that he had purchased the script because he did not want the rights reverting; while stating the script had good ideas, Silver did not want the film to be a period piece . [94] By April 2008, Silver hired Jennison and Strickland to write a new script set in contemporary times that would not depict Wonder Woman's origin, but explore Paradise Island's history. [95] In November 2008, Beyoncé met with representatives from DC Comics and Warner Bros., to discuss her interest in portraying Wonder Woman. [96] In 2010, Warner Bros. stated that a film was in development, along with films based on DC Comics superheroes the Flash and Aquaman . [97] Both Wonder Woman and Aquaman were still under consideration for solo film subjects as of June 2013. [98] DC Chief Diane Nelson said Wonder Woman \"has been, since I started, one of the top three priorities for DC and for Warner Bros. We are still trying right now, but she's tricky.\" [99] On October 5, 2013, WB chairman Kevin Tsujihara said he wanted to get Wonder Woman in a film or on TV. [100] Shortly afterward, Paul Feig said he had pitched the studio an idea for Wonder Woman as an action-comedy film. [101] [102] The studio then began to search for female directors to direct the film. [103] While Michelle MacLaren was the studio's initial choice to direct (and while she initially indicated interest), [104] [105] [106] she eventually left the project due to creative differences. [107] Development [ edit ] DC Films' co-chairman Geoff Johns and director Patty Jenkins at the WonderCon 2017. In 2015, Patty Jenkins accepted an offer to direct Wonder Woman , [108] based on a screenplay by Allan Heinberg and a story co-written by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, Geoff Johns and Jason Fuchs. [109] Of this version, Gadot stated that, for a long time, people didn't know how to approach the story. When Patty and I had our creative conversations about the character, we realized that Diana can still be a normal woman, one with very high values, but still a woman. She can be sensitive. She is smart and independent and emotional. She can be confused. She can lose her confidence. She can have confidence. She is everything. She has a human heart. [5] This version was conceived of as a prequel to the first live-action, theatrical appearance of Wonder Woman, in the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice , [110] placing Wonder Woman in the 1910s and World War I (a decision which differs from her comic book origins as a supporter of the Allies during World War II ). [111] As for story development, Jenkins credits the stories by the character's creator William Moulton Marston in the 1940s and George Perez 's seminal stories in the 1980s in which he modernized the character. [112] In addition, it follows some aspects of DC Comics ' origin changes in The New 52 reboot, where Diana is the daughter of Zeus . [10] [113] Jenkins cited Richard Donner 's Superman as an inspiration. [114] Casting [ edit ] \"I remember when I read in the news that Wonder Woman had been cast and my heart sank [...] I'm sure we wouldn't have made the same choice. And then I started paying attention to her, and watching her and looking at her and it was just unbelievable. Frankly, I think they did a better job than I could have because I don't know that I would have scoured the earth as hard to find her [...] They were looking for all the same things I would have looked for—all the values that Wonder Woman stands for exuding from someone in an honest way, and boy did they find it [...] She shares every quality with Wonder Woman and that's no joke. It's one of those rare things. You need someone who can appear to be Wonder Woman on screen [...] Every once in a while, there's superhero casting that transcends, because that person is so authentic to the character that it becomes identified with them, like Lynda Carter or Christopher Reeve .\" – Director Patty Jenkins [115] in response to the interview questions: \"Let’s talk a bit about Gal. You inherited her from Zack Snyder. Was it difficult to not get to choose your own Wonder Woman?\" and \"What is it about Gal that makes her such a good fit?\" In late 2013, Zack Snyder cast Gal Gadot in the role of Wonder Woman for the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice over Élodie Yung and Olga Kurylenko . [116] [117] [118] [119] Some fans initially reacted to this choice by criticizing Gadot's appearance. [120] Snyder would later comment on his decision to cast Gadot, stating that he tested a bunch of actresses, as you can imagine. But the thing with Gal is that she's strong, she's beautiful, and she's a kind person, which is interesting, but fierce at the same time. It's that combination of being fierce but kind at the same time that we were looking for. [121] Gadot described Diana as having \"the heart of a human so she can be emotional, she's curious, she's compassionate, she loves people. And then she has the powers of a goddess. She's all for good, she fights for good.\" [5] She also said that Diana has \"many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence \". [122] As to how her character is different from her appearance in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice , Gadot said \"We go back 100 years to when she's more naive\", further explaining, \"She's this young idealist. She's pure. Very different to the experienced, super-confident, grown-up woman you've seen\". [123] Gadot underwent a diet and training regimen, practiced different martial arts and gained 17 pounds of muscle for the role. [124] [125] Gadot was previously offered a different role (as a villain) in Man of Steel , which she declined because she was pregnant at the time; this allowed her to later be cast as Wonder Woman in the film's follow-up. [126] Gadot signed a three-picture deal. [118] She was only paid a base salary of $300,000 for the film itself. [127] Chris Pine was cast as Steve Trevor, [19] [128] a character he described as a \"rogue-ish, cynical realist who's seen the awful brutish nature of modern civilization\" and added that he is a \"worldly guy, a charming guy\". [129] He signed a multi-picture deal. [19] Lucy Davis ' performance as Etta Candy is the first live-action cinematic portrayal of the character. [130] As well, Elena Anaya 's performance as Doctor Poison is the cinematic debut of that character. Nicole Kidman was in negotiations for the role of Queen Hippolyta, but was forced to drop out due to scheduling conflicts with Big Little Lies . [131] [132] Filming [ edit ] Production began on November 21, 2015, [133] [134] under the working title Nightingale . [135] [136] Among the film sets were Lower Halstow , Kent, [137] Australia House , [138] and the Sassi di Matera , [139] Castel del Monte [139] and Camerota [140] in Southern Italy . Matthew Jensen was the director of photography, [141] filming in the United Kingdom, France and Italy. [142] Production in London ended on March 13, 2016. [143] On March 20, 2016, filming was underway in Italy. In late April, filming took place at a museum in France, where a Wayne Enterprises truck was spotted alongside Gadot. [144] Production ended on May 9, 2016. [145] Patty Jenkins and director of photography Matt Jensen revealed that the film's look was inspired by painter John Singer Sargent . [146] Reshoots took place in November 2016, while Gadot was five months pregnant. A green cloth was placed over her stomach to edit out her pregnancy during post-production. [147] To find the perfect location to shoot the Amazon island of Themyscira, the birthplace of Wonder Woman herself, the film's producers searched all over the world, finally settling on the Amalfi Coast : a stretch of coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea , located in the Province of Salerno in Southern Italy. [148] It was chosen because most beaches in the world that sit below big cliffs disappear beneath the tide for part of every day. Production designer Aline Bonetto and her location manager Charles Somers considered 47 countries and visited several of them before they found what they were looking for. Bonetto explained that, \"Italy had beautiful weather, a beautiful blue-green sea, not too much tide, not too much wave. Our effects team added some cliffs in post-production, and it was the perfect way to go\". [149] Post-production [ edit ] Bill Westenhofer served as the visual effects supervisor for the film [150] and Martin Walsh served as editor. [141] Music [ edit ] Main article: Wonder Woman (soundtrack) On November 3, 2016, Rupert Gregson-Williams was hired to write and compose the film's music. [151] He was joined by Evan Jolly, Tom Howe, [152] Paul Mounsey, [153] and Andrew Kawczynski, [154] who provided additional music. The soundtrack was released on CD, digital, and vinyl the same day as the film. [155] Australian musician Sia sang a song for the film, titled \" To Be Human \", featuring English musician Labrinth . Written by Florence Welch and Rick Nowels , the track is also featured on the soundtrack. [156] Additional music featured in the film are: \"Another Little Drink Wouldn't Do Us Any Harm\" by Clifford Grey and Nat Ayer and performed by Edgar Trevor and Cecil Cooper; \"Molly O'Morgan\" written by Fred Godfrey and Will Letters and performed by Ella Retford; \" It's a Long Way to Tipperary \" written by Jack Judge and Harry Williams; \" Sous les ponts de Paris \" written by Jean Rodor and Vincent Scotto and performed by Lucienne Delyle ; \" I'll Walk Beside You \" written by Edward Lockton and Alan Murray and performed by Ewen Bremner ; \" Green Grow the Rushes, O \" written by Robert Burns and performed by Ewen Bremner; and \"Schatzwalzer Op. 4\" written by Johann Strauss II and performed by the Berlin String Quartet. [157] Also features samples from the movie's soundtrack \"Is She with You\" from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice composed by Hans Zimmer and Junkie XL . Release [ edit ] Wonder Woman had its world premiere on May 25, in Los Angeles . [158] The film's London premiere, which was scheduled to take place on May 31, 2017 at the Odeon Leicester Square , was cancelled due to the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing . [159] The film had its Latin America premiere in Mexico City on May 27. It was released in most of the world, including in IMAX , [160] on June 2, 2017, after originally being scheduled for June 23. [161] [162] Belgium, Singapore and South Korea received the film first, with May 31 openings. [163] [164] [165] On April 17, it was announced that Wonder Woman would be released in China on June 2, the same day as its North American release. [166] Marketing [ edit ] The success of the superhero television series Supergirl informed the marketing and promotion strategy used for Wonder Woman . [167] According to Time Warner chief marketing officer Kristen O'Hara, they wanted to approach the Wonder Woman marketing campaign in a light manner, similar to how they did with Supergirl . O'Hara elaborated that the modest campaign route they took for Supergirl aided in establishing a large central fanbase among women well in advance of the series, which reportedly generated 5 million female superhero fans in one week. [167] They were then able to model over time, and grow that audience leading up to the 15 months later release of Wonder Woman . [167] Though neither the film nor the series are aimed exclusively at women, the latter's campaign gave them their first opportunity to begin collecting data about female superhero fans. [167] In May 2017, a promo for Wonder Woman was released during the season finale of Supergirl, featuring a remix of the song \" These Boots Are Made for Walkin' \" and Supergirl ( Melissa Benoist ) wearing Wonder Woman's boots. [168] The promo included an appearance by Lynda Carter , star of the 1970s Wonder Woman , who plays the American president on Supergirl . [168] The costs for television advertisements for Wonder Woman are higher in comparison to that of previous DCEU film Suicide Squad . Warner Bros. has spent over $3 million on advertisements for Wonder Woman , whereas they spent $2.6 million on advertisements for Suicide Squad . [169] Ticket selling site Fandango reported that Wonder Woman rounded the final leg of its marketing campaign as the most anticipated blockbuster of summer 2017, according to a poll conducted by 10,000 voters, the biggest survey in company history. [170] Separately, Fandango also found that 92% of people surveyed said that they are looking forward to seeing a film that features a standalone woman superhero, and 87% wished Hollywood would make more women-led superhero films. [171] In May 2017, NASCAR driver Danica Patrick drove her No. 10 car with a Wonder Woman paint scheme at the Go Bowling 400 in Kansas and at the Monster Energy Open in Charlotte . [172] Home media [ edit ] The film was released on Digital HD on August 29, 2017 and on Blu-ray, Blu-Ray 3D, 4K Ultra-HD Blu-Ray and DVD on September 19, 2017. [173] Controversies [ edit ] Bans [ edit ] On May 31, Wonder Woman was banned in Lebanon after the Campaign to Boycott Supporters of Israel asked the Lebanese government's Ministry of Economy and Trade to block the film because its star, Gal Gadot, had served in the Israeli military . [174] The Lebanese government did not, however, ban Gadot's Fast & Furious films which did screen in Lebanon. [175] [176] On June 7, Variety reported that a Tunisian court suspended the theatrical release of Wonder Woman after a lawsuit brought by the Al-Chaab party and the Tunisian Association of Young Lawyers to have the film blocked due to Gadot's Israeli citizenship, military service, and public comments in support of the Israeli military during the 2014 war in Gaza . [177] Jordan was reportedly also considering a ban of the film and suspended screenings pending a decision, [178] but on June 11, Al Bawaba reported that the government decided not to do so, as there was no legal precedent for it. [179] Women-only screenings [ edit ] Some men were unhappy with women-only screenings held at the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin , with some opponents of the gender-restricted screening stating on platforms such as Facebook that such screenings were discriminatory against men. [180] [181] [182] A gay Albany Law School professor initiated a complaint with Austin's Equal Employment and Fair Housing Office claiming discrimination against male prospective customers and employees of the theater. [183] The chain responded with an online statement saying the event \"may have created confusion—we want everybody to see this film\" and announced a similar event at their Brooklyn location. Tickets sold out in less than an hour, prompting the chain to schedule additional screenings. [180] On July 18, Alamo Drafthouse proposed settlement offers of a Wonder Woman DVD to the complainants, stating \"Respondent did not realize that advertising a 'women's only' screening was a violation of discrimination laws\" [184] Reception [ edit ] Box office [ edit ] As of September 24, 2017 [update] , Wonder Woman has grossed $412 million in the United States and Canada and $408.4 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $820.4 million, against a production budget of $149 million. [4] Estimates for the number the film needed to surpass internationally in order to cover its production and promotional costs and break even ranged from $300 million [185] to $460 million. [186] North America [ edit ] In May 2017, early tracking had Wonder Woman opening with $65–75 million, and possibly as high as $105 million. [187] [188] [189] [190] [185] The film opened Friday, June 2, 2017, across 4,165 theaters and made $38.7 million on its opening day, including $3.7 million in IMAX. It was the biggest single-day gross for a woman-directed film, ahead of the $35.9 million opening Friday of Catherine Hardwicke 's Twilight in 2008 and the biggest opening day for a woman-led comic book superhero film, ahead of Ghost in the Shell ($7 million). [191] This included $11 million it made from Thursday previews, also the best start for a film directed by a woman, surpassing Fifty Shades of Grey ' s $8.6 million which was directed by Sam Taylor-Johnson , and the third biggest of the year, behind Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 . Of that, $1.5 million came from IMAX screenings. [192] [193] Earning a total of $103.3 million on its opening weekend, the film recorded a number of records: the biggest domestic opening of all-time for a female director (surpassing previous record holder Fifty Shades of Grey by Sam Taylor-Johnson ), the biggest DC Comics release without Batman or Superman (ahead of Constantine ), the sixth-biggest non-sequel comic book superhero debut ever, as well as the sixth-biggest June debut weekend. [194] Its three-day opening alone made it the highest-grossing woman-led comic book superhero film ever (surpassing Ghost in the Shell ). [195] It was also the 16th superhero film to cross $100 million in its domestic box office launch. [196] About 9% ($9 million) of the opening weekend came from IMAX screenings from 343 theaters. [197] In its second week the film grossed $58.5 million, again topping the box office. It marked a 43.3% drop for its second weekend at the box office , better than the average 50–60% decline superhero films tend to see, and was a better second weekend than Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($51.3 million) and Suicide Squad ($43.5 million). [198] In its third weekend it grossed $40.8 million, finishing second behind newcomer Cars 3 ($53.5 million). It was the second best third weekend ever for Warner Bros. and was nearly double what Batman v Superman ($23.3 million), Suicide Squad ($20.9 million) and Man of Steel ($20.7 million) made in their third weekends. It earned $24.9 million and $15.7 million in its fourth and fifth weekends respectively, dropping just 39% and 36% despite facing rough competition from opening films Transformers: The Last Knight and Despicable Me 3 . [199] It eventually became the highest-grossing film directed by a woman, surpassing the previous records of Jennifer Yuh Nelson 's Kung Fu Panda 2 and Phyllida Lloyd 's Mamma Mia! . [8] By August 8, the film had garnered $400 million in ticket sales, becoming the second female-fueled film (after Disney's Beauty and the Beast ), Warner Bros.' third-biggest movie (after Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises ), holding the record of the highest origin superhero film; supplanting the previous record held by Spider-Man (2002) and also becoming the highest-earning film with a female director in terms of domestic earnings, surpassing Frozen (2013). [200] [201] International [ edit ] Internationally, the film was released day-and-date with its North American debut in 55 markets (72% of its total release), and was projected to debut with anywhere between $92–118 million. [185] It ended up opening to $125 million, including $38 million in China, $8.5 million in Korea, $8.4 million in Mexico, $8.3 million in Brazil and $7.5 million in the UK. [202] In its second week of release, the film brought in another $60 million, including holding the top spot on France, the UK, Australia and Brazil. [203] As of June 25, 2017, the biggest markets of Wonder Woman outside North America are China (US$90 million) followed by Brazil (US$34 million), UK (US$28 million) and Australia (US$24 million). In the Philippines, it broke 2017 box office record for highest earning non-holiday opening day – earning $4.7 million and becoming the 6th most successful commercial film of all time as well overtaking the record set by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice . [204] [205] [206] The film opened in its last market, Japan, on August 25 and debuted to $3.4 million, helping the international gross cross the $400 million mark. [207] Critical response [ edit ] The performances of Gal Gadot and Chris Pine were praised by critics. [208] [209] [210] Wonder Woman received largely positive reviews, with some critics calling it the best film in the DC Extended Universe , and praising Jenkins ' direction and the performances and chemistry of Gadot and Pine . [7] [211] On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 344 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Thrilling, earnest, and buoyed by Gal Gadot's charismatic performance, Wonder Woman succeeds in spectacular fashion.\" [212] It is the highest-rated superhero film on the site. [213] [note 1] On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". [214] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale. [215] Critics commented favorably on Gadot's performance and Chris Pine's Steve Trevor. [216] [217] [210] Andrew Barker of Variety found the film to be more lighthearted than recent DC Comics films: \"Never prone to stewing in solitude, and taking more notes from Richard Donner than from Christopher Nolan , Patty Jenkins' Wonder Woman provides a welcome respite from DC's house style of grim darkness—boisterous, earnest, sometimes sloppy, yet consistently entertaining—with star Gal Gadot proving an inspired choice for this avatar of truth, justice, and the Amazonian way.\" [218] Vox stated \"Trevor is the superhero girlfriend comic book movies need\". [219] The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle lauded the performances of Gadot, Pine, Huston, and Thewlis while commending the film's \"different perspective\" and humor. [220] Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times described Gadot's performance as inspirational, heroic, heartfelt and endearing and the most \"real\" Wonder Woman portrayal. [221] A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that it \"briskly shakes off blockbuster branding imperatives and allows itself to be something relatively rare in the modern superhero cosmos. It feels less like yet another installment in an endless sequence of apocalyptic merchandising opportunities than like ... what's the word I'm looking for? A movie. A pretty good one, too.\" [222] Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune compared the film to Captain America: The First Avenger , noting that as with \"the first Captain America movie over in the Marvel Comics universe, DC's Wonder Woman offers the pleasures of period re-creation for a popular audience. Jenkins and her design team make 1918-era London; war-torn Belgium; the Ottoman Empire; and other locales look freshly realized, with a strong point of view. There are scenes here of dispossessed war refugees, witnessed by an astonished and heartbroken Diana, that carry unusual gravity for a comic book adaptation.\" [223] Katie Erbland of IndieWire commended its thematic depth, explaining that \" Wonder Woman is a war movie. Patty Jenkins' first—and we hope not last—entry into the DC Expanded Universe is primarily set during World War I, but while the feature doesn't balk at war-time violence, it's the internal battles of its compelling heroine that are most vital.\" [224] Alonso Duralde of TheWrap similarly felt that, \"Diana's scenes of action are thrilling precisely because they're meant to stop war, not to foment it; the idea of a demi-god using love to fight war might sound goofy in the abstract, but Jenkins makes the concept work.\" [225] Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised Gadot and Pine's performances as well the film's detailed plot and narrative while comparing of some slow-motion action sequences to The Matrix . [226] Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine hailed the film as a \"cut above nearly all the superhero movies that have been trotted out over the past few summers\" while praising Gadot's performance as \"charming\" and \"marvelous\" and commending Jenkins' direction of the film as a step forward for women directors in directing big-budget blockbuster films in Hollywood. [227] Elise Jost of Moviepilot observed that \"Gadot's take on Wonder Woman is one of those unique cases of an actor merging with their story, similar to Robert Downey Jr. 's Tony Stark . Gal Gadot is Wonder Woman, and Wonder Woman is Gal Gadot.\" [210] Jost praised Gadot's interpretation of Wonder Woman as the one in which Gadot \"absolutely nails the character's unwaveringly positive outlook on life. She's a force of nature who believes in the greater good; her conviction that she's meant to save the world is stronger than her bullet-deflecting shield. She's genuine, she's fun, she's the warm source of energy at the heart of the movie.\" [210] The Federalist suggests that Wonder Woman is \"a story of Jesus \". \"The movie is wrapped up in faux Greek mythology, true, but there's no mistaking the Christology here.\" [228] \"Perhaps Christ in the form of a beautiful and kick-ass Amazon is all that our contemporary society can handle right now\", stated M. Hudson, a Christian feminist. [228] On HuffPost cultural critic, G. Roger Denson , who regards the superhero genre as a source of contemporary \"Mainstream Mythopoetics\" (\"the making of new yet vitally meaningful, if not symbolic, stories filled with imagery reflecting, yet also shaping and advancing, the political, legal, moral and social practices of today\"), wrote that the \"No Man's Land\" scene \"that people are crying over in theaters and raving about afterward happens to be among the most powerfully mythopoetic scenes ever filmed at the same time it is one of the oldest myths to have been utilized by artists and writers after it had been invented by early military strategists and leaders.\" Specifically \"used by director Patty Jenkins\", the scene raises \"the esteem for powerful yet compassionate women as heroes and leaders to a level equal with that of men for having won over a huge and adoring popular audience around the world\". [229] Steve Rose in The Guardian criticized the film for failing to explore the material's potential for \"patriarchy-upending subversion\". [230] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the film's over-reliance on exposition: \" Wonder Woman is hobbled by a slogging origin story and action that only comes in fits and starts. Just when Gadot and director Patty Jenkins...are ready to kick ass, we get backstory.\" [231] \"Gas was intended to win the war. On that much Wonder Woman is absolutely right.\" said David Hambling in Popular Mechanics . [232] Rachel Becker of The Verge stated that despite the scientific liberties of using a \"hydrogen-based\" chemical weapon as a plot device, the film succeeds in evoking real and horrifying history. \"First off, mustard gas is such a horrible, terrifying weapon, it doesn't need to be made more potent. But if you were a chemist bent on raining destruction on the Allied forces, you wouldn't do it by replacing the sulfur atom in mustard gas with a hydrogen atom. You'd know that sulfur is the linchpin holding together this poisonous molecule.\" [233] Accolades [ edit ] Award Date of ceremony Category Recipient(s) and nominee(s) Result Ref. IndieWire Critic's Poll December 19, 2016 Most Anticipated of 2017 Wonder Woman Nominated [234] Golden Trailer Awards June 6, 2017 Best of Show Won [235] [236] Best Fantasy / Adventure Best Summer 2017 Blockbuster Poster Teen Choice Awards August 13, 2017 Choice Action Movie [237] [238] [239] Choice Action Movie Actor Chris Pine Choice Action Movie Actress Gal Gadot Choice Movie Ship Gal Gadot & Chris Pine Nominated Choice Liplock Chris Pine & Gal Gadot Choice Summer Movie Wonder Woman Choice Summer Movie Actor Chris Pine Choice Summer Movie Actress Gal Gadot Dragon Awards September 3, 2017 Best Science Fiction or Fantasy Movie Wonder Woman Won [240] Sequel [ edit ] Originally signed for three feature films, with Wonder Woman and Justice League being her second and third films, Gadot signed an extension to her contract for additional films. [241] Jenkins initially signed for only one film, [242] but in an interview with Variety , Geoff Johns revealed that he and Jenkins are writing the treatment for a Wonder Woman sequel and that he has a \"cool idea for the second one\". At the 2017 San Diego Comic Con , Warner Bros. officially announced a sequel would be released on December 13, 2019, and would be titled Wonder Woman 2 . [9] [243] [244] Later, Jenkins was officially signed to return as director, with confirmation that Gadot will be returning as the titular role. [245] On August 19, 2017, actress Geena Davis stated that she would like very much to play a role in Wonder Woman 2 and that she is in talks with Jenkins about that matter. [246] Days later, the studio hired Dave Callaham to co-write the film's script with Jenkins and Johns. [247] Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ This is by an adjusted Tomatometer with at least 20 reviews each that, uses a weighted Bayesian based formula to account for the differences in ratings. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Davis, Edward (November 3, 2016). \"Exclusive: Stream Track From Rupert Gregson-Williams' 'Hacksaw Ridge' Score, Composer Talks 'Wonder Woman,' Mel Gibson, More\" . The Playlist . Archived from the original on November 4, 2016 . Retrieved November 3, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Wonder Woman\" . Consumer Protection BC, Canada. May 5, 2017. Archived from the original on August 19, 2017 . Retrieved May 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Wonder Woman\" . British Board of Film Classification . Archived from the original on June 25, 2017 . Retrieved May 25, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Wonder Woman (2017)\" . Box Office Mojo . Archived from the original on July 25, 2017 . Retrieved September 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Sperling, Nicole (July 15, 2016). \"Wonder Woman: Gal Gadot interview\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on June 22, 2017 . Retrieved June 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Strauss, Bob (May 31, 2017). \"How 'Wonder Woman' lassoed the first female director of a studio superhero movie\" . The Mercury News . Archived from the original on May 31, 2017. ^ Jump up to: a b Shepherd, Jack (May 30, 2017). \"Wonder Woman review roundup – Critics conclude Patty Jenkins' film better than Batman v Superman\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017. ^ Jump up to: a b Williams, Trey (June 24, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' passes 'Mamma Mia!' as highest-grossing film by female director\" . MarketWatch. Archived from the original on June 23, 2017 . Retrieved July 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Galuppo, Mia; Shanley, Patrick. \" ' Wonder Woman 2' Sets Release Date\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on July 26, 2017 . Retrieved July 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b McBeth, Susie (October 14, 2014). \"Batman vs Superman: Wonder Woman's origin revealed for Dawn of Justice film\" . Metro . Archived from the original on October 16, 2014 . Retrieved October 15, 2014 . Jump up ^ Lang, Brent (October 11, 2016). \"Gal Gadot Dishes on the New 'Wonder Woman' Film\" . Variety . Archived from the original on June 3, 2017 . Retrieved June 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ Goldberg, Matt (March 6, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman': Gal Gadot on Creating a Superhero That Young Girls Can Admire\" . Collider.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2017 . Retrieved June 22, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c McNiece, Mia (May 31, 2017). \"Gal Gadot felt 'privileged' to play Wonder Woman: 'I adore this character ' \" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Jump up ^ Woerner, Meredith (June 2, 2017). \"What it's like to be a real-life Amazon on the set of 'Wonder Woman ' \" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. ^ Jump up to: a b c Sperling, Nicole (March 24, 2016). \"Wonder Woman: Gal Gadot, Robin Wright, Connie Nielsen first look\" . 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Gal Gadot est #WonderWoman, dès le 31 mai au cinéma\" (Tweet) (in French) . Retrieved June 2, 2017 – via Twitter. Jump up ^ Brzeski, Patrick (April 17, 2017). \"China Sets Release Dates for 'Pirates 5,' 'Transformers 5,' 'Wonder Woman,' More\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on April 18, 2017 . Retrieved April 18, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Mueller, Matthew (April 27, 2017). \"How Supergirl Influenced Wonder Woman's Marketing\" . Comicbook.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2017 . Retrieved May 3, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Rubin, Rebecca (May 23, 2017). \" ' Supergirl' Cast Unites to Promote 'Wonder Woman' Film\" . Variety . Archived from the original on May 23, 2017 . Retrieved May 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ Desta, Yohana (April 28, 2017). \"What's Going on with Wonder Woman\" . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on July 3, 2017 . Retrieved April 28, 2017 . 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Archived from the original on August 4, 2017 . Retrieved June 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ Holpuch, Amanda (May 31, 2017). \"Wonder Woman banned in Lebanon due to Israeli lead, Gal Gadot\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on August 7, 2017 . Retrieved August 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ AP (May 30, 2017). \"Lebanon Seeks to Ban 'Wonder Woman ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on August 8, 2017 . Retrieved August 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Keslassy, Elsa (June 7, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Screenings Suspended in Tunisia Amid Opposition to Gal Gadot\" . Variety . Archived from the original on June 20, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Jordan bans screening of 'Wonder Woman' film over controversy\" . Xinhua News Agency. June 7, 2017. Archived from the original on August 7, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Exclusive: Jordan Will Not be Banning Wonder Woman\" . Al Bawaba . June 11, 2017. Archived from the original on June 11, 2017. ^ Jump up to: a b Buckley, Cara (June 5, 2017). \"Solidarity at an All-Female Screening of 'Wonder Woman ' \" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on June 10, 2017. Jump up ^ France, Lisa Respers (May 26, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' women-only screenings cause uproar\" . CNN. Archived from the original on June 15, 2017. Jump up ^ Holley, Peter (May 26, 2017). \" ' It's sexist': Men flip out over women-only 'Wonder Woman' screenings\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 7, 2017. Jump up ^ Holley, Peter (June 1, 2017), \"Why a gay law professor is trying to shut down women-only 'Wonder Woman' screenings\" , The Washington Post , archived from the original on June 6, 2017 Jump up ^ Cheong, Ian Miles (August 9, 2017). \"Alamo Drafthouse's Women-Only 'Wonder Woman' Screenings Were Illegal\" . DailyCaller.com . Archived from the original on August 10, 2017 . Retrieved August 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c D'Alessandro, Anthony (May 30, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman': All The World Is Waiting For You As Warner Bros./DC Pic Eyes $175M+ Global Opening\" . Deadline.com. Archived from the original on May 31, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hughes, Mark (May 26, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Is Going To Be Bigger at the Box Office Than Estimates\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on July 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 28, 2017 . Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (May 11, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Tracking for Solid $65M Box-Office Debut\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on May 13, 2017 . Retrieved May 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ 'Wonder Woman' Flies Onto Tracking With Projected $65M+ Opening, On Par With 'Thor' & 'Captain America' , Deadline.com, May 12, 2017, archived from the original on May 17, 2017 Jump up ^ Fuster, Jeremy (May 11, 2017). \"Wonder Woman': Early Tracking for Debut All Over the Map, From $65 Million to $105 Million\" . The Wrap . Archived from the original on May 13, 2017 . Retrieved May 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mendelson, Scott (May 11, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Box Office: How Big Is Big Enough?\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on August 5, 2017 . Retrieved May 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mendelson, Scott (June 3, 2017). \"Box Office: 'Wonder Woman' Soars To Record-Breaking $39M Friday\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on July 24, 2017 . Retrieved June 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mendelson, Scott (June 2, 2017). \"Box Office: 'Wonder Woman' Nabs Marvel-ous $11M Thursday\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on June 3, 2017 . Retrieved June 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (June 2, 2017). \"Box Office: 'Wonder Woman' Leaps to $11 Million on Thursday Night\" . Variety . Archived from the original on June 2, 2017 . Retrieved June 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (June 5, 2017). \"Box Office: 'Wonder Woman' Opens to Historic $103M\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 4, 2017 . Retrieved June 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mendelson, Scott (June 4, 2017). \"Box Office: Five Ways 'Wonder Woman' Has Already Made History\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on August 2, 2017 . Retrieved June 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (June 4, 2017). \"Box Office: 'Wonder Woman' Opens to Historic $100.5M\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 4, 2017 . Retrieved June 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (June 4, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Breaks Glass Ceiling For Female Directors & Stomps On 'Iron Man' With $100.5M Debut – Sunday AM\" . Deadline.com. Archived from the original on June 2, 2017. Jump up ^ \" ' Wonder Woman' Soars on Saturday; 'Mummy' Still Crummy – Sunday AM Box Office\" . Deadline.com . June 11, 2017. Archived from the original on June 11, 2017. Jump up ^ \" ' Cars 3' $53M+ Is Third Best Debut For Pixar Series; 'Wonder Woman' Still Wows With $40M+; 'All Eyez on Me' Solid\" . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on June 16, 2017 . Retrieved June 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (August 8, 2017). \"Box-Office Milestone: 'Wonder Woman' Crosses $400M in North America\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on August 9, 2017 . Retrieved August 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Wonder Woman' Is Now the Top Female-Helmed Film at the Domestic Box Office\" . Blog.womenandhollywood.com. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017 . Retrieved August 19, 2017 . [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Tartaglione, Nancy (June 4, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Lassos $122.5M Offshore, $223M Global Debut – International Box Office\" . Deadline.com. Archived from the original on June 4, 2017. Jump up ^ \" ' The Mummy' Unearths $141M Offshore, $172.3M Global; 'Wonder Woman' Flies To $232M at International Box Office\" . Deadline.com . June 12, 2017. Archived from the original on June 9, 2017. Jump up ^ Tartaglione, Nancy (June 5, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Leaps To $125M Offshore, $228M Global Debut – International Box Office\" . Deadline.com. Archived from the original on June 4, 2017. Jump up ^ \" ' Wonder Woman' now biggest Warner Bros. film in PH\" . ABS-CBN News . July 3, 2017. Archived from the original on July 9, 2017 . Retrieved August 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Wonder Woman' grosses P48.39M on PH opening day\" . Rappler . June 2, 2017. Archived from the original on August 11, 2017 . Retrieved August 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Valerian' Tops China; 'Wonder Woman' Hits $400M Overseas – International Box Office\" . Deadline.com . August 27, 2017 . Retrieved August 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ Graham, Adam. \"Review: 'Wonder Woman' delivers action, humor, thrills\" . The Detroit News . Archived from the original on June 1, 2017 . Retrieved June 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ Taylor, Kate (June 1, 2017). \"Review: Wonder Woman finally gives DC a superhero story that soars\" . The Globe and Mail . Toronto. Archived from the original on June 1, 2017 . Retrieved June 1, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Jost, Elise (June 2, 2017). \"#WonderWoman: Why Gal Gadot Was The Perfect Choice To Play Wonder Woman\" . Moviepilot . Moviepilot . Archived from the original on July 13, 2017 . Retrieved July 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Rahman, Abid (May 29, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman': What the Critics Are Saying\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Wonder Woman (2017)\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Archived from the original on July 25, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"50 Best Superhero Movies of All Time\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved August 28, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Wonder Woman reviews\" . Metacritic . Archived from the original on June 3, 2017 . Retrieved June 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (June 3, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Breaks Glass Ceiling For Female Directors With $97M+ Debut; Earns 'A' CinemaScore\" . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on June 2, 2017. Jump up ^ Nashawaty, Chris (May 29, 2017). \"Wonder Woman is the smart, satisfying DC movie you've been waiting for\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 9, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Linden, Sheri (May 29, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman': Film Review\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Barker, Andrew (May 29, 2017). \"Film Review: 'Wonder Woman ' \" . Variety . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Abad-Santos, Alex (June 6, 2017). \"Wonder Woman: Chris Pine's Steve Trevor is the superhero girlfriend comic book movies need\" . Vox . Archived from the original on June 11, 2017. Jump up ^ LaSalle, Mick (May 31, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' gives different perspective to an action movie\" . San Francisco Chronicle . Archived from the original on June 6, 2017 . Retrieved June 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Richard Roeper (June 30, 2017). \"Heartfelt 'Wonder Woman' finally gives a brave superhero her due\" . Chicago Sun-Times . Archived from the original on August 9, 2017 . Retrieved August 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Scott, A. O. (May 31, 2017). \"Review: 'Wonder Woman' Is a Blockbuster That Lets Itself Have Fun\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on June 1, 2017 . Retrieved June 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ Phillips, Michael (May 29, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' review: Finally, a DC Comics movie that works\" . Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Erbland, Katie (May 29, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Is the DC Universe's Best Superhero Movie Yet, Proving the Future Is Very Much Female – Review\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Duralde, Alonso (May 29, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Review: Gal Gadot’s Amazon Warrior Conquers Superhero Doldrums\" . TheWrap . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hornaday, Ann (May 31, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' saves the day, in more ways than one\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 1, 2017. Jump up ^ Zacharek, Stephanie (June 1, 2017). \"Can We Build a Better Blockbuster? Wonder Woman Points a Way Forward\" . Time . Retrieved August 31, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hudson, M. (June 5, 2017). \"The New 'Wonder Woman' Is Really A Story About Jesus\" . The Federalist . Archived from the original on June 5, 2017. Jump up ^ \"The Wonder Woman 'No Man's Land' Scene Is Rooted in History, Myth and Art\" . Huffingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017 . Retrieved August 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Rose, Steve (May 29, 2017). \"Wonder Woman review – glass ceiling still intact as Gal Gadot reduced to weaponised Smurfette\" . The Guardian . UK. Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Travers, Peter (May 30, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Review: Gal Gadot Brings Comics' Original Riot Girl to Life\" . Rolling Stone . Archived from the original on May 30, 2017 . Retrieved May 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hambling, David (June 5, 2017). \"How Realistic Is the WWI Warfare of 'Wonder Woman'?\" . Popular Mechanics . Archived from the original on June 24, 2017 . Retrieved June 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Becker, Rachel (June 6, 2017). \"Wonder Woman's chemical weapon makes no scientific sense, but it evokes real and horrifying history\" . The Verge . Archived from the original on June 7, 2017. Jump up ^ Kohn, Eric (December 19, 2016). \"2016 Critics Poll: The Best Films and Performances of the Year According to Over 200 Critics\" . IndieWire . Retrieved July 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (June 6, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Wins Top Prize at Golden Trailer Awards\" . Variety . Archived from the original on June 7, 2017 . Retrieved June 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The 18th Annual Golden Trailer Award Nominees\" . GoldenTrailer.com . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Ceron, Ella (June 19, 2017). \"Teen Choice Awards 2017: See the First Wave of Nominations\" . Teen Vogue . Archived from the original on June 20, 2017 . Retrieved July 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hatchett, Keisha (July 12, 2017). \"Teen Choice Awards Reveals Full List of Nominees\" . TV Guide . Archived from the original on July 12, 2017 . Retrieved July 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Teen Choice Awards 2017 Winners: 'Wonder Woman', 'Beauty And The Beast', 'Riverdale' Among Honorees\" . Deadline . enske Business Media, LLC. August 13, 2017. Archived from the original on August 14, 2017 . Retrieved August 14, 2017 . Jump up ^ Liptak, Andrew (4 August 2017). \"The 2017 Dragon Awards are a far-ranging sci-fi and fantasy reading list\" . The Verge . Retrieved 6 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Schmitz, Greg Dean (June 9, 2017). \"Wonder Woman Sequel Details Emerge, and More Movie News\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Archived from the original on July 24, 2017 . Retrieved June 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kit, Bory (June 7, 2017). \" ' Wonder Woman' Director Patty Jenkins Not Signed for Sequel\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 11, 2017 . Retrieved June 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Warner Bros. Officially Announces Wonder Woman Sequel\" . Screen Rant . July 22, 2017. Archived from the original on July 23, 2017 . Retrieved July 22, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Wonder Woman' sequel title revealed\" . Fox News . July 24, 2017. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017 . Retrieved July 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin. \"Patty Jenkins Closes Deal to Direct 'Wonder Woman' Sequel (EXCLUSIVE)\" . Variety . Retrieved 11 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Terror, Jude (August 19, 2017). \"Geena Davis Available For Wonder Woman 2 Role, Says Geena Davis\" . Bleeding Cool News And Rumors . Jump up ^ Kit, Borys. \" ' The Expendables' Writer Joins Patty Jenkins, Geoff Johns to Write 'Wonder Woman 2' (Exclusive)\" . [The Hollywood Reporter]] . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wonder Woman (2017 film) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wonder Woman (2017 film) . Official website Official Final Trailer – Warner Bros. Pictures Wonder Woman on IMDb Wonder Woman at the TCM Movie Database \" 'Wonder Woman' Director Patty Jenkins Talks Gal Gadot, Sequel Hopes \". Forbes , June 28, 2017. (Video clip— Forbes interview with director Patty Jenkins ). [ show ] Related topic navboxes [ show ] v t e Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston H. G. 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{ "text": "Kevin Michael Richardson - Wikipedia Kevin Michael Richardson From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other people named Kevin Richardson, see Kevin Richardson (disambiguation) . Kevin Michael Richardson Richardson at the 2010 Comic Con in San Diego. Born ( 1964-10-25 ) October 25, 1964 (age 53) The Bronx , New York , U.S. Residence Los Angeles , California , U.S. Other names Kevin Richardson KMR Kevin M. Richardson Education Syracuse University (B.F.A.) [1] Occupation Actor, voice artist Years active 1992–present Spouse(s) Monica Richardson ( m. 2006) Children 2 Kevin Michael Richardson (born October 25, 1964) is an American actor and voice artist who has portrayed a multitude of characters in animated series and video games. He is known for his distinctively deep voice and has been playing mostly villainous characters since the 1990s. For voicing the Joker in The Batman (2004–2008), he was nominated for two Daytime Emmy Awards . Contents [ hide ] 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Personal life 4 Filmography 4.1 Live-action 4.2 Animation 4.3 Feature films 4.4 Direct-to-video and television films 4.5 Video games 5 References 6 External links Early life [ edit ] A classically trained actor and a native of the Bronx , New York , Richardson first gained recognition as one of only eight U.S. high school students selected for the National Foundation for the Arts' \"Arts '82\" program. As a result of this, he earned a scholarship to Syracuse University and a spot on a PBS special directed by John Houseman . Career [ edit ] Richardson has usually portrayed villainous characters due to his deep and powerful voice. In 1995, he obtained his first voice role; Mayor Tilton on the animated TV version of The Mask . His credits include Captain Gantu in Lilo & Stitch and its franchise , Shnitzel in the Chowder pilot (and was later replaced by John DiMaggio ), Goro in Mortal Kombat , the second voice of Skulker on Danny Phantom , Sarevok in the Baldur's Gate series , Jolee Bindo in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic , Crunch Bandicoot in the Crash Bandicoot games, Tartarus from Halo 2 , Chairman Drek in Ratchet & Clank , Antauri in Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! , Openly Gator from Queer Duck , Doctor Payne and others on The Proud Family , Dark Laser on The Fairly OddParents , Maurice from The Penguins of Madagascar , Slam Tasmanian and Tech E. Coyote on Loonatics Unleashed and the voice of Exile in the 1990s animated series Road Rovers . Richardson also replaced Keith David as the voice of Tombstone on The Spectacular Spider-Man . He provided a character voice set for Icewind Dale : Heart of Winter and Icewind Dale II . He was the voice of Heihachi in the PlayStation 2 game Soul Calibur II , though he is listed in the role as Victor Stone. He also voiced Stump Smash and Tree Rex in Skylanders: Swap Force , Skylanders: Trap Team and Skylanders: SuperChargers . In 2001, he voiced Barney Rubble in the animated movie The Flintstones: On the Rocks . In 2003, he voiced Trigon in the animated series Teen Titans . Trigon is a demonic overlord and the father of Raven. In 2004, he became the first African-American to voice the Joker in the Kids WB animated series, The Batman , a role for which he was twice nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children's Series . In 2006, he appeared in the comedy Clerks II in which he plays a cop who notices the words \"Porch Monkey 4 Life\" written on the back of Randal Graves' work jacket. In 2008, he did the voice of Bishop for Wolverine and the X-Men . Later, he did the voice of Nick Fury on The Super Hero Squad Show . He often plays characters based on comedian Bill Cosby , such as on Family Guy (\"Brian Does Hollywood\"), where Stewie is a contestant on the comedian's Kids Say the Darndest Things ; as Cosby himself on The Boondocks and playing the role of Numbuh 5's father Mr. Lincoln, who is also a homage of Cosby on Codename: Kids Next Door . His most frequent role on Family Guy is as Jerome, Lois's ex-boyfriend. He also voiced Cleveland Brown, Jr. , Lester Krinklesac and numerous others on The Cleveland Show . He currently voices Principal Brian Lewis on American Dad! . Richardson's voice roles (in 2011) include Panthro in the 2011 Thundercats series, Martian Manhunter on Young Justice , and Bulkhead , one of the Autobots in Transformers: Prime . He played Kilowog in Green Lantern: Rise of the Manhunters , the video game sequel to the live-action film Green Lantern , and later reprised the role in Green Lantern: The Animated Series . [ citation needed ] Richardson was nominated for Voice Actor of the Year by Behind the Voice Actors in 2012 [2] and in 2013. [3] In 2015, Richardson provided the voice of a Nigerian king on The Simpsons episode \" The Princess Guide \". Later, he provided the voice of Judge Michaels in Tyler Perry's first animated film Madea's Tough Love . Personal life [ edit ] Richardson married his wife in May 2006 and they have two children. [ citation needed ] Filmography [ edit ] Live-action [ edit ] List of live-action performances in film and television Year Title Role Notes Source [4] 000000001992-03-29-0000 1992 Something to Live for: The Alison Gertz Story Intern #2 TV movie 000000001992-04-16-0000 1992 The Human Factor Episode: \"Pilot\" 000000001992-01-01-0000 1992 Herman's Head Male Nurse Episode: \"Sperm 'n' Herman\" 000000001993-06-07-0000 1993 Dream On Craig Episode: \"The French Conception\" 000000001993-10-29-0000 1993 Fatal Instinct Bailiff 000000001994-06-12-0000 1994 Past Tense Arresting Cop 000000001994-11-03-0000 1994 Mad About You Cable Man Episode: \"Pandora's Box\" 000000001994-11-03-0000 1994 ER Patrick Episodes: \"Another Perfect Day\", \"Blizzard\" and \"The Gift\" 000000001994-12-26-0000 1994 Boy Called Hate, A A Boy Called Hate Staff Member 000000001995-01-14-0000 1995 The Boys Are Back Cameraman Episode: \"Bad Hair Day\" 000000001995-04-12-0000 1995 Stuart Saves His Family Uncredited 000000001995-04-29-0000 1995 –96 Weird Science Lieutenant, Husky-Voiced Pirate Episodes: \"Rock Hard Chett\" and \"Pirates!\" 000000001996-01-16-0000 1996 The John Larroquette Show Bartender Episode: \"John's Lucky Day\" 000000001996-05-24-0000 1996 Spy Hard Security Guard Uncredited 000000001996-08-27-0000 1996 –97 Homeboys in Outer Space Vashti [5] [6] 000000001996-08-31-0000 1996 Bound Cop #2 [7] 000000001997-10-17-0000 1997 –98 Teen Angel Coach Fortner Episodes: \"Wrestling with an Angel\" and \"The Play's the Thing\" 000000001998-07-31-0000 1998 BASEketball Peripatetic Player [8] 000000001998-11-16-0000 1998 DiResta Higgins Episode: \"Cookin' with Gas\" 000000001998-12-15-0000 1998 Working Bartender Episode: \"Greenery\" 000000001999-12-24-0000 1999 Odd Man Out M.L. Episode: \"What About Bob?\" 000000002000-05-25-0000 2000 2000 The 2000 Essence Awards Announcer [9] 000000002001-02-02-0000 2001 Summoning Bill Short film 000000002002-03-31-0000 2002 Greg the Bunny SK-2.0 Announcer Episode: \"SK-2.0\" 000000002003-09-19-0000 2003 –04 Like Family Ed Ward [10] [11] [12] 000000002004-01-01-0000 2004 Bobby Cannon Lincoln Unaired TV pilot [13] 000000002004-01-27-0000 2004 Comic Book: The Movie Ice Tray [14] 000000002005-08-21-0000 2005 Phil of the Future Mr. Littletree Episode: \"Phil Without a Future\" (voice) 000000002006-02-19-0000 2006 Malcolm in the Middle Bob Hope Episode: \"Hal Grieves\" (voice) 000000002006-07-21-0000 2006 Clerks II Cop [15] 000000002007-01-03-0000 2007 Knights of Prosperity, The The Knights of Prosperity Rockefeller Butts [16] 000000002008-07-15-0000 2008 Cleaner, The The Cleaner Darnell McDowell Season 1 [17] [18] 000000002009-01-19-0000 2009 La Mission Dee [19] 000000002009-04-27-0000 2009 How I Met Your Mother Stan Episode: \" The Three Days Rule \" [20] 000000002010-01-01-0000 2010 In Security Ben Directed by Peter Segal [21] 000000002013-11-06-0000 2013 I Know That Voice Himself Documentary [22] Animation [ edit ] List of voice performances in animation Year Series Role Notes Source [4] 000000001984-01-01-0000 1984 Gremlins Additional Voices 000000001994-01-01-0000 1994 Skeleton Warriors Additional Voices 000000001995-09-09-0000 1995 –97 Mask: The Animated Series, The The Mask: The Animated Series Mayor Mortimer Tilton Grouped under \"Featuring the Voice Talents of\" [23] 000000001995-12-02-0000 1995 Earthworm Jim Anti-Fish Ep. \"The Anti-Fish\" 000000001996-09-12-0000 1996 –97 Pinky and the Brain Additional Voices Eps. \"The Pink Candidate\" and \"Hoop Schemes\" 000000001996-09-02-0000 1996 –2000 Adventures from the Book of Virtues Plato [24] 000000001996-09-07-0000 1996 Road Rovers Exile 000000001996-10-30-0000 1996 The Cartoon Cartoon Show Flinch, Thugs Ep. \"Buy One, Get One Free\" 000000001996-11-18-0000 1996 Hey Arnold! Blind Man, Newscaster Eps. \"Dabs Subway\" 000000001996-11-30-0000 1996 Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm Ermac, Kabal, Black Dragon Thug Eps. \"Amends\" and \"Abandoned\" 000000001997-11-01-0000 1997 Rugrats Trash Guy, Sergeant Ep. \"The Mattress/Looking for Jack \" 000000001997-11-05-0000 1997 Dexter's Laboratory Deep Dee Dee, Action Hank, Cop Ep. \"Dee Dee Be Deep/911/Down in the Dumps\" [25] 000000001998-04-25-0000 1998 Animaniacs Additional Voices Ep. \"The Christmas Tree/Punchline: Part I/Prom Night/Punchline: Part II\" 000000001998-09-12-0000 1998 –2000 Voltron: The Third Dimension Zarkon, Hunk, Narrator [26] 000000001998-10-10-0000 1998 New Batman Adventures, The The New Batman Adventures Mutant Leader, Cop Ep. \"The Dark Knight Returns\" [26] 000000001998-11-25-0000 1998 –2002 Powerpuff Girls, The The Powerpuff Girls Boogie Man, Additional Voices [27] 000000001999-01-10-0000 1999 –2002 PJs, The The PJs Papa Hudson, Jamaican [28] 000000001999-05-09-0000 1999 –present Family Guy Jerome, Cleveland, Jr., Others 1999–2004 Johnny Bravo Additional Voices 000000001999-09-18-0000 1999 –2001 Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot, The The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot Garth 2000 Lobo Webseries Lobo, Slaz, Fat Whutzat Internet cartoon [29] 000000002000-02-12-0000 2000 Godzilla: The Series WGZA Radio DJ, Queens Transit Authority, WGZA Reggae Announcer Ep. \"Twister\" 2000 The Weekenders Diz, Bibson [26] 000000002000-04-30-0000 2000 Recess Mr. LaSalle, Streak Eps. \"Me Know No\" and \"Old Folks Home\" 000000002000-05-31-0000 2000 –01 Clerks: The Animated Series Narrator, Morpheus Grouped under \"Also Starring\" [30] 000000002000-08-08-0000 2000 Buzz Lightyear of Star Command Additional Voices [26] 000000002002-09-20-0000 2002 –04; 000000002017-04-22-0000 2017 Samurai Jack Demongo, Additional Voices [31] 000000002000-09-23-0000 2000 –04 Static Shock Robert Hawkins, Kangorr, Bernie Rast, Bouncer [26] 000000002001-07-20-0000 2001 Time Squad Additional Voices 000000002001-09-21-0000 2001 –05 Proud Family, The The Proud Family Omar Philips, Doctor Payne Grouped under \"Co-Starring\" [32] [33] 000000002001-10-26-0000 2001 –02 Invader Zim Additional Voices [26] 000000002001-12-09-0000 2001 –17 Fairly OddParents, The The Fairly OddParents Dark Laser, A.J.'s Father, Santa Clause, Additional Voices [34] 000000002002-02-16-0000 2002 –03 The Mummy The Minotaur Eps. \"The Maze\", \"Just Another Piece of Jewelry\" and \"The Reckoning\" 000000002002-05-17-0000 2002 SpongeBob SquarePants King Neptune Ep. \"SpongeBob's House Party\" [26] 000000002002-09-02-0000 2002 Disney's House of Mouse Prince John 000000002002-09-14-0000 2002 –04 What's New, Scooby-Doo? Additional Voices 000000002002-12-06-0000 2002 –08 Codename: Kids Next Door Dr. Lincoln, Others 000000002003-01-01-0000 2003 Duck Dodgers Nasty Canasta [35] 000000002003-07-19-0000 2003 -06 Teen Titans Mammoth , See-More, Trigon , Bear, Snake [26] [36] 000000002003-08-01-0000 2003 –05 Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy, The The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy Additional Voices Eps. \"Terror of the Black Knight/Battle of the Bands/Halls of Time\" and \"Mommy Fiercest/The Taking Tree\" 000000002003-08-01-0000 2003 –06 The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius Tee Eps. \"A Beautiful Mine/The League of Villains \" 000000002003-09-20-0000 2003 –09 My Life as a Teenage Robot Armageddroid, Vladimir, Additional Voices 000000002003-09-20-0000 2003 –06 Lilo & Stitch: The Series Captain Gantu, Cobra Bubbles [37] 000000002004-01-23-0000 2004 –05 Dave the Barbarian Oswidge, Additional Voices [26] [38] 000000002004-04-03-0000 2004 –07 Danny Phantom Skulker (2nd Voice), Dragon Ghost, Paulina's Father, Operative M [26] [39] 000000002004-05-01-0000 2004 –05 Megas XLR Glorft Commander, Tiny, Georgie, Others [26] 000000002004-09-11-0000 2004 –08 Batman, The The Batman The Joker Nominated– Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer In An Animated Program , The Joker, 2005 and 2008. [26] [40] 000000002004-09-12-0000 2004 Higglytown Heroes Uncle Lemmo [41] 000000002004-09-18-0000 2004 –06 Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! Antauri, Morlath, Others 000000002004-10-09-0000 2004 –05 Xiaolin Showdown Pandabubba Eps. \"Pandabubba\" and \"The Return of Pandabubba\" [26] 2005 Buzz on Maggie, The The Buzz on Maggie Mrs. Cartflight, Additional Voices 000000002005-02-06-0000 2005 –present American Dad! Principal Lewis, Tank Bates, Others 000000002005-05-25-0000 2005 –08 Avatar: The Last Airbender Tyro, Lion Turtle, Big Bad Hippo, Others Ep. \"Imprisoned\" 000000002005-03-25-0000 2005 Kim Possible Slim Possible Ep. \"Showdown at the Crooked D\" 000000002005-07-08-0000 2005 –09 Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends Uncle Pockets, Yeti, Additional Voices 000000002005-07-09-0000 2005 –07 Catscratch Lackey Tom Ep. \"EVIL\" 000000002005-07-30-0000 2005 American Dragon: Jake Long Santa Claus Ep. \"Eye Of The Beholder\" 000000002005-09-03-0000 2005 –06 Danger Rangers Burble [26] 000000002005-09-17-0000 2005 –07 Loonatics Unleashed Slam Tasmanian, Tech E. Coyote, Others [42] 000000002005-11-13-0000 2005 –10 Boondocks, The The Boondocks Additional Voices 000000002006-08-05-0000 2006 –08 Emperor's New School, The The Emperor's New School Kavo, Others 000000002006-08-11-0000 2006 Shorty McShorts' Shorts Admiral Bozzlebags Ep. \"Bozzlebag's Zip\" 000000002006-11-03-0000 2006 Class of 3000 Additional Voices 000000002007-11-02-0000 2007 Chowder Schnitzel, Maching Band Guy, Piston Vendor Ep. \"The Froggy Apple Crumple Thumpkin\" [43] 000000002008-02-16-0000 2008 –09 Back at the Barnyard Bling, Cow #1, Masked Cow, Santa Claus, Thor Ep. \"Raging Cow/The Great Sheep Escape\" [26] 000000002008-03-22-0000 2008 –09 Spectacular Spider-Man, The The Spectacular Spider-Man Tombstone (2nd Voice), Principal Davis, Coach Smith 000000002008-04-18-0000 2008 –09 Ben 10: Alien Force Highbreed Commander, Forever Knight #1, Forever Knight #2, Sheriff Mason, Emperor Milleous [26] 000000002008-06-12-0000 2008 –09 Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, The The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack Additional Voices 000000002008-07-05-0000 2008 Transformers: Animated Omega Supreme Ep. \"A Bridge Too Close: Part II\" 000000002008-09-08-0000 2008 Mighty B!, The The Mighty B! Donald the Postman, Others 000000002008-11-29-0000 2008 –13 Penguins of Madagascar, The The Penguins of Madagascar Maurice, Bada, Bing, Pinky, Others [26] [44] 000000002008-12-05-0000 2008 –11 Batman: The Brave and the Bold Black Manta , B'Wana Beast , Despero , Steppenwolf , Lex Luthor , Others [26] 000000002009-01-03-0000 2009 Random! Cartoons Additional Voices [45] 000000002009-02-06-0000 2009 Wolverine and the X-Men Bishop , Shadow King Grouped under \"Voices\" [46] 000000002009-02-17-0000 2009 Phineas and Ferb P. P. Otter, Others Eps. \"Attack of the 50 Foot Sister\", \"Backyard Aquarium\" and \"Unfair Science Fair\" 000000002009-10-20-0000 2009 –10 Super Hero Squad Show, The The Super Hero Squad Show Nick Fury , Scorpio Eps. \"From the Atom… It Rises!\" and \"Wrath of the Red Skull!\" 000000002009-09-27-0000 2009 –13 Cleveland Show, The The Cleveland Show Cleveland Brown Jr., Lester Krinklesac, Others [47] [48] [49] 000000002009-09-27-0000 2009 – Simpsons, The The Simpsons Additional Voices 000000002009-11-14-0000 2009 Fanboy & Chum Chum Berry Ep. \"I, Fanbot/Berry Sick\" 000000002010-01-16-0000 2010 Black Panther Wolverine , Others 000000002010-08-09-0000 2010 –16 Adventure Time Donny, Additional Voices Eps. \"Donny\", \"The Great Bird Man/ Simon & Marcy \" and \" Bad Jubies \" 000000002010-08-10-0000 2010 Zevo-3 Brett Ronson, Others 000000002010-09-17-0000 2010 Sym-Bionic Titan Additional Voices 000000002010-10-01-0000 2010 –13 Star Wars: The Clone Wars Jabba the Hutt , Others 000000002010-11-05-0000 2010 –13 Pound Puppies Additional Voices 000000002010-11-26-0000 2010 –11 G.I. Joe: Renegades Roadblock , Road Pig , Others [26] 000000002010-11-26-0000 2010 –13 Transformers: Prime Bulkhead , Makeshift , Others [26] 000000002010-11-26-0000 2010 –13 Young Justice Mal Duncan , Martian Manhunter , John Stewart , Dr. Fate , Nabu, Bruno Mannheim , Magog , David Reid, Forever People , Vykin, Jim Daniels, Blackbriar Thorn , Two-Face , Paul Sloane, Lead Singer, Thomas Kalmaku [26] 000000002010-10-01-0000 2010 Generator Rex Knuckles, EVO Guard, Tripp Ep. \"Rabble\" 000000002010-10-24-0000 2010 Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes Man-Ape, N'Gassi Eps. \"The Man in the Ant Hill\" and \"Panther's Quest\" [26] 000000002011-06-21-0000 2011 The Looney Tunes Show Guard Ep. \"Devil Dog\" 000000002011-07-29-0000 2011 –12 ThunderCats Panthro , Lynx-O , Anet, Sauro, Others [26] [50] [51] 000000002011-10-21-0000 2011 –13 Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness Temutai [26] 000000002011-11-11-0000 2011 –13 Green Lantern: The Animated Series Kilowog [26] [52] 000000002012-04-21-0000 2012 –13 Legend of Korra, The The Legend of Korra Butakha, Doorman, Lightning Bolt Zolt Eps. \"Revelation\" and \"The Rebel Spirit\" [26] 000000002012-06-29-0000 2012 –16 Gravity Falls Sheriff Blubs, Leaderar, Chutzpar, Others [26] 000000002012-07-15-0000 2012 –13 Ultimate Spider-Man Juggernaut , Awesome Android , Howard the Duck , Bulldozer , Mac Porter, Frankenstein's Monster , Groot (2nd Voice), Ulik [26] [53] 000000002012-07-23-0000 2012 –13 Mad War Machine, Mailman, Rejected Playground Equipment Announcer Ep. \"This Means War Machine/iCharlie\" 000000002012-08-13-0000 2012 –15 Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja Viceroy Nominated–Annie Award for Voice Acting in an Animated Television or Other Broadcast Venue Production, Willem Viceroy in the episode \"Gossip Boy\" (2013) [26] 000000002012-09-29-0000 2012 –17 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Shredder , General Unsura, Additional Voices [26] [52] [54] [55] 000000002012-10-27-0000 2012 –14 Ben 10: Omniverse Sir Morton, Blitzwolfer, Emperor Milleous, Snare-Oh [26] 000000002013-04-30-0000 2013 -present Teen Titans Go! Trigon , Mammoth , See-More 000000002013-07-14-0000 2013 –14 Avengers Assemble Ulik , Groot Eps. \"The Serpent of Doom\" and \"Guardians and Space Knights\" [26] 000000002013-08-16-0000 2013 –16 Wander Over Yonder Clipper, Papa Doom and Glen Ep. \"The Big Job\" \"The Bad Guy\" and \"The Box\" [26] 000000002013-09-01-0000 2013 –14 Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. Ego the Living Planet , Groot , Frankenstein's Monster [26] [56] 000000002013-09-02-0000 2013 –17 Uncle Grandpa Mr. Gus, Additional Voices [26] [57] 000000002014-01-20-0000 2014 –15 Sheriff Callie's Wild West Farmer Stinky, Uncle Bun, Dr. Wolf [58] [59] 000000002014-07-07-0000 2014 –16 Seven D The 7D Happy [26] [60] 000000002014-10-13-0000 2014 Blaze and the Monster Machines Crusher Grouped under \"Featuring the Voices of\" [61] 000000002014-12-19-0000 2014 –present All Hail King Julien Maurice [62] 000000002015-02-14-0000 2015 Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero Dr. Hissy, Additional Voices [63] 000000002015-02-19-0000 2015 Regular Show Happy Birthday Ep. \"Happy Birthday Song Contest\" [64] 000000002015-04-02-0000 2015 Steven Universe Mr. Gus Ep. \"Say Uncle\" 000000002015-04-18-0000 2015 Transformers: Robots in Disguise Terrashock Ep. \"W.W.O.D.?\" [65] 000000002015-05-08-0000 2015 The Adventures of Puss in Boots Golem Ep. \"Golem\" [26] [66] 000000002015-08-16-0000 2015 Rick and Morty Frankenstein/Mrs. Refrigerator/Hamurai Ep. \"Total Rickall\", Grouped under \"Starring\" [67] 000000002015-09-21-0000 2015 New Looney Tunes King Thes, Snorts, Happy Hartle, Others 000000002015-09-27-0000 2015 Guardians of the Galaxy Groot , Others [68] 000000002015-11-22-0000 2015 –present The Lion Guard Basi 000000002016-01-01-0000 2016 –present Milo Murphy's Law Nolan Mitchell, Corporal Wolinsky, Additional Voices 000000002016-01-01-0000 2016 DC Super Hero Girls Trigon 000000002017-01-01-0000 2017 The Jellies Reggie 000000002017-01-01-0000 2017 Puppy Dog Pals Dr. Stretcho/Great Dane/Enthusiatic Dog 000000002018-01-01-0000 2018 Trolls: The Beat Goes On! Smidge 000000002018-01-01-0000 2018 –present Bunsen Is a Beast Wolfie Feature films [ edit ] List of voice performances in feature films Year Title Role Notes Source [4] 000000001995-08-18-0000 1995 Mortal Kombat Goro (voice) [26] 000000001996-03-29-0000 1996 All Dogs Go to Heaven 2 St. Bernard, Officer Andrews [26] 000000002000-10-13-0000 2000 Whispers: An Elephant's Tale Adult Whispers [69] 000000002000-11-17-0000 2000 Rugrats in Paris: The Movie Sumo Singer Credited as Kevin Richardson [26] 000000002001-02-10-0000 2001 Recess: School's Out Cop #2 [26] 000000002002-06-21-0000 2002 Lilo & Stitch Captain Gantu [26] 000000002002-07-03-0000 2002 Powerpuff Girls Movie, The The Powerpuff Girls Movie Rocko Socko, Ojo Tango [26] 000000002002-07-26-0000 2002 Country Bears, The The Country Bears Henry Dixon Taylor [70] 000000002002-12-20-0000 2002 Wild Thornberrys Movie, The The Wild Thornberrys Movie Shaman Mnyambo [26] 000000002003-08-15-0000 2003 Elysium Christopher 000000002003-11-05-0000 2003 Matrix Revolutions, The The Matrix Revolutions Deus Ex Machina [26] 000000002004-01-01-0000 2004 Adventures in Animation 3D Coach [71] 000000002004-01-16-0000 2004 Teacher's Pet Conductor [26] 000000002005-02-22-0000 2005 Porco Rosso Mamma Aiuto Gang 000000002005-08-16-0000 2005 Pom Poko Bunta, Wonderland President [26] 000000002006-01-13-0000 2006 Hoodwinked! P-Biggie [26] 000000002006-04-14-0000 2006 Wild, The The Wild Samson's Father [26] 000000002006-07-29-0000 2006 Tales from Earthsea Additional Voices 2010 Disney dub 000000002007-01-05-0000 2007 Happily N'Ever After Additional Voices [72] 000000002007-03-03-0000 2007 TMNT General Aguila, Additional Voices [26] 000000002008-08-15-0000 2008 Star Wars: The Clone Wars Jabba the Hutt [26] 000000002009-06-19-0000 2009 Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen Prime #2, Skipjack [26] [73] 000000002009-12-11-0000 2009 Princess and the Frog, The The Princess and the Frog Ian the Gator [26] 000000002013-01-25-0000 2013 John Dies at the End Korrok [26] 000000002013-05-16-0000 2013 Star Trek Into Darkness Additional Voices [74] 000000002014-07-18-0000 2014 Planes: Fire & Rescue Ryker [26] 000000002015-01-23-0000 2015 Strange Magic Brutus [75] [76] [77] 000000002015-02-06-0000 2015 The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water Seagull [78] 000000002016-06-16-0000 2016 The Secret Life of Pets Viper [79] Direct-to-video and television films [ edit ] List of voice performances in direct-to-video and television films Year Title Role Notes  ! Source [4] 000000001996-01-01-0000 1996 Siegfried & Roy: Masters of the Impossible Additional Voices 000000001998-10-08-0000 1998 –2002 The Wacky Adventures of Ronald McDonald Grimace , King Gonga Video titles: Scared Silly Visitors from Outer Space The Legend of Grimace Island Birthday World Have Time Will Travel [26] 000000001998-12-22-0000 1998 Secret of NIMH 2: Timmy to the Rescue, The The Secret of NIMH 2: Timmy to the Rescue Brutus [26] 000000001999-09-28-0000 1999 Alvin and the Chipmunks Meet Frankenstein Bud Wiley, Bodyguard [26] 000000002000-01-01-0000 2000 Thrillseekers: Putt n' Perish Bartender, Otto, Pig 000000002000-04-04-0000 2000 Tom Sawyer Injurin' Joe Credit shared with Hank Williams, Jr. [26] 000000002000-08-08-0000 2000 Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins Space Ranger Also broadcast as the first three episodes of the TV series [26] 000000002000-10-03-0000 2000 Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders Max [26] 000000002001-11-03-0000 2001 Flintstones: On the Rocks, The The Flintstones: On the Rocks Barney Rubble , Hector, Jewel Guard 000000002002-09-03-0000 2002 Mickey's House of Villains Chorus 000000002003-03-04-0000 2003 Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire Malcolm Illiwara, Yowie Yahoo, Crocodile [26] 000000002003-06-03-0000 2003 Animatrix, The The Animatrix Thadeus, Agent #2, Cop 000000002003-07-12-0000 2003 Fairly OddParents: Abra Catastrophe, The The Fairly OddParents: Abra Catastrophe Bad Guy, Business Man [26] 000000002003-08-26-0000 2003 Stitch! The Movie Captain Gantu [26] 000000002003-10-21-0000 2003 George of the Jungle 2 Grouchy Ape, Chimp [26] 000000002003-10-21-0000 2003 Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman Carlton Duquesne [26] 000000002004-07-23-0000 2004 Fairly OddParents: Channel Chasers, The The Fairly OddParents: Channel Chasers Future AJ, Dad's Boss, Snoop, Additional Voices [26] 000000002004-11-03-0000 2004 Mulan II Additional Voices [80] 000000002005-01-11-0000 2005 Lil' Pimp Smokey 000000002005-04-08-0000 2005 Kim Possible Movie: So the Drama Sumo Ninja, Dr. Gooberman 000000002005-08-19-0000 2005 Proud Family Movie, The The Proud Family Movie Sea Beast, The Mangler, Narrator 000000002005-09-27-0000 2005 Family Guy Presents: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story Ray Charles , Additional Voices 000000002005-10-15-0000 2005 Batman vs. Dracula, The The Batman vs. Dracula The Joker [26] 000000002005-12-02-0000 2005 Happy Elf, The The Happy Elf Mayor, Derek, Toady, Tucker, Man #2 [26] 000000002006-01-16-0000 2006 Jimmy Timmy Power Hour 2: When Nerds Collide, The The Jimmy Timmy Power Hour 2: When Nerds Collide Morgan Freeman , Anti-Fairy Walla [26] 000000002006-06-23-0000 2006 Leroy & Stitch Captain Gantu [26] 000000002006-07-16-0000 2006 Queer Duck: The Movie Stephen Arlo 'Openly' Gator 000000002006-08-22-0000 2006 Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers Red Pirate Ron, Blue Pirate Bob, Purple Parrot Chuck [26] 000000002006-10-20-0000 2006 Casper's Scare School Kibosh [26] 000000002007-06-01-0000 2007 Eggheads Additional Voices 000000002007-08-14-0000 2007 Doctor Strange: The Sorcerer Supreme Baron Mordo [26] 000000002008-07-08-0000 2008 Batman: Gotham Knight Lucius Fox Avery, Wounded Man Bulky Man \"Field Test\" \"Working Through Pain\" \"Dead Shot\" [26] 000000002008-08-26-0000 2008 Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning, The The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning Cheeks, Ray-Ray [26] 000000002008-09-24-0000 2008 Open Season 2 Additional Voices [81] 000000002008-10-28-0000 2008 Dead Space: Downfall Samuel Irons, Pendleton, Miner [26] 000000002009-01-19-0000 2009 Powerpuff Girls Rule!, The The Powerpuff Girls Rule! Fish Balloon 10th anniversary special [82] [83] 000000002009-01-25-0000 2009 Afro Samurai: Resurrection Blacksmith, Takimoto [26] 000000002009-04-07-0000 2009 Scooby-Doo! and the Samurai Sword Sojo, The Black Samurai [26] 000000002009-05-01-0000 2009 Fairly OddParents: Wishology, The The Fairly OddParents: Wishology Dark Laser, Waiter TV film trilogy [26] 000000002009-09-22-0000 2009 Haunted World of El Superbeasto, The The Haunted World of El Superbeasto Santa Baby [26] 000000002010-02-12-0000 2010 Planet Hulk Korg [26] 000000002010-02-19-0000 2010 Dante's Inferno: An Animated Epic King Minos 000000002010-07-27-0000 2010 Batman: Under the Red Hood Tyler [26] 000000002010-11-09-0000 2010 Superman/Shazam!: The Return of Black Adam Tawky Tawny 000000002010-11-24-0000 2010 Firebreather Belloc [26] 000000002011-02-22-0000 2011 All-Star Superman Steve Lombard [26] 000000002011-08-05-0000 2011 Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension Normbots, Additional Voices 000000002011-09-06-0000 2011 Scooby-Doo! Legend of the Phantosaur Tex, Cop #2, Grad Student #3, Miscellaneous Bikers [26] 000000002011-10-02-0000 2011 Night of the Hurricane Cleveland Brown, Jr., Principal Brian Lewis TV crossover special [26] 000000002011-10-18-0000 2011 DC Showcase: Catwoman Moe [84] 000000002013-07-30-0000 2013 Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox President [26] 000000002013-08-20-0000 2013 Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright Security Guard #1, Hotel Clerk [26] 000000002013-10-08-0000 2013 Transformers Prime Beast Hunters: Predacons Rising Bulkhead [26] 000000002014-01-21-0000 2014 JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time Black Manta , Solomon Grundy [26] 000000002014-04-01-0000 2014 Pirate Fairy, The The Pirate Fairy Yang [26] 000000002014-08-19-0000 2014 Scooby-Doo! Frankencreepy Cuthbert Crawley, Inspector Krunch [26] 000000002014-10-27-0000 2014 Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered Captain Cold , Black Manta [85] 000000002014-12-19-0000 2014 How Murray Saved Christmas Santa Claus [86] 000000002014-12-19-0000 2014 Elf: Buddy's Musical Christmas Additional Voices [87] [88] 000000002015-01-20-0000 2015 Madea's Tough Love Judge Michaels [89] [90] 000000002015-02-10-0000 2015 Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League Captain Cold, Gorilla Grodd [26] [91] 000000002015-02-17-0000 2015 Scooby-Doo! Moon Monster Madness Uvinious \"U-Boat\" Botango, Drake [26] 000000002015-03-17-0000 2015 The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! Barney Rubble [92] 000000002015-08-25-0000 2015 Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Attack of the Legion of Doom Captain Cold, Gorilla Grodd, Black Manta [93] 000000002018-01-23-0000 2018 Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash Doctor Fate Video games [ edit ] List of voice performances in video games Year Title Role Notes Source [4] 000000001996-10-31-0000 1996 Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! Johnson, Judge Graham, Judge Paul 000000001998-01-01-0000 1998 Leisure Suit Larry's Casino Johnson 000000001998-09-30-0000 1998 Fallout 2 Com Officer [26] 000000001998-12-01-0000 1998 King's Quest: Mask of Eternity Lord Azriel, Lucreto, Prophet Tree 000000001998-12-21-0000 1998 Baldur's Gate Narrator, Sarevok, Townsfolk 000000001999-02-28-0000 1999 T'ai Fu: Wrath of the Tiger Boar Boss, Crusher Python [26] 000000001999-04-30-0000 1999 Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace 2-3G, Captain Rutger, Gungan Citizen #1, Race Fanatic #1, Vek Drow [26] 000000001999-07-31-0000 1999 Star Trek: Starfleet Command Additional Voices 000000001999-10-26-0000 1999 Revenant Lucas, Ogrok Chief, Ogrok Torturer 000000002000-03-21-0000 2000 Star Wars: Force Commander Builder Shuttle Pilot, Torpedo Launcher Driver, Y-Wing Pilot 000000002000-03-31-0000 2000 Star Wars Episode I: Jedi Power Battles Mace Windu, Gungan Guard, Thug #4 [26] 000000002000-06-21-0000 2000 Star Trek: Klingon Academy Civil War Communications Officer, Garlock, Starbase #1, Tholian Commander, Tutorial Instructor 000000002000-09-07-0000 2000 Star Trek: New Worlds Additional Voices 000000002000-09-24-0000 2000 Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn Sarevok Anchev, Gorgeig, Cohrvale 000000002000-11-12-0000 2000 Star Wars: Demolition Pugwis, Tamtel Skreej [26] 000000002000-11-17-0000 2000 Sacrifice Pyro, Additional Voices [94] 000000002000-11-23-0000 2000 Star Trek: Deep Space Nine: The Fallen Benjamin Sisko 000000002000-12-29-0000 2000 Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War Additional Voices 000000002001-02-22-0000 2001 Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter Additional Voice Talent [95] 000000002001-03-20-0000 2001 Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel Additional Voice Talent [96] 000000002001-04-25-0000 2001 Star Wars: Super Bombad Racing Boss Nass [97] 000000002001-06-20-0000 2001 Baldur's Gate II: Throne of Bhaal Sarevok Anchev Yaga-Shura Bhaal Odren Ka'rashur Grouped under \"VO Talent\" [98] 000000002001-10-03-0000 2001 Mummy Returns, The The Mummy Returns Imhotep Grouped as \"Voice Performance\" [99] 000000002001-10-09-0000 2001 Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex Crunch Bandicoot Credited as Kevin Michael Richards [26] 000000002001-11-09-0000 2001 Star Wars Rogue Squadron II: Rogue Leader Transport Captain #4 [26] 000000002001-11-11-0000 2001 Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Scott Dolph Also expansion pack Substance [26] 000000002001-11-11-0000 2001 Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds Boss Nass Rebel Trooper 000000002001-11-15-0000 2001 Disney's Tarzan Untamed Tantor Grouped under \"Voice Talent\" [100] 000000002001-12-04-0000 2001 Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance Sess'sth – Kolgrim Grouped under \"Voice Over Talent\" [101] 000000002002-02-17-0000 2002 Pirates: The Legend of Black Kat King Neptune [102] [103] 000000002002-02-26-0000 2002 EOE: Eve of Extinction Additional Voices 000000002002-03-10-0000 2002 Star Wars: Jedi Starfighter Mace Windu, TF Refinery Droid, TF Scarab Droid 000000002002-03-15-0000 2002 Star Wars: Obi-Wan Eeth Koth, Mace Windu, Male Citizen #1 [26] 000000002002-03-26-0000 2002 Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast Gran #2, Reelo [26] 000000002002-03-28-0000 2002 Kingdom Hearts Sebastian Grouped under \"Disney Voice Actors\" [104] [105] 000000002002-06-07-0000 2002 Disney's Lilo & Stitch Captain Gantu 000000002002-06-16-0000 2002 Disney's Stitch: Experiment 626 Captain Gantu 000000002002-07-03-0000 2002 Bruce Lee: Quest of the Dragon Byong Chu Nikolai Additional Voices [106] 000000002002-07-30-0000 2002 Soulcalibur II Heihachi Mishima (PS2, PS3 and Xbox 360 versions) Spawn (Xbox, PS3 and Xbox 360 versions) Credited as Victor Stone [26] 000000002002-09-25-0000 2002 Superman: Shadow of Apokolips Darkseid [107] 000000002002-09-27-0000 2002 Law and Order: Dead on the Money Mark Rawlins, Leonard Gower [108] 000000002002-09-27-0000 2002 Run Like Hell Niles, Jaxn'trep Guard #1, Miner #4 [26] 000000002002-11-04-0000 2002 Ratchet & Clank Chairman Drek, Commando, Announcer, Bouncer [109] 000000002002-11-19-0000 2002 Star Wars: Bounty Hunter Alien Thug #3, Bartender, Sebolto [26] 000000002003-02-24-0000 2003 Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb Homonculus, Triad Ghoul [26] 000000002003-03-04-0000 2003 Freelancer Additional Voices 000000002003-05-14-0000 2003 Enter the Matrix Thaddeus Uncredited 000000002003-06-17-0000 2003 RTX Red Rock Digitzed Crewmember Grouped under \"Other Voices\" [110] 000000002003-07-15-0000 2003 Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic Jolee Bindo [26] 000000002003-08-13-0000 2003 Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader Additional Voices [111] 000000002003-09-30-0000 2003 Law and Order: Double or Nothing Mark Rawlins [112] 000000002003-10-07-0000 2003 Viewtiful Joe Hulk Davidson, Fire Leo 000000002003-11-03-0000 2003 True Crime: Streets of LA Additional Voices [113] 000000002003-11-11-0000 2003 Crash Nitro Kart Crunch Bandicoot, Advisor 000000002003-11-21-0000 2003 Spawn: Armageddon Spawn [114] 000000002004-01-14-0000 2004 Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel Ghoul High Priest, Cyrus, Grunt, Soldier [115] 000000002004-02-11-0000 2004 Champions of Norrath Additional Voices [116] 000000002004-08-03-0000 2004 Galleon Bosun, Sorcerer #1 [117] 000000002004-11-09-0000 2004 Halo 2 Tartarus [26] 000000002005-12-22-0000 2005 Kingdom Hearts II Sebastian Also Final Mix+ 000000002006-05-24-0000 2006 Teen Titans: The Video Game Mammoth, Trigon [26] [118] 000000002006-10-10-0000 2006 Legend of Spyro: A New Beginning, The The Legend of Spyro: A New Beginning Terrador, The Conductor [26] 000000002006-10-19-0000 2006 Avatar: The Last Airbender Additional Voices [119] 000000002007-10-02-0000 2007 Legend of Spyro: The Eternal Night, The The Legend of Spyro: The Eternal Night Gaul, Terrador, Sniff [26] 000000002008-10-03-0000 2008 Avatar: The Last Airbender - Into the Inferno Additional Voices 000000002008-10-21-0000 2008 Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon, The The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon Terrador, Chief Prowlus, Hermit [26] 000000002008-10-28-0000 2008 Ben 10: Alien Force HighBreed Commander, Forever Knight Ninja [26] 000000002010-09-07-0000 2010 Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Captain Gantu 000000002011-10-16-0000 2011 Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure Stump Smash 000000002011-12-20-0000 2011 Star Wars: The Old Republic Jace Malcom [120] 000000002012-07-31-0000 2012 Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance Black Guard A 000000002012-10-01-0000 2012 Transformers: Prime – The Game Bulkhead [26] 000000002012-10-12-0000 2012 Skylanders: Giants Stump Smash, Tree Rex [121] 000000002013-10-13-0000 2013 Skylanders: Swap Force Stump Smash, Tree Rex Grouped under \"Voice Talent\" [122] 000000002013-10-22-0000 2013 Nickelodeon's Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Shredder [26] 000000002014-04-04-0000 2014 Elder Scrolls Online, The The Elder Scrolls Online Sai Sahan [123] [124] 000000002014-10-05-0000 2014 Skylanders: Trap Team Additional Voices [125] 000000002014-10-22-0000 2014 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Danger of the Ooze Shredder [26] 000000002014-11-13-0000 2014 World of Warcraft: Warlords of Draenor Grommash Hellscream Grouped under \"Voice Over Cast\" [126] [127] 000000002016-03-31-0000 2016 Baldur's Gate: Siege of Dragonspear Narrator Grouped under \"Voice Over Cast\" [128] 000000002015-08-30-0000 2015 Disney Infinity 3.0 Jabba the Hutt , Groot [129] 000000002016-04-26-0000 2016 King's Quest - Chapter III: Once Upon A Climb Chester Hobblepot [130] 000000002016-12-01-0000 2016 Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue Black Guard A 000000002017-09-19-0000 2017 Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite Groot [26] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"KevinMichaelRichardson.com – Frequently Asked Questions\" . 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Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Law & Order: Dead on the Money\" . AllGame . All Media Network . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Insomniac Games . Ratchet & Clank . Sony Computer Entertainment. Scene: Closing credits, Voice Actors. Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"RTX Red Rock\" . AllGame . All Media Network . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader\" . AllGame . All Media Network. Archived from the original on November 17, 2014 . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Law & Order II: Double or Nothing\" . AllGame . All Media Network . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"True Crime: Streets of L.A.\" AllGame . All Media Network . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Spawn: Armageddon\" . AllGame . All Media Network . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel\" . AllGame . All Media Network. Archived from the original on November 15, 2014 . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Champions of Norrath: Realms of EverQuest\" . AllGame . All Media Network. Archived from the original on November 23, 2014 . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Galleon\" . AllGame . All Media Network . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ Artificial Mind and Movement (May 24, 2006). Teen Titans . PS2 . Scene: Closing credits, 1:30 in, Voice Talent. Jump up ^ Rovi Corporation. \"Avatar: The Last Airbender\" . AllGame . All Media Network. Archived from the original on November 15, 2014 . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ BioWare (December 20, 2011). Star Wars: The Old Republic . Electronic Arts , LucasArts . Scene: Closing credits, 11:10 in, English Cast. Jump up ^ Vicarious Visions . Skylanders: Giants . Scene: closing credits, 3:49 minutes in, Voice Actors. Jump up ^ Vicarious Visions (October 13, 2013). Skylanders: Swap Force . Scene: closing credits, 8 minutes in, VO Production by Soundelux, Voice Actors. Jump up ^ Scullion, Chris (January 23, 2014). \"John Cleese and Jennifer Hale join Elder Scrolls Online cast\" . Computer and Video Games . Future PLC . Retrieved October 23, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Adam (January 23, 2014). \"The Elder Scrolls Online features a star-studded voice cast\" . Digital Trends . Jump up ^ Toys for Bob . Skylanders: Trap Team . Activision . Scene: Closing credits, 8:40 in, Voice Actors. Jump up ^ Blizzard Entertainment . World of Warcraft: Warlords of Draenor . Scene: Closing credits, 11:30 in, Voice Over Cast. Jump up ^ Kevin M. Richardson [@ClevelandJr] (November 9, 2013). \"Kevin confirms that he voiced Grommash Hellscream on the Draenor trailer\" (Tweet) . Retrieved January 29, 2015 – via Twitter . Jump up ^ Overhaul Games . Baldur's Gate: Siege of Dragonspear - Opening Cut-Scene and Huge Battle . Scene: Opening cut-scene. Jump up ^ Avalanche Software . Disney Infinity 3.0 . Scene: Closing credits, 5:39 in, Featuring the Voice Talents of. Jump up ^ The Odd Gentlemen . King's Quest - Chapter III: Once Upon A Climb . Sierra Entertainment . Scene: Closing credits, 1 min in, Cast. Book references Brooks, Tim ; Marsh, Earle F. (2009). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946–Present (9th ed.). Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 9780307483201 . Terrace, Vincent (2008). Encyclopedia of Television Shows, 1925 through 2010 (2d ed.). McFarland. ISBN 9780786486410 . Perlmutter, David (2014). America Toons In: A History of Television Animation . McFarland. ISBN 9781476614885 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kevin Michael Richardson . Kevin Michael Richardson on Twitter Kevin Michael Richardson on IMDb Kevin Michael Richardson at Anime News Network 's encyclopedia Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 305035291 LCCN : no2003024975 MusicBrainz : df21cac0-8704-422b-8c25-a0f53f1a565a Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Michael_Richardson&oldid=835170595 \" Categories : 1964 births Living people American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors Male actors from New York City People from the Bronx Syracuse University alumni American male video game actors 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors African-American male actors Hidden categories: Pages with citations lacking titles Use mdy dates from October 2014 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Aragonés تۆرکجه Català Cebuano Corsu Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Kiswahili Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 32 more Edit links This page was last edited on 7 April 2018, at 00:17. 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{ "text": "Oregon Trail - Wikipedia Oregon Trail From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 6 November 2017 . Jump to: navigation , search For other uses, see Oregon Trail (disambiguation) . The Oregon Trail The route of the Oregon Trail shown on a map of the western United States from Independence, Missouri (on the eastern end) to Oregon City, Oregon (on the western end) Map from The Ox Team, or the Old Oregon Trail 1852–1906 , by Ezra Meeker Location Illinois , Iowa , Missouri , Kansas , Nebraska , Wyoming , Idaho , Oregon Established 1830s by mountain men of fur trade , widely publicized by 1843 Governing body National Park Service Website Oregon National Historic Trail The Oregon Trail is a 2,170-mile (3,490 km) [1] historic east–west, large-wheeled wagon route and emigrant trail in the United States that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon . The eastern part of the Oregon Trail spanned part of the future state of Kansas , and nearly all of what are now the states of Nebraska and Wyoming . The western half of the trail spanned most of the future states of Idaho and Oregon. The Oregon Trail was laid by fur traders and traders from about 1811 to 1840, and was only passable on foot or by horseback. By 1836, when the first migrant wagon train was organized in Independence, Missouri , a wagon trail had been cleared to Fort Hall, Idaho . Wagon trails were cleared increasingly farther west, and eventually reached all the way to the Willamette Valley in Oregon, at which point what came to be called the Oregon Trail was complete, even as almost annual improvements were made in the form of bridges, cutoffs, ferries, and roads, which made the trip faster and safer. From various starting points in Iowa, Missouri, or Nebraska Territory , the routes converged along the lower Platte River Valley near Fort Kearny , Nebraska Territory and led to rich farmlands west of the Rocky Mountains . From the early to mid-1830s (and particularly through the epoch years, 1846–69) the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by about 400,000 settlers, farmers, miners, ranchers, and business owners and their families. The eastern half of the trail was also used by travelers on the California Trail (from 1843), Mormon Trail (from 1847), and Bozeman Trail (from 1863), before turning off to their separate destinations. Use of the trail declined as the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, making the trip west substantially faster, cheaper, and safer. Today, modern highways, such as Interstate 80 and Interstate 84 , follow parts of the same course westward and pass through towns originally established to serve those using the Oregon Trail. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 1.1 Lewis and Clark Expedition 1.2 Pacific Fur Company 1.3 The North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company 1.4 Great American Desert 1.5 Fur traders, trappers and explorers 1.6 Missionaries 1.7 Early emigrants 1.8 Great Migration of 1843 1.9 Oregon Country 1.10 Women on the Overland Trail 1.11 Mormon emigration 1.12 California Gold Rush 1.13 Later emigration and uses of the trail 1.14 Trail decline 2 Routes 2.1 Missouri 2.2 Iowa 2.3 Kansas 2.4 Nebraska 2.4.1 Cholera on the Platte River 2.5 Colorado 2.6 Wyoming 2.7 Utah 2.8 Idaho 2.9 Oregon 3 Travel equipment 3.1 Wagons and pack animals 3.2 Food 3.3 Clothing, equipment and supplies 4 Statistics 4.1 Emigrants 4.2 Western census data 4.3 Costs 4.4 Deaths 5 Other trails west 6 Legacy 6.1 Art, entertainment, and media 6.1.1 Games 6.1.2 Music 6.1.3 Television 6.1.4 Commemorative Coin 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 9.1 Primary sources 10 External links History [ edit ] Main article: History of the Oregon Trail Lewis and Clark Expedition [ edit ] Main article: Lewis and Clark Expedition In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson issued the following instructions to Meriwether Lewis : \"The object of your mission is to explore the Missouri river, & such principal stream of it, as, by its course & communication with the waters of the Pacific Ocean, whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado and/or other river may offer the most direct & practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce.\" [2] Although Lewis and William Clark found a path to the Pacific Ocean, it was not until 1859 that a direct and practicable route, the Mullan Road , connected the Missouri River to the Columbia River . [3] Oregon Trail reenactment at Scotts Bluff The first land route across what is now the United States was mapped by the Lewis and Clark Expedition between 1804 and 1806. Lewis and Clark initially believed they had found a practical overland route to the west coast; however, the two passes they found going through the Rocky Mountains , Lemhi Pass and Lolo Pass , turned out to be much too difficult for prairie schooner wagons to pass through without considerable road work. On the return trip in 1806, they traveled from the Columbia River to the Snake River and the Clearwater River over Lolo pass again. They then traveled overland up the Blackfoot River and crossed the Continental Divide at Lewis and Clark Pass and on to the head of the Missouri River. This was ultimately a shorter and faster route than the one they followed west. This route had the disadvantages of being much too rough for wagons and controlled by the Blackfoot Indians. Even though Lewis and Clark had only traveled a narrow portion of the upper Missouri River drainage and part of the Columbia River drainage, these were considered the two major rivers draining most of the Rocky Mountains, and the expedition confirmed that there was no \"easy\" route through the northern Rocky Mountains as Jefferson had hoped. Nonetheless, this famous expedition had mapped both the eastern and western river valleys (Platte and Snake Rivers) that bookend the route of the Oregon Trail (and other emigrant trails ) across the continental divide—they just had not located the South Pass or some of the interconnecting valleys later used in the high country. They did show the way for the mountain men , who within a decade would find a better way across, even if it was not to be an easy way. Pacific Fur Company [ edit ] Main article: Pacific Fur Company Founded by John Jacob Astor as a subsidiary of his American Fur Company (AFC) in 1810, the Pacific Fur Company (PFC) operated in the Pacific Northwest in the ongoing North American fur trade . Two movements of PFC employees were planned by Astor, one detachment to be sent to the Columbia River by the Tonquin and the other overland under an expedition led by Wilson Price Hunt . Hunt and his party were to find possible supply routes and trapping territories for further fur trading posts. Upon arriving at the river in March 1811, the Tonquin crew began construction of what became Fort Astoria . The ship left supplies and men to continue work on the station and ventured north up the coast to Clayoquot Sound for a trading expedition. While anchored there, Jonathan Thorn insulted an elder Tla-o-qui-aht who was previously elected by the natives to negotiate a mutually satisfactory price for animal pelts. Soon after, the vessel was attacked and overwhelmed by the indigenous Clayoquot killing most of the crew except its Quinault interpreter, who later told the PFC management at Fort Astoria of the destruction. The next day, the ship was blown up by surviving crew members. [4] [5] Under Hunt, fearing attack by the Niitsitapi , the overland expedition veered south of Lewis and Clark's route into what is now Wyoming and in the process passed across Union Pass and into Jackson Hole , Wyoming. From there they went over the Teton Range via Teton Pass and then down to the Snake River into modern Idaho . They abandoned their horses at the Snake River, made dugout canoes, and attempted to use the river for transport. After a few days' travel they soon discovered that steep canyons, waterfalls and impassable rapids made travel by river impossible. Too far from their horses to retrieve them, they had to cache most of their goods and walk the rest of the way to the Columbia River where they made new boats and traveled to the newly established Fort Astoria. The expedition demonstrated that much of the route along the Snake River plain and across to the Columbia was passable by pack train or with minimal improvements, even wagons. [6] This knowledge would be incorporated into the concatenated trail segments as the Oregon Trail took its early shape. Pacific Fur Company partner Robert Stuart led a small group of men back east to report to Astor. The group planned to retrace the path followed by the overland expedition back up to the east following the Columbia and Snake rivers. Fear of an Indian attack near Union Pass in Wyoming forced the group further south where they discovered South Pass, a wide and easy pass over the Continental Divide. The party continued east via the Sweetwater River , North Platte River (where they spent the winter of 1812–13) and Platte River to the Missouri River, finally arriving in St. Louis in the spring of 1813. The route they had used appeared to potentially be a practical wagon route, requiring minimal improvements, and Stuart's journals provided a meticulous account of most of the route. [7] Because of the War of 1812 and the lack of U.S. fur trading posts in the Pacific Northwest, most of the route was unused for more than 10 years. The North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also: North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company The first Fort Laramie as it looked prior to 1840. Painting from memory by Alfred Jacob Miller In August 1811, three months after Fort Astor was established, David Thompson and his team of British North West Company explorers came floating down the Columbia to Fort Astoria. He had just completed a journey through much of western Canada and most of the Columbia River drainage system. He was mapping the country for possible fur trading posts. Along the way he camped at the confluence of the Columbia and Snake rivers and posted a notice claiming the land for Britain and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort on the site ( Fort Nez Perces was later established there). Astor, concerned the British navy would seize their forts and supplies in the War of 1812, sold to the North West Company in 1812 their forts, supplies and furs on the Columbia and Snake River. The North West Company started establishing more forts and trading posts of their own. By 1821, when armed hostilities broke out with their Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) rivals, the North West Company was pressured by the British government to merge with the HBC. The HBC had nearly a complete monopoly on trading (and most governing issues) in the Columbia District, or Oregon Country as it was referred to by the Americans, and also in Rupert's Land . That year the British parliament passed a statute applying the laws of Upper Canada to the district and giving the HBC power to enforce those laws. From 1812 to 1840, the British, through the HBC, had nearly complete control of the Pacific Northwest and the western half of the Oregon Trail. In theory, the Treaty of Ghent , which ended the War of 1812, restored possession of Oregon territory to the United States. \"Joint occupation\" of the region was formally established by the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 . The British, through the HBC, tried to discourage any U.S. trappers, traders and settlers from work or settlement in the Pacific Northwest. Breaking up Camp at Sunrise , by Alfred Jacob Miller By overland travel, American missionaries and early settlers (initially mostly ex-trappers) started showing up in Oregon around 1824. [ citation needed ] Although officially the HBC discouraged settlement because it interfered with their lucrative fur trade, their Chief Factor at Fort Vancouver, John McLoughlin , gave substantial help, including employment, until they could get established. In the early 1840s thousands of American settlers arrived and soon greatly outnumbered the British settlers in Oregon. [8] McLoughlin, despite working for the HBC, gave help in the form of loans, medical care, shelter, clothing, food, supplies and seed to U.S. emigrants. These new emigrants often arrived in Oregon tired, worn out, nearly penniless, with insufficient food or supplies, just as winter was coming on. McLoughlin would later be hailed as the Father of Oregon. The York Factory Express , establishing another route to the Oregon territory, evolved from an earlier express brigade used by the North West Company between Fort Astoria and Fort William , Ontario on Lake Superior . By 1825 the HBC started using two brigades, each setting out from opposite ends of the express route—one from Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River and the other from York Factory on Hudson Bay—in spring and passing each other in the middle of the continent. This established a \"quick\"—about 100 days for 2,600 miles (4,200 km) one way—to resupply their forts and fur trading centers as well as collecting the furs the posts had bought and transmitting messages between Fort Vancouver and York Factory on Hudson Bay. HBC's York Factory Express trade route, 1820s to 1840s. Modern political boundaries shown. The HBC built a new much larger Fort Vancouver in 1824 slightly upstream of Fort Astoria on the north side of the Columbia River (they were hoping the Columbia would be the future Canada–U.S. border). The fort quickly became the center of activity in the Pacific Northwest. Every year ships would come from London to the Pacific (via Cape Horn ) to drop off supplies and trade goods in their trading posts in the Pacific Northwest and pick up the accumulated furs used to pay for these supplies. It was the nexus for the fur trade on the Pacific Coast; its influence reached from the Rocky Mountains to the Hawaiian Islands , and from Russian Alaska into Mexican-controlled California. At its pinnacle in about 1840, Fort Vancouver and its Factor (manager) watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, 6 ships, and about 600 employees. When American emigration over the Oregon Trail began in earnest in the early 1840s, for many settlers the fort became the last stop on the Oregon Trail where they could get supplies, aid and help before starting their homestead. [8] Fort Vancouver was the main re-supply point for nearly all Oregon trail travelers until U.S. towns could be established. The HBC established Fort Colvile in 1825 on the Columbia River near Kettle Falls as a good site to collect furs and control the upper Columbia River fur trade. [9] Fort Nisqually was built near the present town of DuPont , Washington and was the first HBC fort on Puget Sound. Fort Victoria was erected in 1843 and became the headquarters of operations in British Columbia, eventually growing into modern-day Victoria , the capital city of British Columbia. By 1840 the HBC had three forts: Fort Hall (purchased from Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth in 1837), Fort Boise and Fort Nez Perce on the western end of the Oregon Trail route as well as Fort Vancouver near its terminus in the Willamette Valley . With minor exceptions they all gave substantial and often desperately needed aid to the early Oregon Trail pioneers. When the fur trade slowed in 1840 because of fashion changes in men's hats, the value of the Pacific Northwest to the British was seriously diminished. Canada had few potential settlers who were willing to move more than 2,500 miles (4,000 km) to the Pacific Northwest, although several hundred ex-trappers, British and American, and their families did start settling in Oregon, Washington and California. They used most of the York Express route through northern Canada. In 1841, James Sinclair , on orders from Sir George Simpson , guided nearly 200 settlers from the Red River Colony (located at the junction of the Assiniboine River and Red River near present Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada ) into the Oregon territory. [10] [11] This attempt at settlement failed when most of the families joined the settlers in the Willamette Valley, with their promise of free land and HBC-free government. The Oregon Country/Columbia District stretched from 42'N to 54 40'N. The most heavily disputed portion is highlighted. In 1846, the Oregon Treaty ending the Oregon boundary dispute was signed with Britain. The British lost the land north of the Columbia River they had so long controlled. The new Canada–United States border was established much further north at the 49th parallel . The treaty granted the HBC navigation rights on the Columbia River for supplying their fur posts, clear titles to their trading post properties allowing them to be sold later if they wanted, and left the British with good anchorages at Vancouver and Victoria. It gave the United States what it mostly wanted, a \"reasonable\" boundary and a good anchorage on the West Coast in Puget Sound. While there were almost no United States settlers in the future state of Washington in 1846, the United States had already demonstrated it could induce thousands of settlers to go to the Oregon Territory, and it would be only a short time before they would vastly outnumber the few hundred HBC employees and retirees living in Washington. Great American Desert [ edit ] Trail ruts near Guernsey, Wyoming Reports from expeditions in 1806 by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike and in 1819 by Major Stephen Long described the Great Plains as \"unfit for human habitation\" and as \"The Great American Desert \". These descriptions were mainly based on the relative lack of timber and surface water. The images of sandy wastelands conjured up by terms like \"desert\" were tempered by the many reports of vast herds of millions of Plains Bison that somehow managed to live in this \"desert\". [12] In the 1840s, the Great Plains appeared to be unattractive for settlement and were illegal for homesteading until well after 1846 — initially it was set aside by the U.S. government for Indian settlements. The next available land for general settlement, Oregon, appeared to be free for the taking and had fertile lands, disease free climate ( yellow fever and malaria were prevalent in much of the Missouri and Mississippi River drainage then), extensive uncut, unclaimed forests, big rivers, potential seaports, and only a few nominally British settlers. Fur traders, trappers and explorers [ edit ] Fur trappers, often working for fur traders, followed nearly all possible streams looking for beaver in the years (1812–40) the fur trade was active. [13] Fur traders included Manuel Lisa , Robert Stuart, William Henry Ashley , Jedediah Smith , William Sublette , Andrew Henry , Thomas Fitzpatrick , Kit Carson , Jim Bridger , Peter Skene Ogden , David Thompson , James Douglas , Donald Mackenzie , Alexander Ross , James Sinclair, and other mountain men . Besides discovering and naming many of the rivers and mountains in the Intermountain West and Pacific Northwest, they often kept diaries of their travels and were available as guides and consultants when the trail started to become open for general travel. The fur trade business wound down to a very low level just as the Oregon trail traffic seriously began around 1840. Our Camp , by Alfred Jacob Miller In fall of 1823, Jedediah Smith and Thomas Fitzpatrick led their trapping crew south from the Yellowstone River to the Sweetwater River. They were looking for a safe location to spend the winter. Smith reasoned since the Sweetwater flowed east it must eventually run into the Missouri River. Trying to transport their extensive fur collection down the Sweetwater and North Platte River, they found after a near disastrous canoe crash that the rivers were too swift and rough for water passage. On July 4, 1824, they cached their furs under a dome of rock they named Independence Rock and started their long trek on foot to the Missouri River. Upon arriving back in a settled area they bought pack horses (on credit) and retrieved their furs. They had re-discovered the route that Robert Stuart had taken in 1813—eleven years before. Thomas Fitzpatrick was often hired as a guide when the fur trade dwindled in 1840. Jedediah Smith was killed by Indians around 1831. The exploration of the West by Jedediah Smith Up to 3,000 mountain men were trappers and explorers , employed by various British and United States fur companies or working as free trappers, who roamed the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 to the early 1840s. They usually traveled in small groups for mutual support and protection. Trapping took place in the fall when the fur became prime. Mountain men primarily trapped beaver and sold the skins. A good beaver skin could bring up to $4 at a time when a man's wage was often $1 per day. Some were more interested in exploring the West. In 1825, the first significant American Rendezvous occurred on the Henry's Fork of the Green River . The trading supplies were brought in by a large party using pack trains originating on the Missouri River. These pack trains were then used to haul out the fur bales. They normally used the north side of the Platte River—the same route used 20 years later by the Mormon Trail . For the next 15 years the American rendezvous was an annual event moving to different locations, usually somewhere on the Green River in the future state of Wyoming . Each rendezvous, occurring during the slack summer period, allowed the fur traders to trade for and collect the furs from the trappers and their Indian allies without having the expense of building or maintaining a fort or wintering over in the cold Rockies. In only a few weeks at a rendezvous a year's worth of trading and celebrating would take place as the traders took their furs and remaining supplies back east for the winter and the trappers faced another fall and winter with new supplies. Trapper Jim Beckwourth described the scene as one of \"Mirth, songs, dancing, shouting, trading, running, jumping, singing, racing, target-shooting, yarns, frolic, with all sorts of extravagances that white men or Indians could invent.\" [14] In 1830, William Sublette brought the first wagons carrying his trading goods up the Platte, North Platte, and Sweetwater rivers before crossing over South Pass to a fur trade rendezvous on the Green River near the future town of Big Piney , Wyoming. He had a crew that dug out the gullies and river crossings and cleared the brush where needed. This established that the eastern part of most of the Oregon Trail was passable by wagons. In the late 1830s the HBC instituted a policy intended to destroy or weaken the American fur trade companies. The HBC's annual collection and re-supply Snake River Expedition was transformed to a trading enterprise. Beginning in 1834, it visited the American Rendezvous to undersell the American traders—losing money but undercutting the American fur traders. By 1840 the fashion in Europe and Britain shifted away from the formerly very popular beaver felt hats and prices for furs rapidly declined and the trapping almost ceased. Map of the Green River watershed Fur traders tried to use the Platte River, the main route of the eastern Oregon Trail, for transport but soon gave up in frustration as its many channels and islands combined with its muddy waters were too shallow, crooked and unpredictable to use for water transport. The Platte proved to be unnavigable. The Platte River and North Platte River Valley, however, became an easy roadway for wagons, with its nearly flat plain sloping easily up and heading almost due west. There were several U.S. government-sponsored explorers who explored part of the Oregon Trail and wrote extensively about their explorations. Captain Benjamin Bonneville on his expedition of 1832 to 1834 explored much of the Oregon trail and brought wagons up the Platte, North Platte, Sweetwater route across South Pass to the Green River in Wyoming. He explored most of Idaho and the Oregon Trail to the Columbia. The account of his explorations in the west was published by Washington Irving in 1838. [15] ). John C. Frémont of the U.S. Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers and his guide Kit Carson led three expeditions from 1842 to 1846 over parts of California and Oregon. His explorations were written up by him and his wife Jessie Benton Frémont and were widely published. The first detailed map of California and Oregon were drawn by Frémont and his topographers and cartographers in about 1848. [16] Missionaries [ edit ] In 1834, The Dalles Methodist Mission was founded by Reverend Jason Lee just east of Mount Hood on the Columbia River. In 1836, Henry H. Spalding and Marcus Whitman traveled west to establish the Whitman Mission near modern-day Walla Walla , Washington. [17] The party included the wives of the two men, Narcissa Whitman and Eliza Hart Spalding , who became the first European-American women to cross the Rocky Mountains. En route, the party accompanied American fur traders going to the 1836 rendezvous on the Green River in Wyoming and then joined Hudson's Bay Company fur traders traveling west to Fort Nez Perce (also called Fort Walla Walla ). The group was the first to travel in wagons all the way to Fort Hall, where the wagons were abandoned at the urging of their guides. They used pack animals for the rest of the trip to Fort Walla Walla and then floated by boat to Fort Vancouver to get supplies before returning to start their missions. Other missionaries, mostly husband and wife teams using wagon and pack trains, established missions in the Willamette Valley, as well as various locations in the future states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Early emigrants [ edit ] On May 1, 1839, a group of eighteen men from Peoria, Illinois , set out with the intention of colonizing the Oregon country on behalf of the United States of America and drive out the HBC operating there. The men of the Peoria Party were among the first pioneers to traverse most of the Oregon Trail. The men were initially led by Thomas J. Farnham and called themselves the Oregon Dragoons . They carried a large flag emblazoned with their motto \" Oregon Or The Grave \". Although the group split up near Bent's Fort on the South Platte and Farnham was deposed as leader, nine of their members eventually did reach Oregon. [18] In September 1840, Robert Newell , Joseph L. Meek , and their families reached Fort Walla Walla with three wagons that they had driven from Fort Hall. Their wagons were the first to reach the Columbia River over land, and they opened the final leg of Oregon Trail to wagon traffic. [19] In 1841, the Bartleson-Bidwell Party was the first emigrant group credited with using the Oregon Trail to emigrate west. The group set out for California, but about half the party left the original group at Soda Springs , Idaho, and proceeded to the Willamette Valley in Oregon, leaving their wagons at Fort Hall. On May 16, 1842, the second organized wagon train set out from Elm Grove, Missouri, with more than 100 pioneers. [20] The party was led by Elijah White . The group broke up after passing Fort Hall with most of the single men hurrying ahead and the families following later. Great Migration of 1843 [ edit ] In what was dubbed \"The Great Migration of 1843\" or the \"Wagon Train of 1843\", an estimated 700 to 1,000 emigrants left for Oregon. [21] [22] They were led initially by John Gantt , a former U.S. Army Captain and fur trader who was contracted to guide the train to Fort Hall for $1 per person. The winter before, Marcus Whitman had made a brutal mid-winter trip from Oregon to St. Louis to appeal a decision by his mission backers to abandon several of the Oregon missions. He joined the wagon train at the Platte River for the return trip. When the pioneers were told at Fort Hall by agents from the Hudson's Bay Company that they should abandon their wagons there and use pack animals the rest of the way, Whitman disagreed and volunteered to lead the wagons to Oregon. He believed the wagon trains were large enough that they could build whatever road improvements they needed to make the trip with their wagons. The biggest obstacle they faced was in the Blue Mountains of Oregon where they had to cut and clear a trail through heavy timber. The wagons were stopped at The Dalles , Oregon by the lack of a road around Mount Hood. The wagons had to be disassembled and floated down the treacherous Columbia River and the animals herded over the rough Lolo trail to get by Mt. Hood. Nearly all of the settlers in the 1843 wagon trains arrived in the Willamette Valley by early October. A passable wagon trail now existed from the Missouri River to The Dalles. In 1846, the Barlow Road was completed around Mount Hood, providing a rough but completely passable wagon trail from the Missouri River to the Willamette Valley: about 2,000 miles (3,200 km). Oregon Country [ edit ] In 1843, settlers of the Willamette Valley drafted the Organic Laws of Oregon organizing land claims within the Oregon Country. Married couples were granted at no cost (except for the requirement to work and improve the land) up to 640 acres (2.6 km 2 ) (a section or square mile), and unmarried settlers could claim 320 acres (1.3 km 2 ). As the group was a provisional government with no authority, these claims were not valid under United States or British law, but they were eventually honored by the United States in the Donation Land Act of 1850. The Donation Land Act provided for married settlers to be granted 320 acres (1.3 km 2 ) and unmarried settlers 160 acres (0.65 km 2 ). Following the expiration of the act in 1854 the land was no longer free but cost $1.25 per acre ($3.09/hectare) with a limit of 320 acres (1.3 km 2 )—the same as most other unimproved government land. Women on the Overland Trail [ edit ] Consensus interpretations, as found in John Faragher’s book, Women and Men on the Overland Trail (1979), held that men and women’s power within marriage was uneven. This meant that women did not experience the trail as liberating, but instead only found harder work than they had handled back east. However, feminist scholarship, by historians such as Lillian Schlissel, [23] Sandra Myres, [24] and Glenda Riley, [25] suggests men and women did not view the West and western migration in the same way. Whereas men might deem the dangers of the trail acceptable if there was a strong economic reward at the end, women viewed those dangers as threatening to the stability and survival of the family. Once they arrived at their new western home, women’s public role in building western communities and participating in the western economy gave them a greater authority than they had known back East. There was a “female frontier” that was distinct and different from that experienced by men. [26] Women’s diaries kept during their travels or the letters they wrote home once they arrived at their destination supports these contentions. Women wrote with sadness and concern of the numerous deaths along the trail. Anna Maria King wrote to her family in 1845 about her trip to the Luckiamute Valley Oregon and of the multiple deaths experienced by her traveling group: “But listen to the deaths: Sally Chambers, John King and his wife, their little daughter Electa and their babe, a son 9 months old, and Dulancy C. Norton’s sister are gone. Mr. A. Fuller lost his wife and daughter Tabitha. Eight of our two families have gone to their long home.” [27] Similarly, emigrant Martha Gay Masterson , who traveled the trail with her family at the age of 13, mentioned the fascination she and other children felt for the graves and loose skulls they would find near their camps. [28] Anna Maria King, like many other women, also advised family and friends back home of the realities of the trip and offered advice on how to prepare for the trip. Women also reacted and responded, often enthusiastically, to the landscape of the West. Betsey Bayley in a letter to her sister, Lucy P. Griffith described how travelers responded to the new environment they encountered: “The mountains looked like volcanoes and the appearance that one day there had been an awful thundering of volcanoes and a burning world. The valleys were all covered with a white crust and looked like salaratus . Some of the company used it to raise their bread.” [29] Mormon emigration [ edit ] Main article: Mormon Trail Following persecution and mob action in Missouri , Illinois , and other states, and the assassination of their prophet Joseph Smith in 1844, Mormon leader Brigham Young was chosen by the leaders of the Latter Day Saints (LDS) church to lead the LDS settlers west. He chose to lead his people to the Salt Lake Valley in present-day Utah. In 1847 Young led a small, especially picked fast-moving group of men and women from their Winter Quarters encampments near Omaha , Nebraska, and their approximately 50 temporary settlements on the Missouri River in Iowa including Council Bluffs . [30] About 2,200 LDS pioneers went that first year as they filtered in from Mississippi , Colorado, California, and several other states. The initial pioneers were charged with establishing farms, growing crops, building fences and herds, and establishing preliminary settlements to feed and support the many thousands of emigrants expected in the coming years. After ferrying across the Missouri River and establishing wagon trains near what became Omaha, the Mormons followed the northern bank of the Platte River in Nebraska to Fort Laramie in present-day Wyoming. They initially started out in 1848 with trains of several thousand emigrants, which were rapidly split into smaller groups to be more easily accommodated at the limited springs and acceptable camping places on the trail. Organized as a complete evacuation from their previous homes, farms, and cities in Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa, this group consisted of entire families with no one left behind. The much larger presence of women and children meant these wagon trains did not try to cover as much ground in a single day as Oregon and California bound emigrants. Typically taking about 100 days to cover the 1,000 miles (1,600 km) trip to Salt Lake City. (The Oregon and California emigrants typically averaged about 15 miles (24 km) per day.) In Wyoming, the Mormon emigrants followed the main Oregon/California/Mormon Trail through Wyoming to Fort Bridger , where they split from the main trail and followed (and improved) the rough path known as Hastings Cutoff , used by the ill-fated Donner Party in 1846. Between 1847 and 1860, over 43,000 Mormon settlers and tens of thousands of travelers on the California Trail and Oregon Trail followed Young to Utah. After 1848, the travelers headed to California or Oregon resupplied at the Salt Lake Valley, and then went back over the Salt Lake Cutoff , rejoining the trail near the future Idaho–Utah border at the City of Rocks in Idaho. Starting in 1855, many of the poorer Mormon travelers made the trek with hand built handcarts and fewer wagons. Guided by experienced guides, handcarts—pulled and pushed by two to four people—were as fast as ox-drawn wagons and allowed them to bring 75 to 100 pounds (34 to 45 kg) of possessions plus some food, bedding, and tents to Utah. Accompanying wagons carried more food and supplies. Upon arrival in Utah, the handcart pioneers were given or found jobs and accommodations by individual Mormon families for the winter until they could become established. About 3,000 out of over 60,000 Mormon pioneers came across with handcarts. Along the Mormon Trail, the Mormon pioneers established a number of ferries and made trail improvements to help later travelers and earn much needed money. One of the better known ferries was the Mormon Ferry across the North Platte near the future site of Fort Caspar in Wyoming which operated between 1848 and 1852 and the Green River ferry near Fort Bridger which operated from 1847 to 1856. The ferries were free for Mormon settlers while all others were charged a toll of from $3 to $8. California Gold Rush [ edit ] Main article: California Trail In January 1848, James Marshall found gold in the Sierra Nevada portion of the American River , sparking the California Gold Rush . [31] It is estimated that about two-thirds of the male population in Oregon went to California in 1848 to cash in on the opportunity. To get there, they helped build the Lassen Branch of the Applegate-Lassen Trail by cutting a wagon road through extensive forests. Many returned with significant gold which helped jump-start the Oregon economy. Over the next decade, gold seekers from the Midwestern United States and East Coast of the United States dramatically increased traffic on the Oregon and California Trails. The \"forty-niners\" often chose speed over safety and opted to use shortcuts such as the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff in Wyoming which reduced travel time by almost seven days but spanned nearly 45 miles (72 km) of desert without water, grass, or fuel for fires. [32] 1849 was the first year of large scale cholera epidemics in the United States, and thousands are thought to have died along the trail on their way to California—most buried in unmarked graves in Kansas and Nebraska. The \"adjusted\" [33] 1850 U.S. Census of California showed this rush was overwhelmingly male with about 112,000 males to 8,000 females (with about 5,500 women over age 15). [34] Women were significantly underrepresented in the California Gold Rush , and sex ratios did not reach essential equality in California (and other western states) until about 1950. The relative scarcity of women gave them many opportunities to do many more things that were not \"normally\" considered \"women's work\" of this era. After 1849, the California Gold Rush continued for several years as the miners continued to find about $50,000,000 worth of gold per year at $21 per ounce. [35] Once California was established as a prosperous state, many thousands more emigrated there each year for the opportunities. Later emigration and uses of the trail [ edit ] The trail was still in use during the Civil War , but traffic declined after 1855 when the Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama was completed. Paddle wheel steamships and sailing ships, often heavily subsidized to carry the mail, provided rapid transport to and from the east coast and New Orleans , Louisiana, to and from Panama to ports in California and Oregon. Over the years many ferries were established to help get across the many rivers on the path of the Oregon Trail. Multiple ferries were established on the Missouri River, Kansas River , Little Blue River , Elkhorn River , Loup River , Platte River, South Platte River , North Platte River, Laramie River , Green River, Bear River , two crossings of the Snake River, John Day River , Deschutes River , Columbia River, as well as many other smaller streams. During peak immigration periods several ferries on any given river often competed for pioneer dollars. These ferries significantly increased speed and safety for Oregon Trail travelers. They increased the cost of traveling the trail by roughly $30 per wagon but increased the speed of the transit from about 160 to 170 days in 1843 to 120 to 140 days in 1860. Ferries also helped prevent death by drowning at river crossings. [36] In April 1859, an expedition of U.S. Corps of Topographical Engineers led by Captain James H. Simpson left Camp Floyd, Utah , to establish an army supply route across the Great Basin to the eastern slope of the Sierras . Upon return in early August, Simpson reported that he had surveyed the Central Overland Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, Nevada . This route went through central Nevada (roughly where U.S. Route 50 goes today) and was about 280 miles (450 km) shorter than the \"standard\" Humboldt River California trail route. [37] The Central Route in Nevada The Army improved the trail for use by wagons and stagecoaches in 1859 and 1860. Starting in 1860, the American Civil War closed the heavily subsidized Butterfield Overland Mail stage Southern Route through the deserts of the American Southwest. In 1860–61 the Pony Express , employing riders traveling on horseback day and night with relay stations about every 10 miles (16 km) to supply fresh horses, was established from St. Joseph, Missouri , to Sacramento, California . The Pony Express built many of their eastern stations along the Oregon/California/Mormon/Bozeman trails and many of their western stations along the very sparsely settled Central Route across Utah and Nevada. [38] The Pony Express delivered mail summer and winter in roughly 10 days from the midwest to California. In 1861, John Butterfield , who since 1858 had been using the Butterfield Overland Mail, also switched to the Central Route to avoid traveling through hostile territories during the American Civil War. George Chorpenning immediately realized the value of this more direct route, and shifted his existing mail and passenger line along with their stations from the \"Northern Route\" (California Trail) along the Humboldt River. In 1861, the First Transcontinental Telegraph also laid its lines alongside the Central Overland Route. Several stage lines were set up carrying mail and passengers that traversed much of the route of the original Oregon Trail to Fort Bridger and from there over the Central Overland Route to California. By traveling day and night with many stations and changes of teams (and extensive mail subsidies), these stages could get passengers and mail from the midwest to California in about 25 to 28 days. These combined stage and Pony Express stations along the Oregon Trail and Central Route across Utah and Nevada were joined by the First Transcontinental Telegraph stations and telegraph line, which followed much the same route in 1861 from Carson City, Nevada to Salt Lake City . The Pony Express folded in 1861 as they failed to receive an expected mail contract from the U.S. government and the telegraph filled the need for rapid east–west communication. This combination wagon/stagecoach/pony express/telegraph line route is labeled the Pony Express National Historic Trail on the National Trail Map. [38] From Salt Lake City the telegraph line followed much of the Mormon/California/Oregon trails to Omaha, Nebraska. After the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869, telegraph lines usually followed the railroad tracks as the required relay stations and telegraph lines were much easier to maintain alongside the tracks. Telegraph lines to unpopulated areas were largely abandoned. As the years passed, the Oregon Trail became a heavily used corridor from the Missouri River to the Columbia River. Offshoots of the trail continued to grow as gold and silver discoveries, farming, lumbering, ranching, and business opportunities resulted in much more traffic to many areas. Traffic became two-directional as towns were established along the trail. By 1870 the population in the states served by the Oregon Trail and its offshoots increased by about 350,000 over their 1860 census levels. With the exception of most of the 180,000 population increase in California, most of these people living away from the coast traveled over parts of the Oregon Trail and its many extensions and cutoffs to get to their new residences. Even before the famous Texas cattle drives after the Civil War, the trail was being used to drive herds of thousands of cattle, horses, sheep, and goats from the midwest to various towns and cities along the trails. According to studies by trail historian John Unruh the livestock may have been as plentiful or more plentiful than the immigrants in many years. [39] In 1852, there were even records of a 1,500-turkey drive from Illinois to California. [40] The main reason for this livestock traffic was the large cost discrepancy between livestock in the midwest and at the end of the trail in California, Oregon, or Montana. They could often be bought in the midwest for about 1/3 to 1/10 what they would fetch at the end of the trail. Large losses could occur and the drovers would still make significant profit. As the emigrant travel on the trail declined in later years and after livestock ranches were established at many places along the trail large herds of animals often were driven along part of the trail to get to and from markets. Trail decline [ edit ] The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, providing faster, safer, and usually cheaper travel east and west (the journey took seven days and cost as little as $65 or $1189.39 in 2016 dollars). [41] Some emigrants continued to use the trail well into the 1890s, and modern highways and railroads eventually paralleled large portions of the trail, including U.S. Highway 26 , Interstate 84 in Oregon and Idaho and Interstate 80 in Nebraska. Contemporary interest in the overland trek has prompted the states and federal government to preserve landmarks on the trail including wagon ruts, buildings, and \"registers\" where emigrants carved their names. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries there have been a number of re-enactments of the trek with participants wearing period garments and traveling by wagon. Covered wagon replica and Mission Monument at the Whitman Mission National Historic Site about ten miles west of Walla Walla, Washington . Routes [ edit ] Oregon Trail pioneer Ezra Meeker erected this boulder near Pacific Springs on Wyoming's South Pass in 1906. [42] As the trail developed it became marked by many cutoffs and shortcuts from Missouri to Oregon. The basic route follows river valleys as grass and water were absolutely necessary. While the first few parties organized and departed from Elm Grove, the Oregon Trail's primary starting point was Independence, Missouri , or Westport , (which was annexed into modern day Kansas City ), on the Missouri River. Later, several feeder trails led across Kansas, and some towns became starting points, including Weston , Fort Leavenworth , Atchison , St. Joseph, and Omaha. The Oregon Trail's nominal termination point was Oregon City , at the time the proposed capital of the Oregon Territory . However, many settlers branched off or stopped short of this goal and settled at convenient or promising locations along the trail. Commerce with pioneers going further west helped establish these early settlements and launched local economies critical to their prosperity. At dangerous or difficult river crossings, ferries or toll bridges were set up and bad places on the trail were either repaired or bypassed. Several toll roads were constructed. Gradually the trail became easier with the average trip (as recorded in numerous diaries) dropping from about 160 days in 1849 to 140 days 10 years later. [ citation needed ] Many other trails followed the Oregon Trail for much of its length, including the Mormon Trail from Illinois to Utah; the California Trail to the gold fields of California ; and the Bozeman Trail to Montana . Because it was more a network of trails than a single trail, there were numerous variations with other trails eventually established on both sides of the Platte, North Platte, Snake, and Columbia rivers. With literally thousands of people and thousands of livestock traveling in a fairly small time slot the travelers had to spread out to find clean water, wood, good campsites, and grass. The dust kicked up by the many travelers was a constant complaint, and where the terrain would allow it there may be between 20 and 50 wagons traveling abreast. Remnants of the trail in Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, and Oregon have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and the entire trail is a designated National Historic Trail . Missouri [ edit ] Initially, the main \"jumping off point\" was the common head of the Santa Fe Trail and Oregon trail—Independence, and Kansas City . Travelers starting in Independence had to ferry across the Missouri River. After following the Santa Fe trail to near present-day Topeka , they ferried across the Kansas River to start the trek across Kansas and points west. Another busy \"jumping off point\" was St. Joseph —established in 1843. [43] In its early days, St. Joseph was a bustling outpost and rough frontier town, serving as one of the last supply points before heading over the Missouri River to the frontier. St. Joseph had good steamboat connections to St. Louis and other ports on the combined Ohio , Missouri , and Mississippi River systems. During the busy season there were several ferry boats and steamboats available to transport travelers to the Kansas shore where they started their travels westward. Before the Union Pacific Railroad was started in 1865, St. Joseph was the westernmost point in the United States accessible by rail. Other towns used as supply points in Missouri included Old Franklin, Arrow Rock , and Fort Osage . [44] Iowa [ edit ] A bison bull on a Nebraska wildlife refuge In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson obtained from France the Louisiana Purchase for $15 million (equivalent to about $230 million today) which included all the land drained by the Missouri River and roughly doubled the size of U.S. territory. The future states of Iowa and Missouri, located west of the Mississippi River and east of Missouri River, were part of this purchase. The Lewis and Clark Expedition stopped several times in the future state of Iowa on their 1805–1806 expedition to the west coast. A disputed 1804 treaty between Quashquame and William Henry Harrison (future ninth President of the U.S.) that surrendered much of the future state of Illinois to the U.S. enraged many Sauk (Sac) Indians and led to the 1832 Black Hawk War . As punishment for the uprising, and as part of a larger settlement strategy, treaties were subsequently designed to remove all Indians from Iowa Territory . Some settlers started drifting into Iowa in 1833. President Martin Van Buren on July 4, 1838, signed the U.S. Congress laws establishing the Territory of Iowa. Iowa was located opposite the junction of the Platte and Missouri rivers and was used by some of the fur trapper rendezvous traders as a starting point for their supply expeditions. In 1846 the Mormons , expelled from Nauvoo, Illinois , traversed Iowa (on part of the Mormon Trail) and settled temporarily in significant numbers on the Missouri River in Iowa and the future state of Nebraska at their Winter Quarters near the future city of Omaha, Nebraska. (See: Missouri River settlements (1846–1854)) [45] The Mormons established about 50 temporary towns including the town of Kanesville, Iowa (renamed Council Bluffs in 1852) on the east bank of the Missouri River opposite the mouth of the Platte River. For those travelers to Oregon, California, and Utah who were bringing their teams to the Platte River junction Kanesville and other towns became major \"jumping off places\" and supply points. In 1847 the Mormons established three ferries across the Missouri River and others established even more ferries for the spring start on the trail. In the 1850 census there were about 8,000 mostly Mormons tabulated in the large Pottawattamie County, Iowa District 21. (The original Pottawattamie County was subsequently made into five counties and parts of several more.) By 1854 most of the Mormon towns, farms and villages were largely taken over by non-Mormons as they abandoned them or sold them for not much and continued their migration to Utah. After 1846 the towns of Council Bluffs, Iowa, Omaha (est. 1852) and other Missouri River towns became major supply points and \"jumping off places\" for travelers on the Mormon, California, Oregon, and other trails west. Kansas [ edit ] Map of principal rivers in Kansas Starting initially in Independence, Missouri, or Kansas City in Missouri, the initial trail follows the Santa Fe Trail into Kansas south of the Wakarusa River . After crossing Mount Oread at Lawrence , the trail crosses the Kansas River by ferry or boats near Topeka and crossed the Wakarusa and Black Vermillion rivers by ferries. After the Black Vermillion River the trail angles northwest to Nebraska paralleling the Little Blue River until reaching the south side of the Platte River. Travel by wagon over the gently rolling Kansas countryside was usually unimpeded except where streams had cut steep banks. There a passage could be made with a lot of shovel work to cut down the banks or the travelers could find an already established crossing. [ citation needed ] Nebraska [ edit ] See also: California Hill and O'Fallons Bluff Chimney Rock, Nebraska Those emigrants on the eastern side of the Missouri River in Missouri or Iowa used ferries and steamboats (fitted out for ferry duty) to cross into towns in Nebraska. Several towns in Nebraska were used as jumping off places with Omaha eventually becoming a favorite after about 1855. Fort Kearny (est. 1848) is about 200 miles (320 km) from the Missouri River, and the trail and its many offshoots nearly all converged close to Fort Kearny as they followed the Platte River west. The army maintained fort was the first chance on the trail to buy emergency supplies, do repairs, get medical aid, or mail a letter. Those on the north side of the Platte could usually wade the shallow river if they needed to visit the fort. Map showing the Platte River watershed, including the North Platte and South Platte tributaries The Platte River and the North Platte River in the future states of Nebraska and Wyoming typically had many channels and islands and were too shallow, crooked, muddy and unpredictable for travel even by canoe. The Platte as it pursued its braided paths to the Missouri River was \"too thin to plow and too thick to drink\". While unusable for transportation, the Platte River and North Platte River valleys provided an easily passable wagon corridor going almost due west with access to water, grass, buffalo, and buffalo chips for fuel. [46] The trails gradually got rougher as it progressed up the North Platte. There were trails on both sides of the muddy rivers. The Platte was about 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and 2 to 60 inches (5.1 to 152.4 cm) deep. The water was silty and bad tasting but it could be used if no other water was available. Letting it sit in a bucket for an hour or so or stirring in a 1/4 cup of cornmeal allowed most of the silt to settle out. In the spring in Nebraska and Wyoming the travelers often encountered fierce wind, rain and lightning storms. Until about 1870 travelers encountered hundreds of thousands of bison migrating through Nebraska on both sides of the Platte River, and most travelers killed several for fresh meat and to build up their supplies of dried jerky for the rest of the journey. The prairie grass in many places was several feet high with only the hat of a traveler on horseback showing as they passed through the prairie grass. In many years the Indians fired much of the dry grass on the prairie every fall so the only trees or bushes available for firewood were on islands in the Platte River. Travelers gathered and ignited dried cow dung to cook their meals. These burned fast in a breeze, and it could take two or more bushels of chips to get one meal prepared. Those traveling south of the Platte crossed the South Platte fork at one of about three ferries (in dry years it could be forded without a ferry) before continuing up the North Platte River Valley into present-day Wyoming heading to Fort Laramie. Before 1852 those on the north side of the Platte crossed the North Platte to the south side at Fort Laramie. After 1852 they used Child's Cutoff to stay on the north side to about the present day town of Casper , Wyoming, where they crossed over to the south side. [47] Notable landmarks in Nebraska include Courthouse and Jail Rocks , Chimney Rock , Scotts Bluff , and Ash Hollow with its steep descent down Windlass Hill over the South Platte. [48] Today much of the Oregon Trail follows roughly along Interstate 80 from Wyoming to Grand Island , Nebraska. From there U.S. Highway 30 which follows the Platte River is a better approximate path for those traveling the north side of the Platte. The National Park Service (NPS) gives traveling advice for those who want to follow other branches of the trail. [49] Cholera on the Platte River [ edit ] Because of the Platte's brackish water, the preferred camping spots were along one of the many fresh water streams draining into the Platte or the occasional fresh water spring found along the way. These preferred camping spots became sources of cholera in the epidemic years (1849–1855) as many thousands of people used the same camping spots with essentially no sewage facilities or adequate sewage treatment. One of the side effects of cholera is acute diarrhea which helps contaminate even more water unless it is isolated and/or treated. The cause of cholera, ingesting the Vibrio cholerae bacterium from contaminated water, and the best treatment for cholera infections were unknown in this era. Thousands of travelers on the combined California, Oregon, and Mormon trails succumbed to cholera between 1849 and 1855. Most were buried in unmarked graves in Kansas, Nebraska and Wyoming. Although also considered part of the Mormon Trail , the grave of Rebecca Winters is one of the few marked ones left. There are many cases cited involving people who were alive and apparently healthy in the morning and dead by nightfall. Colorado [ edit ] A branch of the Oregon trail crossed the very northeast corner of Colorado if they followed the South Platte River to one of its last crossings. This branch of the trail passed through present day Julesburg before entering Wyoming. Later settlers followed the Platte and South Platte Rivers into their settlements there (much of which became the state of Colorado). Wyoming [ edit ] Main article: Emigrant Trail in Wyoming After crossing the South Platte River the Oregon Trail follows the North Platte River out of Nebraska into Wyoming. Fort Laramie , at the confluence of the Laramie and North Platte rivers, was a major stopping point. Fort Laramie was a former fur trading outpost originally named Fort John that was purchased in 1848 by the U.S. Army to protect travelers on the trails. [50] It was the last army outpost till travelers reached the coast. Fort Laramie was the end of most cholera outbreaks which killed thousands along the lower Platte and North Platte from 1849 to 1855. Spread by cholera bacteria in fecal contaminated water, cholera caused massive diarrhea, leading to dehydration and death. In those days its cause and treatment were unknown, and it was often fatal—up to 30 percent of infected people died. It is believed that the swifter flowing rivers in Wyoming helped prevent the germs from spreading. [51] Independence Rock After crossing the South Platte the trail continues up the North Platte River, crossing many small swift-flowing creeks. As the North Platte veers to the south, the trail crosses the North Platte to the Sweetwater River Valley, which heads almost due west. Independence Rock is on the Sweetwater River. The Sweetwater would have to be crossed up to nine times before the trail crosses over the Continental Divide at South Pass, Wyoming. From South Pass the trail continues southwest crossing Big Sandy Creek —about 10 feet (3.0 m) wide and 1 foot (0.30 m) deep—before hitting the Green River. Three to five ferries were in use on the Green during peak travel periods. The deep, wide, swift, and treacherous Green River which eventually empties into the Colorado River, was usually at high water in July and August, and it was a dangerous crossing. After crossing the Green, the main trail continued approximately southwest until the Blacks Fork of the Green River and Fort Bridger. From Fort Bridger the Mormon Trail continued southwest following the upgraded Hastings Cutoff through the Wasatch Mountains . [52] From Fort Bridger, the main trail, comprising several variants, veered northwest over the Bear River Divide and descended to the Bear River Valley. The trail turned north following the Bear River past the terminus of the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff at Smiths Fork and on to the Thomas Fork Valley at the present Wyoming–Idaho border. [53] Over time, two major heavily used cutoffs were established in Wyoming. The Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff was established in 1844 and cut about 70 miles (110 km) off the main route. It leaves the main trail about 10 miles (16 km) west of South Pass and heads almost due west crossing Big Sandy Creek and then about 45 miles (72 km) of waterless, very dusty desert before reaching the Green River near the present town of La Barge . Ferries here transferred them across the Green River. From there the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff trail had to cross a mountain range to connect with the main trail near Cokeville in the Bear River Valley. [54] Prairie Scene: Mirage , by Alfred Jacob Miller The Lander Road , formally the Fort Kearney, South Pass, and Honey Lake Wagon Road, was established and built by U.S. government contractors in 1858–59. [55] It was about 80 miles (130 km) shorter than the main trail through Fort Bridger with good grass, water, firewood and fishing but it was a much steeper and rougher route, crossing three mountain ranges. In 1859, 13,000 [56] of the 19,000 [57] emigrants traveling to California and Oregon used the Lander Road. The traffic in later years is undocumented. The Lander Road departs the main trail at Burnt Ranch near South Pass, crosses the Continental Divide north of South Pass and reaches the Green River near the present town of Big Piney, Wyoming. From there the trail followed Big Piney Creek west before passing over the 8,800 feet (2,700 m) Thompson Pass in the Wyoming Range . It then crosses over the Smith Fork of the Bear River before ascending and crossing another 8,200-foot (2,500 m) pass on the Salt River Range of mountains and then descending into Star Valley . It exited the mountains near the present Smith Fork road about 6 miles (9.7 km) south of the town of Smoot . The road continued almost due north along the present day Wyoming–Idaho western border through Star Valley. To avoid crossing the Salt River (which drains into the Snake River) which runs down Star Valley the Lander Road crossed the river when it was small and stayed west of the Salt River. After traveling down the Salt River Valley (Star Valley) about 20 miles (32 km) north the road turned almost due west near the present town of Auburn , and entered into the present state of Idaho along Stump Creek. In Idaho, it followed the Stump Creek valley northwest until it crossed the Caribou Mountains and proceeded past the south end of Grays Lake. The trail then proceeded almost due west to meet the main trail at Fort Hall; alternatively, a branch trail headed almost due south to meet the main trail near the present town of Soda Springs. [58] [59] Numerous landmarks are located along the trail in Wyoming including Independence Rock, Ayres Natural Bridge and Register Cliff . Utah [ edit ] In 1847, Brigham Young and the Mormon pioneers departed from the Oregon Trail at Fort Bridger in Wyoming and followed (and much improved) the rough trail originally recommended by Lansford Hastings to the Donner Party in 1846 through the Wasatch Mountains into Utah. [60] After getting into Utah, they immediately started setting up irrigated farms and cities—including Salt Lake City. In 1848, the Salt Lake Cutoff was established by Sam Hensley, [61] and returning members of the Mormon Battalion providing a path north of the Great Salt Lake from Salt Lake City back to the California and Oregon trails. This cutoff rejoined the Oregon and California Trails near the City of Rocks near the Utah–Idaho border and could be used by both California and Oregon bound travelers. Located about half way on both the California and Oregon trails many thousands of later travelers used Salt Lake City and other Utah cities as an intermediate stop for selling or trading excess goods or tired livestock for fresh livestock, repairs, supplies or fresh vegetables. The Mormons looked on these travelers as a welcome bonanza as setting up new communities from scratch required nearly everything the travelers could afford to part with. The overall distance to California or Oregon was very close to the same whether one \"detoured\" to Salt Lake City or not. For their own use and to encourage California and Oregon bound travelers the Mormons improved the Mormon Trail from Fort Bridger and the Salt Lake Cutoff trail. To raise much needed money and facilitate travel on the Salt Lake Cutoff they set up several ferries across the Weber , Bear, and Malad rivers, which were used mostly by travelers bound for Oregon or California. Idaho [ edit ] The main Oregon and California Trail went almost due north from Fort Bridger to the Little Muddy Creek where it passed over the Bear River Mountains to the Bear River Valley, which it followed northwest into the Thomas Fork area, where the trail crossed over the present day Wyoming line into Idaho. In the Eastern Sheep Creek Hills in the Thomas Fork valley the emigrants encountered Big Hill. Big Hill was a detour caused by a then-impassable cut the Bear River made through the mountains and had a tough ascent often requiring doubling up of teams and a very steep and dangerous descent. [62] (Much later, U.S. Highway 30, using modern explosives and equipment, was built through this cut). In 1852 Eliza Ann McAuley found and with help developed the McAuley Cutoff which bypassed much of the difficult climb and descent of Big Hill. About 5 miles (8.0 km) on they passed present-day Montpelier , Idaho, which is now the site of the National Oregon-California Trail Center. [63] The trail follows the Bear River northwest to present-day Soda Springs. The springs here were a favorite attraction of the pioneers who marveled at the hot carbonated water and chugging \"steamboat\" springs. Many stopped and did their laundry in the hot water as there was usually plenty of good grass and fresh water available. [64] Just west of Soda Springs the Bear River turns southwest as it heads for the Great Salt Lake, and the main trail turns northwest to follow the Portneuf River valley to Fort Hall, Idaho. Fort Hall was an old fur trading post located on the Snake River. It was established in 1832 by Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth and company and later sold in 1837 to the Hudson's Bay Company. At Fort Hall nearly all travelers were given some aid and supplies if they were available and needed. Mosquitoes were constant pests, and travelers often mention that their animals were covered with blood from the bites. The route from Fort Bridger to Fort Hall is about 210 miles (340 km), taking nine to twelve days. Storm: Waiting for the Caravan , by Alfred Jacob Miller At Soda Springs was one branch of Lander Road (established and built with government contractors in 1858), which had gone west from near South Pass, over the Salt River Mountains and down Star Valley before turning west near present-day Auburn, Wyoming, and entering Idaho. From there it proceeded northwest into Idaho up Stump Creek canyon for about 10 miles (16 km). One branch turned almost 90 degrees and proceeded southwest to Soda Springs. Another branch headed almost due west past Gray's Lake to rejoin the main trail about 10 miles (16 km) west of Fort Hall. On the main trail about 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Soda Springs Hudspeth's Cutoff (established 1849 and used mostly by California trail users) took off from the main trail heading almost due west, bypassing Fort Hall. It rejoined the California Trail at Cassia Creek near the City of Rocks. [65] Hudspeth's Cutoff had five mountain ranges to cross and took about the same amount of time as the main route to Fort Hall, but many took it thinking it was shorter. Its main advantage was that it helped spread out the traffic during peak periods, making more grass available. [66] West of Fort Hall the main trail traveled about 40 miles (64 km) on the south side of the Snake River southwest past American Falls, Massacre Rocks , Register Rock, and Coldwater Hill near present-day Pocatello , Idaho. Near the junction of the Raft River and Snake River the California Trail diverged from the Oregon Trail at another Parting of the Ways junction. Travellers left the Snake River and followed Raft River about 65 miles (105 km) southwest past present day Almo . This trail then passed through the City of Rocks and over Granite Pass where it went southwest along Goose Creek, Little Goose Creek, and Rock Spring Creek. It went about 95 miles (153 km) through Thousand Springs Valley , West Brush Creek, and Willow Creek, before arriving at the Humboldt River in northeastern Nevada near present-day Wells . [67] The California Trail proceeded west down the Humboldt before reaching and crossing the Sierra Nevadas. Goodale's Cutoff of the Oregon Trail at Lava Lake, west of Arco, ID and east of Carey, ID along US 26, 20, 93. Picture of current two track along section of the cutoff of the Oregon Trail. There were only a few places where the Snake River was not buried deep in a canyon, and few spots where the river slowed down enough to make a crossing possible. Two of these fords were near Fort Hall, where travelers on the Oregon Trail North Side Alternate (established about 1852) and Goodale's Cutoff (established 1862) crossed the Snake to travel on the north side. Nathaniel Wyeth, the original founder of Fort Hall in 1834, writes in his diary that they found a ford across the Snake River 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of where he founded Fort Hall. Another possible crossing was a few miles upstream of Salmon Falls where some intrepid travelers floated their wagons and swam their stock across to join the north side trail. Some lost their wagons and teams over the falls. [68] The trails on the north side joined the trail from Three Island Crossing about 17 miles (27 km) west of Glenns Ferry on the north side of the Snake River. [69] [70] Goodale's Cutoff , established in 1862 on the north side of the Snake River, formed a spur of the Oregon Trail. This cutoff had been used as a pack trail by Indians and fur traders, and emigrant wagons traversed parts of the eastern section as early as 1852. After crossing the Snake River the 230-mile (370 km) cutoff headed north from Fort Hall toward Big Southern Butte following the Lost River part of the way. It passed near the present-day town of Arco , and wound through the northern part of what is now Craters of the Moon National Monument . From there it went southwest to Camas Prairie and ended at Old Fort Boise on the Boise River . This journey typically took two to three weeks and was noted for its very rough lava terrain and extremely dry climate, which tended to dry the wooden wheels on the wagons, causing the iron rims to fall off the wheels. Loss of wheels caused many wagons to be abandoned along the route. It rejoined the main trail east of Boise. Goodale's Cutoff is visible at many points along U.S. Highway 20 , U.S. Highway 26, and U.S. Highway 93 between Craters of the Moon National Monument and Carey . [71] View across top of Shoshone Falls , Snake River , Idaho ( Timothy H. O'Sullivan , 1874) One of Boise's 21 Oregon Trail monuments. From the present site of Pocatello, the trail proceeded almost due west on the south side of the Snake River for about 180 miles (290 km). This route passed Cauldron Linn rapids, Shoshone Falls , two falls near the present city of Twin Falls , and Upper Salmon Falls on the Snake River. At Salmon Falls there were often a hundred or more Indians fishing who would trade for their salmon, a welcome treat. The trail continued west to Three Island Crossing (near present-day Glenns Ferry . [72] [73] ) Here most emigrants used the divisions of the river caused by three islands to cross the difficult and swift Snake River by ferry or by driving or sometimes floating their wagons and swimming their teams across. The crossings were doubly treacherous because there were often hidden holes in the river bottom which could overturn the wagon or entangle the team, sometimes with fatal consequences. Before ferries were established there were several drownings here nearly every year. [74] The north side of the Snake had better water and grass than the south. The trail from Three Island Crossing to Old Fort Boise was about 130 miles (210 km) long. The usually lush Boise River Valley was a welcome relief. The next crossing of the Snake River was near Old Fort Boise. This last crossing of the Snake could be done on bull boats while swimming the stock across. Others would chain a large string of wagons and teams together. The theory was that the front teams, usually oxen, would get out of water first and with good footing help pull the whole string of wagons and teams across. How well this worked in practice is not stated. Often young Indian boys were hired to drive and ride the stock across the river—they knew how to swim, unlike many pioneers. Today's Idaho Interstate 84 roughly follows the Oregon Trail until it leaves the Snake River near Burley . From there Interstate 86 to Pocatello roughly approximates the trail. Highway 30 roughly follows the path of the Oregon Trail from there to Montpelier. Starting in about 1848 the South Alternate of Oregon Trail (also called the Snake River Cutoff) was developed as a spur off the main trail. It bypassed the Three Island Crossing and continued traveling down the south side of the Snake River. It rejoined the trail near present-day Ontario, Oregon . It hugged the southern edge of the Snake River canyon and was a much rougher trail with poorer water and grass, requiring occasional steep descents and ascents with the animals down into the Snake River canyon to get water. Travellers on this route avoided two dangerous crossings of the Snake River. [75] Today's Idaho State Route 78 roughly follows the path of the South Alternate route of the Oregon Trail. In 1869, the Central Pacific established Kelton, Utah as a railhead and the terminus of the western mail was moved from Salt Lake City. The Kelton Road became important as a communication and transportation road to the Boise Basin. [76] Boise has 21 monuments in the shape of obelisks along its portion of the Oregon Trail. [77] Oregon [ edit ] Once across the Snake River ford near Old Fort Boise the weary travelers traveled across what would become the state of Oregon. The trail then went to the Malheur River and then past Farewell Bend on the Snake River, up the Burnt River canyon and northwest to the Grande Ronde Valley near present-day La Grande before coming to the Blue Mountains. In 1843 settlers cut a wagon road over these mountains making them passable for the first time to wagons. The trail went to the Whitman Mission near Fort Nez Perces in Washington until 1847 when the Whitmans were killed by Native Americans . At Fort Nez Perce some built rafts or hired boats and started down the Columbia; others continued west in their wagons until they reached The Dalles. After 1847 the trail bypassed the closed mission and headed almost due west to present day Pendleton , Oregon, crossing the Umatilla River , John Day River, and Deschutes River before arriving at The Dalles. Interstate 84 in Oregon roughly follows the original Oregon Trail from Idaho to The Dalles. Arriving at the Columbia at The Dalles and stopped by the Cascade Mountains and Mount Hood, some gave up their wagons or disassembled them and put them on boats or rafts for a trip down the Columbia River. Once they transited the Cascade's Columbia River Gorge with its multiple rapids and treacherous winds they would have to make the 1.6-mile (2.6 km) portage around the Cascade Rapids before coming out near the Willamette River where Oregon City was located. The pioneer's livestock could be driven around Mount Hood on the narrow, crooked and rough Lolo Pass. Several Oregon Trail branches and route variations led to the Willamette Valley. The most popular was the Barlow Road, which was carved though the forest around Mount Hood from The Dalles in 1846 as a toll road at $5 per wagon and 10 cents per head of livestock. It was rough and steep with poor grass but still cheaper and safer than floating goods, wagons and family down the dangerous Columbia River. In Central Oregon, there was the Santiam Wagon Road (established 1861), which roughly parallels Oregon Highway 20 to the Willamette Valley. The Applegate Trail (established 1846), cutting off the California Trail from the Humboldt River in Nevada, crossed part of California before cutting north to the south end of the Willamette Valley. U.S. Route 99 and Interstate 5 through Oregon roughly follow the original Applegate Trail. Travel equipment [ edit ] Wagons and pack animals [ edit ] Three types of draft and pack animals were used by Oregon Trail pioneers: oxen , mules , and horses . [78] By 1842, many emigrants favored oxen—castrated bulls (males) of the genus Bos (cattle), generally over four years old—as the best animal to pull wagons, because they were docile, generally healthy, and able to continue moving in difficult conditions such as mud and snow. [78] Oxen could also survive on prairie grasses and sage , unlike horses, who had to be fed. Moreover, oxen were less expensive to purchase and maintain than horses. [78] Oxen also could stand idle for long periods without suffering damage to the feet and legs. [78] Oxen were trained by leading, the use of a whip or goad , and the use of oral commands (such as \" Gee \" (right), \" Haw \" (left), and \"Whoa\" (stop)). [78] Two oxen were typically yoked together at the neck or head; the left ox was referred to as the \"near\" or \"nigh\" ox, and the right ox as the \"off\" ox. [78] While no reins , bits , or halters were needed, the trainer had to be forceful. Oxen typically traveled at a steady pace up to two miles an hour. [78] One drawback of oxen was the difficulty of shoeing. Oxen hooves are cloven (split), and they had to be shod with two curved pieces of metal, one on each side of the hoof. While horses and mules allowed themselves to be shod relatively easily, the process was more difficult with oxen, which would lie down and tuck their feet under themselves. [78] As a result, several men had to lift and hold an ox while he was being shod. [78] Mules were used by some emigrants. [78] The competing merits of oxen and mules were hotly debated among emigrants. [79] Some found oxen to be more durable. [78] Others, by contrast, believed that mules were more durable, and mules may have had a lower attrition rate on the trail than oxen. [79] Like oxen, mules could survive on prairie grasses. [78] Mules were, however, notoriously ill-tempered. [78] Mules also cost about three times as much as oxen, a deciding factor for many emigrants. [79] [80] Conestoga wagons Covered wagon (\"prairie schooners\") Studebaker Food [ edit ] The typical cost of food for four people for six months was about $150. [ when? ] [81] Food and water were key concerns for migrants. Wagons typically carried at least one large water keg, [82] [83] and guidebooks available from the 1840s and later gave similar advice to migrants on what food to take. T.H. Jefferson, in his Brief Practice Advice guidebook for migrants, recommended that each adult take 200 pounds of flour: \"Take plenty of bread stuff; this is the staff of life when everything else runs short.\" [82] [83] Food often took the form of crackers or hardtack ; Southerners sometimes chose cornmeal or pinole rather than wheat flour. [82] Emigrants typically ate rice and beans only at forts stopped at along the way, because boiling water was difficult on the trail, and fuel was not abundant. [82] Lansford Hastings recommended that each emigrant take 200 pounds of flour , 150 pounds of \" bacon \" (a word which, at the time, referred broadly to all forms of salt pork ), 20 pounds of sugar , and 10 pounds of salt . [82] [83] Chipped beef , rice, tea, dried beans, dried fruit , saleratus (for raising bread), vinegar , pickles , mustard , and tallow might also be taken. [82] [83] Joseph Ware's 1849 guide recommends that travelers take for each individual a barrel of flour or 180 pounds of ship's biscuit (i.e., hardtack), 150-180 pounds of bacon, 60 pounds of beans or peas , 25 pounds of rice , 25 pounds of coffee , 40 pounds of sugar, a keg of lard, 30 or 40 pounds of dried fruit ( peaches or apples ), a keg of clear, rendered beef suet (to substitute for butter), as well as some vinegar , salt, and pepper . [83] Many emigrant families also carried a small amount of tea and maple sugar . [82] Randolph B. Marcy , an Army officer who wrote a 1859 guide, advised taking less bacon than the earlier guides had recommended. He advised emigrants to drive cattle instead as a source of fresh beef. [82] Marcy also instructed emigrants to store sides of bacon in canvas bags or in boxes surrounded by bran to protect against extreme heat, which could make bacon go rancid . [83] Marcy instructed emigrants to put salt pork on the bottom of wagons to avoid exposure to extreme heat. [83] Marcy also recommended the use of pemmican , as well as the storage of sugar in India-rubber or gutta-percha sacks, to prevent it from becoming wet. [83] Canning technology had just begun to be developed, and it gained in popularity through the period of westward expansion. Initially, only upper-class migrants typically used canned goods. [82] There are references in sources to canned cheese, fruit, meat, oysters , and sardines . [82] By the time Marcy wrote his 1859 guide, canned foods were increasingly available but remained expensive. Canning also added weight to a wagon. Rather than canned vegetables, Marcy suggested that travelers take dried vegetables which had been used in the Crimean War and by the U.S. Army. [83] Some pioneers took eggs and butter packed in barrels of flour, and some took dairy cows along the trail. [82] Hunting provided another source of food along the trail; pioneers hunted American bison as well as pronghorn antelope , deer , bighorn sheep , and wildfowl. [82] From rivers and lakes, emigrants also fished for catfish and trout . [82] When emigrants faced starvation, they would sometimes slaughter their animals (horses, mules, and oxen). [82] In desperate times, migrants would search for less-popular sources of food, including coyote , fox , jackrabbit , marmot , prairie dog , and rattlesnake (nicknamed \"bush fish\" in the later period). [82] At the time, scurvy was well-recognized, but there was a lack of clear understanding of how to prevent the disease. [83] Nevertheless, pioneers' consumption of the wild berries (including chokeberry , gooseberry , and serviceberry ) and currants that grew along the trail (particularly along the Platte River ) and were consumed, helped make scurvy infrequent. [82] [83] Marcy's guide correctly suggested that the consumption of wild grapes, greens, and onions could help prevent the disease and that if vegetables were not available, citric acid could be drunk with sugar and water. [83] Emigrant families, who were mostly middle-class, prided themselves on preparing a good table. Although operating Dutch ovens and kneading dough was difficult on the trail, many baked good bread and even pies. [82] For fuel to heat food, travelers would collect cedar wood , cottonwood , or willow wood, when available, and sometimes dry prairie grass. [82] More frequently, however, travelers relied on \" buffalo chips \"—dried bison dung—to fuel fires. [82] Buffalo chips resembled rotten wood and would make clear and hot fires. [82] Chips burned quickly, however, and it took up to three bushels of chips to heat a single meal. [82] Collecting buffalo chips was a common task for children and was one chore that even very young children could carry out. [82] As a result, \"memoirs written by those who were very young when they made the journey west invariably refer to this aspect of life on the trail.\" [82] Clothing, equipment and supplies [ edit ] Tobacco was popular, both for personal use, and for trading with Indians and other pioneers. Each person brought at least two changes of clothes and multiple pairs of boots (two to three pairs often wore out on the trip). About 25 pounds of soap was recommended for a party of four, for bathing and washing clothes. A washboard and tub were usually brought for washing clothes. Wash days typically occurred once or twice a month, or less, depending on availability of good grass, water, and fuel. Most wagons carried tents for sleeping, though in good weather most would sleep outside. A thin fold-up mattress, blankets, pillows, canvas, or rubber gutta percha ground covers were used for sleeping. Sometimes an unfolded feather bed mattress was brought for the wagon, if there were pregnant women or very young children along. The wagons had no springs, and the ride along the trail was very rough. Despite modern depictions, hardly anyone actually rode in the wagons; it was too dusty, too rough, and too hard on the livestock. Oregon Trail, painting by Albert Bierstadt , circa 1863 Travelers brought books, Bibles, trail guides, and writing quills, ink, and paper for writing letters or journalling (about one in 200 kept a diary). [84] A belt and folding knives were carried by nearly all men and boys. Awls, scissors, pins, needles, and thread for mending were required. Spare leather was used for repairing shoes, harnesses, and other equipment. Some used goggles to keep dust out of the eyes. Storage boxes were ideally the same height, so they could be arranged to give a flat surface inside the wagon for a sleeping platform. Saddles, bridles, hobbles, and ropes were needed if the party had a horse or riding mule, and many men did. Extra harnesses and spare wagon parts were often carried. Most carried steel shoes for horses, mules, or livestock. Tar was carried to help repair an ox's injured hoof. Goods, supplies, and equipment were often shared by fellow travelers. [85] Items that were forgotten, broken, or worn out could be bought from a fellow traveler, post, or fort along the way. New iron shoes for horses, mules, and oxen were put on by blacksmiths found along the way. Equipment repairs and other goods could be procured from blacksmith shops established at some forts and some ferries. Emergency supplies, repairs, and livestock were often provided by local residents in California, Oregon, and Utah for late travelers on the trail who were hurrying to beat the snow. Non-essential items were often abandoned to lighten the load, or in case of emergency. Many travelers would salvage discarded items, picking up essentials or leaving behind their lower quality item when a better one was found abandoned along the road. Some profited by collecting discarded items, hauling them back to jumping off places, and reselling them. In the early years, Mormons sent scavenging parties back along the trail to salvage as much iron and other supplies as possible and haul it to Salt Lake City , where supplies of all kinds were needed. [86] Others would use discarded furniture, wagons, and wheels as firewood. During the 1849 gold rush, Fort Laramie was known as \"Camp Sacrifice\" because of the large amounts merchandise discarded nearby. [87] Travelers had pushed along the relatively easy path to Fort Laramie with their luxury items but discarded them before the difficult mountain crossing ahead, and after discovering that many items could be purchased at the forts or located for free along the way. Some travelers carried their excess goods to Salt Lake City to be sold. Professional tools used by blacksmiths, carpenters, and farmers were carried by nearly all. Axes, crow bars, hammers, hatchets, hoes, mallets, mattocks, picks, planes, saws, scythes, and shovels [88] were used to clear or make a road through brush or trees, cut down the banks to cross a wash or steep banked stream, build a raft or bridge, or repair the wagon. In general, as little road work as possible was done. Travel was often along the top of ridges to avoid the brush and washes common in many valleys. Statistics [ edit ] Overall, some 268,000 pioneers used the Oregon Trail and its three primary offshoots, the Bozeman , California , and Mormon trails to reach the West Coast, 1840-60. Another 48,000 headed to Utah. There is no estimate on how many used it to return East. [89] Emigrants [ edit ] Estimated California Oregon Mormon Trail Emigrants [57] Year Oregon California Utah Total 1834–39 20 − − 20 1840 13 − − 13 1841 24 34 − 58 1842 125 − − 125 1843 875 38 − 913 1844 1,475 53 − 1,528 1845 2,500 260 − 2,760 1846 1,200 1,500 − 2,700 1847 4,000 450 2,200 6,650 1848 1,300 400 2,400 4,100 Total 11,512 2,735 4,600 18,847 1849 450 25,000 1,500 26,950 1850 6,000 44,000 2,500 52,500 1851 3,600 1,100 1,500 6,200 1852 10,000 50,000 10,000 70,000 1853 7,500 20,000 8,000 35,500 1854 6,000 12,000 3,200 21,200 1855 500 1,500 4,700 6,700 1856 1,000 8,000 2,400 11,400 1857 1,500 4,000 1,300 6,800 1858 1,500 6,000 150 7,650 1859 2,000 17,000 1,400 20,400 1860 1,500 9,000 1,600 12,100 Total 53,000 200,300 43,000 296,300 1834–60 Oregon California Utah [90] Total [91] 1861 − − 3,148 5,000 1862 − − 5,244 5,000 1863 − − 4,760 10,000 1864 − − 2,626 10,000 1865 − − 690 20,000 1866 − − 3,299 25,000 1867 − − 700 25,000 1868 − − 4,285 25,000 Total 80,000 250,000 70,000 400,000 1834–67 Oregon California Utah Total Some of the trail statistics for the early years were recorded by the U.S. Army at Fort Laramie, Wyoming , from about 1849 to 1855. None of these original statistical records have been found—the Army either lost them or destroyed them. Only some partial written copies of the Army records and notes recorded in several diaries have survived. Emigration to California spiked considerably with the 1849 gold rush . Following the discovery of gold, California remained the destination of choice for most emigrants on the trail up to 1860, with almost 200,000 people traveling there between 1849 and 1860. Travel diminished after 1860, as the Civil War caused considerable disruptions on the trail. Many of the people on the trail in 1861–1863 were fleeing the war and its attendant drafts in both the south and the north. Trail historian Merrill J. Mattes [92] has estimated the number of emigrants for 1861–1867 given in the total column of the above table. But these estimates may well be low since they only amount to an extra 125,000 people, and the 1870 census shows that over 200,000 additional people (ignoring most of the population increase in California, which had excellent sea and rail connections across Panama by then) showed up in all the states served by the Bozeman, California, Mormon, and Oregon Trail(s) and their offshoots. Mormon emigration records after 1860 are reasonably accurate, as newspaper and other accounts in Salt Lake City give most of the names of emigrants arriving each year from 1847 to 1868. [90] Gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and Oregon caused a considerable increase in people using the trails, often in directions different from the original trail users. Though the numbers are significant in the context of the times, far more people chose to remain at home in the 31 states. Between 1840 and 1860, the population of the United States rose by 14 million, yet only about 300,000 decided to make the trip. Many were discouraged by the cost, effort and danger of the trip. Western scout Kit Carson is thought to have said, \"The cowards never started and the weak died on the way\", though the general saying was written [ when? ] by Joaquin Miller , in reference to the California gold rush . [93] According to several sources, 3 to 10 percent of the emigrants are estimated to have perished on the way west. [94] Many who went were between the ages 12 and 24. Between 1860 and 1870, the U.S. population increased by seven million; about 350,000 of this increase was in the Western states. Western census data [ edit ] Census Population of western States [95] State 1870 1860 Difference California 560,247 379,994 180,253 Nevada 42,491 6,857 35,634 Oregon 90,923 52,465 38,458 Colorado [96] 39,684 34,277 5,407 Idaho [96] 14,990 − 14,990 Montana [96] 20,595 − 20,595 Utah [96] 86,789 40,273 46,516 Washington [96] 23,955 11,594 12,361 Wyoming [96] 9,118 − 9,118 Totals 888,792 525,460 363,332 These census numbers show a 363,000 population increase in the western states and territories between 1860 and 1870. Some of this increase is because of a high birth rate in the western states and territories, but most is from emigrants moving from the east to the west and new immigration from Europe. Much of the increase in California and Oregon is from emigration by ship, as there was fast and reasonably low cost transportation via east and west coast steamships and the Panama Railroad after 1855. The census numbers imply at least 200,000 emigrants (or more) used some variation of the California/Oregon/Mormon/Bozeman trails to get to their new homes between 1860 and 1870. Costs [ edit ] The cost of traveling over the Oregon Trail and its extensions varied from nothing to a few hundred dollars per person. Women seldom went alone. The cheapest way was to hire on to help drive the wagons or herds, allowing one to make the trip for nearly nothing or even make a small profit. Those with capital could often buy livestock in the Midwest and drive the stock to California or Oregon for profit. About 60 to 80 percent of the travelers were farmers and as such already owned a wagon, livestock team, and many of the necessary supplies. This lowered the cost of the trip to about $50 per person for food and other items. Families planned the trip months in advance and made much of the extra clothing and many other items needed. Individuals buying most of the needed items would end up spending between $150–$200 per person. [97] As the trail matured, additional costs for ferries and toll roads were thought to have been about $30 per wagon. [98] Deaths [ edit ] Oregon-California-Mormon Trail Deaths [99] Cause Estimated deaths Disease 6,000–12,500 Native American attack 3,000–4,500 Freezing 300–500 Run overs 200–500 Drownings 200–500 Shootings 200–500 Miscellaneous 200–500 Scurvy 300–500 Totals 9,400–21,000 The route west was arduous and fraught with many dangers, but the number of deaths on the trail is not known with any precision; there are only wildly varying estimates. Estimating is difficult because of the common practice of burying people in unmarked graves that were intentionally disguised to avoid their being dug up by animals or Indians. Graves were often put in the middle of a trail and then run over by the livestock to make them difficult to find. Disease was the main killer of trail travelers; cholera killed up to 3 percent of all travelers in the epidemic years from 1849 to 1855. Indian attacks increased significantly after 1860, when most of the army troops were withdrawn, and miners and ranchers began fanning out all over the country, often encroaching on Indian territory. Increased attacks along the Humboldt led to most travelers' taking the Central Nevada Route . The Goodall cutoff, developed in Idaho in 1862, kept Oregon bound travelers away from much of the Indian trouble nearer the Snake River . Other trails were developed that traveled further along the South Platte to avoid local Indian hot spots. Other common causes of death included hypothermia , drowning in river crossings, getting run over by wagons, and accidental gun deaths. Later, more family groups started traveling, and many more bridges and ferries were being put in, so fording a dangerous river became much less common and dangerous. Surprisingly few people were taught to swim in this era. Being run over was a major cause of death, despite the wagons' only averaging 2–3 miles per hour. The wagons could not easily be stopped, and people, particularly children, were often trying to get on and off the wagons while they were moving—not always successfully. Another hazard was a dress getting caught in the wheels and pulling the person under. Accidental shootings declined significantly after Fort Laramie, as people became more familiar with their weapons and often just left them in their wagons. Carrying around a ten-pound rifle all day soon became tedious and usually unnecessary, as the perceived Indian threat faded and hunting opportunities receded. A significant number of travelers were suffering from scurvy by the end of their trips. Their typical flour and salted pork/bacon diet had very little vitamin C in it. The diet in the mining camps was also typically low in fresh vegetables and fruit, which indirectly led to early deaths of many of the inhabitants. Some believe that scurvy deaths may have rivaled cholera as a killer, with most deaths occurring after the victim reached California. [100] Miscellaneous deaths included deaths by childbirth, falling trees, flash floods, homicides, kicks by animals, lightning strikes, snake bites, and stampedes. According to an evaluation by John Unruh, [101] a 4 percent death rate or 16,000 out of 400,000 total pioneers on all trails may have died on the trail. Reaching the Sierra Nevada before the start of the winter storms was critical for a successful completion of a trip. The most famous failure in that regard was that of the Donner Party , whose members struggled to traverse what is today called Donner Pass , in November 1846. When the last survivor was rescued in April 1847, 33 men, women, and children had died at Donner Lake ; with some of the 48 survivors' confessing to having resorted to cannibalism to survive. [102] Other trails west [ edit ] There were other possible migration paths for early settlers, miners, or travelers to California or Oregon besides the Oregon trail prior to the establishment of the transcontinental railroads . From 1821–1846, the Hudson's Bay Company twice annually used the York Factory Express overland trade route from Fort Vancouver to Hudson Bay then on to London. James Sinclair led a large party of nearly 200 settlers from the Red River Colony in 1841. These northern routes were largely abandoned after Britain ceded its claim to the southern Columbia River basin by way of the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The longest trip was the voyage of about 13,600 to 15,000 miles (21,900 to 24,100 km) on an uncomfortable sailing ship rounding the treacherous, cold, and dangerous Cape Horn between Antarctica and South America and then sailing on to California or Oregon. This trip typically took four to seven months (120 to 210 days) and cost about $350 to $500. The cost could be reduced to zero if you signed on as a crewman and worked as a common seaman. The hundreds of abandoned ships, whose crews had deserted in San Francisco Bay in 1849–50, showed many thousands chose to do this. Other routes involved taking a ship to Colón, Panama (then called Aspinwall) and a strenuous, disease ridden, five- to seven-day trip by canoe and mule over the Isthmus of Panama before catching a ship from Panama City, Panama to Oregon or California. This trip could be done from the east coast theoretically in less than two months if all ship connections were made without waits and typically cost about $450/person. Catching a fatal disease was a distinct possibility as Ulysses S. Grant in 1852 learned when his unit of about 600 soldiers and some of their dependents traversed the Isthmus and lost about 120 men, women, and children. [103] This passage was considerably sped up and made safer in 1855 when the Panama Railroad was completed at terrible cost in money and life across the Isthmus. The once treacherous 50-mile (80 km) trip could be done in less than a day. The time and the cost for transit dropped as regular paddle wheel steamships and sailing ships went from ports on the east coast and New Orleans, Louisiana, to Colón, Panama ($80–$100), across the Isthmus of Panama by railroad ($25) and by paddle wheel steamships and sailing ships to ports in California and Oregon ($100–$150). Another route established by Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1849 was across Nicaragua . The 120-mile (190 km) long San Juan River to the Atlantic Ocean helps drain the 100-mile (160 km) long Lake Nicaragua . From the western shore of Lake Nicaragua it is only about 12 miles (19 km) to the Pacific Ocean. Vanderbilt decided to use paddle wheel steam ships from the U.S. to the San Juan River, small paddle wheel steam launches on the San Juan River, boats across Lake Nicaragua, and a stage coach to the Pacific where connections could be made with another ship headed to California, Oregon, etc.. Vanderbilt, by undercutting fares to the Isthmus of Panama and stealing many of the Panama Railroad workers, managed to attract roughly 30% of the California bound steam boat traffic. All his connections in Nicaragua were never completely worked out before the Panama Railroad's completion in 1855. Civil strife in Nicaragua and a payment to Cornelius Vanderbilt of a \"non-compete\" payment (bribe) of $56,000 per year killed the whole project in 1855. [104] Another possible route consisted of taking a ship to Mexico traversing the country and then catching another ship out of Acapulco , Mexico to California etc. This route was used by some adventurous travelers but was not too popular because of the difficulties of making connections and the often hostile population along the way. The Gila Trail going along the Gila River in Arizona , across the Colorado River and then across the Sonora Desert in California was scouted by Stephen Kearny 's troops and later by Captain Philip St. George Cooke 's Mormon Battalion in 1846 who were the first to take a wagon the whole way. This route was used by many gold hungry miners in 1849 and later but suffered from the disadvantage that you had to find a way across the very wide and very dry Sonora Desert. It was used by many in 1849 and later as a winter crossing to California, despite its many disadvantages. Running from 1857 to 1861, the Butterfield Stage Line won the $600,000/yr. U.S. mail contract to deliver mail to San Francisco, California. As dictated by southern Congressional members, the 2,800-mile (4,500 km) route ran from St. Louis , Missouri through Arkansas , Oklahoma Indian Territory , Texas, New Mexico Territory , and across the Sonora Desert before ending in San Francisco, California. Employing over 800 at its peak, it used 250 Concord Stagecoaches seating 12 very crowded passengers in three rows. It used 1,800 head of stock, horses and mules and 139 relay stations to ensure the stages ran day and night. A one way fare of $200 delivered a very thrashed and tired passenger into San Francisco in 25 to 28 days. After traveling the route, New York Herald reporter Waterman Ormsby said, \"I now know what Hell is like. I've just had 24 days of it.\" Other ways to get to Oregon were: using the York Factory Express route across Canada, and down the Columbia River; ships from Hawaii, San Francisco, or other ports that stopped in Oregon; emigrants trailing up from California, etc. All provided a trickle of emigrants, but they were soon overwhelmed in numbers by the emigrants coming over the Oregon Trail. The ultimate competitor arrived in 1869, the First Transcontinental Railroad , which cut travel time to about seven days at a low fare of about $60 (economy) [105] Legacy [ edit ] One of the enduring legacies of the Oregon Trail is the expansion of the United States territory to the West Coast. Without the many thousands of United States settlers in Oregon and California, and thousands more on their way each year, it is highly unlikely that this would have occurred. Art, entertainment, and media [ edit ] The western expansion, and the Oregon Trail in particular, inspired numerous creative works about the settlers' experiences. Games [ edit ] The story of the Oregon Trail inspired the popular educational computer game, The Oregon Trail (1971), which became widely popular in the 1980s and early 1990s. Several sequels to the game were also released, such as The Oregon Trail II (1995), The Yukon Trail (1994), and The Amazon Trail (1994). Music [ edit ] The song \" Uncle Sam's Farm \" encouraged east-coast dwellers to \"Come right away. Our lands they are broad enough, so don't be alarmed. Uncle Sam is rich enough to give us all a farm.\" In \"Western Country\", the singer exhorts that, \"if I had no horse at all, I'd still be a hauling, far across those Rocky Mountains, goin' away to Oregon.\" [ citation needed ] Television [ edit ] The Oregon Trail was a television series that ran from September 22 through October 26, 1977, on NBC. The show stars Rod Taylor , Tony Becker, Darleen Carr, Charles Napier , and Ken Swofford. Although the show was canceled after six episodes, the remaining seven episodes were later aired on BBC 2 in the United Kingdom, [106] the entire series was shown in the UK on BBC1, from November 1977 to January 1978, and in On April 13, 2010, Timeless Media Group (TMG) released in the USA the entire show on six DVDs, running 750 minutes. The set includes 14 original episodes, including the feature-length pilot and the six episodes that did not air on NBC. [107] Commemorative Coin [ edit ] The Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar was coined to commemorate the route. Issued intermittently between 1926 and 1939, 202,928 were sold to the public. With 131,050 minted in 1926, that year's issue remains readily available for collectors. See also [ edit ] Kansas Territory Landmarks of the Nebraska Territory National Historic Oregon Trail Interpretive Center National Historic Trails Interpretive Center Nebraska Territory Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar Route of the Oregon Trail The Oregon Trail: Sketches of Prairie and Rocky-Mountain Life The West as America Art Exhibition Trailside Center References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Basic Facts About the Oregon Trail\" . U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT . n.d. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . Retrieved May 12, 2016 . Jump up ^ Federal Writers Project (1939). The Oregon Trail: The Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean . Open Library. p. 215 . Retrieved January 11, 2013 . Jump up ^ Johnson, Randall A. \"The Mullan Road: A Real Northwest Passage\" (Reprint of 1995 article in The Pacific Northwesterner , Vol. 39, No. 2) . History Ink . Retrieved January 12, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Tonquin\" . The Canadian Encyclopedia . Archived from the original on June 6, 2013 . Retrieved 11 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia . The Canadian Encyclopedia. ISBN 9780771020995 . Jump up ^ \"Map of Astorian expedition, Lewis and Clark expedition, Oregon Trail, etc. in Pacific Northwest etc\" . oregon.com. Archived from the original on February 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 31, 2008 . Jump up ^ Rollins, Philip Ashton (1995). The Discovery of the Oregon Trail: Robert Stuart's Narratives of His Overland Trip Eastward from Astoria in 1812–13 . University of Nebraska. ISBN 0-8032-9234-1 . ^ Jump up to: a b Mackie, Richard Somerset (1997). Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific; 1793 - 1843 . UBC Press. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-7748-0613-8 . Retrieved 11 May 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fort Colville\" . Nwcouncil.org . Retrieved March 19, 2011 . Jump up ^ Red River Settlers in Oregon , Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ \"Area Histories: Historical Maps\" . North East Winnipeg Historical Society Inc. (2010) . Retrieved October 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ It was not until later that the Ogallala Aquifer was discovered and used for irrigation, dry farming techniques developed and railtracks laid. Jump up ^ \"IDAHO FUR TRADE\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on April 16, 2009 . Retrieved April 16, 2009 . Jump up ^ Gowans, Fred R. Rocky Mountain Rendezvous , pg 27. Gibbs Smith Publisher. ISBN 1-58685-756-8 Jump up ^ The Adventures of Captain Bonneville s:The Adventures of Captain Bonneville Jump up ^ Frémont's Map of California and Oregon , Retrieved December 23, 2009 Jump up ^ \"Protestant Ladder\" . Oregon Historical Society . Archived from the original on June 14, 2012. Jump up ^ \"Oregon Emigrants 1839\" . Oregonpioneers.com . Retrieved May 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Oldham, Kit (2003). \"Robert Newell and Joseph Meek reach Fort Walla Walla\" . www.historylink.org . Retrieved 2017-10-12 . Jump up ^ Members of the party later disagreed over the size of the party, one stating 160 adults and children were in the party, while another counted 105. Jump up ^ \"The Wagon Train of 1843: The Great Migration\" . Archived from the original on May 31, 2008 . Retrieved December 22, 2007 . Jump up ^ Events in The West: 1840–1850 PBS. Retrieved December 22, 2007. Jump up ^ Lillian Schlissel, \"Women's diaries on the western frontier.\" American Studies (1977): 87-100 online . Jump up ^ Sandra L. Myres, ed., Ho for California!: Women's Overland Diaries from the Huntington Library (Huntington Library Press, 1980) Jump up ^ Glenda Riley, \"The Specter of a Savage: Rumors and Alarmism on the Overland Trail.\" Western Historical Quarterly (1984): 427-444 in JSTOR . Jump up ^ Kenneth L. Holmes, Covered Wagon Women, Volume 1, Introduction by Anne M. Butler, ebook version, University of Nebraska Press, (1983) pp 1-10. Jump up ^ From the letter of Anna Maria King, in Covered Wagon Women, Volume 1, by Kenneth L. Holmes, ebook version, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1983, Page 41. Jump up ^ Peavy, Linda S. , and Ursula Smith. Pioneer Women: The Lives of Women on the Frontier . University of Oklahoma Press, 1998, p. 40. Jump up ^ From the letter of Betsey Bayley, in Covered Wagon Women, Volume 1, by Kenneth L. Holmes, ebook version, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1983, Page 35. Jump up ^ \"Mormons in Iowa towns\" . Archived from the original on July 19, 2011 . Retrieved January 5, 2009 . Jump up ^ Peters 1996 , pp. 109. Jump up ^ \"American West - Oregon Trail\" . American West . Archived from the original on December 10, 2010. Jump up ^ The 1850 U.S. California Census, the first census that included everyone, showed only about 7,019 females with 4,165 non-Indian females older than 15 in the state. To find a \"correct\" census there should be added about 20,000 men and about 1,300 females from San Francisco, Santa Clara, and Contra Costa counties whose censuses were lost and not included in the official totals. [1] Retrieved August 18, 2011 Jump up ^ U.S. Seventh Census 1850: California Retrieved August 18, 2011 Jump up ^ Greeley, Horace. \"An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859\" . www.yosemite.ca.us . Retrieved 2017-10-13 . Jump up ^ Unruh:op. cit. pp 410 Jump up ^ Simpson, Capt. J. H. (1876). \"Report of Explorations across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah\" . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office: 25–26. ^ Jump up to: a b Pony Express Trail maps , Retrieved January 28, 2009 Jump up ^ Unruh, John D (1993). The Plains Across the Overland Emigrants and Trans-Mississippi West 1840–1860 . University of Illinois Press. pp. 392, 512. ISBN 978-0-252-06360-2 . Jump up ^ Barry, Louise. The Beginnings of the West . 1972. pp 1084–85 Jump up ^ \"Railroad ticket 1870 Transcontinental Railroad Statistics\" . Archived from the original on June 24, 2009 . Retrieved January 21, 2009 . Jump up ^ Ventures and Adventures of Ezra Meeker: Or, Sixty Years of Frontier Life by Ezra Meeker. Rainer Printing Company 1908. ASIN: B000861WA8 Jump up ^ North America Travel Guide. \"Saint Peters: Missouri\" . North America Travel Guide . Retrieved August 30, 2007 . Jump up ^ Larry and Carolyn. \"Franklin Missouri The Beginning of the Santa Fe Trail\" . www.santafetrailresearch.com . Retrieved 2017-10-13 . Jump up ^ \"Winter Quarters Project\" . Winterquarters.byu.edu. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011 . Retrieved March 19, 2011 . Jump up ^ Mattes, Merrill J. The Great Platte River Road . Bison Books, 1987. ISBN 978-0-8032-8153-0 Jump up ^ \"The Oregon Trail in Western Nebraska\" . www.globalclassroom.org . Retrieved 2017-10-13 . Jump up ^ Nelson, Greg. \"NE - OCTA Home Page\" . gnelson.incolor.com . Retrieved 2017-10-13 . Jump up ^ Oregon Trail Nebraska eastern Wyoming NPS road guide, accessed February 8, 2010 Jump up ^ \"Chronological List of Fort Laramie History\" . Archived from the original on November 21, 2008. Jump up ^ \"Treading the Elephant's Tail: Medical Problems on the Overland Trails\". Overland Journal, Volume 6, Number 1, 1988; Peter D. Olch; Pp. 25–31; ISBN 978-0-674-00881-6 Jump up ^ \"The Hastings Cutoff Introduction\" . scienceviews.com . Retrieved 2017-10-13 . Jump up ^ \"Lincoln County Photos II-Wyoming Tales and Trails\" . Wyomingtalesandtrails.com. June 30, 1952. Archived from the original on May 27, 2011 . Retrieved March 19, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Sublette–Greenwood Cutoff Map\" . Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office . Retrieved May 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Additional estimate for Fort Kearney, South Pass, and Honey Lake wagon road: letter from the acting Secretary of the Interior, transmitting a communication from Colonel Lander in regard to the Fort Kearney, South Pass and Honey Lake wagon road\" . United States. Dept. of the Interior . Retrieved March 19, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Federal Road Construction\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 4, 2011 . Retrieved March 19, 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Unruh : page 119–120 Jump up ^ \"Lander Road Cutoff Map\" . Wyoshpo.state.wy.us . Retrieved May 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho\"; Bureau of Land Management & Idaho State Historical Society;1993; pp 117–125 ASIN: B000KE2KTU Jump up ^ \"An Emigrant Train from the top of Big Mountain entering the valley of the Great Salt Lake\" . Utah Division of Parks and Recreation . Archived from the original on February 11, 2006. Jump up ^ Schindler, Hal (June 5, 1994). \"It's Sam Hensley-Not Hansel-Who Discovered Cutoff\" . The Salt Lake Tribune . pp. D1 . Retrieved September 17, 2009 . Jump up ^ Big Hill Idaho . OCTA Idaho accessed February 5, 2009 Jump up ^ The National Oregon-California Trail Center Retrieved February 25, 2009 Jump up ^ Soda Springs quotes Idaho State Historical Society [2] Retrieved February 25, 2009 Jump up ^ Hudspeth cutoff map (OCTA-Idaho) [3] Accessed February 5, 2009 Jump up ^ For an Oregon-California trail map up to the junction in Idaho NPS Oregon National Historic Trail Map . Retrieved January 28, 2009. Jump up ^ Northern Nevada and Utah, Southern Idaho Tail Map Accessed February 9, 2009 Jump up ^ [4] Archived July 21, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Oregon Trail North Side Alternate , Retrieved February 25, 2009 Jump up ^ map of North Side Alternate Archived March 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ., Retrieved February 25, 2009 Jump up ^ Goodale's Cutoff NPS [5] Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ Three Island Crossing photos Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ Three Island Crossing quotes \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on February 6, 2009 . Retrieved February 23, 2009 . Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ Three Mile Island Crossing Park , Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ National Trail Map Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ \"IdahoHistory.net\" (PDF) . IdahoHistory.net. July 7, 2010 . Retrieved March 19, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Oregon Trail Monuments\" . Boise City Department of Arts & History. Archived from the original on May 15, 2013 . Retrieved March 2, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m David Dary, The Oregon Trail: An American Saga (Knopt, 2004), pp. 79-80. ^ Jump up to: a b c Mike Stamm, The Mule Alternative: The Saddle Mule in the American West (1992), p. 61-62. Jump up ^ George R. Stewart, The California Trail: An Epic with Many Heroes (1962), p. 40. Jump up ^ Dary, David (2004). The Oregon Trail an American Saga . New York: Alfred P. Knopf. p. 274. ISBN 0-375-41399-5 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w McLynn, Frank (2002). Wagons West: The Epic Story of America's Overland Trails . Random House. pp. 103–04. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Reginald Horsman, Feast or Famine: Food and Drink in American Westward Expansion (University of Missouri Press, 2008), pp. 128-31. Jump up ^ Unruh :op. cit. pp 4–5 Jump up ^ Unruh : pp 149–155 Jump up ^ Unruh : pp 149–150 Jump up ^ Unruh : p 150 Jump up ^ \"Supplies\" . Oregon Trail Center. Jump up ^ Unruh (1992). The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1860 . pp. 119–20. ^ Jump up to: a b Mormon Pioneer Companies [6] Retrieved April 11, 2009 Jump up ^ Mattes, Merril J.; \"The Great Platte River Road\"; p23; Nebraska State Historical Society; 1979: ISBN 978-0-686-26254-1 Jump up ^ Mattes,Merrill J.; op. cit.; p 23 Jump up ^ A. Roman, ed. (January 1881). \"The Californian\" . The Californian . San Francisco, CA: The California Publishing Company. III . Old Californians, page 48, by Joaquin Miller . Retrieved March 9, 2015 . The cowards did not start to the Pacific Coast in the old days; all the weak died on the way. And so it was that we had then not only a race of giants, but of gods. Jump up ^ Lloyd W. Coffman, 1993, Blazing A Wagon Trail To Oregon Jump up ^ \"U.S. Census 1790–1870\" (PDF) . Retrieved May 20, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Territory Jump up ^ Dary, David (2004). The Oregon Trail an American Saga . New York: Alfred P. Knopf. pp. 272–275. ISBN 0-375-41399-5 . Jump up ^ Unruh : page 408 Jump up ^ Unruh : pp 408–410, 516 Jump up ^ Steele, Volney M.D. Bleed, Blister, and Purge: A History of Medicine on the American Frontier . Mountain Press Publishing Company, 2005. pp 115, 116. ISBN 978-0-87842-505-1 Jump up ^ Unruh, John David (1993). 'The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1860 . University of Illinois Press. pp. 408–410, 516. ISBN 978-0-252-06360-2 . Jump up ^ Peters 1996 , pp. 102-109. Jump up ^ Brooks D. Simpson; Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph Over Adversity, 1822–1865; 2000, ISBN 978-0-395-65994-6 , pg. 55 Jump up ^ \"Nicaragua Route\" . Jump up ^ Railroad fares 1869 Retrieved February 22, 2009 Jump up ^ \" The Oregon Trail \" . CBS Interactive . Retrieved January 11, 2013 . Jump up ^ Lambert, David (March 12, 2010). \"The Oregon Trail - The '70s NBC Show Starring Rod Taylor Comes to DVD with Unaired Episodes\" . TV Shows on DVD . TV Guide Online . Retrieved April 20, 2015 . Bibliography [ edit ] Bagley, Will. So Rugged and Mountainous: Blazing the Trails to Oregon and California, 1812–1848 (University of Oklahoma Press; 458 pages; 2010). First book in a projected four-volume study of the course and impact of western migration. Faragher, John Mack. Women and Men on the Overland Trail (2nd ed. 2001) excerpt and text search Federal Writers' Project. The Oregon trail: the Missouri River to the Pacific ocean (1939) online edition , 244pp Hanson, T J (2001). Western Passage . Bookmasters, Inc. ISBN 0-9705847-0-9 . Peters, Arthur K. (1996). Seven trail west . Abbeville Press. ISBN 1-55859-782-4 . Unruh, John David. The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1860 (1979) University of Illinois Press. the standard scholarly history Primary sources [ edit ] Crawford, Medorem (1897). Journal of Medorem Crawford: an account of his trip across the plains with the Oregon pioneers of 1842 (DJVU) . Star Job Office. OCLC 5001642 . Hewitt, Randall (1863). Notes by the way: memoranda of a journey across the plains, from Dundee, Ill., to Olympia, W. T. May 7, to November 3, 1862 (DJVU) . Washington Standard. OCLC 51465106 . Myres, Sandra L., ed. Ho for California!: Women's Overland Diaries from the Huntington Library (2007) Parkman, Francis , The Oregon Trail: Sketches of Prairie and Rocky-Mountain Life . University of Virginia Press ., personal account by a famous historian Smedley, William (1916). Across the plains in '62 (DJVU) . ISBN 0-87770-460-0 . OCLC 4981167 . Ward, D. B. (1911). Across the plains in 1853 (DJVU) . Ward. ISBN 0-8466-0061-7 . OCLC 2931824 . Williams, Joseph (1921). Narrative of a tour from the state of Indiana to the Oregon Territory in the years 1841–2 (DJVU) . Standard. ISBN 0-87770-172-5 . OCLC 2095243 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oregon Trail . Find more about Oregon Trail at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Oregon National Historic Trail (National Park Service) National Trail Map Oregon Trail Map (archived from broken National Park Service link) California Trail Map (archived from broken National Park Service link) Oregon Trail history (archived from broken Oregon Department of Transportation link) (with maps) Pathways of Pioneers: Idaho's Oregon Trail Legacy Documentary produced by Idaho Public Television [ show ] v t e U.S. National Trails System National Geologic Trail Ice Age Floods Trail National Historic Trails Scenic motor routes California Trail El Camino Real de los Tejas Trail El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Juan Bautista de Anza Trail Mormon Trail Nez Perce Trail Old Spanish Trail Oregon Trail Pony Express Trail Santa Fe Trail Selma to Montgomery Trail Trail of Tears Natural surface trails Ala Kahakai Trail Iditarod Trail Water trails Captain John Smith Chesapeake Trail Combination Lewis and Clark Trail (motor & land & water) Overmountain Victory Trail (motor & land) Star-Spangled Banner Trail (motor & water) Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route (motor & water) National Scenic Trails Appalachian Trail Arizona Trail Continental Divide Trail New England Trail Florida Trail Ice Age Trail Natchez Trace Trail North Country Trail Pacific Crest Trail Pacific Northwest Trail Potomac Heritage Trail National Water Trails Alabama Scenic River Trail Bronx River Blueway Chattahoochee River Water Trail Hudson River Greenway Water Trail Island Loop Route Kansas River Trail Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Water Trail Mississippi River Water Trail (MRWT) Great River Water Trail Missouri National Recreational River Water Trail Okefenokee Wilderness Canoe Trails Red Rock Water Trail Rock River Water Trail Waccamaw River Blue Trail Willamette River Water Trail National Recreation Trails National Park Service United States Forest Service Bureau of Land Management Related Triple Crown of Hiking [ show ] v t e Pioneer history of Oregon (1806–1890) Topics American Fur Company Columbian Exchange Executive Committee Ferries Hudson's Bay Company Oregon & California Railroad Oregon boundary dispute Oregon Country Oregon Lyceum Oregon missionaries Oregon Spectator Oregon Territory Oregon Trail Oregon Treaty Organic Laws Pacific Fur Company Provisional Government Events Treaty of 1818 Russo-American Treaty of 1824 Willamette Cattle Company Champoeg Meetings Star of Oregon Whitman massacre Cayuse War Donation Land Claim Act Holmes v. Ford Rogue River Wars Constitutional Convention Modoc War Great Gale of 1880 Places Albina Applegate Trail Barlow Road Canemah Champoeg Elliott Cutoff Fort Astoria Fort Dalles Fort Vancouver Fort William French Prairie Linn City Meek Cutoff Methodist Mission Oregon City Oregon Institute Philip Foster Farm Thomas and Ruckle Road Tualatin Academy Whitman Mission Willamette Trading Post People George Abernethy Jesse Applegate Ira Babcock Sam Barlow François Blanchet William H. Boring Elijah Bristow Tabitha Brown Matthew Deady Abigail Scott Duniway Thomas Lamb Eliot Philip Foster Peter French Joseph Gale Cornelius Gilliam David Hill Chief Joseph Joseph Kellogg H.A.G. Lee Jason Lee David Thomas Lenox Asa Lovejoy Morton M. McCarver John McLoughlin Joseph Meek Ezra Meeker James D. Miller John Minto Robert Newell Joel Palmer Osborne Russell Sager orphans Levi Scott Henry Spalding William Vandevert Elijah White Marcus Whitman Narcissa Whitman Geo. H. 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{ "text": "List of Batman: The Animated Series episodes - Wikipedia List of Batman: The Animated Series episodes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Batman: The Animated Series is an American television series based on the DC Comics superhero Batman , which was produced by Warner Bros. Animation and originally aired on Fox from 1992 to 1995; lasting 85 episodes. The series has since aired in re-runs on various other broadcast and cable networks, including The WB , Cartoon Network , Boomerang and The Hub . Each episode is approximately 22 minutes long, excluding commercials. The series is part of what has become known as the DC animated universe , which consists of eight animated television shows and four animated films, largely surrounding DC Comics characters and their respective mythos . Contents [ hide ] 1 Series overview 2 Episode list 2.1 Season one (1992–1993) 2.2 Season two (1994–1995) 3 See also 4 References Series overview [ edit ] Season Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired 1 65 September 5, 1992 ( 1992-09-05 ) September 17, 1993 ( 1993-09-17 ) 2 20 May 2, 1994 ( 1994-05-02 ) September 15, 1995 ( 1995-09-15 ) Episode list [ edit ] Note: This article lists the episodes in their DVD release order, rather than by their original air dates or their production order. Season one (1992–1993) [ edit ] 65 episodes were produced for season one, due to it being the minimum number of episodes necessary for a TV series to be successfully syndicated. 60 of these episodes were initially aired during the 1992–1993 television season, which ran from September 1992 to May 1993. The final five episodes of season one were held back until September 1993. Episodes 1 to 28 were released on DVD in the Batman: The Animated Series Volume One set; episodes 29 to 56 in the Volume Two set; and episodes 57 to 65 in the Volume Three set. No. in series No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Villain(s) 1 1 \" On Leather Wings \" Kevin Altieri Mitch Brian September 6, 1992 ( 1992-09-06 ) (primetime) September 24, 1992 ( 1992-09-24 ) (weekday) Man-Bat A mysterious bat-like creature terrorizes Gotham City , causing the police force to pursue Batman. The Dark Knight must find the real perpetrator to clear his name. 2 2 \" Christmas with the Joker \" Kent Butterworth Eddie Gorodetsky November 13, 1992 ( 1992-11-13 ) The Joker After escaping Arkham Asylum on Christmas Eve , The Joker takes over Gotham's airwaves and terrorizes the city for a crime. He challenges Batman and Robin to find his hidden TV studio and free his hostages — Commissioner Gordon, Detective Bullock and Summer Gleeson — before midnight. 3 3 \"Nothing to Fear\" Boyd Kirkland Henry T. Gilroy and Sean Catherine Derek September 15, 1992 ( 1992-09-15 ) The Scarecrow Batman encounters the Scarecrow and attempts to foil his scheme to burn down Gotham University, but in the process is exposed to the Scarecrow's fear gas , and is forced to face his own guilt over the death of his parents. Note : This episode introduced the popular line; \"I am vengeance. I am the night. I am Batman!\" [1] 4 4 \"The Last Laugh\" Kevin Altieri Carl Swenson September 22, 1992 ( 1992-09-22 ) The Joker The Joker covers Gotham City in a cloud of laughing gas and begins plundering the crazed city. But after Alfred is infected with the toxin, Batman has added incentive to stop the Joker and acquire an antidote from him before all of Gotham dies with a smile. 5 5 \"Pretty Poison\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Paul Dini and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Tom Ruegger September 14, 1992 ( 1992-09-14 ) Poison Ivy When District Attorney Harvey Dent collapses after a meal with his fiancée Pamela Isley and friend Bruce Wayne, doctors discover that he has been poisoned. Batman must find the culprit and the antidote before the DA's time runs out. 6 6 \"The Underdwellers\" Frank Paur Story by : Tom Ruegger Teleplay by : Jules Dennis and Richard Mueller October 21, 1992 ( 1992-10-21 ) Sewer King Batman traces a series of bizarre robberies on the streets of Gotham back to a band of homeless children, who have been raised to do the bidding of their master, the Sewer King. 7 7 \"P.O.V.\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Mitch Brian Teleplay by : Sean Catherine Derek and Laren Bright September 18, 1992 ( 1992-09-18 ) The Drug Lord and his Gangsters A botched police operation results in the suspension of those involved: Officer Wilkes, Officer Montoya , and Detective Bullock. Confronted by their superiors, each of them is forced to tell their tale of what happened that night. 8 8 \"The Forgotten\" Boyd Kirkland Jules Dennis, Richard Mueller and Sean Catherine Derek October 8, 1992 ( 1992-10-08 ) Boss Biggis and his henchmen While investigating the disappearances of Gotham's homeless in an undercover disguise, Bruce Wayne is kidnapped and imprisoned in a chain gang mining camp, suffering from amnesia . Alfred must thus track him down, help him escape, and free the rest of the prisoners. 9 9 \"Be a Clown\" Frank Paur Ted Pedersen and Steve Hayes September 16, 1992 ( 1992-09-16 ) The Joker Mayor Hamilton Hill 's miserable son, Jordan, becomes even sadder when his father uses his birthday party as a political gathering, and ends up stowing away in the truck of the party clown hired by Hill for the party, whom he doesn't know is actually the Joker in disguise. It is now up to Batman, whom Mayor Hill distrusts, to rescue the boy before it is too late. 10 10 \"Two-Face: Part 1\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Alan Burnett Teleplay by : Randy Rogel September 25, 1992 ( 1992-09-25 ) Rupert Thorne Mobster Rupert Thorne attempts to use Harvey Dent's secret split personality to blackmail him. But when Dent meets with Thorne at a chemical plant, \"Big Bad Harv\" takes over, and the resulting confrontation leads to an explosion that horribly scars half of Dent's face. 11 11 \"Two-Face: Part 2\" Kevin Altieri Randy Rogel September 28, 1992 ( 1992-09-28 ) Rupert Thorne and Two-Face Harvey Dent, now calling himself Two-Face, resurfaces and starts robbing Rupert Thorne's illegal businesses, preparing for a final confrontation with the crime boss, and Batman must stop his former friend before he and Thorne kill each other. Note : Batman's method of defeating Two-Face in this episode (using a case of coins) was later used in the climax of Batman Forever . 12 12 \"It's Never Too Late\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Tom Ruegger Teleplay by : Garin Wolf September 10, 1992 ( 1992-09-10 ) (weekday) January 17, 1993 ( 1993-01-17 ) (primetime) Rupert Thorne and Arnold Stromwell A mob war between crime bosses Rupert Thorne and Arnold Stromwell is nearing its end, and comes to a climax when Stromwell is set up to be killed in an exploding restaurant by Thorne. Batman saves him at the last moment, and aided by Stromwell's brother (now a priest who lost his leg years before, an accident for which Stromwell carries a secret guilt), tries to persuade him to give up his life of crime and help the police bring Thorne down by testifying against him. 13 13 \"I've Got Batman in My Basement\" Frank Paur Sam Graham and Chris Hubbell September 30, 1992 ( 1992-09-30 ) The Penguin During a fight with Batman over a stolen Fabergé egg , the Penguin incapacitates Batman with poison gas. The Dark Knight is rescued by a teenage amateur detective named Sherman Grant and his friend Roberta, who hide Batman in Sherman's basement long enough for him to recover before the Penguin finds them. 14 14 \" Heart of Ice \" Bruce W. Timm Paul Dini September 7, 1992 ( 1992-09-07 ) Mr. Freeze and Ferris Boyle Bitter scientist Victor Fries, as Mr. Freeze , attacks several divisions of GothCorp , each time stealing a piece for a secret weapon he intends to build. Batman investigates the connections, and discovers that the start of Freeze's vendetta against GothCorp was a bitter falling out between Fries and GothCorp's CEO, Ferris Boyle ( Mark Hamill ), during which Boyle almost killed Fries (mutating him into Freeze) and presumably killed Fries' terminally ill wife, Nora . Batman must find a way to bring Boyle to justice before Freeze carries out his revenge. Note : This episode won the series a 1993 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in an Animated Program. [2] 15 15 \" The Cat and the Claw: Part 1 \" Kevin Altieri Story by : Sean Catherine Derek and Laren Bright September 5, 1992 ( 1992-09-05 ) Catwoman and Red Claw Batman encounters a new cat burglar calling herself Catwoman , and around the same time, meets a woman named Selina Kyle (as Bruce Wayne), to whom he is visibly attracted. When Selina runs into trouble with a terrorist group known as The Red Claw, who want the mountain lion sanctuary she was trying to protect, she decides to take matters into her own hands and investigate. 16 16 \" The Cat and the Claw: Part 2 \" Dick Sebast Story by : Sean Catherine Derek and Laren Bright Teleplay by : Jules Dennis and Richard Mueller September 12, 1992 ( 1992-09-12 ) Red Claw The leader of the Red Claw group (known herself only as Red Claw ) attacks a military train and steals a viral plague, which she intends to release in Gotham if she isn't paid a ransom, and Batman and Catwoman must put aside their differences and work together to stop Red Claw before it is too late. 17 17 \"See No Evil\" Dan Riba Martin Pasko February 24, 1993 ( 1993-02-24 ) Lloyd Ventrix Lloyd \"Eddie\" Ventrix is on the verge of losing his daughter, Kimberly, to his ex-wife, Helen, due to his past as a con artist . Determined not to lose Kimberly, Ventrix dons a suit, stolen from where he used to work while on parole, which grants the user invisibility but also becomes highly toxic, and poses as Kimberly's imaginary friend, Mojo, while stealing jewellery for her. Batman must solve the mystery crimes and stop Ventrix, despite the fact that he cannot even see him. Note : Michael Gross , who provided the voice of Ventrix, later voiced Warren McGinnis in Batman Beyond . 18 18 \" Beware the Gray Ghost \" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Dennis O'Flaherty and Tom Ruegger Teleplay by : Garin Wolf and Tom Ruegger November 4, 1992 ( 1992-11-04 ) The Mad Bomber Simon Trent, an actor best known for his past role as \"The Gray Ghost\", is on the verge of bankruptcy thanks to his declining career. To save himself, he sells off all of his Gray Ghost merchandise. Immediately afterwards, a series of crimes related to the old show begin to occur. Batman, having himself been inspired partly by the show to become the crimefighter he now is, goes to Trent for help, and they team up to put an end to the crimes, and also revive Trent's career. Note : The Gray Ghost was voiced by Adam West , the star of the 1960s television show Batman . 19 19 \"Prophecy of Doom\" Frank Paur Story by : Dennis Marks Teleplay by : Sean Catherine Derek October 6, 1992 ( 1992-10-06 ) Nostromos and Lucus Batman investigates a cult, called the Brotherhood, founded by the \"mystic\" Nostromos, after hearing about a number of stories from his colleagues about his ability to predict the future. Batman finds out that Nostromos is actually a con artist who was rigging near-fatal accidents to gain the confidence of Gotham's upper class citizens, and he must expose this ruse before it is too late. 20 20 \"Feat of Clay: Part 1\" Dick Sebast Story by : Marv Wolfman and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Marv Wolfman September 8, 1992 ( 1992-09-08 ) Roland Daggett Bruce Wayne is framed for the attempted murder of Lucius Fox . The real perpetrator is an actor and master of disguise named Matt Hagen, who was disfigured in a car accident years ago. In order to keep his fame, he secretly started working for Roland Daggett , who provides him with a monthly supply of an addictive face cream known as Renuyu (a pun on \"Renew You\") that can temporarily reshape his face back to normal, and who wants to take Wayne Enterprises over for marketing expansion. For botching the murder, Hagen's supply is cut off, and when he breaks into Daggett's lab for more Renuyu, he pays the price dearly when Daggett's men drench his face in the formula and force him to swallow liters of it to avoid drowning. Meanwhile, Bruce Wayne is arrested and taken into custody, charged with the assault on Fox. 21 21 \"Feat of Clay: Part 2\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Marv Wolfman and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Michael Reaves September 9, 1992 ( 1992-09-09 ) Clayface and Roland Daggett Bruce Wayne is released from prison on bail. Hagen, as it turns out, survived the murder attempt on him, but at a high cost: the formula entered his body and soaked every single one of his cells, turning him into a shape-shifting mutant. With his newfound powers, Hagen, now calling himself Clayface , decides to take his revenge on Daggett and his men, and Batman must bring Daggett to justice and stop Clayface before innocent people are hurt. 22 22 \" Joker's Favor \" Boyd Kirkland Paul Dini September 11, 1992 ( 1992-09-11 ) (weekday) January 31, 1993 ( 1993-01-31 ) (primetime) The Joker and Harley Quinn After a man named Charlie Collins curses at the Joker on the road for offensive driving, the Clown Prince of Crime corners him and intimidates him into doing him a \"small favor\". Two years pass, and the Joker finally decides how to use Charlie: to sneak a bomb into the Peregrinator's Club, where Commissioner Gordon is to give a speech at an award ceremony. Charlie, who merely has to open the door, is skeptical at first, but for the sake of his family, he reluctantly decides to obey. Note : This episode features the debut appearance of the Joker's accomplice and love interest, Harley Quinn . 23 23 \"Vendetta\" Frank Paur Michael Reaves October 5, 1992 ( 1992-10-05 ) Killer Croc Detective Bullock is arrested for kidnapping. Batman, who dislikes Bullock but nevertheless believes him to be a good man, investigates, and discovers the identity of the real criminal: Killer Croc , who harbors a vendetta against Bullock for capturing him once. Batman must clear Bullock's name before it is too late. 24 24 \"Fear of Victory\" Dick Sebast Samuel Warren Joseph September 29, 1992 ( 1992-09-29 ) The Scarecrow The Scarecrow invents a fear chemical that is activated by adrenaline. Then, he uses it to affect the outcome of athletic events. Whenever a single person becomes agitated, the fear chemical kicks in, turning his excitement to fear. The Scarecrow bets against the sports stars' teams as part of his criminal scheme to scare up some quick cash, and Batman and Robin must foil his plot. 25 25 \"The Clock King\" Kevin Altieri David Wise September 21, 1992 ( 1992-09-21 ) Clock King After his company goes bankrupt, Temple Fugate becomes the Clock King. Fugate sets out to seek his revenge against the man whom he blames for his misfortunes: Mayor Hamilton Hill. Fugate kidnaps Hill, intending to do away with him to accomplish his revenge. Batman must stop Fugate from carrying out his revenge and save the mayor's life. 26 26 \"Appointment in Crime Alley\" Boyd Kirkland Gerry Conway September 17, 1992 ( 1992-09-17 ) Roland Daggett With the help of arsonists, Roland Daggett plans to destroy Crime Alley and use the land to expand his business empire. But that plan would mean killing the residents or forcing them to abandon their homes. Now, Batman must foil Daggett's plan and try to prove that he is a criminal. Note : Based on the comic-book story \"There Is No Hope in Crime Alley\" (Detective Comics #457, March 1976) by Denny O'Neil and Dick Giordano . 27 27 \"Mad as a Hatter\" Frank Paur Paul Dini October 12, 1992 ( 1992-10-12 ) The Mad Hatter Miserable Wayne Industries scientist Jervis Tetch is unable to pursue the girl he loves, Alice the secretary. When she splits up from her boyfriend, he makes an advance and develops a fast friendship with her, until her boyfriend reconciles with her and proposes to her. Enraged, Tetch decides to take matters into his own hands, and dons the mantle of the Mad Hatter , using his mind-control devices to force those who have wronged him all his life to become his mindless slaves. 28 28 \"Dreams in Darkness\" Dick Sebast Judith & Garfield Reeves-Stevens November 3, 1992 ( 1992-11-03 ) (weekday) December 20, 1992 ( 1992-12-20 ) (primetime) The Scarecrow Batman is incarcerated in Arkham Asylum after being exposed to the Scarecrow's fear-inducing gas. Batman knows that the Scarecrow has escaped for the second time and is planning to poison Gotham's water supply with the same fear-inducing gas, and he must bring himself to break the law and escape from Arkham before the Scarecrow brings Gotham to its knees. Notes : Loosely based on \" Batman: The Last Arkham \" of Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1–4 by Alan Grant . This episode adapted the comic book story with the inclusion of the Scarecrow instead of Victor Zsasz and Dr. Bartholomew instead of Jeremiah Arkham . The Scarecrow's scheme in this episode was similarly used by Ra's al Ghul (with assistance from the Scarecrow) in Batman Begins . 29 29 \"Eternal Youth\" Kevin Altieri Beth Bornstein September 23, 1992 ( 1992-09-23 ) Poison Ivy Several rich industrialists are invited to the Eternal Youth Health Spa, and that's where they are last seen before disappearing. The only connection: they had something to do with the death of plants. Bruce Wayne also receives an invitation (although it was one of his greedy directors who nearly made the deal to destroy a rainforest before Bruce forced him to shut the operation down), but Alfred and his \"lady friend\", Maggie, go in his place. When they do not return, Batman is forced to investigate, discovering that the spa is run by Poison Ivy, and that she has been using a formula to turn the industrialists into humanoid trees, including Alfred and Maggie. 30 30 \" Perchance to Dream \" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Laren Bright and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Joe R. Lansdale October 19, 1992 ( 1992-10-19 ) (weekday) March 14, 1993 ( 1993-03-14 ) (primetime) The Mad Hatter Bruce Wayne wakes up one morning to find that his life is completely upside-down: his parents are alive, the Batcave does not exist, Alfred does not remember Robin, and he is engaged to Selina Kyle. However, it doesn't mean that Batman isn't still around, and Bruce starts to wonder what has happened, especially after seeing the characteristics of a dream (such as book and newspaper prints not making sense) inside this new life. 31 31 \"The Cape and Cowl Conspiracy\" Frank Paur Elliot S. Maggin October 14, 1992 ( 1992-10-14 ) Josiah Wormwood Baron Jozek, furious at Batman for humiliating him at a dinner party (over Jozek's underworld connections), hires Josiah Wormwood, a master in setting traps for his victims, to hunt down Batman and bring back the hero's cape and cowl. Note : Based on the comic-book story \"The Cape and Cowl Death Trap!\" from Detective Comics #450 August 1975, written by Elliot S. Maggin . 32 32 \" Robin's Reckoning: Part 1 \" Dick Sebast Randy Rogel February 7, 1993 ( 1993-02-07 ) (primetime) May 17, 1993 ( 1993-05-17 ) (weekday) Tony Zucco and Arnold Stromwell During a fight with some gangsters at a construction yard, Batman and Robin learn the name of their boss: Billy Marin. While Robin looks forward to going up against Marin, Batman becomes distant, and after a falling out at the Batcave, Batman doesn't allow Robin to accompany him on the search for Marin. Robin investigates on the Batcomputer, and soon realizes that Billy Marin is not the boss' real name. Rather, it is an alias of Tony Zucco , the man who killed his parents (which Batman already knew, but chose not to tell Robin). Notes : The flashbacks to Robin's origin story is based on Detective Comics #June 38, 1940. This episode won the 1993 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour) . [2] 33 33 \" Robin's Reckoning: Part 2 \" Dick Sebast Randy Rogel February 14, 1993 ( 1993-02-14 ) (primetime) May 18, 1993 ( 1993-05-18 ) (weekday) Tony Zucco Angered by Batman's deceit, Robin sets out to find Tony Zucco on his own, all the while plagued by the memories of his parents' death and how Bruce took him in as his own son. Eventually, Batman manages to find Zucco at an old amusement park, but breaks his leg during the fight. Robin finally arrives and prepares to kill Zucco in revenge. 34 34 \"The Laughing Fish\" Bruce W. Timm Paul Dini January 10, 1993 ( 1993-01-10 ) (primetime) April 27, 1993 ( 1993-04-27 ) (weekday) The Joker and Harley Quinn Joker creates a toxin that affects only fish, mutating them into Joker fish. Then, he targets innocent men who refuse to copyright his Joker fish. The Joker also captures Harvey Bullock, and Batman must rescue him and foil the Clown Prince of Crime's insane scheme. Note : This episode is based on three Batman comics, blended together; \"The Joker's Five-Way Revenge\" from Batman #251 September 1973 by Denny O'Neil with art by Neal Adams , followed by \"The Laughing Fish\" and \"Sign of the Joker!\" from Detective Comics #475 and #476, of February/March 1978, both by writer Steve Englehart with art by Marshall Rogers . 35 35 \"Night of the Ninja\" Kevin Altieri Steve Perry October 26, 1992 ( 1992-10-26 ) Kyodai Ken A mysterious ninja is robbing Wayne Enterprises subsidiaries, and Batman discovers that the ninja is actually his equal in combat. A grudge against Bruce Wayne and skills to match him can only mean one person: Kyodai Ken, an old rival of Wayne's teacher from his days in Japan, and who was thrown out of the dojo after attempting to rob it, only to be stopped by Wayne. Ken, it turns out, wants revenge. 36 36 \"Cat Scratch Fever\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Sean Catherine Derek Teleplay by : Buzz Dixon November 5, 1992 ( 1992-11-05 ) Roland Daggett and Professor Milo Batman must stop Roland Daggett's plan to release a viral plague designed by Professor Milo into Gotham by way of its stray cat population. The case gains new urgency when Catwoman becomes infected with the virus during her search for her missing cat, Isis. Now, Batman must find an antidote to save the woman who loves him most. 37 37 \"The Strange Secret of Bruce Wayne\" Frank Paur Story by : David Wise Teleplay by : Judith & Garfield Reeves-Stevens October 29, 1992 ( 1992-10-29 ) (weekday) February 28, 1993 ( 1993-02-28 ) (primetime) Hugo Strange , The Joker , Two-Face and The Penguin After a prominent judge is injured during a struggle with some thugs demanding money from her in exchange for a strange tape, Bruce Wayne decides to take a trip to Yucca Springs, a resort where the judge had vacationed, and consult Dr. Hugo Strange , a psychiatrist. Bruce soon learns that Strange has invented a machine that extracts people's darkest secrets from their minds and transfers them to videotape — and now Strange has proof of Bruce's secret identity as Batman, and plans to auction it to three of Gotham's prominent crime bosses. Note : Based on the comic stories \"The Dead Yet Live\" and \"I Am the Batman!\" from Detective Comics #471 and #472, of August/September 1977 by Steve Englehart . Dr. Strange's scheme in this episode was similarly used by the Riddler in Batman Forever . 38 38 \" Heart of Steel: Part 1 \" Kevin Altieri Brynne Stephens November 16, 1992 ( 1992-11-16 ) H.A.R.D.A.C. Several robberies take place at major companies, including Wayne Enterprises, and Bruce Wayne, as Batman, discovers the thief to be a mechanical briefcase. Bruce meets with his old friend, Karl Rossum, an expert in robotics who lost his daughter to a vehicle accident years ago. He also meets Rossum's assistant, Randa Duane, and Rossum's ultimate creation: a prototype A.I. known as Holographic Analytical Reciprocating Digital Computer ( H.A.R.D.A.C. ) Bruce invites Duane to dinner, and around the same time, certain civilians start acting strangely. Most surprising is when Duane unexpectedly leaves Wayne Manor while Bruce is on the phone, and the entire Batcave turns on Batman. Note : This episode marks the series' debut appearance of Barbara Gordon , not yet Batgirl. All of Barbara's starring appearances were in episodes written by Brynne Stephens. 39 39 \" Heart of Steel: Part 2 \" Kevin Altieri Brynne Stephens November 17, 1992 ( 1992-11-17 ) H.A.R.D.A.C. Batman manages to free himself from the Batcave's clutches, and brings it back under his control, although he fails to track Duane down. Barbara Gordon approaches Batman to inform him of her father's sudden change in behavior. A brutal fight between Batman and Detective Bullock ensues, during which Batman pushes Bullock onto the Bat Signal, and reveals him to actually be an android, meaning that the real Bullock and James Gordon have gone missing, and Batman knows who the culprit is: H.A.R.D.A.C. Batman must stop the evil supercomputer before it is too late. 40 40 \"If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Rich?\" Eric Radomski David Wise November 18, 1992 ( 1992-11-18 ) (weekday) January 3, 1993 ( 1993-01-03 ) (primetime) The Riddler Edward Nygma creates the game The Riddle of the Minotaur and makes millions for the company Competitron. He is then fired by his superior, Daniel Mockridge, who wants the profits for himself. Nygma vows revenge, and two years later, he takes up the mantle of the Riddler and traps Mockridge inside a life-sized version of the Minotaur maze. Batman's sympathy is with Nygma, but he and Robin have to stop him before he kills Mockridge, despite the fact that Mockridge cannot legally be brought to justice. Regardless, Mockridge, despite the resulting rescue, is left in a permanent all-consuming fear of Nygma's return for revenge. Note : This episode features the series' debut appearance of The Riddler . Fun fact : When Robin is playing the Minotaur game on the Batcave computer, the majority of the sound effects heard from the game are actually from the NES game Super Mario Bros. 3 . 41 41 \"Joker's Wild\" Boyd Kirkland Paul Dini November 19, 1992 ( 1992-11-19 ) (weekday) December 27, 1992 ( 1992-12-27 ) (primetime) The Joker and Cameron Kaiser Cameron Kaiser builds a casino hotel modeled after the Joker, called \"The Joker's Wild\". The Joker sees this on the news and, enraged, escapes from Arkham again, with one thought on his mind: destroying the casino, unaware that this is exactly what Kaiser wants him to do as part of an insurance claim. 42 42 \"Tyger Tyger\" Frank Paur Story by : Michael Reaves and Randy Rogel Teleplay by : Cherie Wilkerson October 30, 1992 ( 1992-10-30 ) Emile Dorian Selina Kyle is kidnapped by the villainous genetic engineer Dr. Emile Dorian and becomes his latest experiment to provide his man-cat hybrid named Tygrus with a mate. Batman learns of this and comes to the island to rescue Selina. He is captured and forced into a deadly game of cat-and-flying mouse as Tygrus hunts Batman through the island's jungles. 43 43 \"Moon of the Wolf\" Dick Sebast Len Wein November 11, 1992 ( 1992-11-11 ) The Werewolf and Professor Milo Batman investigates the appearance of a werewolf -like creature in Gotham, not realizing that the monster happens to be one of Bruce Wayne's associates — Anthony Romulus , ex-Olympic champion. Behind the scheme is twisted chemist Professor Milo. Note : Based on the comic story of the same name by writer Len Wein with art by Neal Adams , from Batman #255, April 1974. 44 44 \"Day of the Samurai\" Bruce W. Timm Steve Perry February 23, 1993 ( 1993-02-23 ) Kyodai Ken Kyodai Ken kidnaps Kari, star pupil of Yoru Sensei, the martial arts instructor who taught both Kyodai and Bruce. The ninja's ransom for her is a scroll that teaches the location of the fabled Death Touch. 45 45 \"Terror in the Sky\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Steve Perry and Mark Saraceni Teleplay by : Mark Saraceni November 12, 1992 ( 1992-11-12 ) She-Bat When a giant-sized bat ransacks Gotham harbor, Batman suspects that Dr. Kirk Langstrom is up to his old tricks, taking the Man-Bat formula again. Batman isn't the only one. Kirk's wife, Francine, is so distrustful of her husband that she decides to leave him. After further investigation, Batman discovers that this Man-Bat is not Kirk, but someone else, and thus he shames Francine's father into permanently destroying the formula. Note : Loosely based on \"Man-Bat Over Vegas\", originally presented in Detective Comics #429, by Frank Robbins . The setting has been shifted from Las Vegas to Gotham Harbor, and in keeping with the family-friendly rating of the television show, She-Bat is not a vampire in the adaptation. The final line of the episode, \"the nightmare's finally over\", is similar to one of the final lines from the original comic, \"Now Fran's vampire nightmare is about over\". 46 46 \" Almost Got 'Im \" Eric Radomski Paul Dini November 10, 1992 ( 1992-11-10 ) The Joker , Harley Quinn , Two-Face , Poison Ivy , Killer Croc and The Penguin The Joker, Killer Croc, the Penguin, Two-Face, and Poison Ivy all meet at a poker table, each telling a tale of times when they almost defeated Batman. At the same time, Harley Quinn is about to kill Catwoman after she rescued Batman from the Joker's electric chair, and Batman must save her. Notes : Influenced by a four-issue story arc in Batman (1977) #291–294, entitled \"Where Were You on the Night Batman Was Killed?\". In each of the four issues, one of Catwoman , Riddler , and The Joker all recount their claims to have killed the Batman. However, the plot for \"Almost Got 'Im\" is quite different (six stories in the show, and four completely different ones in the comic book), with only the Joker as an overlapping antagonist. Two-Face's strategy in \"Almost Got 'Im\" (strapping down Batman to a giant coin and flipping the coin in the air) was taken from the comic; World's Finest Comics #30, September 1947. In a back up tale both Batman and Robin were tied to a giant penny that was catapulted onto spikes by a lesser known villain the Penny Plunderer . 47 47 \"Birds of a Feather\" Frank Paur Story by : Chuck Menville Teleplay by : Brynne Stephens February 8, 1993 ( 1993-02-08 ) The Penguin Veronica Vreeland is looking for a way to create a splash with her next party, and arrives at the idea of having a former criminal in attendance — especially if there is one whose manners would create a stir. The Penguin, who has recently reformed, fits the bill perfectly. In the process of convincing the Penguin to come to her party, Veronica finds she likes the corpulent little guy. For his part, the Penguin begins to fall in love with her, until he overhears that he is merely being used... 48 48 \"What Is Reality?\" Dick Sebast Marty Isenberg and Robert N. Skir November 24, 1992 ( 1992-11-24 ) (weekday) March 7, 1993 ( 1993-03-07 ) (primetime) The Riddler Seeking to prove once and for all that his is the superior mind, the Riddler lures Batman into a riddle-solving contest inside the virtual reality of a computer game in order to save Commissioner Gordon's life. In the course of solving the riddles and escaping the Riddler's traps, Batman learns that he is able to manipulate the virtual reality landscape much like the Riddler does. 49 49 \"I Am the Night\" Boyd Kirkland Michael Reaves November 9, 1992 ( 1992-11-09 ) (weekday) December 13, 1992 ( 1992-12-13 ) (primetime) The Jazzman On the anniversary of the death of Bruce's parents, Batman accompanies Leslie Thompkins to Crime Alley to place roses on the spot where they were gunned down. Meanwhile, Commissioner Gordon is on stakeout to arrest Jimmy \"The Jazzman\" Peake during a drug smuggling ring. Batman had promised to be there, but arrives late to find a gun battle going on. He helps defeat the gangsters and arrest the Jazzman, but at a high cost—Gordon is severely wounded. The incident traumatizes Batman and he contemplates giving up his crime-fighting career, despite the Jazzman escaping prison to carry out his personal vendetta against Gordon (who had sent him to prison six years before). 50 50 \"Off Balance\" Kevin Altieri Len Wein November 23, 1992 ( 1992-11-23 ) Count Vertigo and Talia While following Count Vertigo 's trail, Batman encounters Talia , daughter of the head of the Society of Shadows , who was sent by her father to prevent the capture of a sonic drill that the Count stole. But after his identity is mistakenly revealed to Talia, Batman remains off-balance as to where her true loyalties lie. Note : This episode is a direct adaptation of \"Into the Den of the Death-Dealers\" from Detective Comics #411, May 1971 by Denny O'Neil with art by Bob Brown . The story is famous for the first appearance of the character Talia al Ghul . 51 51 \"The Man Who Killed Batman\" Bruce W. Timm Paul Dini February 1, 1993 ( 1993-02-01 ) The Joker , Harley Quinn and Rupert Thorne When small-time gang member Sidney \"The Squid\" Debris (played by Matt Frewer ) seemingly kills Batman by accident, he gets involved with gangs all over Gotham, as well as the Joker and Rupert Thorne, none of whom believe his story that everything that is happening is by preposterous happenstance. 52 52 \"Mudslide\" Eric Radomski Story by : Alan Burnett Teleplay by : Steve Perry September 15, 1993 ( 1993-09-15 ) Clayface Clayface is falling apart, literally. His clay-like body is disintegrating. Fortunately, a scientist he knew from his movie star days is working on a remedy. However, Hagen is forced to steal money to pay for the expensive components of the remedy. That is, until one of his targets is Wayne Biomedical Labs... 53 53 \"Paging the Crime Doctor\" Frank Paur Story by : Mike W. Barr and Laren Bright Teleplay by : Randy Rogel & Martin Pasko September 17, 1993 ( 1993-09-17 ) Rupert Thorne Dr. Matthew Thorne (played by Joseph Campanella ), losing his medical license and forced into becoming the crime doctor by his younger brother, crime boss Rupert Thorne, must perform delicate surgery on Rupert. He can't do it alone, and kidnaps Dr. Leslie Thompkins to assist. Batman discovers Leslie's disappearance, and rushes to track her down – and has an additional interest in Matthew, because he was a medical school classmate of Bruce Wayne's father Thomas. 54 54 \" Zatanna \" Dick Sebast and Dan Riba Paul Dini February 2, 1993 ( 1993-02-02 ) Montague Kane When the glamorous magician Zatanna is framed for a robbery during her act, Batman swings to her defense. Zatanna is grateful, though a little puzzled, by the Dark Knight's commitment to prove her innocence, but the two heroes unite and use the skills her father, Zatara , taught them to expose and combat the culprit: an evil illusionist named Montague Kane. 55 55 \"The Mechanic\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Steve Perry and Laren Bright Teleplay by : Randy Rogel January 24, 1993 ( 1993-01-24 ) The Penguin Thanks to a freak accident during a high-speed chase, the Batmobile is virtually demolished. After Batman takes the car to his personal mechanic, Earl Cooper, the Penguin makes his move and tampers with the Batmobile, putting it under his control. Note : The Penguin's scheme in this episode was similarly featured in Batman Returns . 56 56 \"Harley and Ivy\" Boyd Kirkland Paul Dini January 18, 1993 ( 1993-01-18 ) The Joker , Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy When the Joker fires Harley, she tries going on a crime spree of her own, joining up with Poison Ivy, and the two become Gotham's Queens of Crime, much to the Joker's fury. 57 57 \"Shadow of the Bat: Part 1\" Frank Paur Brynne Stephens September 13, 1993 ( 1993-09-13 ) Two-Face , Rupert Thorne and Gil Mason When Commissioner Gordon is framed for taking bribes from Rupert Thorne, his daughter Barbara pleads with Batman to show up at a rally being put on in the commissioner's behalf. But when Batman disappears after finding the person behind the frame-up, Barbara takes the law into her own hands as Batgirl . Note : This episode marks the series' debut appearance of Barbara Gordon as Batgirl . 58 58 \"Shadow of the Bat: Part 2\" Frank Paur Brynne Stephens September 14, 1993 ( 1993-09-14 ) Two-Face and Gil Mason Robin discovers that Gil Mason is in league with the underworld and goes to investigate him. He encounters Batgirl along the way, and go their separate ways to stop Mason. They then meet again to learn that Gil is working with Two-Face to take out Gordon, and have Batman (as Matches Malone) captured. 59 59 \"Blind as a Bat\" Dan Riba Story by : Mike Underwood and Len Wein Teleplay by : Len Wein February 22, 1993 ( 1993-02-22 ) The Penguin The Penguin steals an experimental helicopter from an air show, causing an explosion that temporarily blinds Bruce Wayne. Batman knows he won't be able to wait until his vision returns to track the Penguin down, and he must find a way to do so without the use of his eyes. 60 60 \"The Demon's Quest: Part 1\" Kevin Altieri Dennis O'Neil May 3, 1993 ( 1993-05-03 ) Ra's al Ghul When Robin is mysteriously abducted from his college campus, Batman begins a fruitless search... until he is astounded by the sudden appearance in the Batcave of Ra's al Ghul . Ra's quickly reveals that his daughter, Talia, has been abducted under circumstances similar to Robin's, suggesting that the same people are responsible. So begins an uneasy truce between Batman and 'The Demon'. Note : A direct adaptation of \"Daughter of the Demon\" from Batman #232, June 1971, and \"The Demon Lives Again\" Batman #244, September 1972, both by Denny O'Neil and Neal Adams . Famous for introducing one of Batman's deadlier foes; Ra's al Ghul , father of Talia. 61 61 \"The Demon's Quest: Part 2\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Dennis O'Neil and Len Wein Teleplay by : Len Wein May 4, 1993 ( 1993-05-04 ) Ra's al Ghul After freeing Talia from her father's clutches and escaping from an avalanche, Batman and Robin follow the only clue they have – the word 'Orpheus'. After discovering that 'Orpheus' is Ra's private satellite that will orbit over the Sahara, the duo travel to the Demon's desert stronghold. There, Batman learns that the satellite is actually a weapon which will explosively destroy all the Lazarus Pits simultaneously throughout the world, destroying all the life that exists. Note : A direct adaptation of \"Daughter of the Demon\" from Batman #232, June 1971, and \"The Demon Lives Again\" Batman #244, September 1972, both by Denny O'Neil and Neal Adams . 62 62 \"His Silicon Soul\" Boyd Kirkland Marty Isenberg and Robert N. Skir November 20, 1992 ( 1992-11-20 ) H.A.R.D.A.C. and Duplicate Batman When a Batman impersonator appears in Gotham City, the real Batman deduces that Karl Rossum is somehow involved and confronts the inventor. The other Batman, a duplicate, then shows up and a battle between the two takes place. After the duplicate Batman escapes, it begins its campaign to recreate H.A.R.D.A.C.'s goals of a robotic society. Note : The anime series The Big O was partially inspired by this episode. 63 63 \"Fire from Olympus\" Dan Riba Judith & Garfield Reeves-Stevens May 24, 1993 ( 1993-05-24 ) Maxie Zeus Believing himself to be the reincarnation of Zeus, Maxie Zeus steals an experimental weapon that the government developed. The mad man desires to use the weapon against the people of Gotham City and Batman must put a stop to Maxie's mad plan against the city he loves. 64 64 \"Read My Lips\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Alan Burnett and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Joe R. Lansdale May 10, 1993 ( 1993-05-10 ) The Ventriloquist A brand-new gang has made its debut committing the slickest crimes ever, thanks to the gang leader, Scarface. It's up to Batman to stop Scarface and his \"dummy\", the Ventriloquist . 65 65 \"The Worry Men\" Frank Paur Paul Dini September 16, 1993 ( 1993-09-16 ) The Mad Hatter Wealthy socialite Veronica Vreeland returns from Central America, bringing tiny handmade dolls for all her friends. According to native legend, once placed under a pillow, the dolls do the sleeper's worrying for them. Unknown to Veronica or her guests, each of the dolls was made by the Mad Hatter, and contains a tiny microchip which plants hypnotic suggestions inside the sleepers' brains. Season two (1994–1995) [ edit ] Because of the success the show was enjoying, while the 65 episodes of the first season were still airing, the Fox network executives ordered a second season of 20 more episodes. The second season featured Robin more prominently, and most episodes were given the onscreen title The Adventures of Batman & Robin . After airing five of the 20 episodes in May 1994, the network reduced the series to airing only weekly on Saturday mornings. Ten more episodes were broadcast in this format in September–November 1994 under the Adventures of Batman & Robin title. Once these fifteen episodes had premiered (the final five were held back until September 1995), the weekday slot was restored to include reruns of the entire series, with all previous episodes being shown under the new title for all remaining airings on Fox, as well as several VHS releases. The entire second season was released on DVD as part of the Batman: The Animated Series Volume Three set. No. in series No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Villain(s) 66 1 \"Sideshow\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Michael Reaves and Brynne Stephens May 3, 1994 ( 1994-05-03 ) Killer Croc En route to an upstate prison, Killer Croc escapes and leads Batman on a dangerous chase through the wilderness. After throwing Batman temporarily off his trail, the reptile -man takes refuge with a group of retired circus freaks , and convinces them to help him. When Batman arrives, Croc and the freaks band together to capture him. Note : Loosely based on \"A Vow from the Grave\" by Denny O'Neil . This episode adapted the comic book story with the inclusion of a separate Killer Croc story. 67 2 \"A Bullet for Bullock\" Frank Paur Michael Reaves September 14, 1995 ( 1995-09-14 ) Vinnie the Shark Someone has put a hit out on Gotham's toughest cop, Harvey Bullock. After surviving several near misses, Bullock realizes he has no choice but to ask his arch-rival Batman to help him discover who is behind the murder attempts. During their investigation, Bullock learns that his gruff and mean-spirited manner has created enemies in the unlikeliest of people. Notes : Based on the comic of the same name from Detective Comics #651, October 1992, by Chuck Dixon . This episode won the 1996 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction and Composition. 68 3 \"Trial\" Dan Riba Story by : Paul Dini and Bruce W. Timm Teleplay by : Paul Dini May 16, 1994 ( 1994-05-16 ) The Joker , Harley Quinn , Killer Croc , The Mad Hatter , Poison Ivy , The Riddler , The Scarecrow , Two-Face and The Ventriloquist Gotham's new DA, Janet Van Dorn, is out to capture Batman, but both she and him end up captured by some of Batman's main enemies instead. They are soon put on a kangaroo trial by the Joker (the judge), Two-Face (the prosecutor), the Ventriloquist (the bailiff), Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn, the Mad Hatter, Killer Croc, the Scarecrow, and the Riddler (the jury), in front of other criminals held at Arkham. If the defense (Batman and the D.A.) can prove that Batman is not the cause for everyone's turn to crime, they will be set free. When the jury gives the verdict of 'not guilty', the villains have little intention of following through on their deal... Notes : Henry Polic II , the Scarecrow's voice actor, was recuperating from throat surgery during the episode's production, so his character has no dialogue in it. Also, Van Dorn mentions in this episode that Harley Quinn was once a doctor at Arkham before the Joker corrupted her mind; backstory which is later shown in The New Batman Adventures episode \" Mad Love \". 69 4 \"Avatar\" Kevin Altieri Michael Reaves May 9, 1994 ( 1994-05-09 ) Ra's al Ghul A mystic Egyptian scroll donated to the Gotham museum by Bruce Wayne is stolen by Ra's al Ghul, and Batman and Talia must join forces to prevent the power-mad Ra's from unlocking the scroll's secrets of life and death. Their quest takes them to a hidden temple deep beneath the Egyptian desert. There, the Dark Knight is forced into a terrifying battle with an ancient Egyptian sorceress. 70 5 \"House & Garden\" Boyd Kirkland Paul Dini May 2, 1994 ( 1994-05-02 ) Poison Ivy Not only has Poison Ivy been released from Arkham Asylum, but she's also married to her doctor and settled down to help him raise his two sons. It would appear that Ivy has gone straight and that her old days as a criminal are over. But wealthy bachelors are being struck down by an unknown toxin, leaving Batman to question Ivy's innocence. 71 6 \"The Terrible Trio\" Frank Paur Story by : Alan Burnett and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Michael Reaves September 11, 1995 ( 1995-09-11 ) The Terrible Trio Three wealthy, bored friends of Bruce Wayne decide to seek new thrills by becoming master criminals. As the Fox, the Shark and the Vulture (masters of land, sea and air), the Terrible Trio pick Gotham clean, until they encounter one person who cannot be bought off — Batman. 72 7 \"Harlequinade\" Kevin Altieri Paul Dini May 23, 1994 ( 1994-05-23 ) The Joker and Harley Quinn The Joker steals an atomic bomb , and it is up to Batman and Robin to find and stop him. Since there is no time to spare, the duo enlist the help of Harley Quinn to track Joker down. Throughout the episode, it is briefly discussed how Harley met Joker. 73 8 \"Time Out of Joint\" Dan Riba Story by : Alan Burnett Teleplay by : Steve Perry October 8, 1994 ( 1994-10-08 ) Clock King The Clock King returns to continue his vendetta against Mayor Hill. This time, the time-obsessed criminal hopes to murder Hill with the help of a stolen invention that allows him to warp time and travel at super-speed. Securing another device from its creator, Batman and Robin take on the Clock King in a furious high-speed battle for the mayor's life. 74 9 \"Catwalk\" Boyd Kirkland Paul Dini September 13, 1995 ( 1995-09-13 ) Catwoman and The Ventriloquist Anxious to take up her old ways as Catwoman, Selina Kyle joins forces with the Ventriloquist to humiliate socialite Veronica Vreeland. But the real victim is Catwoman herself, who has been secretly set up by Scarface to take the fall for another robbery. Batman has to intercede before the furious feline makes things worse by killing the double-talking Ventriloquist. 75 10 \" Bane \" Kevin Altieri Mitch Brian September 10, 1994 ( 1994-09-10 ) Bane , Killer Croc and Rupert Thorne Batman comes face-to-face with his most powerful adversary yet: the chemically-enhanced assassin Bane . Originally hired by Rupert Thorne to kill Batman, Bane plans on taking control of Thorne's criminal empire once Batman is destroyed. It is a fight to the death with all of Gotham in the balance, as Batman takes on the man who has vowed to break the Bat. 76 11 \"Baby-Doll\" Dan Riba Paul Dini October 1, 1994 ( 1994-10-01 ) Baby-Doll A washed-up actress named Mary Dahl has become bitter and insane after falling into obscurity and suffering from a disorder that prevents her body from growing to adulthood , thus biologically cursed with literal eternal youth . She kidnaps her TV family, who all led much happier lives and more successful careers than her, and holds them prisoner on the abandoned soundstage of her old show. While Robin works fast to free the actors from Baby-Doll's explosive death-trap, Batman pursues the tiny fiend through a deadly carnival funhouse. 77 12 \"The Lion and the Unicorn\" Boyd Kirkland Diane Duane , Peter Morwood and Steve Perry September 15, 1995 ( 1995-09-15 ) Red Claw The Red Claw organization kidnaps Alfred, seeking a code they need to arm a weapon of mass destruction that Alfred knows from his days as a British secret agent. 78 13 \"Showdown\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Kevin Altieri, Paul Dini and Bruce W. Timm Teleplay by : Joe R. Lansdale September 12, 1995 ( 1995-09-12 ) Ra's al Ghul Ra's al Ghul narrates a story from his past in which Jonah Hex stops his plan to destroy the transcontinental railroad being completed in 1883, by using a war blimp. 79 14 \"Riddler's Reform\" Dan Riba Story by : Alan Burnett, Paul Dini and Randy Rogel Teleplay by : Randy Rogel September 24, 1994 ( 1994-09-24 ) The Riddler The Riddler is hired to work for a toy company, vowing to turn over a new leaf. But Batman refuses to believe he has changed, and he suspects that the Riddler is still obsessed with outsmarting and defeating him. Now, the Dark Knight must prove that Riddler is still a criminal at heart and send him back to Arkham. 80 15 \"Second Chance\" Boyd Kirkland Story by : Paul Dini and Michael Reaves Teleplay by : Gerry Conway September 17, 1994 ( 1994-09-17 ) Two-Face , The Penguin and Rupert Thorne Just before he is to undergo the operation that will restore his sanity, Harvey Dent is kidnapped by a mysterious villain. Batman and Robin split up to nab the criminal behind the scheme to abduct the Dark Knight's old friend. They suspect that either the Penguin or Rupert Thorne may be behind the kidnapping. 81 16 \"Harley's Holiday\" Kevin Altieri Paul Dini October 15, 1994 ( 1994-10-15 ) Harley Quinn and Boxy Bennett Harley Quinn is released back into society, after being declared sane at Arkham Asylum. A misunderstanding at a clothing store, however, causes a snowball of comedic chaos to build around her. 82 17 \"Lock-Up\" Dan Riba Story by : Paul Dini Teleplay by : Marty Isenberg and Robert N. Skir November 19, 1994 ( 1994-11-19 ) Lock-Up Lyle Bolton , the new head of security at Arkham, is fired for his atrocious mistreatment of the inmates. Six months later, Bolton becomes the vigilante Lock-Up, and decides to put who he feels responsible for the ruin of the city behind bars. It's up to Batman and Robin to save his victims. 83 18 \"Make 'Em Laugh\" Boyd Kirkland Paul Dini and Randy Rogel November 5, 1994 ( 1994-11-05 ) The Joker , Condiment King, Pack Rat, Mighty Mom and The Mad Hatter Using microchips stolen from the Mad Hatter, the Joker brainwashes famous comedians into committing crazy crimes in order to ruin their reputations. As it turns out, the comedians are the judges who tossed the Joker out of the Gotham Comedy Competition the year before. Now, the Clown Prince of Crime wants to seek his revenge, and Batman and Robin must foil the Joker's plot. 84 19 \"Deep Freeze\" Kevin Altieri Story by : Paul Dini, Bruce W. Timm Teleplay by : Paul Dini November 26, 1994 ( 1994-11-26 ) Mr. Freeze and Grant Walker Mr. Freeze is sprung from Arkham by aging billionaire Grant Walker, who is looking to freeze the world and recreate it according to his own design. Batman and Robin infiltrate the billionaire's underwater city and combat both high-tech robots and Mr. Freeze himself, who has decided to do Walker's bidding and cover the earth in a new ice age. 85 20 \"Batgirl Returns\" Dan Riba Michael Reaves and Brynne Stephens November 12, 1994 ( 1994-11-12 ) Catwoman and Roland Daggett While Bruce is in Europe on a Wayne Enterprises business trip, the theft of a jade cat statue occurs at Gotham State University. Barbara Gordon again becomes Batgirl to investigate, only to run into Catwoman, who is also investigating, pointing out that the acid residue used to destroy the security system is not her style. The two team up to find the statue, with Robin tailing them, and things go from bad to worse when Roland Daggett is revealed to be involved. See also [ edit ] Batman: Mask of the Phantasm Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero References [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: The New Batman Adventures Wikiquote has quotations related to: Batman: The Animated Series Cinefantastique , Vol. 24, #6/Vol. 25, #1, February 1994 (special double-issue, with multiple articles on the Fox Network run). \"Batman: The Animated Series Original Airdate and episode list\" . worldsfinestonline.com . Retrieved April 15, 2007 . \"Batman: The Animated Series Writers\" . Worldsfinestonline.com . Retrieved April 18, 2007 . \"Batman: The Animated Series Directors\" . Worldsfinestonline.com . Retrieved April 18, 2007 . \"Batman – Mask of the Phantasm\" . Worldsfinestonline.com . Retrieved April 18, 2007 . \"Batman & Mr. Freeze: Sub-Zero\" . Worldsfinestonline.com . Retrieved April 18, 2007 . \" Batman: The Animated Series Official Website\" . batmantas.com . Retrieved April 18, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"I am Vengeance. I am the Night. I AM BATMAN!\" . YouTube.com . Retrieved October 12, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Awards – 1993\" . Toon Zone . Retrieved August 25, 2013 . [ show ] v t e Batman: The Animated Series / The New Batman Adventures / Batman Beyond DCAU -continuity Batman: The Animated Series ( episodes ) Episodes \" On Leather Wings \" \" Christmas with the Joker \" \" Heart of Ice \" \" The Cat and the Claw \" \" Beware the Gray Ghost \" \" Joker's Favor \" \" Almost Got 'im \" \" Perchance to Dream \" \" Robin's Reckoning \" \" Heart of Steel \" \" Zatanna \" \" Bane \" Original characters Andrea Beaumont Roland Daggett Nora Fries Summer Gleeson Lock-Up Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Red Claw Feature films Batman: Mask of the Phantasm Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero Video games Batman: The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Comics The Batman Adventures Mad Love The New Batman Adventures ( episodes ) Original characters Roxy Rocket Feature films Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman Shorts Gotham Girls Chase Me Video games Batman: Chaos in Gotham Batman: Gotham City Racer Batman: Vengeance Batman: Rise of Sin Tzu Batman Beyond ( episodes ) Original characters Inque Jokerz Terry McGinnis / Batman Beyond Derek Powers / Blight Warhawk Feature films Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Video games Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Comics Batman Beyond Spin-offs The Zeta Project Related articles Batman Animated The New Batman/Superman Adventures DC animated universe [ show ] v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman episodes Legends of the Superheroes OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham episodes season 3 4 characters Live-action serials and films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–97 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Justice League Animated television Featuring Batman The Adventures of Batman The Batman/Superman Hour The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The New Adventures of Batman Batman: The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures episodes Batman Beyond episodes The Batman episodes Batman: The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman episodes With other heroes Super Friends episodes Justice League episodes Justice League Unlimited episodes Young Justice episodes Justice League Action episodes Animated films Featuring Batman Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Under the Red Hood Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Batman vs. Robin Bad Blood The Killing Joke Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face With Justice League Justice League: The New Frontier Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Justice League: Doom Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time Justice League: War The Lego Movie Justice League: Throne of Atlantis Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts Justice League: Gods and Monsters Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem Justice League vs. Teen Titans Batman Unlimited: Mechs vs. Mutants With Justice League Dark Justice League Dark Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Novels Dead White Fear Itself Inferno The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Enemies in other media Joker Bane Catwoman Other characters in other media Robin Barbara Gordon Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music [ show ] v t e DC animated universe Creators Bruce Timm Paul Dini Alan Burnett Dwayne McDuffie Television Batman: The Animated Series (1992–95) episodes Superman: The Animated Series (1996–2000) episodes The New Batman Adventures (1997–99) episodes The New Batman/Superman Adventures (1997–2000) Batman Beyond (1999–2001) episodes characters Static Shock (2000–2004) episodes characters The Zeta Project (2001–2002) episodes Justice League / Justice League Unlimited (2001–2006) episodes Films Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993) Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero (1998) Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker (2000) Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman (2003) Batman and Harley Quinn (2017) Comics The Batman Adventures Mad Love Superman Adventures Batman Beyond Shorts Gotham Girls Chase Me Video games Batman: The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Superman Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Batman: Chaos in Gotham Batman: Gotham City Racer Batman: Vengeance Superman: Shadow of Apokolips Justice League: Injustice for All Superman: Countdown to Apokolips Batman: Rise of Sin Tzu Justice League: Chronicles Original characters Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Roland Daggett Nora Fries Summer Gleeson Mercy Graves Harley Quinn Inque Jokerz Justice Guild of America Justice Lords Livewire Lock-Up Luminus Renee Montoya Derek Powers / Blight Red Claw Roxy Rocket Volcana Warhawk Miscellaneous Batman Animated List of films based on DC Comics List of television series based on DC Comics Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Batman:_The_Animated_Series_episodes&oldid=801554207 \" Categories : Batman: The Animated Series episodes Lists of DC animated universe episodes Batman lists Batman television series episodes Lists of crime television series episodes Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from January 2012 Comics navigational boxes purge Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent 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{ "text": "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star - Wikipedia Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 2010 Indian film, see Twinkle Twinkle Little Star (film) . \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\" Sheet music Nursery rhyme Published 1806 Lyricist(s) Jane Taylor \" Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star \" is a popular English lullaby . The lyrics are from an early-19th-century English poem by Jane Taylor , \"The Star\". The poem, which is in couplet form, was first published in 1806 in Rhymes for the Nursery , a collection of poems by Taylor and her sister Ann . It is sung to the tune of the French melody Ah! vous dirai-je, maman , which was published in 1761 and later arranged by several composers including Mozart with Twelve Variations on \"Ah vous dirai-je, Maman\" . [1] The English lyrics have five stanzas , although only the first is widely known. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 7666. This song is usually performed in the key of C major . The song is in the public domain , [2] and has many adaptations around the world. [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Lyrics 2 Other text versions 3 See also 4 Notes 5 External links Lyrics [ edit ] The English lyrics were first written as a poem by Jane Taylor (1783–1824) [4] and published with the title \"The Star\" in Rhymes for the Nursery by Jane and her sister Ann Taylor (1782–1866) in London in 1806: [5] Twinkle Twinkle Little Star (tune) Tune for Twinkle Twinkle Little Star Problems playing this file? See media help . Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are! Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky. When this blazing sun is gone, When he nothing shines upon, Then you show your little light, Twinkle, twinkle, through the night. Then the traveller in the dark Thanks you for your tiny spark; He could not see where to go, If you did not twinkle so. In the dark blue sky you keep, And often through my curtains peep, For you never shut your eye Till the sun is in the sky. As your bright and tiny spark Lights the traveller in the dark, Though I know not what you are, Twinkle, twinkle, little star. The lyrics from \"The Star\" were first published with the tune in The Singing Master: First Class Tune Book in 1838. [4] Although before, when it was just a folk song, there were only 4 verses [4] Other text versions [ edit ] sheet music from Song Stories for the Kindergarten [6] Play ( help · info ) Additional variations exist such as from 1896 in Song Stories for the Kindergarten [6] by Mildred J. Hill . Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How we wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky. When the glorious sun has set, And the grass with dew is wet, Then you show your little light, Twinkle, twinkle, all the night. When the golden sun doth rise, Fills with shining light the skies, Then you fade away from sight, Shine no more 'till comes the night. A parody of \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" titled \" Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Bat \" was recited by the Mad Hatter in chapter seven of Lewis Carroll 's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland . [7] An adaptation of the song, named \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Earth\", was written by Charles Randolph Grean , Fred Hertz and Leonard Nimoy . It is included on Nimoy's first 1967 album Leonard Nimoy Presents Mr. Spock's Music From Outer Space , with him reciting the text as Spock explaining how the star -people wish upon an earth and so forth. [8] A version using synonyms from Roget's Thesaurus exists. [9] The song can also be played as a singing game . Play media Woman performs \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\" singing game . See also [ edit ] \" Ah! vous dirai-je, maman \" Little Star (The Elegants song) \" Alphabet song \" \" Baa, Baa, Black Sheep \" Twinkling Are you sleeping Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"LISTSERV 15.5 - OPERA-L Archives\" . listserv.bccls.org . Jump up ^ \"Children's Public Domain Song List - PD Info\" . www.pdinfo.com . Jump up ^ \"Twinkle twinkle little rip-off: the dark secrets of the world's most recognisable tune\" . ^ Jump up to: a b c M. Cryer, Love Me Tender: The Stories Behind the World's Best-loved Songs (Frances Lincoln, 2009), pp. 83–5. Jump up ^ I. Opie and P. Opie , The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), pp. 397–8. ^ Jump up to: a b Mildred J. Hill (26 July 1896). \"Song Stories for the Kindergarten\" – via Internet Archive. Jump up ^ Gardner, Martin (1998). The Annotated Alice . Random House . p. 98. ISBN 978-0-517-18920-7 . Jump up ^ \"Twinkle twinkle little star\" . Jump up ^ G. Hughes, A history of English words (Wiley-Blackwell, 2000), p. 40. External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star Wikiversity has learning resources about Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star Wikimedia Commons has media related to Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star . Lullabies of Europe/Languages from the Cradle Dead Link! A European Union, government-funded education project to collect lullabies (in their native language) from across Europe - includes samples in seven languages. Audio segment from BBC Radio 4 Woman's Hour , show v t e Nursery rhymes ( list ) \" A-Tisket, A-Tasket \" \" Aiken Drum \" \" Baa, Baa, Black Sheep \" \" Did You Ever See a Lassie? \" \" Hey Diddle Diddle \" \" Hickory Dickory Dock \" \" Hot Cross Buns \" \" Humpty Dumpty \" \" I'm a Little Teapot \" \" It's Raining, It's Pouring \" \" Jack and Jill \" \" Little Bo-Peep \" \" Little Boy Blue \" \" Little Jack Horner \" \" Little Miss Muffet \" \" Mary Had a Little Lamb \" \" Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary \" \" Old King Cole \" \" Old MacDonald Had a Farm \" \" Old Mother Hubbard \" \" Peter Piper \" \" Polly Put the Kettle On \" \" Poor Mary \" \" Pop Goes the Weasel \" \" Pussy Cat Pussy Cat \" \" Rain Rain Go Away \" \" Roses Are Red \" \" Rub-a-dub-dub \" \" Simple Simon \" \" Sing a Song of Sixpence \" \" Sticks and Stones \" \" The Grand Old Duke of York \" \" The Queen of Hearts \" \" There was an Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe \" \" Three Little Kittens \" \" Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star \" Clapping \" A Sailor Went to Sea \" \" Down Down Baby \" \" Mary Mack \" \" Miss Susie \" \" Miss Lucy \" \" Pat-a-cake \" \" Pease Porridge Hot \" \" Pretty Little Dutch Girl \" \" Stella Ella Ola \" Counting \" Duck, duck, goose \" \" Eeny, meeny, miny, moe \" \" One, Two, Buckle My Shoe \" \" One, Two, Three, Four, Five \" \" This Old Man \" \" Tinker, Tailor \" Finger- plays \" Five Little Ducks \" \" Five Little Monkeys \" \" Five Little Speckled Frogs \" \" Itsy Bitsy Spider \" \" Little Robin Redbreast \" \" Round and Round the Garden \" \" This Little Piggy \" \" Two Little Dickie Birds \" Games \" London Bridge \" \" The Muffin Man \" \" Mulberry Bush \" \" Oranges and Lemons \" \" Ring a Ring o' Roses \" \" The Farmer in the Dell \" Riddle \" As I was going to St Ives \" Lullabies \" Hush, Little Baby \" \" Rock-a-bye Baby \" Rounds \" Ding Dong Bell \" \" Frère Jacques \" \" Kookaburra \" \" Row, Row, Row Your Boat \" \" Scotland's Burning \" \" Three Blind Mice \" show v t e Willie Nelson singles discography 1950s and 1960s 1957 \" No Place For Me \" / \"Lumberjack\" 1959 \" Man With the Blues \" / \" The Storm Has Just Begun \" 1960 \" What a Way to Live \" / \"Misery Mansion\" \" Nite Life \" / \"Rainy Day Blues\" 1961 \" The Part Where I Cry \" / \" Mr. Record Man \" 1962 \" Willingly \" / \"Chain of Love\" \" Touch Me \" / \"Where My House Lives\" \" Wake Me When It's Over \" / \"There's Gonna Be Love In My House\" \"You Dream About Me\" / \"Is This My Destiny\" 1963 \" Half a Man \" / \" The Last Letter \" \"Take My Word\" / \"Feed it a Memory\" 1964 \"How Long is Forever\" / \"You Took My Happy Away\" \" Am I Blue \" / \"There'll Be No Teardrops Tonight\" \"River Boy\" / \"Opportunity to Cry\" \" I Never Cared For You \" / \"You Left Me (A Long Time Ago)\" \" Pretty Paper \" / \"What A Merry Christmas This Could Be\" 1965 \"She's Not For You\" / \"Permanently Lonely\" \"Healing Hands of Time\" / \"One Day at the Time\" \"I Just Can't Let You Say Goodbye\" / \"And So Will You, My Love\" 1966 \"One In A Row\" / \" San Antonio Rose \" \"Colombus Stockade Blues\" / \"He Sits at my Table\" \"I'm Still Not Over You\"/ \" I Love You Because \" 1967 \" The Party's Over \" / \"Make Way for a Better Man\" \" Blackjack County Chain \" / \"Some Other World\" \"San Antonio\" / \"To Make a Long Story Short\" 1968 \"Little Things\" / \" Sweet Memories\" \"Good Times\" / \"Where Do You Stand\" \" Johnny One Time \" / \"She's Still Gone\" 1969 \" Bring Me Sunshine \" / \"Don't Say Love or Nothing\" \"I Hope So\" / \"Right or Wrong\" 1970s 1970 \"Once More With Feeling\" / \"Who Do I Know in Dallas\" \"Laying My Burdens Down\" / \"Truth Number One\" 1971 \"I'm a Memory\" / \" Fire and Rain \" \" Yesterday's Wine \" / \"Me and Paul\" 1972 \"Words Don't Fit the Picture\" / \"A Moment\" 1973 \"Shotgun Willie\" (mono) / \"Sad Songs and Waltzes\" \" Stay All Night (Stay a Little Longer) \" / \"Devil in a Sleepin' Bag\" 1974 \"I Still Can't Believe You're Gone\" / \"Heaven and Hell\" \" Bloody Mary Morning \" / \"After the Fire is Gone\" (with Tracy Nelson ) \"Sister's Comin' Home\" (mono) / \"Pick Up The Tempo\" 1975 \" Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain \" / \"Bandera\" 1976 \"Remember Me (When the Candle Lights Are Gleaming)\" / \"Time of the Preacher\" \"I'd Have to Be Crazy\" (mono) / \"Amazing Grace\" \" If You've Got the Money I've Got the Time \" / \"The Sound in Your Mind\" 1977 \"Uncloudy Day\" / \"Precious Memories\" \"I Love You A Thousand Ways\" / \"Mom and Dad's Waltz\" 1978 \" Georgia on My Mind \" / \" On The Sunny Side Of The Street \" \" Blue Skies \" / \" Moonlight in Vermont \" \" All of Me \" / \" Unchained Melody \" 1979 \" Whiskey River \" / \" Under the Double Eagle \" \" September Song \" / \" Don't Get Around Much Anymore \" \" White Christmas \" / \" Blue Christmas \" 1980s 1980 \" Help Me Make It Through the Night \" / \"The Pilgrim, Chapter 33\" \" My Heroes Have Always Been Cowboys \" / \"Rising Stars\" \" Midnight Rider \" / \"So You Think You're A Cowboy\" \" On the Road Again \"/ \" Jumpin' Cotton Eyed Joe \" (performed by Johnny Gimble) 1981 \" Angel Flying Too Close to the Ground \" / \"I Guess I've Come to Live Here in Your Eyes\" \" Mona Lisa \" / \" Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star \" \" I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Write Myself a Letter \" / \" Over the Rainbow \" \"Heartaches of a Fool\" / \"Uncloudy Day\" 1982 \" Always on My Mind \" / \"The Party's Over\" \" Let It Be Me \" / \"Permanently Lonely\" \" Last Thing I Needed First Thing This Morning \" / \"Old Fords and a Natural Stone\" 1983 \" Little Old Fashioned Karma \" / \" Beer Barrel Polka \" \" Why Do I Have to Choose \" / \" Would You Lay with Me (In a Field of Stone) \" \" Take It to the Limit \" / \"Till I Gain Control Again\" \" Without a Song \" 1984 \" City of New Orleans (Unedited version) \" / \"Why Are You Pickin' On Me\" 1985 \" Forgiving You Was Easy \" / \"You Wouldn't Cross the Street\" \"Me and Paul\" / \"I Let My Mind Wander\" 1986 \" Living in the Promiseland \" / \" Bach Minuet in G \" \"I'm Not Trying to Forget You\" / \"I've Got the Craziest Feeling\" 1987 \"Partners After All\" / \"Home Away From Home\" \" Heart of Gold \" / \" So Much Like My Dad \" \"Island in the Sea\" / \"There Is No Easy Way\" 1988 \"Nobody There But Me\" / \"Wake Me When It's Over\" \" Spanish Eyes \" (with Julio Iglesias ) / \"Ole Buttermilk Sky\" \" Twilight Time \" / \" Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate the Positive \" 1989 \" Nothing I Can Do About It Now \" / \"If I Were a Painting\" \" There You Are \" / \"Spirit\" \"Is The Better Part Over\" / \" Mr. Record Man \" 1990s 1990 \"The Highway\" / \"Spirit\" \" Ain't Necessarily So \" / \"I Never Cared For You\" (\"Ain't Necessarily So\" also on CD Single) 1991 \"The Piper Came Today\" / \"(I Don't Have a Reason) To Go To California Anymore\" (\"The Piper Came Today\" also on CD Single) \"Ten With a Two\" / \"You Decide\" 1993 \" Graceland \" \"Still is Still Moving to Me\" / \"Valentine\" 1995 \"Turn Me Loose and Let Me Swing\" 1998 \"I Never Cared for You\" 2000s and 2010s 2002 \" Mendocino County Line \" (with Lee Ann Womack ) / \"Maria (Shut Up and Kiss Me)\" (Both single tracks released on CD and 7\" record) 2003 \" Wurlitzer Prize \" (with Norah Jones ) \" Beer for My Horses \" (with Toby Keith ) 2005 \"I'm a Worried Man\" (with Toots Hibbert ) \" The Harder They Come \" 2006 \" You Don't Know Me \" \" Cowboys Are Frequently, Secretly Fond of Each Other \" 2008 \" Gravedigger \" \" You Don't Think I'm Funny Anymore \" 2011 \" The Scientist \" 2012 \" Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die \" \" Just Breathe \" \"Come On Back Jesus\" 2013 \"From Here to the Moon and Back\" (with Dolly Parton) \" Grandma's Hands \" (with Mavis Staples) \"It Won't Be Long\" (with The Secret Sisters) \"Somewhere Between\" (with Loretta Lynn) 2014 \" The Wall \" \"Bring It On\" \"Laws of Nature\" \"Who'll Buy My Memories\" \"Summer of Roses\" / \"December Day\" 2015 \" It's All Going to Pot \" \"Alice in Hulaland\" 2016 \"Lay Me Down\" 2017 \"Still Not Dead\" 2018 \"Last Man Standing\" Book:Willie Nelson Category:Willie Nelson Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twinkle,_Twinkle,_Little_Star&oldid=849344689 \" Categories : Children's songs Lullabies Traditional children's songs United States National Recording Registry recordings English nursery rhymes Roud Folk Song Index songs 1806 poems 1838 songs Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Use dmy dates from July 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages বাংলা Brezhoneg Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia עברית Magyar മലയാളം 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe 粵語 中文 15 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 July 2018, at 10:40 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Twinkle,_Twinkle,_Little_Star&amp;oldid=849344689" }

{ "text": "Only Human (Calum Scott album) - Wikipedia Only Human (Calum Scott album) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search hide This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) There do not appear to be enough references currently present in this article to demonstrate notability . However, a user has performed a search that indicated that this is a notable topic . You can help to improve it by adding citations to reliable sources . (March 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Only Human Studio album by Calum Scott Released 9 March 2018 Recorded 2015–2017 Venue Hollywood, Los Angeles, US; Hull, London, UK; Stockholm, Sweden [1] Studio Blue Room Studios, Deborah-J Studios, MyAudiotonic Studios, Paramount Recording Studios, Poinsettia Place Studios, RAK Studios, SuCasa Studios, TempleBase Studios, Wolf Cousins Studios [1] Length 53 : 20 Label Capitol Producer Fraser T Smith (exec.) John McIntyre Jayson DeZuzio Phil Paul Warren \"Oak\" Felder OzGo Singles from Only Human \" Dancing on My Own \" Released: 15 April 2016 \" Rhythm Inside \" Released: 25 November 2016 \" You Are the Reason \" Released: 24 November 2017 \"What I Miss Most\" Released: 4 May 2018 [2] [3] Only Human is the debut studio album, written and conducted by British singer/songwriter Calum Scott , released on 9 March 2018 through Capitol Records . [4] [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Critical reception 2 Track listing 3 Charts 4 References Critical reception [ edit ] Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating auspOp [6] Express & Star 5/10 [7] Gay Times [8] Metro Weekly [9] Renowned for Sound [10] David from auspOp gave the album four of out five, and complimented the \"personal\" lyrics, writing: \"Most of the songs here are a great listen and you can appreciate the effort that's gone into creating such a great debut\". [6] Francesca Lamaina of Renowned for Sound gave the album three out of five stars, saying: \" Only Human is a decent debut album... Some tracks lack of spirit and suffocates among incessant repetitions. However, Calum Scott's voice is incredibly wonderful.\" [10] Nick Lavine of Gay Times gave the album four of out five and said that \" Only Human offers a classy assortment of soulful stompers, gospel-tinged ballads and more reflective downtempo moments\", adding: \"This is an impressive and affecting debut that proves there’s much more to Calum Scott than a kinda surprising Robyn cover.\" [8] Track listing [ edit ] Only Human – Standard edition [11] No. Title Writer(s) Producer(s) Length 1. \"If Our Love Is Wrong\" Calum Scott Philip Plested Kane Parfitt Fraser T Smith 3:23 2. \"Give Me Something\" Scott Jayson DeZuzio Hayley Warner DeZuzio 3:16 3. \" Rhythm Inside \" Scott Jonathan Maguire Corey Sanders Kasper Larsen Mich Hansen Smith 3:32 4. \" You Are the Reason \" Scott Maguire Corey Sanders Smith 3:24 5. \"Come Back Home\" Scott Jordan Riley Saunders Smith 3:10 6. \"Stop Myself (Only Human)\" Scott Warren \"Oak\" Felder Sean Douglas Talay Riley James Harris III Terry Lewis Felder 3:27 7. \" Dancing on My Own \" Robin Carlsson Patrik Berger Smith Jon McIntyre 4:20 8. \"Only You\" Scott Steve Garrigan Mark Prendergast Smith 3:45 9. \"Won't Let You Down\" Scott Phil Cook Saunders Smith 3:14 10. \"What I Miss Most\" Scott Oscar Gorres James Alan Ghaleb Saunders OzGo 3:51 11. \"Hotel Room\" Scott Jamie Scott Saunders Smith 3:40 [ show ] Only Human – Deluxe edition bonus tracks [12] No. Title Writer(s) Producer(s) Length 12. \"Good to You\" Scott Phil Shaouy Ross Golan Phil Paul Andrew Bolooki 3:50 13. \"Not Dark Yet\" Bob Dylan Scott Smith 3:35 14. \"Dancing on My Own\" ( Tiësto Remix) Carlsson Berger Smith McIntyre Tiësto [a] 3:42 [ show ] Only Human – CD deluxe edition bonus track [13] No. Title Writer(s) Producer(s) Length 15. \"You Are the Reason\" (Duet version with Leona Lewis ) Scott Maguire Sanders Smith 3:10 Notes [a] signifies the remixer. Charts [ edit ] Chart (2018) Peak position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) [14] 5 Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) [15] 41 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders) [16] 35 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia) [17] 90 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [18] 27 Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) [19] 75 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) [20] 34 Irish Albums ( IRMA ) [21] 19 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) [22] 26 Scottish Albums ( OCC ) [23] 2 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [24] 13 UK Albums ( OCC ) [25] 4 US Billboard 200 [26] 66 References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"Only Human – Calum Scott | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 26 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Calum Scott Drops New Single 'What I Miss Most ' \" . Female First. 6 May 2018 . Retrieved 19 May 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Calum Scott releases new single What I Miss Most\" . Entertainment Focus. May 2018 . Retrieved 19 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Stickler, Jon (24 November 2017). \"Calum Scott Confirms April Shows, Announces Debut Album 'Only Human ' \" . stereoboard.com . Retrieved 24 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Calum Scott Is Only Human\" . AuspOp . 24 November 2017 . Retrieved 24 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b David (26 March 2018). \"David Checks Out Calum Scott's 'Only Human ' \" . auspOp . Retrieved 26 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Leigh Sanders (18 March 2018). \"Calum Scott, Only Human - album review\" . Express & Star . Retrieved 4 April 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Nick Lavine (11 March 2018). \"Calum Scott's impressive debut album proves there's much more to him than a Robyn cover – review\" . Gay Times . Retrieved 26 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Shaun Maunier (15 March 2018). \"Music Review: Calum Scott's Impressive Debut with Only Human\" . Metro Weekly . Retrieved 4 April 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Francesca Lamaina (28 February 2018). \"Album Review: Calum Scott Only Human\" . Renowned for Sound . Retrieved 26 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Only Human Standard Vinyl SIGNED\" . shop.virginemi.com . Retrieved 4 May 2018 . Jump up ^ \" ' Only Human (Deluxe)' van Calum Scott\" . iTunes Netherlands . Retrieved 24 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Only Human by Calum Scott: Amazon.co.uk: Music\" . Amazon . Jump up ^ \"ARIA Australian Top 50 Albums\" . Australian Recording Industry Association . 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 19 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Austriancharts.at – Calum Scott – Only Human\" (in German). Hung Medien. Retrieved 22 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be – Calum Scott – Only Human\" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be – Calum Scott – Only Human\" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Calum Scott Chart History (Canadian Albums)\" . Billboard . Retrieved 20 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Dutchcharts.nl – Calum Scott – Only Human\" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Offiziellecharts.de – Calum Scott – Only Human\" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Irish-charts.com – Discography Calum Scott\" . Hung Medien. Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"NZ Top 40 Albums Chart\" . Recorded Music NZ . 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100\" . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Swisscharts.com – Calum Scott – Only Human\" . Hung Medien. Retrieved 21 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Official Albums Chart Top 100\" . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 16 March 2018. Jump up ^ \"Calum Scott Chart History ( Billboard 200)\" . Billboard . Retrieved 20 March 2018. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Only_Human_(Calum_Scott_album)&oldid=843633289 \" Categories : 2018 debut albums Albums by British artists Albums produced by Fraser T Smith Albums produced by Warren \"Oak\" Felder Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles lacking page references from March 2018 Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bahasa Melayu Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 12:19. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Only Human (Calum Scott album)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Only_Human_(Calum_Scott_album)&amp;oldid=843633289" }

{ "text": "List of ESPN Radio affiliates - Wikipedia List of ESPN Radio affiliates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2015) This listing of radio stations that are branded as ESPN Radio is an incomplete sampling of major markets in 2011. The full list of \"full-time\" affiliates (not all of which are branded \"ESPN Radio\") can be found here . Note: All stations with a blue check mark ( ) are ESPN owned and operated stations Contents [ hide ] 1 Alabama 2 Alaska 3 Arizona 4 Arkansas 5 California 6 Colorado 7 Connecticut 8 District of Columbia 9 Florida 10 Georgia 11 Hawaii 12 Idaho 13 Illinois 14 Indiana 15 Iowa 16 Kansas 17 Kentucky 18 Louisiana 19 Maine 20 Maryland 21 Massachusetts 22 Michigan 23 Minnesota 24 Mississippi 25 Missouri 26 Montana 27 Nebraska 28 Nevada 29 New Hampshire 30 New Jersey 31 New Mexico 32 New York 33 North Carolina 34 North Dakota 35 Ohio 36 Oklahoma 37 Oregon 38 Pennsylvania 39 Rhode Island 40 South Carolina 41 South Dakota 42 Tennessee 43 Texas 44 Utah 45 Vermont 46 Virginia 47 Washington 48 Washington, DC 49 West Virginia 50 Wisconsin 51 Wyoming 52 Canada 53 Defunct or moved ESPN Radio affiliates 54 References Alabama [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Auburn, Alabama ESPN 106.7 Auburn High School baseball and basketball Birmingham, Alabama Jox 2: ESPN 100.5 Birmingham affiliate for Auburn Tigers football and men's basketball Decatur, Alabama ESPN Radio 1400 Alabama Crimson Tide Football, High School Football. Florence, Alabama ESPN Radio 93.9 Atlanta Braves affiliate, Alabama Crimson Tide Sports Network Huntsville, Alabama 97.7 The Zone Carries Army Black Knight Football University of Alabama Huntsville Basketball games, High School Football, NCAA and NFL football games, and the NCAA Basketball Tournament. Roanoke, Alabama ESPN Radio 1360 Tuscaloosa, Alabama Tide 102.9 Tuscaloosa affiliate for Alabama Crimson Tide football and softball York, Alabama ESPN Radio 104.9 West Alabama Tigers flagship station. Alaska [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Anchorage, Alaska 550 The Zone Flagship station of University of Alaska Anchorage Seawolves hockey, Seattle Mariners baseball Soldotna, Alaska ESPN 1140 Your source for Sports on the Kenai Peninsula Fairbanks, Alaska 820 Sports We're in the game! Arizona [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Phoenix, Arizona Arizona Sports 98.7 Flagship station of Phoenix Suns , Arizona Cardinals , Arizona Coyotes , Arizona Diamondbacks , and Arizona State Sun Devils ; local games move over to News 92.3 KTAR in case of scheduling conflict Safford, Arizona ESPN Radio 1230 Tucson, Arizona ESPN Radio 1490 The Fan Affiliate of Arizona Diamondbacks baseball; Phoenix Suns basketball Arkansas [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Batesville, Arkansas ESPN Radio 1340 Bentonville, Arkansas ESPN Radio 1290 Arkansas Razorbacks sports Dardanelle, Arkansas ESPN Radio 980 Arkansas Razorbacks sports and Arkansas Tech University sports affiliate Fayetteville, Arkansas ESPN Radio 99.5 Arkansas Razorbacks sports Fort Smith, Arkansas ESPN Radio 96.3 carries Arkansas razorback football,baseball,and basketball. Little Rock, Arkansas 103.7 The Buzz Dallas Cowboys football affiliate, Arkansas Razorbacks sports, High School Football Morrilton, Arkansas ESPN Radio 800 Stuttgart, Arkansas ESPN Radio 1240 Tennessee Titans affiliate California [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Anaheim, California Angels Radio AM 830 (\"In Association with ESPN\") Owned by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . Consequently, they are the team's flagship station. Also the flagship for the Anaheim Ducks , and an affiliate for the Oakland Raiders and the Notre Dame Fighting Irish . Roger Lodge hosts the station's afternoon show. Bakersfield, California ESPN Radio 1230 Clovis, California ESPN Radio 790 Affiliate of the Oakland Athletics Eureka, California ESPN Radio 92.7 / 1340 Flagship station of the Humboldt State Lumberjacks Fresno, California 940 ESPN Radio Affiliate of the Los Angeles Lakers , San Francisco 49ers , San Francisco Giants , and San Jose Sharks Los Angeles, California 710 ESPN Radio West Coast ESPN Radio flagship. Los Angeles Lakers flagship station, USC Trojans Football and Basketball flagship station. Also airs select Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim games in a partnership with Angels-owned flagship KLAA . Former originating station for defunct All Night with Jason Smith . AM flagship station of the Los Angeles Rams as of May 2016. Modesto, California ESPN Radio 970 affiliate of San Francisco 49ers , San Jose Sharks , Golden State Warriors , and California Golden Bears radio network Monterey, California ESPN Radio 630 Redding, California ESPN Radio 96.1 San Francisco Giants , San Francisco 49ers , and San Jose Sharks affiliate Sacramento, California ESPN 1320 AM affiliate of San Francisco 49ers San Diego, California ESPN 1700 AM San Francisco, California 95.7 The Game San Luis Obispo, California ESPN Radio 1280 Colorado [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Colona, Colorado ESPN Radio 1450 Colorado Springs, Colorado Currently No ESPN Radio affiliate Last heard on ESPN The ROCK! 101.3 before station flipped to Soft AC Denver, Colorado 1600 ESPN (main) 104.3 The Fan (secondary) KKFN: Carries local programming and select ESPN Radio programming along with play-by-play coverage of the Denver Nuggets , Colorado Avalanche , and Air Force Falcons football. KFFN also includes WestWood One Sports programming. KEPN: Carries full ESPN Radio schedule. Durango, Colorado ESPN Radio 930 Rifle, Colorado ESPN Radio 690 Steamboat Springs, Colorado ESPN Radio 1230 Connecticut [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Hartford, Connecticut 97.9 ESPN Home of The Rob Dibble Show. Weekdays 3PM-7PM. Launched on January 28, 2012. 97.9 ESPN replaced WPOP as the Hartford affiliate of ESPN Radio. WPOP flipped to Fox Sports Radio on March 5, 2012. New Haven, Connecticut ESPN Radio 1300 Affiliate of the Blue Devils ESPN Radio Network, broadcasting Central Connecticut State University men's basketball and football. District of Columbia [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Washington, D.C. 980 WTEM \"ESPN 980\" is the Washington Redskins football flagship, Washington Wizards & Georgetown Hoyas basketball flagship, Maryland Terrapins and Virginia Cavaliers football & men's basketball coverage and Baltimore Orioles affiliate. Florida [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Fort Myers, Florida 99.3 FM ESPN Affiliate of the Miami Marlins , Tampa Bay Rays , New York Yankees , Boston Red Sox , Miami Dolphins and Miami Hurricanes . Sister to WQAM in Miami, but it clears most ESPN Radio programming. Gainesville, Florida ESPN Radio 95.3/850 Flagship station of the Florida Gators . Jacksonville, Florida 1010XL 92.5 fm(simulcast) Flagship station of the Jacksonville Jaguars , North Florida Ospreys , and the Jacksonville Dolphins ; Georgia Bulldogs football affiliate. Miami, Florida 790 The Ticket Flagship of the Miami Marlins and Florida Panthers . Jorge Sedano in morning drive, Dan LeBatard in afternoons, and onetime Miami-based talk host Phil Hendrie in overnight. Carries Colin Cowherd and ESPN overnight (non-related Fox Sports Radio affiliate WINZ carries the first three hours of Mike and Mike ). Miami, Florida 1210 ESPN Deportes Flagship of the Miami Dolphins and Florida Panthers .The first Hispanic sports talk station covering the Greater Miami Area including Boyton Beach, Fort Lauderdale and the upper keys. Power: 47,000 Watts Programming: Local Orlando, Florida ESPN Radio 580 AM Flagship of Orlando Magic basketball; affiliate of Miami Hurricanes football, Tampa Bay Rays baseball, Jacksonville Jaguars football, Florida State Seminoles football & basketball, and NASCAR live coverage St. Petersburg / Tampa, Florida Sports Radio 620 WDAE Flagship of Tampa Bay Rays baseball, Tampa Bay Buccaneers football, and Tampa Bay Lightning hockey; Florida Gators football and basketball affiliate. Tallahassee, Florida 97.9 ESPN Radio West Palm Beach, Florida ESPN Radio 106.3 Affiliate of the Florida Marlins , Florida Panthers , Miami Dolphins , Miami Heat , Florida Gators , and Miami Hurricanes . Georgia [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Athens, Georgia ESPN Radio 960 Augusta, Georgia ESPN Radio 1380 Carolina Panthers football Brunswick, Georgia ESPN Radio 790 Atlanta Braves affiliate Cochran, Georgia Middle Georgia's ESPN Simulcasts on WXKO, WFXM-FM HD-4, 93.1 W226BZ Macon, and 99.5 W258AP Warner Robins Columbus, Georgia ESPN Radio 1580-95.7 University of Alabama , Atlanta Falcons , & Atlanta Hawks . Simulcast on WIOL-FM 95.7 FM . Fort Valley, Georgia Middle Georgia's ESPN Simulcasts on WRWR-FM HD-2 Cochran, WFXM-FM HD-4 Gordon, 93.1 W226BZ Macon, and 99.5 W258AP Warner Robins Gordon, Georgia Middle Georgia's ESPN Simulcasts on WRWR-FM HD-2, WXKO-AM Fort Valley, 93.1 W226BZ Macon, and 99.5 W258AP Warner Robins La Grange, Georgia ESPN Radio 1240-96.9 Macon, Georgia Middle Georgia's ESPN Simulcasts on WRWR-FM HD-2, WFXM-FM HD-4, WXKO-AM Fort Valley, and 99.5 W258AP Warner Robins Marietta, Georgia ESPN Radio 1230 Milledgeville, Georgia ESPN Radio 1450 Rome, Georgia ESPN Radio 1410 Sandersville, Georgia ESPN Radio 1490 Valdosta, Georgia ESPN Radio 1150-96.1 Valdosta State Blazers football , Atlanta Falcons , & Atlanta Braves . Warner Robins, Georgia Middle Georgia's ESPN Simulcasts on WRWR-FM HD-2, WFXM-FM HD-4, 93.1 W226BZ Macon, and WXKO-AM Fort Valley. Hawaii [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Hilo, Hawaii ESPN Radio 850 Honolulu, Hawaii ESPN Radio 1420 Hawaii Warriors play-by-play Kahului, Hawaii ESPN Radio 900 Kealakekua, Hawaii ESPN Radio 790 Idaho [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Coeur d'Alene, Idaho ESPN North Idaho Idaho Falls, Idaho KSPZ flagship station for Idaho Falls Chukars baseball Moscow, Idaho The Palouse's ESPN 1400 Washington State Cougars , Idaho Vandals football and basketball, local high school sports, local and Seattle sports talk 10am - 12pm Monday-Friday Twin Falls, Idaho ESPN The Zone Illinois [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Champaign, Illinois ESPN Radio 93.5 St. Louis Cardinals affiliate, Tay and J Show Chicago , Illinois ESPN Radio 1000 The first owned-and-operated station for ESPN Radio, and the network's Midwest flagship. Also was the first station to carry Mike and Mike . Chicago Bulls flagship, and key affiliate for both University of Notre Dame and University of Illinois at Chicago . Decatur, Illinois ESPN Radio 1050 Affiliate station for the Chicago Cubs, Chicago Bears, Chicago Bulls. Local programming includes, 'The Aric Lee Show' each weekday, High School Football and Basketball Broadcasts from schools in Central Illinois. Marion, Illinois ESPN Radio 103.5 St. Louis Cardinals affiliate Peoria, Illinois ESPN Radio 96.5 FM Chicago Cubs affiliate, Sunday and Monday Night NFL football, Chicago Bulls basketball and Peoria Fantasy Focus 9-11 on Sundays Quincy, Illinois ESPN Radio 1440 Chicago Cubs affiliate Springfield, Illinois Sportsradio 1450 AM local Central State Eight and other high school football and basketball games, Chicago Cubs , and Chicago Bears football. Also has local afternoon sports show -- \"The Press Box\" from 4 to 6 pm. Indiana [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Angola, Indiana ESPN 92.7 Detroit Tigers baseball affiliate. Has operated on the HD3 subchannel of 100.3 WLKI and simulcast on FM translator W224BY since November 2009. Brazil, Indiana 1130 The Fan simulcast on FM translator W258BA Terre Haute since 2013. New programming. No longer a valid affiliate. Fort Wayne, Indiana The Fan 1380 Fort Wayne Tincaps baseball, Purdue University and IPFW athletics. All local programming is simulcast on sister station 106.7 The Fan , Fort Wayne's Fox Sports Radio affiliate ( 106.7 The Fan's primary market is Angola, already serviced by WLKI-HD3/W224BY \"ESPN 92.7\"). Indianapolis, Indiana FM 107.5 and 1070 The Fan Indianapolis Colts , Indiana Pacers , IndyCar Series and Butler Bulldogs basketball flagship station; also carries Indiana Hoosiers (Some rights shared with sister stations WIBC and WLHK ). Only ESPN properties carried are \"Mike & Mike\" and some live sports as of 3/30/2017. Kokomo, Indiana News/Talk/ESPN 1350AM WIOU Purdue University football and Indiana University basketball affiliate. Coverage of high school football, basketball and baseball. Carries a general news/talk lineup during the daytime hours. Lafayette, Indiana ESPN 1450 Chicago Bears football, IRL Racing Marion, Indiana ESPN Radio 860 Muncie, Indiana ESPN Radio 1360 Cincinnati Reds baseball, local high school basketball Richmond, Indiana ESPN Radio 1490 and 100.9FM Cincinnati Reds baseball, local high school basketball, Miami University Hockey South Bend, Indiana ESPN Radio 95.7 [1] Chicago Bears football, Chicago Bulls basketball, Chicago White Sox baseball Terre Haute, Indiana The Fan 99.5 New programming. No longer a valid affiliate. Vincennes, Indiana ESPN Radio 1450 Warsaw, Indiana ESPN Radio 1480 Iowa [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Cedar Rapids, Iowa 1600 The Gym Iowa State Cyclones sports, high school sports, Minnesota Twins , Indy Racing League , NCAA Basketball, NFL Football Davenport, Iowa ESPN 93.5 Chicago Cubs baseball, Chicago Bears football Des Moines, Iowa 1350 ESPN Chicago Cubs baseball, Green Bay Packers football, Drake Bulldogs sports, Iowa Energy NBA D League basketball Kansas [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Lawrence, Kansas ESPN Radio 1320 Kansas Jayhawks sports Manhattan, Kansas ESPN Radio 1350 Pittsburg, Kansas 99.1 The Ticket ESPN Radio Fort Scott Community College sports, Pittsburg High School football and basketball Topeka, Kansas ESPN Radio 1490 Wellington, Kansas ESPN Radio 1130 Wichita, Kansas ESPN Radio 1240 Wichita, Kansas ESPN Radio 98.7 Winfield, Kansas ESPN Radio 1550 Kentucky [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Ashland, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1340 Bowling Green, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1450 Campbellsville, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1450 Elizabethtown, Kentucky ESPN Radio 101.5 Lexington, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1300 Louisville, Kentucky ESPN Radio 680 and 105.7 Manchester, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1450 \"Reality Radio XL\" Cincinnati Reds and Chicago Cubs play by play, Major League Baseball on ESPN Radio including Sunday Night Baseball , Playoff and World Series coverage, College football Bowl Championship Series , Kentucky Derby Paducah, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1560 Princeton, Kentucky ESPN Radio 1580 Louisiana [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Alexandria, Louisiana ESPN Radio 1410 LSU athletics New Orleans Pelicans Basketball Baton Rouge, Louisiana ESPN Radio 104.9 Southern University football and basketball Flagship station of LSU Tigers Basketball and coaches shows Houma, Louisiana ESPN Radio 1490 Lafayette, Louisiana Sports Radio ESPN 1420 Louisiana–Lafayette Ragin' Cajuns baseball, New Orleans Pelicans basketball Flagship of The Moon Griffon conservative talk radio show. Lake Charles, Louisiana ESPN Radio 1400 Monroe, Louisiana ESPN Radio 97.7 High School Football, ULM athletics, New Orleans Pelicans basketball and Saints Football,Grambling State athletics, LSU sports, and LA Tech athletics. New Orleans, Louisiana ESPN 100.3 Effective January 1, 2014, KLRZ-FM is a radio affiliate of ESPN Radio for the New Orleans market. The new format will carry ESPN's national lineup of sports talk personalities, programs, college and professional games. KLRZ-FM will be known as \"The Game\", featuring a team of local sports talk personalities. Flagship station of Nicholls State Athletics. New Orleans Pelicans Basketball affiliate for Larose. Slidell, Louisiana ESPN Radio 1560 Houston Astros Baseball and High School Football Maine [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Millinocket, Maine WSYY Saco / Portland, Maine FM 95.9 WPEI Affiliate of the WEEI Sports Radio Network , Boston Red Sox and Boston Celtics . Skowhegan The Ticket Sports Radio 1160 Was ESPN Radio affiliate from the 1990s until September 2009, switched back to sports in January 2011. Bangor 92.9 The Ticket On January 1, 2013, Townsquare relaunched the station with a sports format as \"92.9 The Ticket\". Maryland [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Cumberland, Maryland ESPN Radio 1230 Massachusetts [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Boston, Massachusetts ESPN on WEEI (main) SportsRadio 93.7 WEEI (secondary) One of the first successful all-sports stations in the U.S. Adopted the format in 1991 (then at 590 AM ), relocated to 850 AM in 1994, and began simulcasting on 93.7 FM in 2011. Both stations are the flagship of the Boston Red Sox and Boston College football and basketball. Since October 5, 2012, WEEI has carried the entire ESPN Radio programming lineup in pattern as ESPN on WEEI . WEEI-FM's daytime programming ( Dennis and Callahan , Mut and Merloni , The Big Show with Glenn Ordway and Planet Mikey ) is syndicated regionally via the \" WEEI Sports Radio Network \" to six other stations in Massachusetts , Maine , New Hampshire and Rhode Island . Consequently, up to the split of both stations, WEEI was one of a few ESPN affiliates that did not carry Mike and Mike , Colin Cowherd and Scott Van Pelt . Springfield, Massachusetts 1450 The Hall New York Yankees Baseball . Boston Bruins Hockey . The Average Joe Show. New Bedford, Massachusetts 1340 AM ESPN New Bedford Pawtucket Red Sox Baseball . High school football and boys basketball games for New Bedford High School , Greater New Bedford Voc-Tech , Fairhaven High School , Dartmouth High School , and Bishop Stang High School with operations manager Ed Perreira and Mark Enwright. Sister station of ESPN Radio 1450 West Warwick, Rhode Island Worcester, Massachusetts SportsRadio 1440 WEEI Has simulcast WEEI and/or WEEI-FM from 1991 until 1994, and from 1997 onward. Since 2000, the initial affiliate of the WEEI Sports Radio Network . Also an affiliate for the Boston Red Sox and Boston Celtics . Michigan [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Alma, Michigan ESPN Radio 1280 Bay City, Michigan ESPN Radio 100.9 East Lansing, Michigan ESPN Radio 730 Flint, Michigan Sports Xtra 1330 Affiliate for Detroit Tigers , University of Michigan football and basketball, Detroit Pistons , Detroit Lions , and Detroit Red Wings . Also carries local high school football. Grand Haven, Michigan ESPN Radio 1370 Grand Rapids, Michigan ESPN Radio 96.1 Also secondary affiliate of Fox Sports Radio . Airs the syndicated Jim Rome show from 12noon-3pm, as a result, the first two hours of Colin Cowherd are heard. Also affiliated with the Detroit Pistons . Jackson, Michigan ESPN Radio 1450 Affiliate for Detroit Tigers , Michigan State football and basketball, Detroit Pistons and Detroit Lions Marquette, Michigan ESPN UP Radio 970 / 93.3 Play-by-play home for Westwood High School Sports [2] Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan ESPN Radio 1400 Affiliate for the Detroit Pistons , as well as Soo Eagles junior hockey and Lake Superior State Lakers college basketball. Sturgis, Michigan ESPN Radio 1230 Traverse City, Michigan ESPN Radio Northern Michigan Simulcast on WSRT 106.7 FM and WSRJ 105.5 FM. Launched on August 31, 2012. Minnesota [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Bemidji, Minnesota ESPN Radio 1450 carries Minnesota Vikings and Minnesota Twins games Minneapolis, Minnesota 1500 ESPN Twin Cities key station for Minnesota Twins baseball, Minnesota Golden Golphers men's and women's basketball and men's ice hockey, and Minnesota United FC soccer St. Cloud, Minnesota ESPN Radio 660 Chicago Cubs Radio Network affiliate Mississippi [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Biloxi, Mississippi ESPN Radio 1640 Columbus, Mississippi ESPN Radio 103.1 Greenville, Mississippi ESPN Radio 1260 carries Southern Miss Golden Eagles football and baseball and Ole Miss Rebels men's basketball and baseball Hazlehurst, Mississippi ESPN Radio 92.9 Jackson, Mississippi ESPN The Zone 105.9 FM Mississippi State University live coverage Tupelo, Mississippi ESPN 96.3 FM Missouri [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Cape Girardeau, Missouri ESPN Radio 1220 Columbia, Missouri Sports Radio 100.5 FM & 1580 AM University of Missouri sports Houston, Missouri ESPN 1250 HOUSTON carries St. Louis Cardinals baseball, St. Louis Rams football and University of Missouri sports on ESPN 1250 HOUSTON Kansas City, Missouri Sports Radio 810 Kansas State University and University of Missouri–Kansas City sports St. Joseph, Missouri ESPN Radio 1550 carries St. Louis Cardinals baseball games and Northwest Missouri State University sporting events St. Louis, Missouri ESPN Radio 101.1 Saint Louis University basketball and former flagship station for the St. Louis Rams . Sikeston, Missouri ESPN Radio 1470 Springfield, Missouri JOCK 98.7 ESPN Springfield Cardinals Double-A Baseball, University of Missouri , and Missouri State University Athletics. Rolla, Missouri ESPN Mid-Missouri 107.3 Home of the Rolla Bulldogs, St. Louis Blues, KC Chiefs, KC Royals. Montana [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Bozeman, Montana ESPN Radio 1230 Helena, Montana ESPN Montana 94.9 FM K235BW; simulcasting KIMO-HD3 107.3 Great Falls, Montana ESPN Montana 99.9 FM K260AU; simulcasting KIMO-HD3 107.3 Missoula, Montana ESPN Montana 97.5 FM simulcasting KKVU-HD4 104.5 Whitefish, Montana ESPN Radio 1240 Nebraska [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Hastings, Nebraska ESPN Radio 1550 Kearney, Nebraska ESPN Radio 1460 Lincoln, Nebraska ESPN Radio 1480 Norfolk, Nebraska ESPN Radio 780-105.9 North Platte, Nebraska ESPN Radio 1410 Omaha, Nebraska AM 590 Omaha's ESPN Radio Nebraska Cornhuskers sports Scottsbluff, Nebraska ESPN Radio 1320 Nevada [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Las Vegas, Nevada ESPN Radio 1100 Joined ESPN Radio in February 2008; flagship station of the UNLV ISP Sports Network. Also affiliated with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , Los Angeles Lakers and Anaheim Ducks . Reno, Nevada ESPN Radio 94.5 New Hampshire [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Concord, New Hampshire ESPN Radio 107.7 affiliate of Boston Red Sox baseball, Boston Bruins ice hockey, Boston Celtics baseball, New England Patriots football, and Boston College Eagles football Keene, New Hampshire WZBK-AM 1220 Airs live local sports events and a sports talk show called \"The Press Box\" (all hosted by Bob Lund and Jared Goodell). Also broadcasts Keene Swamp Bats baseball and the local afternoon-drive shoe Dean Talks Boston , hosted by Dean Prentiss. Manchester, New Hampshire ESPN New Hampshire (1250 AM) Carries Boston Red Sox , NFL , and Boston Bruins Nashua, New Hampshire ESPN New Hampshire (900 AM) Simulcast of WGAM New Jersey [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Atlantic City, New Jersey 97.3 ESPN-FM 2014 FIFA World Cup , College Football Playoff , NCAA Tournament (since 2006), MLB , NBA and NFL live coverage, Philadelphia Eagles games and Absegami, EHT, Holy Spirit, Atlantic City , Mainland, EHT, and Pleasantville High School sports. New Mexico [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Alamogordo, New Mexico ESPN Radio 103.7 Albuquerque, New Mexico ESPN Radio 101.7 Carlsbad, New Mexico ESPN Radio 1240 Santa Fe, New Mexico ESPN Radio 1400 New York [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Albany, New York ESPN Radio 104.5 \"The Team\" New York Yankees affiliate station and Albany Devils coverage Bath, New York ESPN Radio 1380 Binghamton, New York ESPN Radio 1360 Syracuse University Basketball coverage and The Jim Boeheim Show Brewster, New York ESPN Radio 1510 Buffalo, New York ESPN Radio 1520 (main) WGR Sports Radio 550 (secondary) WGR: Buffalo Sabres (NHL) and Buffalo Bills (NFL) flagship station. MSG Radio Network affiliate ( New York Red Bulls games only). A charter affiliate of ESPN Radio since its 1992 launch. WWKB: Syracuse ISP Sports Network (men's basketball and football) affiliate. Elmira, New York ESPN Radio 1410 Glens Falls, New York ESPN Radio 1230 Ithaca, New York 1160 ESPN Radio Carries New York Yankees baseball and New York Jets football; also carries Syracuse University Men's Football and Men's Basketball, and Cornell University Men's Basketball Newark, New York ESPN Radio 1420 New York, New York ESPN Radio 98.7 FM East Coast ESPN Radio flagship. New York Jets (NFL), New York Knicks (NBA), New York Rangers (NHL), New York Red Bulls (MLS) and Syracuse University (men's basketball and football) flagship station. The station is operated by ESPN Radio under a local marketing agreement . Ogdensburg, New York ESPN Radio 1400 Oswego, New York ESPN Radio 1440/100.1 Rochester, New York ESPN Rado 950 Sabres Hockey Network affiliate (regular season only) Salamanca, New York ESPN 1590 WGGO Cleveland Browns , Penn State Nittany Lions football, local high school sports and Pop Warner Little Scholars football Syracuse, New York ESPN Radio 97.7/1200 ESPN Radio 1440/100.1 Syracuse ISP Sports Network co-flagship (with sister station WTKW ) and Boston Red Sox affiliate. All four stations originate from WTLA 1200-AM; the two FM signals utilized are FM translators . Utica, New York ESPN Radio 1310 Watertown, New York ESPN Radio 1410 North Carolina [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Asheville, North Carolina ESPN Radio 1310 Canton, North Carolina ESPN Radio 970 Charlotte, North Carolina ESPN Radio 730 Fayetteville, North Carolina ESPN Radio 1230 Graham / Greensboro / High Point, North Carolina \"The Triad Sports Network\" - 1200 WSML / 1230 WMFR / 1320 WCOG Jacksonville, North Carolina ESPN Radio 1400 New Bern, North Carolina 1490 WWNB Radio Free ENC Kinston Indians baseball Hatteras, North Carolina ESPN 97.1 Raleigh / Durham, North Carolina 99.9 FM The Fan Carolina Hurricanes Wilmington, North Carolina ESPN Radio 630 Cape Fear Rugby Football Club coverage North Dakota [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Bismarck, North Dakota ESPN Radio 710 broadcasts Minnesota Twins and Minnesota Vikings games Fargo, North Dakota 740 The Fan Grand Forks, North Dakota ESPN Radio 1440 Mayville, North Dakota ESPN Radio 105.5 Mayville, North Dakota ESPN Radio 1520 Ohio [ edit ] Mansfield, Ohio || ESPN Radio 1440/97.3 || Coverage of high school football and basketball, Motor Racing Network and Westwood One affiliate. Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Ashtabula, Ohio ESPN 970 WFUN Co-flagship of the Lake County Captains (along with WINT ) and Lake Erie College Storm football. Affiliate for Ohio State Buckeyes football and basketball, and the Cleveland Browns . Carries select Cleveland Indians and Cleveland Cavaliers games. Cambridge, Ohio ESPN Radio 1270/107.9 Canton, Ohio ESPN 990 Columbus Blue Jackets , Cincinnati Reds , Cincinnati Bengals , and Massillon Tigers live play-by-play Cincinnati, Ohio ESPN 1530 Cincinnati Bengals AM flagship (shared overall with WEBN and WLW ), Cincinnati affiliate for University of Kentucky football and basketball. Features local hosts Lance McAlister and Mo Egger. Cleveland, Ohio ESPN 850 WKNR (main) ESPN 1540 KNR2 (secondary) Co-flagship station for the Cleveland Browns [3] and Lake Erie Monsters , Cleveland affiliate for Ohio State Buckeyes football and basketball, and MAC Tournament flagship. Sister station WWGK AM 1540 carries the final hour of Mike and Mike , and carries the rest of the ESPN Radio schedule throughout their broadcast day (WWGK is a daytime only operation). ESPN 1540 KNR2 is also the flagship station of Notre Dame College football and carries NBA and MLB games via ESPN Radio. Both stations are co-branded ESPN Cleveland . Columbus, Ohio ESPN 1460 Columbus (main) Sports Radio 97.1 The Fan (secondary) Both stations are the flagship for Ohio State Buckeyes football and basketball and the Columbus Blue Jackets . 97.1 The Fan features Ohio State team programming and coaches' shows, in addition to local hosts Beau Bishop, Anthony Rothman, and Mike Ricordati ESPN 1460 also is the Columbus affiliate of the Cleveland Indians . Dayton, Ohio ESPN Radio 1410 Cincinnati Reds baseball and Ohio State Buckeyes football and basketball. Gwoc Football Game of the Week. Fostoria, Ohio ESPN Radio 1430 Cleveland Indians , Cleveland Cavaliers , Cleveland Browns . Ohio State Buckeyesfootball and basketball. Toledo Mud Hens minor league baseball. Fostoria High School football, high school basketball, OHSAA football and basketball. Marietta, Ohio ESPN Radio 100.9 simulcast with AM 630 Flagship of the Ohio University Bobcats . Middleport, Ohio ESPN Radio 1390 Portsmouth, Ohio ESPN Radio 1260 carries Cincinnati Reds baseball and Ohio State Buckeyes football and basketball Oklahoma [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Ardmore, Oklahoma ESPN Radio 1240 Enid, Oklahoma ESPN Radio 1390 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma ESPN Radio 640 Oklahoma City Thunder Oregon [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Coos Bay, Oregon ESPN Radio 1230 Medford, Oregon ESPN Radio 580 Pendleton, Oregon ESPN Radio 1240 Portland, Oregon 1080 The Fan Seattle Seahawks affiliate Pennsylvania [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Allentown, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio of the Lehigh Valley New York Yankees ( MLB ), New York Giants ( NFL ), Lehigh University football, basketball and wrestling, Lehigh Valley IronPigs minor-league baseball Altoona, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1430 Pittsburgh Steelers football, Pittsburgh Pirates baseball, Pittsburgh Penguins hockey, and Penn State football and basketball Chambersburg, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1380 Erie, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1260 The Score Buffalo Bills coverage and Cleveland Indians baseball Harrisburg, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1400 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football Hermitage, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 96.7 Huntingdon, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1150 Mexico, Juniata County, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1220 New Castle, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1280 Pittsburgh Pirates baseball, Pittsburgh Penguins hockey, and Penn State football and basketball Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 97.5 WPEN Branded \"97.5 The Fanatic,\" featuring a predominantly local weekday lineup. Flagship for Villanova Wildcats football and basketball. Became flagship for Philadelphia 76ers in April 2012, beginning with the NBA Playoffs. Flagship for Philadelphia Flyers starting in 2012-13 season. 610 WTEL Branded \"610 Sports,\" carries the majority of ESPN Radio's daytime programming WPEN is unable to clear, along with assorted brokered programming . Flagship for the MLS ' Philadelphia Union . Now a sister station to WPEN, but notable as the original home of WIP (since migrated to FM and is WPEN's main competitor). Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 970 ESPN 106.3 FM Co-flagship of the Pittsburgh Steelers (along with WDVE ). Affiliate of West Virginia University football and basketball . Pottsville, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1360 Reading, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1240 Scranton, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 630-1240-96.1-100.1-100.5-102.7 Philadelphia Phillies baseball, University of Notre Dame football, weekly Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins report Somerset, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1330 State College, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1450 Penn State Nittany Lions football and State College Area High School sports flagship station, plus Pittsburgh Pirates and Pittsburgh Steelers coverage. Occasionally, other NFL teams are covered as well on Sundays and Mondays ( Monday Night Football ) Towanda, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1550 Troy, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1310 Williamsport, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1050 AM and 104.1 FM Lycoming College football and basketball; in addition to Williamsport Crosscutters Minor League Baseball sports flagship station. York, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1350 Baltimore Orioles game coverage Rhode Island [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes West Warwick, Rhode Island 1450 AM ESPN Providence Sister station of ESPN Radio 1340 New Bedford, Massachusetts Westerly, Rhode Island SportsRadio 103.7 WEEI-FM Affiliate of the WEEI Sports Radio Network , Boston Red Sox , Boston Celtics and Providence Friars men's basketball . South Carolina [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Barnwell, South Carolina ESPN Radio 1460 Clemson football and basketball Columbia, South Carolina ESPN Columbia 1230 AM Charleston, South Carolina ESPN Radio 910 Clinton, South Carolina ESPN Radio 1410 Atlanta Braves affiliate Florence, South Carolina ESPN Radio 98.9 Spartanburg, South Carolina ESPN Radio 950 Carolina Panthers NFL Football, Charlotte Bobcats NBA Basketball, Wofford Terriers College Football South Dakota [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Aberdeen, South Dakota ESPN Radio 1420 carries Minnesota Vikings , Minnesota Twins , Minnesota Wild , and Minnesota Timberwolves games Mitchell, South Dakota ESPN Radio 1490 Rapid City, South Dakota ESPN Radio 1340 & 105.7 Nebraska Cornhuskers and Minnesota Twins affiliate Sioux Falls, South Dakota ESPN Radio 99.1 Vermillion, South Dakota ESPN Radio 1570 carries Chicago Cubs games Tennessee [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Chattanooga, Tennessee ESPN Radio 105.1 Atlanta Braves , Atlanta Falcons , CFB , NFL , MLB and NBA coverage Clarksville, Tennessee ESPN Radio 540 Crossville, Tennessee ESPN Radio 1490 Jackson, Tennessee ESPN Radio 96.5 Johnson City, Tennessee ESPN Radio 1400 carries Tennessee Titans football games, Atlanta Braves baseball games, and King College Tornado sporting events Knoxville, Tennessee Currently No ESPN Radio affiliate Last heard on WVLZ McMinnville, Tennessee ESPN Radio 1230 Memphis, Tennessee 680 ESPN University of Tennessee football and basketball coverage, St. Louis Cardinals , Memphis Grizzlies basketball coverage, Tennessee Titans football coverage Nashville, Tennessee ESPN Radio 102.5 Nashville Predators flagship, Memphis Grizzlies affiliate Pigeon Forge, Tennessee ESPN Radio 106.3 Atlanta Braves affiliate Texas [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Abilene, Texas ESPN Radio 98.1 Amarillo, Texas ESPN Radio 1010 Carthage, Texas ESPN Radio 1590 College Station, Texas Sports Radio 1150 The Zone Brazos Valley Bombers baseball and local high school football. Serves as flagship station for Texas A&M University women's basketball and softball. Also airs select Texas A&M men's basketball and baseball games, as well as Houston Astros games when sister station WTAW has scheduling conflicts. Preempts The Herd with Colin Cowherd and The SportsBash for local programming. Corpus Christi, Texas KEYS ESPN 1440 Dallas, Texas 103.3 FM ESPN Dallas Mavericks basketball and Texas Christian University football flagship station El Paso, Texas ESPN Radio 600 Dallas Cowboys and Los Angeles Dodgers affiliate Houston, Texas ESPN Radio 97.5 Became ESPN Radio affiliate in January 2007. In 2011, KFNC became the Texas Longhorns' affiliate in Houston. Laredo, Texas ESPN Radio 1490 Lubbock, Texas Double T 97.3 Texas Tech Red Raiders flagship station; also carries Texas Rangers baseball and Dallas Cowboys football Lufkin, Texas ESPN Radio 1260 McAllen, Texas ESPN Radio 1240 Laredo, Texas ESPN 1490 The Zone San Angelo, Texas ESPN Radio 960 San Antonio, Texas ESPN The Zone 1250 Texarkana, Texas ESPN Radio 740 Dallas Cowboys affiliate Tyler, Texas ESPN Radio 92.1 no longer Vernon, Texas ESPN 1230 Football: Cowboys, Longhorns, Aggies, Randy Galloway only radio station in the world on showroom of a car dealership Waco, Texas ESPN Radio 1660-101.3-100.9-106.9 (KHLE) Texas Rangers baseball, Dallas Cowboys affiliate, Dallas Mavericks affiliate and Baylor Bears football and basketball affiliate Wichita Falls, Texas ESPN Radio 95.5 Texas Rangers baseball, Midwestern State Mustangs athletics, and Wichita Falls High School Coyote Football Utah [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Salt Lake City, Utah ESPN 700 Sports Utah sports (flagship), Real Salt Lake soccer, Compass Media Networks NFL games. Preempts The Herd for The Dan Patrick Show. Preempts 2 hours of The Dan LeBetard Show and The Sedano Show for The Bill & OC Show . Provo, Utah ESPN 960 Sports BYU baseball (flagship), BYU Cougars women's soccer (flagship), UVU men's basketball (flagship), Compass Media Networks NFL games. Preempts the final hour of The Dan LeBetard Show and The Sedano Show for Cougar Sports w/ Ben Criddle . Vermont [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Brattleboro, Vermont ESPN Radio 1450 Burlington, Vermont ESPN Radio 101.3 Montpelier, Vermont ESPN Radio 1240 High School Sports, newly designated flagship for the U-32 Raiders Virginia [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Bedford, Virginia ESPN Radio 1350 Blacksburg, Virginia ESPN Radio 1430-94.1 Blackstone, Virginia ESPN Radio 1440 Gretna, Virginia ESPN Radio 106.3 Harrisonburg, Virginia ESPN Radio 1360 Lynchburg, Virginia ESPN Radio 1320 Martinsville, Virginia ESPN Radio 1160 Richmond, Virginia ESPN Radio 950 Richmond Spiders football and basketball (flagship station), Washington Nationals baseball Roanoke, Virginia ESPN Radio 1240 Staunton, Virginia ESPN Radio 1240 Virginia Beach, Virginia ESPN Radio 94.1 Old Dominion Monarchs football and basketball, Norfolk Tides baseball and Norfolk Admirals hockey flagship station Washington [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Aberdeen, Washington ESPN Radio 1490 Bellingham, Washington ESPN Radio 1170 Clarkston, Washington 1430 The Sports Fan Also airs Seattle Seahawks football, Washington State Cougars football and men's basketball, and the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . Kennewick, Washington 1340 ESPN Radio Airs content from 710 AM in Seattle Pullman, Washington The Palouse's ESPN 1400 Washington State Cougars , Idaho Vandals football and basketball, local high school sports, local and Seattle sports talk show 10am - 12pm Monday-Friday Seattle, Washington 710 ESPN Seattle Seattle Mariners and Seattle Seahawks flagship. Spokane, Washington 700 ESPN Spokane Became the ESPN affiliate after switching from 630 AM to a more powerful frequency. Affiliate KXLY 920 is home of the Seattle Mariners and Seattle Seahawks . Washington State Cougars flagship station. Spokane Shock flagship station. Home of \"Patchin, Osso and the Wingman.\" Vancouver, Washington 910 ESPN Portland Walla Walla, Washington ESPN Radio 1490 Yakima, Washington ESPN 1460 Yakima Washington, DC [ edit ] Market Branding Special Programming Notes Washington, DC ESPN980 West Virginia [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Charleston, West Virginia ESPN Radio 1490 Clarksburg, West Virginia ESPN Radio 1340 Hinton, West Virginia ESPN Radio 102.3 Huntington, West Virginia ESPN Radio 930 Marshall University flagship, Cincinnati Bengals affiliate Keyser, West Virginia ESPN Radio 1390 Logan, West Virginia ESPN Radio 1290-101.9 Martinsburg, West Virginia ESPN Radio 1340 Saint Marys, West Virginia ESPN Radio 630 Wisconsin [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Eau Claire, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 1150 Green Bay, Wisconsin Janesville, Wisconsin The Big AM 1380 Part-time affiliate; it was a full-time affiliate from 1998 until 2014. Broadcasts Beloit Snappers Baseball (flagship), Marquette University basketball, Hononegah Community High School football and basketball (flagship), NIU Huskies football, Rockford IceHogs hockey, and Roscoe Rush football (flagship) La Crosse, Wisconsin ESPN 105.5 FM Madison, Wisconsin 100.5 FM ESPN Broadcasts Marquette University basketball, Madison Mallards Baseball (flagship) and Madison Mustangs football (flagship) Marinette, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 570 Medford, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 1490 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 540 ESPN Broadcasts Marquette University basketball. Platteville, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 1590 Rhinelander, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 1240 Ripon, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 1600 Sparta, Wisconsin ESPN 1290 Broadcasts La Crosse Loggers Spencer, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 92.3 NASCAR affiliate Tomahawk, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 810 Wausau, Wisconsin ESPN Radio 100.5 Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin 1400 WRDB Part-time affiliate broadcasts Milwaukee Brewers baseball, Green Bay Packers football, Wisconsin Badgers Athletics and area high school sports. Wyoming [ edit ] Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Casper, Wyoming ESPN Radio 1400 Cheyenne, Wyoming ESPN Radio 1480 broadcasts Denver Nuggets and Colorado Avalanche games Laramie, Wyoming ESPN Radio 1210 Riverton, Wyoming ESPN Radio 1450 Sheridan, Wyoming ESPN Radio 87.7 Canada [ edit ] ESPN owns a minority interest in the sports network TSN alongside its majority owner Bell Media : in 2011, the company converted three of its stations to a new sports radio network known as TSN Radio . Much like its television counterpart, all three TSN Radio stations also carry programs from ESPN Radio (such as select event coverage, along with overnight and weekend programming). Market Branding Special Local Programming Notes Edmonton, Alberta TSN Radio 1260 Flagship station of the Edmonton Oil Kings , FC Edmonton and Edmonton Rush Toronto, Ontario TSN Radio 1050 First TSN Radio station, launched on April 13, 2011. Is the flagship station of the Toronto Argonauts , and the co-flagship of the Toronto Maple Leafs . Montreal, Quebec TSN Radio 690 Launched on October 5, 2011. English-language flagship of the Montreal Canadiens . Winnipeg, Manitoba TSN Radio 1290 Launched on October 5, 2011. Flagship station of the Winnipeg Jets and Goldeyes Defunct or moved ESPN Radio affiliates [ edit ] The following is the list of radio stations that were previously ESPN Radio affiliates. ESPN Radio station listing Market Branding Additional notes Alexandria, Virginia 820 WXTR Triple X ESPN Radio Flagship of the Triple X ESPN Radio trimulcast until owner Red Zebra Broadcasting purchased competitor WTEM in 2008. Switched to ESPN Deportes Radio . Albany, New York ESPN Radio 1300 The Team Moved to 104.5 FM in late 2006 Athol, Massachusetts ESPN Radio 700 Became a simulcast of FM sister station WXRG , itself a repeater of Boston-market WXRV , in 2012. Austin, Texas 104.9 KTXX / 1260 KLGO 104.9 The Horn Changed to a mix of local sports radio and Classic hits on January 2, 2014. Dropped the classic hits for NBC Sports Radio a year later. Baltimore, Maryland 1300 WJFK/WJZ ESPN Radio 1300 Joined the network on March 10, 2003 as 1300 WJFK. Callsign changed to WJZ (AM) on November 3, 2008, in harmony with their sister TV station and newly created FM sports talker . Became a CBS Sports Radio affiliate on January 2, 2013. Baton Rouge, Louisiana The Score 1210 Lost the broadcast rights in Baton Rouge to the now ESPN 1300 in February 2007. Bend, Oregon ESPN Radio 940 Switched affiliations to Fox Sports Radio . Birmingham, Alabama Jox 94.5 Announced that the station would become a charter affiliate of CBS Sports Radio when it debuts on January 2, 2013; dropped ESPN Radio on August 19, 2012; currently carrying CBS Sports Radio . Boise, Idaho ESPN Radio 730 Stunting effective February 2017 Boston, Massachusetts 890 ESPN Radio WAMG/WLLH dumped ESPN Radio Programming on September 14, 2009. [4] Cambridge, Maryland ESPN Radio 1240 Changed formats to nostalgic standards on December 30, 2011. Cincinnati, Ohio 1160 WBOB Picked up the affiliation in August 2000 after then-affiliate 1360 WCKY became a charter Fox Sports Radio affiliate. Sold to religious broadcaster Salem Media Group at the same time; Salem continued to operate WBOB as a sports station until 2003, when it changed to conservative talk radio programming. 1450 WMOH Licensed to Hamilton , WMOH became a full-time affiliate for the greater Cincinnati market in 2003. After 1360 WSAI dropped a lifestyle talk format for ESPN Radio programming, WMOH adopted the conservative talk format previously on WBOB following that station's concurrent ownership/format change. 1360 WSAI Originally affiliated with the network, then under the WAZU and WCKY callsigns and \"1360 Homer\" branding, prior to 2000. Rejoined the network on a full-time basis on July 2, 2007; the affiliation moved to sister station 1530 WCKY on February 15, 2010. Cleveland, Ohio 1220 WKNR SportsRADIO 1220 WKNR The market's initial ESPN Radio affiliate; dropped in 1995 and rejoined in 1998 when successor affiliate WTAM came into common ownership with 1220 WKNR. As part of a multiple station purchase/trade covering seven stations and three ownership groups in Cleveland and adjacent markets, 1220 WKNR's intellectual property (format and on- and off-air personnel) was transferred onto the former 850 WRMR on July 3, 2001. 1100 WWWE/WTAM NewsRadio 1100 3WE/ WTAM 1100 Joined the network in 1995, carrying the longform weekend programming and NBA play-by-play coverage. Call letters changed to WTAM in July 1996. Shared affiliation with 1220 WKNR from January to October 1998. 850 WKNR SportsTalk 850 WKNR 850 WKNR carried ESPN Radio from July 2001 until its cancellation by the network in July 2006, effective that October. Affiliation moved to newly purchased 1540 WWGK. Reassumed the affiliation in March 2007. 1540 WWGK Cleveland's ESPN Radio 1540 WWGK's ownership, Good Karma Brands , purchased 850 WKNR in December 2006, and moved the affiliation back to WKNR the following March. WWGK then took a dual ESPN and Fox Sports affiliation (dropping Fox in 2011), rebranded as \"KNR2\". Colorado Springs, Colorado ESPN 1300 The Sports Animal Changed formats to Classic country now known as KCSF. Colorado Rockies baseball games still airs on this station. Columbia, South Carolina ESPN Radio 93.1 FM Sold on July 28, 2012. Denver, Colorado 1600 KEPN ESPN Radio 1600 Changed affiliation to Fox Sports Radio in September 2012; rejoined the network in 2016 when KJAC dropped it. Launched on January 1, 2007 as a sister station to KRWZ 950AM; airs Denver Nuggets and Colorado Avalanche games that are bumped from KRWZ; also University of Denver sports and University of Wyoming sports 105.5 KJAC Dropped ESPN Radio following an ownership change and format flip to adult album alternative in January 2016. This rimshot signal is also notable for having been the first station in the United States to adopt Jack FM , its prior format before ESPN Radio (and from which the call letters are derived). Detroit , Michigan 1130 WDFN SportsRadio 1130 The Fan The market's initial ESPN Radio affiliate; eventually becoming a dual ESPN and Fox Sports Radio affiliate. Dropped the affiliation at ESPN's request in October 2007. 1270 WXYT Team 1270/ 1270 XYT WXYT occasionally aired ESPN programming not cleared by WDFN as early as 2000. Mike and Mike was added to the weekday lineup in early 2007. That October, WXYT's format moved to sister station WKRK as \"97.1 The Ticket,\" taking a higher emphasis on local programming, and switched to Sporting News Radio . WDFN's concurrent affiliation cancellation left the Detroit market without an ESPN Radio affiliate until February 2012. 1090 WCAR ESPN Radio 1090 Owned and operated by Birach Broadcasting . Assumed the affiliation in February 2012; dropped it on July 12, 2013 due to a contract dispute. 105.1 WMGC Detroit Sports 105.1 Dropped the sports format on June 29, 2016, due to low ratings and a pending merger with owner Greater Media into Beasley Broadcast Group . (The affiliation remains on WMGC's HD-2 subchannel.) The subsequent format launch - classic hip-hop as The Bounce - gained notoriety as a 'worst-to-first' ratings jump over the span of one month. Elko, Nevada ESPN Radio 1340 Station's license cancelled April 9, 2015 Eugene, Oregon 95.3 The Score Dropped ESPN for CBS Sports Radio in 2013. Fairbanks, Alaska 820 Sports Dropped ESPN for Fox Sports Radio citing financial reasons in 2011. Fremont, Ohio 900 WFRO Unofficially an O&O; the license was owned by Disney/ABC, and operated by local broadcast chain BAS Broadcasting, who continues to run 99.1 WFRO . Signed off permanently on June 23, 2004 per Disney's request, as part of their move-in of Flint station 910 WFDF into the Detroit market. Gardner, Massachusetts Talk 1340 AM WGAW formerly carried ESPN Radio programming at night and on weekends (the station primarily carried, and continues to broadcast, other talk programming); it subsequently replaced ESPN with Fox Sports Radio before dropping sports talk programming altogether. Hartford, Connecticut 910 WNEZ \"News-Sports 910 CNN\" carried The Fabulous Sports Babe until December 1996 when the station was sold and switched to a Spanish-language format. 1410 WPOP Picked up in January 1998 after dropping the One-on-One Sports network. The affiliation moved to sister station 97.9 WUCS in January 2012, and WPOP became the market's FOX Sports Radio affiliate on March 5, 2012. Houston, Texas 790 KBME \"790 The Sports Animal.\" Affiliation moved to 97.5 KFNC in January 2007. Huntington, West Virginia ESPN Radio 1340 Swapped with AM 930 WRVC on November 6, 2006 Indianapolis, Indiana 950 WXLW An ESPN affiliate from 2002 until 2008, when 1070 WIBC's talk format migrated to the FM dial and was replaced with WFNI \"1070 The Fan.\" WNDE and WIBC were also previous ESPN Radio affiliates in the 1990s. Jacksonville, Florida ESPN Radio 1460 Changed formats to religious, with ESPN now heard on WJXL ; Atlanta Braves baseball still carried live Kansas City, Missouri ESPN Radio 97.3 Formerly KCXM, now a Christian radio station. ESPN programs moved to 810 WHB . Former flagship of the Kansas City Royals Las Vegas, Nevada ESPN Radio 920 Became Fox Sports Radio in February 2008 in a three-way switch in which KWWN became the new ESPN Radio station and KENO joined ESPN Deportes Radio Ligonier, Indiana ESPN Radio 102.7 Flipped to Hot adult contemporary format on August 28, 2017 Lima, Ohio 940 WLJM/WZOQ ESPN Radio 940 Adopted ESPN Radio following an ownership change. Callsign switched to WZOQ in 2007. On June 1, 2009, the format and some on-air personnel moved to the former 93.1 WFGF , while WZOQ took the WCIT calls and a 50s-60s classic hits format. 93.1 WWSR 93.1 The Fan Flagship of the Ohio State-Lima basketball team and affiliate of the Cleveland Indians , Cleveland Cavaliers , Cleveland Browns , and select NFL games. \"SportsTalk With Koza.\" \"Sportsrap With Matt and Matt.\" Dropped ESPN Radio for a mixture of Fox Sports Radio and CBS Sports Radio in early 2016. Lincoln, Nebraska ESPN Radio 1480 Became an oldies station on January 26, 2010. Lindenwold, New Jersey ESPN Radio 1680 Defunct since 2002, broadcasting the Trenton Thunder . Now airs an ethnic format. Little Rock, Arkansas Total Sports 1380 Purchased by Simmons Media, leased to Nova M Radio , a group that leases stations to run Air America Radio programming. Los Angeles 1110 KEPN Swapped with then Radio Disney flagship 710 KDIS in 2003. Madison, Wisconsin 1070 WTSO ESPN Radio 10-7-0 Milwaukee Brewers and Milwaukee Bucks play by play and back up for WIBA-AM sports coverage; dropped ESPN Radio 1/1/2009 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1510 WAUK (daytime) 1290 WMCS (nighttime) Milwaukee's ESPN Radio: 1510 Days/1290 Nights WAUK was purchased by Good Karma Broadcasting in 2004, and took up the ESPN Radio affiliation, but due to being on a clear-channel frequency reserved to WLAC in Nashville, it was and is only able to broadcast during the daytime hours. WMCS (which once held the WMVP calls until being purchased by the 1000 kHz Chicago facility) aired shows at night starting in 2005 via a leased-time arrangement. The format moved to WRRD as \"540 ESPN\" in February 2008 and swapped callsigns with WAUK; the 1510 kHz facility - now WRRD - is now affiliated with ESPN Deportes Radio . The leased-time arrangement with WMCS expired in June 2008. Montgomery, Alabama Sports Radio 740 Switched affiliations to CBS Sports Radio . Nags Head, North Carolina ESPN 92.3 Become an ESPN Radio affiliate on March 13, 2008. Moved to sister station 97.1 WYND-FM Hatteras, NC on May 11, 2009. Nashville, Tennessee ESPN Radio 104.5 Moved to WPRT-FM in November 2011. New Holstein, Wisconsin / Fox Cities Fox Cities ESPN Radio 1530 Went silent in late 2011. New Owner in late 2011. Tower being moved closer to Appleton-Oshkosh, WI New Orleans, Louisiana 1350 WSMB/WWWL Later became a progressive talk station and Air America Radio affiliate. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , it became a time-shifted version of co-owned WWL AM / FM . Changed back to an ESPN Radio affiliate as \"ESPN 1350\" in July 2008, dropped it again for NBC Sports Radio and lifestyle talk as \"3WL\" in October 2013. Tom Fitzmorris has hosted a weekday food-related talk show on the station since July 18, 1988, regardless of the format or call letters. Ocean City, Maryland ESPN Radio 1590 Now broadcasting Jack FM . New York, New York 1050 WEPN Became the flagship station of ESPN Radio on September 1, 2001. The format and flagship status moved to 97.9 WEPN-FM in September 2012; WEPN concurrently switched to being the flagship of ESPN Deportes Radio . The 1050 facility itself was the original home of WFAN , the first all-sports radio station, from July 1987 to October 1988. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 920 WPHY WPHY was the former affiliate for La Salle University Basketball, Temple Owls football coverage. WPHY dropped ESPN Radio in January 2008 when sister station 1040 WNJE began to simulcast then-flagship 1050 WEPN . 950 WPEN Assumed the affiliation in April 2008. After beginning to simulcast on 97.5 WPEN-FM in 2009 as \"97.5 The Fanatic,\" 950 WPEN was eventually sold to Family Radio and became the new incarnation of WKDN on December 2012. WPEN-FM continues to carry ESPN Radio programming alongside newly acquired sister station 610 WTEL . Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1250 WEAE Former an ESPN Radio O&O; was switched to Radio Disney programming as part of Disney / ABC 's dispersal of under-performing small-market stations (Disney concurrently ended their lease of WWCS , which served as Pittsburgh's Radio Disney outlet for several years prior). The ESPN affiliation moved to Clear Channel-owned 970 WBGG on January 1, 2011 , formerly the market's Fox Sports Radio affiliate (that affiliation ultimately moved to WWCS). Portsmouth, New Hampshire The Sports Animal 1380 Changed to ESPN Radio in November 2010; the station returned to an adult standards format in October 2013. Providence, Rhode Island The Score AM & FM The Score AM-FM was Providence's home of ESPN Radio until 3/11/08. 99.7 FM flipped to a simulcast of NewsTalk 630 as WEAN-FM . 790 AM flipped to The True Oldies Channel on 3/18/08. ESPN Radio is now heard on 1450 AM WPVD in Rhode Island . Riverside, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 92.3 Changed format to Classic Hits at WHNA on February 22, 2016. San Diego, California ESPN Radio 800 / ESPN Radio San Diego FM 98.9 On October 5, 2009, ESPN Radio coverage moved to sister station XHMORE-FM and became ESPN Radio San Diego FM 98.9; briefly simulcasted the new station on 800 AM for a month, then the AM station switched to ESPN Deportes programming. XHMORE later dropped ESPN programming on September 1, 2010 , when it flipped back to a rock en español format it aired from 1994 until 2004 . Seattle, Washington Sports Radio 950 Switched to Fox Sports Radio in December 2008 after 710 KIRO-AM switched genres from news/talk and gained affiliation. Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania ESPN Radio 1240 Station's license was surrendered to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission by its owners; cancelled February 1, 2013. Sheboygan, Wisconsin Sheboygan ESPN Radio 950 Switched to Fox Sports Radio in early 2011. South Bend, Indiana 960 WSBT (96.1 W241AD) Dropped ESPN for CBS Sports Radio on April 1, 2014. 95.7 WAOR Spun off by Federated Media to St. Joseph Catholic Radio Group on May 2014, a month after taking the affiliation. Switched to Catholic radio programming that September. St. Louis, Missouri 1380 KSLG Switched to Fox Sports Radio in December 2007. 101.1 WXOS became the market's new affiliate on January 1, 2009. Steubenville, Ohio ESPN Radio 1340 Station's license was surrendered to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission by its owners; cancelled December 11, 2012. Traverse City, Michigan 1310 WCCW Affiliate for Detroit Tigers , Detroit Lions , Detroit Red Wings , Detroit Pistons and Michigan State football and basketball. Switched to Fox Sports Radio in August 2012; the affiliation moved to 106.7 WSRT/105.5 WSRJ \"ESPN Radio Northern Michigan.\" Ventura, California ESPN Radio 1450 Dropped ESPN for CBS Sports Radio in January 2013. Virginia Beach, Virginia ESPN Radio 1310 Swapped with sister station 94.1 WVSP Yorktown, VA (formerly WXEZ) on October 5, 2009. Washington, D.C. SportsTalk 980 WTEM Defunct from July 2006 until July 2008, affiliation moved to Triple X ESPN Radio until it merged programming assets with WTEM. Was the first flagship of The Tony Kornheiser Show that ESPN Radio eventually carried nationally. (From 2006 to 2008, Tony's show originated independently at WWWT ; it returned to WTEM as a locally based show in September 2009.) Sports director Andy Pollin has also been a past contributor and weekend show host on the network. From 2004 until July 2006, WTEM was a primary ESPN Radio affiliate; it was a dual ESPN-Fox Sports Radio affiliate prior. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.thefanmichiana.com/ Jump up ^ http://www.espnup.com/ Jump up ^ http://www.cleveland.com/browns/index.ssf/2013/03/cleveland_browns_will_have_new.html Jump up ^ http://www.bostonsportsmedia.com/2009/09/farewell-890-espn [ show ] v t e ESPN Inc. 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{ "text": "Roy Dotrice - Wikipedia Roy Dotrice From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Roy Dotrice OBE Dotrice in 2014 Born ( 1923-05-26 ) 26 May 1923 Guernsey , Channel Islands Died 16 October 2017 ( 2017-10-16 ) (aged 94) London , England Nationality British Occupation Actor Years active 1945–2017 Known for Brief Lives A Moon for the Misbegotten Spouse(s) Kay Newman ( m. 1947; d. 2007) Children 3, including Michele and Karen Awards 1 Tony Award 1 Drama Desk Award 1 British Academy Television Award Website www .roydotrice .com Roy Dotrice OBE (26 May 1923 – 16 October 2017) was a British actor known for his Tony Award -winning performance in the 2000 Broadway revival of A Moon for the Misbegotten . He appeared in Amadeus (1984) as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's father, Leopold . He also narrated the first five books in George R. R. Martin 's fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire . Contents [ hide ] 1 Life and career 1.1 Radio 1.2 Theatre 1.3 Television 1.4 Game of Thrones 1.5 Radio and audiobooks 2 Personal life and death 3 Select filmography 3.1 Film and television 3.2 Voice acting 4 Honours 5 References 6 External links Life and career [ edit ] Dotrice was born in Guernsey on 26 May 1923, [1] to Neva (née Wilton; 1897–1984) and Louis Dotrice (1896–1991). [2] He served as a wireless operator/air gunner with the Royal Air Force during the Second World War , and was imprisoned in a German prisoner of war camp from 1942 to 1945. [3] Radio [ edit ] Dotrice was the voice of \"Permanent Under-Secretary Sir Gregory Pitkin\" in the early episodes of BBC Radio's long-running comedy The Men from the Ministry . [3] He was succeeded by Ronald Baddiley in the role. He also played the caretaker Ramsay, alongside Patricia Hayes , in the Radio 4 sitcom Know Your Place . [4] Theatre [ edit ] Dotrice played the part of John Aubrey in the play devised and written by Patrick Garland of Brief Lives , a one-man show that saw Dotrice on stage for more than two-and-a-half hours (including the interval [intermission], during which he would feign sleep). [3] Premiering in 1967 at the Hampstead Theatre in London, the play had two tours on Broadway . [5] In 1968, it moved to the Criterion Theatre in the West End , where it would run for 400 performances before transferring to the Mayfair Theatre . [6] He revived the role in 2008, again under Patrick Garland's direction. [7] These runs, combined with extensive international touring, earned Dotrice a place in the Guinness World Records for the greatest number of solo performances (1,782). [4] In 1984, he starred opposite Rosemary Harris in a production of Noël Coward 's Hay Fever . [8] He appeared in the stage production of Irving Berlin 's White Christmas at The Lowry theatre in Salford from November 2009 to January 2010. [3] Television [ edit ] In the 1970s, Dotrice played the title role in the television mini-series Dickens of London . [8] He also appeared as Albert Haddock in the BBC television adaptation of A. P. Herbert 's Misleading Cases in 1971. [4] In 1972 he played the Curé Ponosse in the BBC2 TV adaptation of Clochemerle (1972). [9] He was known to North American audiences as Father in the 1980s American TV series Beauty and the Beast and Father Gary Barrett, a Catholic priest, in the 1990s series Picket Fences , although his acting career dates from 1945 in a revue called Back Home , performed by ex-POWs in aid of the Red Cross . [4] In an episode of Angel (1999), part of the Buffyverse , he played as Roger Wyndam-Pryce , the overbearing father of the character Wesley Wyndam-Pryce . [6] An earlier science-fiction role was Commissioner Simmonds in two episodes of the 1970s series Space: 1999 . In 1998, Dotrice appeared in three episodes of the series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys as Zeus . [8] Dotrice was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1974 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at Pinewood Studios . [3] Game of Thrones [ edit ] In June 2010, it was announced that Dotrice would be playing the role of Grand Maester Pycelle in the HBO television series Game of Thrones , an adaptation of George R. R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire books. [5] Dotrice later withdrew from the part for medical reasons and Julian Glover was cast in his place. [10] Shortly after filming for the second season commenced, it was confirmed that Dotrice would be returning to play \"Wisdom Hallyne the Pyromancer\", [11] who is featured in the installments \" The Ghost of Harrenhal \" and \" Blackwater \". [11] Radio and audiobooks [ edit ] In 1982, BBC Radio 4 broadcast Dotrice's reading of fellow Guernseyman G.B. Edwards ' classic novel The Book of Ebenezer Le Page in twenty-eight 15-minute parts on its Woman's Hour segment. [12] The producer subsequently wrote that the serialisation was \"without question the most popular serial I have ever done in the 500 or so I have produced in the last 21 years ...\". [13] He subsequently performed \"The Islander\", a stage version of The Book of Ebenezer Le Page , to critical success at the Theatre Royal Lincoln . [6] In 2012, AudioGO produced a complete and unabridged recording of Ebenezer Le Page , which is available on Audible . [13] Dotrice recorded audiobooks for each book in George R. R. Martin 's series A Song of Ice and Fire . [12] [14] [15] Dotrice also narrated many storybook adaptations for Disney Records, including The Little Mermaid and Hercules , for which he was nominated for a Grammy award. [5] Personal life and death [ edit ] Dotrice was married to Kay Newman (1929–2007), a television and stage actress, from 1947 until her death in 2007. [16] They had three daughters— Michele , Yvette and Karen —all of whom have acted at various times in their lives. He was the father-in-law of actors Edward Woodward (Michele) and Alex Hyde-White (Karen). [9] He particularly enjoyed baseball, fishing and football, and was a stalwart member of the Garrick Club . He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2008. [9] Dotrice died at the age of 94 on 16 October 2017 in London. No cause was given. [6] [9] He is survived by his daughters, Karen, Michele and Yvette, along with seven grandchildren. [6] Select filmography [ edit ] Film and television [ edit ] The Heroes of Telemark (1965) – Jensen A Twist of Sand (1968) – David Garland Lock Up Your Daughters (1969) – Gossip Toomorrow (1970) – John Williams The Buttercup Chain (1970) – Martin Carr-Gibbons Nicholas and Alexandra (1971) – General Alexeiev Tales From The Crypt (1972) – Charles Gregory (segment 4 \"Wish You Were Here\") Hide and Seek (1972) – Mr Grimes Space: 1999 (1975, TV series) – Commissioner Simmonds Dickens of London (1976, TV series) – Charles Dickens/Mr John Dickens Saturn 3 (1980, voice overdub of Harvey Keitel ) – Benson (voice, uncredited) Family Reunion (1981) – Lester Frye Cheech & Chong's The Corsican Brothers (1984) – The Evil Fuckaire/Ye Old Jailer Amadeus (1984) – Leopold Mozart Eliminators (1986) – Abbott Reeves Shaka Zulu (1986, TV series) The Wizard (1986, TV series) – Troyan Faerie Tale Theatre : \"The Dancing Princesses\" and \"Rip Van Winkle\" (1987, TV series) – The King/Peter Vanderdonk Beauty and the Beast (1987–90, TV series) – Jacob \"Father\" Wells Suburban Commando (1991) – Zanuck The Cutting Edge (1992) – Anton Pamchenko Picket Fences (1992–1995, TV series) – Father Gary Barrett Going to Extremes (1992, TV series) – Doctor Croft Children of the Dark (1994, TV) – Dr Burnham Swimming with Sharks (1994) – Cyrus Miles Babylon 5 : \" The Fall of Night \" (1995, TV) – Frederick Lantz The Scarlet Letter (1995) – Rev Thomas Cheever Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1996; TV series) – Mr Big Like Father, Like Santa (1998 TV series) – Ambrose Booth Sliders (1999, TV series) – Marc LeBeau/The Seer/Archibald Chandler Madigan Men (2000, TV series) – Seamus Madigan Alien Hunter (2003) – Dr John Bachman Angel (2003, TV series) – Roger Wyndam-Pryce Life Begins (2004; TV series) La Femme Musketeer (2004, TV mini-series) – Commander Finot These Foolish Things (2006) – Lord Carter Played (2006) – Jack Rawlings Go Go Tales (2007) – Jay Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008) – King Balor Game of Thrones (2012, TV series) – Hallyne Sources: [3] [6] [9] [17] [18] [19] Voice acting [ edit ] Watership Down ( audiobook ) Robin Hood (TV series) The Prince and the Pauper (audio book) Batman: The Animated Series : \"The Lion and the Unicorn\" as Frederick Spider-Man (TV series) as Keene Marlow/The Destroyer The Book of Ebenezer Le Page (audio book) The Death Gate Cycle Vol. 4: Serpent Mage (audio book) A Song of Ice and Fire series (audio books) Sources: [3] [9] [17] [18] [19] Honours [ edit ] He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2008 New Year Honours . [20] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Coveney, Michael (16 October 2017). \"Roy Dotrice obituary\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Roy Dotrice Biography (1925–)\" . Filmreference.com . Retrieved 24 February 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"Roy Dotrice: Guernsey actor dies aged 94\" . 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"British actor Roy Dotrice dead at 94\" . Fox News . 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \" ' Game of Thrones' and 'Amadeus' actor Roy Dotrice dies at 94\" . New York Daily News . 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Veteran British actor Roy Dotrice dies aged 94\" . Washington Post . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Brief Lives revival \"Aubrey\" . Retrieved 18 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Veteran British actor Roy Dotrice dies aged 94\" . San Francisco Chronicle. 16 October 2017. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Game of Thrones star Roy Dotrice dies aged 94\" . ibtimes.co.uk . 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"A Change on the Small Council\" . Archived from the original on 7 March 2016 . Retrieved 24 February 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Roy Dotrice is Pyromancer Hallyne\" . WinterIsComing.net. 7 August 2011 . Retrieved 12 April 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Game of Thrones actor dies: Set world record for narrating the show's audiobooks\" . EW. 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Edward Chaney , Genius Friend: G.B. Edwards and The Book of Ebenezer Le Page , ( Blue Ormer Publishing , 2015) Jump up ^ \"Most character voices for an audio book – individual\" . Guinnessworldrecords.com . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Game of Thrones: News – Roy Dotrice is Pycelle and More\" . Westeros.org . Retrieved 24 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Passings , The Los Angeles Times , 9 August 2007. Retrieved 7 January 2014. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Roy Dotrice\" . TV Guide . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Roy Dotrice, 'Game of Thrones' and 'Amadeus' Actor, Dies at 94\" . Variety. 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Roy Dotrice Biography\" . Hollywood . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"No. 58557\" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 29 December 2007. p. 9. External links [ edit ] Official website Roy Dotrice on IMDb Roy Dotrice at the TCM Movie Database Roy Dotrice at the Internet Broadway Database Roy Dotrice at the Internet Off-Broadway Database Selected Performances at the Theatre Archive, University of Bristol Two Old Stagers Find Vigour in Brief Lives Roy Dotrice's appearance on This Is Your Life Roy Dotrice (Aveleyman) [ show ] v t e BAFTA TV Award for Best Actor Paul Rogers (1955) Peter Cushing (1956) Michael Gough (1957) Michael Hordern (1958) Donald Pleasence (1959) Patrick McGoohan (1960) Lee Montague (1961) Rupert Davies (1962) Harry H. Corbett (1963) Alan Badel (1964) Patrick Wymark (1965) Alan Badel (1966) Warren Mitchell (1967) Eric Porter (1968) Roy Dotrice (1969) Edward Woodward (1970) Keith Michell (1971) John Le Mesurier (1972) Anthony Hopkins (1973) Frank Finlay (1974) Peter Barkworth (1975) John Hurt (1976) Derek Jacobi (1977) Peter Barkworth (1978) Edward Fox (1979) Alec Guinness (1980) Denholm Elliott (1981) Anthony Andrews (1982) Alec Guinness (1983) Alan Bates (1984) Tim Pigott-Smith (1985) Bob Peck (1986) Michael Gambon (1987) David Jason (1988) Ray McAnally (1989) John Thaw (1990) Ian Richardson (1991) Robert Lindsay (1992) John Thaw (1993) Robbie Coltrane (1994) Robbie Coltrane (1995) Robbie Coltrane (1996) Nigel Hawthorne (1997) Simon Russell Beale (1998) Tom Courtenay (1999) Michael Gambon (2000) Michael Gambon (2001) Michael Gambon (2002) Albert Finney (2003) Bill Nighy (2004) Rhys Ifans (2005) Mark Rylance (2006) Jim Broadbent (2007) Andrew Garfield (2008) Stephen Dillane (2009) Kenneth Branagh (2010) Daniel Rigby (2011) Dominic West (2012) Ben Whishaw (2013) Sean Harris (2014) Jason Watkins (2015) Mark Rylance (2016) Adeel Akhtar (2017) [ show ] v t e Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play 1975–2000 Frank Langella (1975) Judd Hirsch (1976) Bob Dishy (1977) Jeffrey DeMunn (1978) George Rose (1979) David Rounds (1980) Brian Backer (1981) Željko Ivanek / Adolph Caesar (1982) Alan Feinstein (1983) John Malkovich (1984) Barry Miller / Charles S. Dutton (1985) Joseph Maher (1986) John Randolph (1987) B. D. Wong (1988) Peter Frechette (1989) Charles Durning (1990) Kevin Spacey (1991) Laurence Fishburne (1992) Joe Mantello / Stephen Spinella (1993) Jeffrey Wright (1994) Nathan Lane (1995) Martin Shaw (1996) Brian Murray (1997) Alfred Molina (1998) Kevin Anderson (1999) Roy Dotrice (2000) 2001–present Charles Brown (2001) Frank Langella (2002) Denis O'Hare (2003) Ned Beatty (2004) Michael Stuhlbarg (2005) Samuel Barnett (2006) Boyd Gaines (2007) Conleth Hill (2008) Pablo Schreiber (2009) Santino Fontana (2010) Brian Bedford (2011) Tom Edden (2012) Richard Kind (2013) Reed Birney (2014) K. Todd Freeman (2015) Michael Shannon (2016) Danny DeVito (2017) [ show ] v t e Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play 1949–1975 Arthur Kennedy (1949) Eli Wallach (1951) John Cromwell (1952) John Williams (1953) John Kerr (1954) Francis L. Sullivan (1955) Ed Begley (1956) Frank Conroy (1957) Henry Jones (1958) Charlie Ruggles (1959) Roddy McDowall (1960) Martin Gabel (1961) Walter Matthau (1962) Alan Arkin (1963) Hume Cronyn (1964) Jack Albertson (1965) Patrick Magee (1966) Ian Holm (1967) James Patterson (1968) Al Pacino (1969) Ken Howard (1970) Paul Sand (1971) Vincent Gardenia (1972) John Lithgow (1973) Ed Flanders (1974) Frank Langella (1975) 1976–2000 Edward Herrmann (1976) Jonathan Pryce (1977) Lester Rawlins (1978) Michael Gough (1979) David Rounds (1980) Brian Backer (1981) Zakes Mokae (1982) Matthew Broderick (1983) Joe Mantegna (1984) Barry Miller (1985) John Mahoney (1986) John Randolph (1987) B. D. Wong (1988) Boyd Gaines (1989) Charles Durning (1990) Kevin Spacey (1991) Laurence Fishburne (1992) Stephen Spinella (1993) Jeffrey Wright (1994) John Glover (1995) Ruben Santiago-Hudson (1996) Owen Teale (1997) Tom Murphy (1998) Frank Wood (1999) Roy Dotrice (2000) 2001–present Robert Sean Leonard (2001) Frank Langella (2002) Denis O'Hare (2003) Brían F. O'Byrne (2004) Liev Schreiber (2005) Ian McDiarmid (2006) Billy Crudup (2007) Jim Norton (2008) Roger Robinson (2009) Eddie Redmayne (2010) John Benjamin Hickey (2011) Christian Borle (2012) Courtney B. Vance (2013) Mark Rylance (2014) Richard McCabe (2015) Reed Birney (2016) Michael Aronov (2017) Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 7597740 LCCN : n77018700 ISNI : 0000 0000 5922 216X GND : 106485463X SUDOC : 183118278 BNF : cb14172835p (data) SNAC : w61679dz Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roy_Dotrice&oldid=833093200 \" Categories : 1923 births 2017 deaths 20th-century British male actors 21st-century British male actors Audiobook narrators BAFTA winners (people) British male film actors British World War II prisoners of war British male radio actors British male stage actors British male television actors British male voice actors Drama Desk Award winners Guernsey male actors Officers of the Order of the British Empire Royal Air Force personnel of World War II Royal Shakespeare Company members Tony Award winners Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art Hidden categories: Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles with hCards Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Turner Classic Movies person ID same as Wikidata Articles with IBDb links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch فارسی Français Italiano עברית Magyar 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2018, at 16:44. 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{ "text": "Benzyl group - Wikipedia Benzyl group From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Not to be confused with benzil , benzoyl , or phenyl . ( Benzyl group ): Benzyl radical, benzyl amine , benzyl bromide , benzyl chloroformate and benzyl methyl ether. R = heteroatom, alkyl , aryl , allyl etc. or other substituents. In organic chemistry , benzyl is the substituent or molecular fragment possessing the structure C 6 H 5 CH 2 –. Benzyl features a benzene ring attached to a CH 2 group. [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Nomenclature 1.1 Abbreviations 2 Reactivity of benzylic centers 3 As a protecting group 3.1 Alcohol protection 3.1.1 Most common protection methods 3.1.2 Most common deprotection methods 3.1.2.1 Reductive conditions 3.1.2.2 Oxidative conditions 3.1.2.3 Lewis acid-based 3.2 The p -methoxybenzyl protecting group 3.2.1 Most common protection methods 3.2.2 Most common deprotection methods 3.3 Amine protection 3.3.1 Most common amine protection methods 3.3.2 Most common amine deprotection methods 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Nomenclature [ edit ] In IUPAC nomenclature the prefix benzyl refers to a C 6 H 5 CH 2 substituent, for example benzyl chloride or benzyl benzoate . Benzyl is not to be confused with phenyl with the formula C 6 H 5 . The term benzylic is used to describe the position of the first carbon bonded to a benzene or other aromatic ring. For example, the molecule, is referred to as a \"benzylic\" carbocation. The benzyl free radical has the formula C 6 H 5 CH • 2 . The benzylium carbocation has the formula C 6 H 5 CH + 2 ; the carbanion has the formula C 6 H 5 CH − 2 . None of these species can be formed in significant amounts under normal conditions, but they are useful referents for discussion of reaction mechanisms . Abbreviations [ edit ] The abbreviation \"Bn\" is frequently used to denote benzyl groups in nomenclature and structural depictions of chemical compounds. For example, benzyl alcohol can be represented as BnOH. This abbreviation is not to be confused with \"Bz\", which is the abbreviation for the benzoyl group C 6 H 5 C(O)−, or the phenyl group C 6 H 5 , abbreviated \"Ph\". Reactivity of benzylic centers [ edit ] The enhanced reactivity of benzylic positions is attributed to the low bond dissociation energy for benzylic C−H bonds. Specifically, the bond C 6 H 5 CH 2 −H is about 10–15% weaker than other kinds of C−H bonds. The neighboring aromatic ring stabilizes benzyl radicals. The data tabulated below compare benzylic C−H bond to related C−H bond strengths. Bond Bond Bond-dissociation energy Comment (kcal/mol) (kJ/mol) C 6 H 5 CH 2 −H benzylic C−H bond 90 377 akin to allylic C−H bonds such bonds show enhanced reactivity H 3 C−H Methyl C−H bond 105 439 One of the strongest aliphatic C−H bonds C 2 H 5 −H Ethyl C−H bond 101 423 slightly weaker than H 3 C−H C 6 H 5 −H phenyl C−H bond 113 473 comparable to vinyl radical, rare CH 2 =CHCH 2 −H allylic C–H bond 89 372 such bonds show enhanced reactivity The weakness of the C−H bond reflects the stability of the benzylic radical. For related reasons, benzylic substituents exhibit enhanced reactivity, as in oxidation , free radical halogenation , or hydrogenolysis . As a practical example, in the presence of suitable catalysts, p - xylene oxidizes exclusively at the benzylic positions to give terephthalic acid : CH 3 C 6 H 4 CH 3 + 3 O 2 → HO 2 CC 6 H 4 CO 2 H + 2 H 2 O. Millions of tonnes of terephthalic acid are produced annually by this method. [2] As a protecting group [ edit ] Alcohol protection [ edit ] Benzyl group protecting an alcohol Benzyl, abbreviated as Bn , is commonly used in organic synthesis as a robust protecting group for alcohols and carboxylic acids . Most common protection methods [ edit ] Treatment of alcohol with a strong base such as powdered potassium hydroxide or sodium hydride and benzyl halide ( BnCl or BnBr ) [3] [4] Monobenzylation of diols can be achieved using Ag 2 O in dimethylformamide (DMF) at ambient to elevated temperatures [5] Primary alcohols can be selectively benzylated in presence of phenol functional groups using Cu(acac) 2 [6] Most common deprotection methods [ edit ] Benzyl ethers can be removed under reductive conditions , oxidative conditions , and the use of Lewis Acids . [3] Reductive conditions [ edit ] Removed using hydrogenolysis [7] Single electron process with Na / NH 3 or Li /NH 3 Oxidative conditions [ edit ] Benzyl protecting groups can be removed using a wide range of oxidizing agents including: CrO 3 / acetic acid at ambient temperature Ozone N -Bromosuccinimide (NBS) N -Iodosuccinimide (NIS) Lewis acid -based [ edit ] Trimethylsilyl iodide (Me 3 SiI) in dichloromethane at ambient temperature (selectivity can be achieved under specific conditions) The p -methoxybenzyl protecting group [ edit ] p -Methoxybenzyl ( PMB ) is used as a protecting group for alcohols in organic synthesis . The p -methoxybenzyl group Most common protection methods [ edit ] Strong base such as powdered potassium hydroxide or sodium hydride and p -methoxybenzyl halide (chloride or bromide) [8] [9] 4-methoxybenzyl-2,2,2-trichloroacetimidate can be used to install the PMB group in presence of: Scandium (III) triflate (Sc(OTf) 3 ) in toluene at 0 °C [10] Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH) in dichloromethane at 0 °C [11] Most common deprotection methods [ edit ] 2,3-Dichloro-5,6-dicyano- p -benzoquinone (DDQ) [12] Conditions for deprotection of benzyl group are applicable for cleavage of the PMB protecting group Amine protection [ edit ] Benzyl group protecting an amine The benzyl group is largely used as a protecting group for amines in organic synthesis . Most common amine protection methods [ edit ] Aqueous potassium carbonate and benzyl halide ( BnCl , BnBr ) in methanol [13] Benzaldehyde , 6 M HCl and NaBH 3 CN in methanol [14] Most common amine deprotection methods [ edit ] Hydrogenation in the presence of the palladium catalyst [15] See also [ edit ] Benzylamine References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Carey, F. A.; Sundberg, R. J. (2008). Advanced Organic Chemistry, Part A: Structure and Mechanisms (5th ed.). New York, NY: Springer. pp. 806–808, 312–313. ISBN 9780387448978 . Jump up ^ Sheehan, Richard J. (2005), \"Terephthalic Acid, Dimethyl Terephthalate, and Isophthalic Acid\", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry , Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, doi : 10.1002/14356007.a26_193 ^ Jump up to: a b Wuts, Peter G. M.; Greene, Theodora W. Greene's Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis (4th ed.). Wiley Online Library. doi : 10.1002/0470053488 . Jump up ^ Fukuzawa, Akio; Sato, Hideaki; Masamune, Tadashi (1987-01-01). \"Synthesis of (±)-prepinnaterpene, a bromoditerpene from the red alga Yamada\" . Tetrahedron Letters . 28 (37): 4303–4306. doi : 10.1016/S0040-4039(00)96491-8 . Jump up ^ Van Hijfte, Luc; Little, R. Daniel (1985-10-01). \"Intramolecular 1,3-diyl trapping reactions. A formal total synthesis of (±)-coriolin\" . The Journal of Organic Chemistry . 50 (20): 3940–3942. doi : 10.1021/jo00220a058 . ISSN 0022-3263 . Jump up ^ Sirkecioglu, Okan; Karliga, Bekir; Talinli, Naciye (2003-11-10). \"Benzylation of alcohols by using bis[acetylacetonato]copper as catalyst\" . Tetrahedron Letters . 44 (46): 8483–8485. doi : 10.1016/j.tetlet.2003.09.106 . Jump up ^ Smith, Amos B.; Zhu, Wenyu; Shirakami, Shohei; Sfouggatakis, Chris; Doughty, Victoria A.; Bennett, Clay S.; Sakamoto, Yasuharu (2003-03-01). \"Total Synthesis of (+)-Spongistatin 1. An Effective Second-Generation Construction of an Advanced EF Wittig Salt, Fragment Union, and Final Elaboration\" . Organic Letters . 5 (5): 761–764. doi : 10.1021/ol034037a . ISSN 1523-7060 . PMID 12605509 . Jump up ^ Marco, José L.; Hueso-Rodríguez, Juan A. (1988-01-01). \"Synthesis of optically pure 1-(3-furyl)-1,2-dihydroxyethane derivatives\" . Tetrahedron Letters . 29 (20): 2459–2462. doi : 10.1016/S0040-4039(00)87907-1 . Jump up ^ Takaku, Hiroshi; Kamaike, Kazuo; Tsuchiya, Hiromichi (1984-01-01). \"Oligonucleotide synthesis. Part 21. Synthesis of ribooligonucleotides using the 4-methoxybenzyl group as a new protecting group for the 2′-hydroxyl group\" . The Journal of Organic Chemistry . 49 (1): 51–56. doi : 10.1021/jo00175a010 . ISSN 0022-3263 . Jump up ^ Trost, Barry M.; Waser, Jerome; Meyer, Arndt (2007-11-01). \"Total Synthesis of (−)-Pseudolaric Acid B\" . Journal of the American Chemical Society . 129 (47): 14556–14557. doi : 10.1021/ja076165q . ISSN 0002-7863 . PMC 2535803 . PMID 17985906 . Jump up ^ Mukaiyama, Teruaki; Shiina, Isamu; Iwadare, Hayato; Saitoh, Masahiro; Nishimura, Toshihiro; Ohkawa, Naoto; Sakoh, Hiroki; Nishimura, Koji; Tani, Yu-ichirou (1999-01-04). \"Asymmetric Total Synthesis of Taxol\\R\" . Chemistry – A European Journal . 5 (1): 121–161. doi : 10.1002/(SICI)1521-3765(19990104)5:13.0.CO;2-O . ISSN 1521-3765 . Jump up ^ Hanessian, Stephen; Marcotte, Stéphane; Machaalani, Roger; Huang, Guobin (2003-11-01). \"Total Synthesis and Structural Confirmation of Malayamycin A: A Novel Bicyclic C -Nucleoside from Streptomyces malaysiensis\" . Organic Letters . 5 (23): 4277–4280. doi : 10.1021/ol030095k . ISSN 1523-7060 . PMID 14601979 . Jump up ^ Kuehne, Martin E.; Xu, Feng (1993-12-01). \"Total synthesis of strychnan and aspidospermatan alkaloids. 3. The total synthesis of (±)-strychnine\" . The Journal of Organic Chemistry . 58 (26): 7490–7497. doi : 10.1021/jo00078a030 . ISSN 0022-3263 . Jump up ^ Cain, Christian M.; Cousins, Richard P. C.; Coumbarides, Greg; Simpkins, Nigel S. (1990-01-01). \"Asymmetric deprotonation of prochiral ketones using chiral lithium amide bases\" . Tetrahedron . 46 (2): 523–544. doi : 10.1016/S0040-4020(01)85435-1 . Jump up ^ Zhou, Hao; Liao, Xuebin; Cook, James M. (2004-01-01). \"Regiospecific, Enantiospecific Total Synthesis of the 12-Alkoxy-Substituted Indole Alkaloids, (+)-12-Methoxy-Na-methylvellosimine, (+)-12-Methoxyaffinisine, and (−)-Fuchsiaefoline\" . Organic Letters . 6 (2): 249–252. doi : 10.1021/ol0362212 . ISSN 1523-7060 . PMID 14723540 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Benzyl group . Chemistry portal Quotations related to Benzyl group at Wikiquote [ hide ] v t e Functional groups Only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Hydrocarbons Allene Alkene ( Allyl , Vinyl ) Alkyl ( Methyl , Ethyl , Propyl , Butyl , Pentyl ) Alkyne Benzyl Carbene Cumulene Methylene bridge Methylene group Methine Phenyl Other Acetoxy Acetyl Acryloyl Acyl Aldehyde Alkoxy ( Methoxy ) Benzoyl Carbonyl Carboxyl Dioxirane Epoxide Ester Ether Ethylenedioxy Hydroxy Ketone Methylenedioxy Peroxide ( Organic ) Ynone Only one element apart from C, H, O Nitrogen Amine Azo compound Cyanate Hydrazone Imide Imine Isocyanate Isonitrile Nitrene Nitrile Nitro compound Nitroso compound Organic amide Oxime Phosphorus Phosphonate Phosphonous Sulfur Disulfide Sulfone Sulfonic acid Sulfoxide Thial Thioester Thioether Thioketone Thiol Selenium Selenol Selenonic acid Seleninic acid Selenenic acid Tellurium Tellurol Other Isothiocyanate Phosphoramide Sulfenyl chloride Sulfonamide Thiocyanate See also chemical classification , chemical nomenclature ( inorganic , organic ) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benzyl_group&oldid=815470797 \" Categories : Aryl groups Protecting groups Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Bosanski Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Gaeilge Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2017, at 00:56. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Benzyl group", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Benzyl_group&amp;oldid=815470797" }

{ "text": "Athenian democracy - Wikipedia Athenian democracy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nineteenth-century painting by Philipp Foltz depicting the Athenian politician Pericles delivering his famous funeral oration in front of the Assembly This article's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . To comply with Wikipedia's lead section guidelines , please consider modifying the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points in such a way that it can stand on its own as a concise version of the article. (October 2018) Athenian democracy developed around the fifth century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis ) of Athens , comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica , and is often described as the first known democracy in the world. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most following the Athenian model, but none are as well documented as Athens'. It was a political system of direct democracy , in which participating citizens voted directly on legislation and executive bills. Participation was not open to all residents: to vote one had to be an adult, male citizen, i.e., not a foreign resident , a Submissive or a woman, and the number of these was \"probably no more than 30 percent of the total adult population.\" [1] The longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles . After his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolutions towards the end of the Peloponnesian War . It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides ; the most detailed accounts of the system are of this fourth-century modification rather than the Periclean system. Democracy was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but how close they were to a real democracy is debatable. Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (508/7 BC), and Ephialtes (462 BC) contributed to the development of Athenian democracy. Cleisthenes broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Development 2.2 Aftermath 3 Participation and exclusion 3.1 Size and make-up of the Athenian population 3.2 Citizenship in Athens 4 Main bodies of governance 4.1 Assembly/Ecclesia 4.2 The Council/The Boule 4.3 Courts 4.4 Shifting balance between assembly and courts 4.5 Citizen-initiator 4.6 Archons and the Areopagus 4.7 Officeholders 4.7.1 Selection by lot (sortition / allotment) 4.7.2 Election 5 Individualism in Athenian democracy 6 Environment 7 Criticism 8 Legacy 9 References and sources 10 External links Etymology [ edit ] Part of the Politics series Democracy History Types Anticipatory Athenian Cellular Consensus Cosmopolitan Defensive Delegative Deliberative Direct Economic Electronic Empowered Ethnic Grassroots Guided Inclusive Industrial Interactive Jacksonian Jeffersonian Liberal / Illiberal Media Multiparty New Non-partisan Participatory People's Pluralist Popular Procedural Radical Representative Religious Christian Islamic Jewish Mormon Sectarian Semi Semi-direct Social Socialist Sociocracy Sovereign Soviet Substantive Totalitarian Workplace Related topics Anarchism Kleroterion Democratic capitalism Democratic centralism Democratic confederalism Democratic republic Democratic socialism Democratization Democracy and economic growth Democracy in Marxism Democracy promotion Liberalism Libertarianism Majoritarianism Motion Ochlocracy People's democratic dictatorship Polyarchy Populism Sortition Tyranny of the majority Voting Wars between democracies Wave of democracy Politics portal v t e The word \"democracy\" (Greek: δημοκρατία) combines the elements dêmos (δῆμος, which means \"people\") and krátos (κράτος, which means \"force\" or \"power\"), and thus means literally \"people power\". In the words \"monarchy\" and \"oligarchy\", the second element comes from archē (ἀρχή), meaning \"beginning (that which comes first)\", and hence also \"first place or power\", \"sovereignty\". One might expect the term \"demarchy\" to have been adopted, by analogy, for the new form of government introduced by Athenian democrats. However, the word \"demarchy\" (δημαρχία) had already been taken and meant \" mayoralty \", the office or rank of a high municipal magistrate . (In present-day use, the term \" demarchy \" has acquired a new meaning.) It is unknown whether the word \"democracy\" was in existence when systems that came to be called democratic were first instituted. The word is attested in Herodotus ( Histories 6.43), who wrote some of the earliest surviving Greek prose, but this might not have been before 440 or 430 BC. Around 460 BC an individual is known with the name of 'Democrates', [2] a name possibly coined as a gesture of democratic loyalty; the name can also be found in Aeolian Temnus . [3] History [ edit ] Development [ edit ] Athens was not the only polis in Ancient Greece that instituted a democratic regime. Aristotle points to other cities that adopted governments in the democratic style. \"Yet, it is only with reference to Athens that we can attempt to trace some of the specific sixth century events that led to the institution of democracy at the end of the century.\" [4] Before the first attempt at democratic government, Athens was ruled by a series of archons or chief magistrates, and the Areopagus , made up of ex-archons. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats, who ruled the polis for their own advantage. In 621 BC Draco codified a set of \"notoriously harsh\" laws that were \"a clear expression of the power of the aristocracy over everybody else.\" This did not stop the aristocratic families feuding amongst themselves to obtain as much power as possible. [5] Therefore, by the 6th century BC, the majority of Athenians \"had been 'enslaved' to the rich\", and they called upon Plato's ancestor Solon , premier archon at the time, to liberate them and halt the feuding of the aristocracy. However, the \"enfranchisement of the local labouring classes was succeeded by the development of chattel slavery, the enslavement of, in large part, foreigners.\" [6] Solon, the mediator, reshaped the city \"by absorbing the traditional aristocracy in a definition of citizenship which allotted a political function to every free resident of Attica. Athenians were not slaves but citizens, with the right, at the very least, to participate in the meetings of the assembly.\" Under these reforms, the position of archon \"was opened to all with certain property qualifications, and a Boule , a rival council of 400, was set up. The Areopagus, nevertheless, retained 'guardianship of the laws'\". [7] A major contribution to democracy was Solon's setting up of an Ecclesia or Assembly, which was open to all male citizens. However, \"one must bear in mind that its agenda was apparently set entirely by the Council of 400\", \"consisting of 100 members from each of the four tribes\", that had taken \"over many of the powers which the Areopagos had previously exercised.\" [5] Cleisthenes Not long afterwards, the nascent democracy was overthrown by the tyrant Peisistratos , but was reinstated after the expulsion of his son, Hippias , in 510. This sort of aristocratic takeover \"was ended by the appeal by one contender, Cleisthenes , for the support of the populace.\" The reforms of Cleisthenes in 508/7 undermined the domination of the aristocratic families and connected every Athenian to the city's rule. \"Cleisthenes fixed the boundaries of the polis as a political rather than a geographical entity – boundaries which Solon had left permeable – by formally identifying the free inhabitants of Attica at that time as Athenian citizens.\" [8] He did this by making the traditional tribes politically irrelevant and instituting ten new tribes, each made up of about three treaties , each consisting of several demes . \"Every male citizen on reaching the age of 18 was now to be registered in his deme. It was this registration which confirmed his citizenship.\" [9] The third set of reforms was instigated by Ephialtes in 462/1. While his opponents were away attempting to assist the Spartans, Ephialtes persuaded the Assembly to reduce the powers of the Areopagus: \"in effect stripping it of all its controlling and supervisory powers and leaving it only as a court for cases of homicide and certain offences of sacrilege.\" At the same time or soon afterwards, the membership of the Areopagus was extended to the lower level of the propertied citizenship. [10] In the wake of Athens' disastrous defeat in the Sicilian campaign in 413 BCE, a group of citizens took steps to limit the radical democracy they thought was leading the city to ruin. Their efforts, initially conducted through constitutional channels, culminated in the establishment of an oligarchy, the Council of 400, in the Athenian coup of 411 BCE . The oligarchy endured for only four months before it was replaced by a more democratic government. Democratic regimes governed until Athens surrendered to Sparta in 404 BCE, when government was placed in the hands of the so-called Thirty Tyrants , pro-Spartan oligarchs. [11] After a year pro-democracy elements regained control, and democratic forms persisted until the Macedonian army of Phillip II conquered Athens in 338 BC. [12] Aftermath [ edit ] Alexander the Great had led a coalition of the Greek states to war with Persia in 336 BC, but his Greek soldiers were hostages for the behavior of their states as much as allies. His relations with Athens were already strained when he returned to Babylon in 324 BC; after his death, Athens and Sparta led several Greek states to war with Macedon and lost. [13] This led to the Hellenistic control of Athens, when the Macedonian king appointed a local agent as political governor in Athens. However, the governors, like Demetrius of Phalerum , appointed by Cassander , kept some of the traditional institutions in formal existence, although the Athenian public would consider them to be nothing more than Macedonian puppet dictators. Once Demetrius Poliorcetes ended Cassander's rule over Athens, Demetrius of Phalerum went into exile and the democracy was restored in 307 BC. However, by now Athens had become \"politically impotent\". [14] An example of this was that, in 307, in order to curry favour with Macedonia and Egypt, three new tribes were created, two in honour of the Macedonian king and his son, and the other in honour of the Egyptian king. However, when Rome fought Macedonia in 200, the Athenians abolished the first two new tribes and created a twelfth tribe in honour of the Pergamene king. The Athenians declared for Rome, and in 146 BC Athens became an autonomous civitas foederata . \"Her independence was however little more than municipal, and, though the forms of the democracy survived, Rome ... strengthened the aristocratic elements in the constitution.\" [15] Under Roman rule, the archons ranked as the highest officials. They were elected, and even foreigners such as Domitian and Hadrian held the office as a mark of honour. Four presided over the judicial administration. The Council (whose numbers varied at different times from three hundred to seven hundred and fifty) was appointed by lot. It was superseded in importance by the Areopagus , which, recruited from the elected archons, had an aristocratic character and was entrusted with wide powers. From the time of Hadrian an imperial curator superintended the finances. The shadow of the old constitution lingered on and Archons and Areopagus survived the fall of the Roman Empire. [15] In 88 BC, there was a revolution under the philosopher Athenion, who, as tyrant, forced the Assembly to agree to elect whomever he might ask to office. Athenion allied with Mithridates of Pontus , and went to war with Rome; he was killed during the war, and was replaced by Aristion . The victorious Roman general, Publius Cornelius Sulla , left the Athenians their lives and did not sell them into slavery; he also restored the previous government, in 86 BC. [16] After Rome became an Empire under Augustus , the nominal independence of Athens dissolved and its government converged to the normal type for a Roman municipality, with a Senate of decuriones . [17] Participation and exclusion [ edit ] Size and make-up of the Athenian population [ edit ] Estimates of the population of ancient Athens vary. During the 4th century BC, there might well have been some 250,000–300,000 people in Attica. [18] Citizen families could have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 would have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly. In the mid-5th century the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian War. [19] This slump was permanent, due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective these figures may seem small, but among Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of the thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1000–1500 adult male citizens each; and Corinth , a major power, had at most 15,000. [20] The non-citizen component of the population was made up of resident foreigners ( metics ) and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator Hyperides (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably no more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them. [21] Citizenship in Athens [ edit ] Only adult male Athenian citizens who had completed their military training as ephebes had the right to vote in Athens. The percentage of the population that actually participated in the government was 10% to 20% of the total number of inhabitants, but this varied from the fifth to the fourth century BC. [19] This excluded a majority of the population: slaves , freed slaves, children, women and metics (foreigners\nresident in Athens). [22] The women had limited rights and privileges, had restricted movement in public, and were very segregated from the men. [23] Also excluded from voting were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay a debt to the city: see atimia ); for some Athenians this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Given the exclusive and ancestral concept of citizenship held by Greek city-states , a relatively large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it, compared to oligarchies and aristocracies. [19] Some Athenian citizens were far more active than others, but the vast numbers required for the system to work testify to a breadth of direct participation among those eligible that greatly surpassed any present-day democracy. [19] Athenian citizens had to be descended from citizens—after the reforms of Pericles and Cimon in 450 BC, they \"would be confined to those whose parents were both\nAthenian\". [24] Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later, when a free gift of grain had arrived from the Egyptian king, to be distributed among all citizens, \"many 'illegitimates' were discovered\" and removed from the registers. [25] Citizenship, \"commonly applied not only to the individuals themselves but to their descendants as well\", could be granted by the assembly, and was sometimes given to large groups (e.g. Plateans in 427 BC and Samians in 405 BC) but, by the 4th century, only to individuals and by a special vote with a quorum of 6000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century, the number of citizenships so granted was in the hundreds rather than thousands. [26] Main bodies of governance [ edit ] Constitution of the Athenians, 4th century BC There were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6000), the council of 500 ( boule ) and the courts (a minimum of 200 people, on some occasions up to 6000). Of these three bodies, the assembly and the courts were the true sites of power – although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the demos (the People) as they were manned by a subset of the citizen body, those over thirty. But crucially citizens voting in both were not subject to review and prosecution as were council members and all other officeholders. In the 5th century BC we often hear of the assembly sitting as a court of judgment itself for trials of political importance and it is not a coincidence that 6000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial. Assembly/Ecclesia [ edit ] Main article: Ecclesia (ancient Athens) The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of the assembly ( ἐκκλησία , ekklesía ). Unlike a parliament , the assembly's members were not elected, but attended by right when they chose. Greek democracy created at Athens was direct , rather than representative : any adult male citizen over the age of 20 could take part, [27] and it was a duty to do so. The officials of the democracy were in part elected by the Assembly and in large part chosen by lottery in a process called sortition . The assembly had four main functions: it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner); it elected some officials; it legislated; and it tried political crimes. As the system evolved, the last function was shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on important matters, there were no political parties and likewise no government or opposition (as in the Westminster system ). Voting was by simple majority . In the 5th century at least there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke the law, the only thing that might happen is that it would punish those who had made the proposal that it had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from the assembly's viewpoint it could only be because it had been misled. [28] As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering in order to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (χειροτονία, kheirotonia , \"arm stretching\") with officials judging the outcome by sight. This could cause problems when it became too dark to see properly. However, \"any member of the Assembly could demand a recount\". [29] For a small category of votes a quorum of 6000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here small coloured stones were used, white for yes and black for no. At the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots. Ostracism required the voters to scratch names onto pieces of broken pottery (ὄστρακα, ostraka ), though this did not occur within the assembly as such. The Pnyx with the speaker's platform, the meeting place of the people of Athens. In the 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten state months , with other meetings called as needed. In the following century the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. One of these was now called the main meeting, kyria ekklesia . Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in the assembly rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to avoid clashing with the annual festivals that followed the lunar calendar. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to be aggregated toward the end of each state month. [30] Attendance at the assembly was not always voluntary. In the 5th century public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from the agora into the assembly meeting place ( Pnyx ), with a fine being imposed on those who got the red on their clothes. [31] After the restoration of the democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced. This promoted a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay. [32] The Council/The Boule [ edit ] Main article: Boule (ancient Greece) § The Athenian Boule In 594 BC Solon is said to have created a boule of 400 to guide the work of the assembly. [33] After the reforms of Cleisthenes, the Athenian Boule was expanded to 500, and was elected by lot every year. Each of Cleisthenes's 10 tribes provided 50 councillors who were at least 30 years old. The most important task of the Athenian Boule was to draft the deliberations ( probouleumata ) for discussion and approval in the Ecclesia. The Boule also directed finances, controlled the maintenance of the fleet and of the cavalry, judged the fitness of the magistrates-elect, received foreign ambassadors, advised the stratēgoi (generals) in military matters, and could be given special powers by the Ecclesia in an emergency. [34] According to John Thorley, its membership was very carefully vetted. Cleisthenes restricted its membership, \"to those of zeugitai status and above, probably arguing that these classes had a financial interest in good government\". A member had to be approved by his deme, \"and one can well imagine that demes were careful to select only those of known good sense who also had experience of local politics, and who were actually available to do the time-consuming job which demanded frequent attendance in Athens; and they probably favoured those who were well past 30\". [35] The members from each of the ten tribes in the Boule took it in turns to act as a standing committee (the prytaneis ) of the Boule for a period of thirty-six days. All fifty members of the prytaneis on duty were housed and fed in the tholos of the Prytaneion , a building adjacent to the bouleuterion , where the boule met. \"Each day one of their number was chosen by lot as chairman, and he was required to stay in the tholos for the twenty-four-hour period of his office. The chairman for the day presided over any meeting of the Boule held that day, and if there was a meeting of the Assembly that day ... he also presided over that\". [36] The boule also served as an executive committee for the assembly, and oversaw the activities of certain other magistrates. The boule coordinated the activities of the various boards and magistrates that carried out the administrative functions of Athens and provided from its own membership randomly selected boards of ten responsible for areas ranging from naval affairs to religious observances. [37] Altogether, the boule was responsible for a great portion of the administration of the state, but was granted relatively little latitude for initiative; the boule's control over policy was executed in its probouleutic, rather than its executive function; in the former, it prepared measures for deliberation by the assembly, in the latter, it merely executed the wishes of the assembly. [38] Courts [ edit ] Athens had an elaborate legal system centered on full citizen rights (see atimia ). The age limit of 30 or older, the same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly. Jurors were required to be under oath, which was not required for attendance at the assembly. The authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of the people. Unlike office holders (magistrates), who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least acclaimed by defendants, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant. [39] Essentially there were two grades of suit, a smaller kind known as dike (δίκη) or private suit, and a larger kind known as graphe or public suit. For private suits the minimum jury size was 200 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. Under Cleisthenes' reforms, juries were selected by lot from a panel of 600 jurors, there being 600 jurors from each of the ten tribes of Athens, making a jury pool of 6000 in total. [40] For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. 1000 and 1500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see graphē paranómōn ), all 6,000 members of the jury pool may have attended to one case. [41] Water Clock in the Ancient Agora of Athens. The cases were put by the litigants themselves in the form of an exchange of single speeches timed by a water clock or clepsydra , first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Jurors did talk informally amongst themselves during the voting procedure and juries could be rowdy, shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a 'yes' or 'no' vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone ( ho boulomenos , 'whoever wants to' i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring a case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole. Justice was rapid: a case could last no longer than one day and \"completed by sunset\". [42] Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litigants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. [43] No appeal was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict. Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to Pericles , a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy ( Politics 1294a37). Pay was raised from 2 to 3 obols by Cleon early in the Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably, this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended. [44] The system showed a marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts nor did anyone give legal direction to the jurors; magistrates had only an administrative function and were laymen. Most of the annual magistracies at Athens could only be held once in a lifetime. There were no lawyers as such; litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there was tended to disguise itself; it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter or logographer ( logographos ), but this may not have been advertised in court. Probably jurors would be more impressed if it seemed as though the litigant were speaking for themselves. [45] Shifting balance between assembly and courts [ edit ] As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. From 355 BC political trials were no longer held in the assembly, but only in a court. In 416 BC the graphē paranómōn (\"indictment against measures contrary to the laws\") was introduced. Under this, anything passed by the assembly or even proposed but not yet voted on, could be put on hold for review before a jury – which might annul it and perhaps punish the proposer as well. Remarkably, it seems that a measure blocked before the assembly voted on it did not need to go back to the assembly if it survived the court challenge: the court was enough to validate it. Once again it is important to bear in mind the lack of 'neutral' state intervention. To give a schematic scenario by way of illustration: two men have clashed in the assembly about a proposal put by one of them; it passed, and now the two of them go to court with the loser in the assembly prosecuting both the law and its proposer. The quantity of these suits was enormous: in effect the courts became a kind of upper house. In the 5th century there was in effect no procedural difference between an executive decree and a law: they were both simply passed by the assembly. But from 403 BC they were set sharply apart. Henceforth laws were made not in the assembly, but by special panels of citizens drawn from the annual jury pool of 6000. They were known as the nomothetai (νομοθέται), the lawmakers. [46] Citizen-initiator [ edit ] The institutions sketched above – assembly, officeholders, council, courts – are incomplete without the figure that drove the whole system, Ho boulomenos , he who wishes, or anyone who wishes. This expression encapsulated the right of citizens to take the initiative: to stand to speak in the assembly, to initiate a public lawsuit (that is, one held to affect the political community as a whole), to propose a law before the lawmakers or to approach the council with suggestions. Unlike officeholders, the citizen initiator was not voted before taking up office or automatically reviewed after stepping down — it had after all no set tenure and might be an action lasting only a moment. But any stepping forward into the democratic limelight was risky and if someone chose (another citizen initiator) they could be called to account for their actions and punished. There were also other terms used for \"the persons who pleaded in public actions and those who had initiated private suits. Although the expression ho diokon (literally 'the one who pursues') was applied to the initiators of both public and private actions, the designations kategoros ('accuser') ... were used only of prosecutors in public actions and in the actions for homicide heard by the Areiopagos and other homicide courts.\" [47] Archons and the Areopagus [ edit ] Main articles: Archon and Areopagus Just before the reforms of Solon in the 7th century BC, Athens was governed by a few archons (three rising to nine) and the council of the Areopagus \"(appointed by the powerful noble families from their own members)\". There also seems to have been a type of citizen assembly, presumably of the hoplite class. However, \"There seems little doubt that it was the arkhons, with the advice of the Areopagos, who really ran the state.\" The mass of people had no say in government at all. [48] Solon's reforms allowed the archons to come from some of the higher propertied classes and not only from the aristocratic families. Since the Areopagus was made up of ex-archons, this would eventually mean the weakening of the hold of the nobles there as well. However, even with Solon's creation of the citizen's assembly, the Archons and Areopagus still wielded a great deal of power. [49] The reforms of Cleisthenes meant that the archons were elected by the Assembly, but were still selected from the upper classes. [50] The Areopagus kept its power as 'Guardian of the Laws', \"which probably gave the Areopagos the power to intervene and to apply a veto if the Council of 500 or the Assembly or any magistrate acted or proposed to act 'unconstitutionally'\", however this worked in practice. [51] Ephialtes, and later Pericles , reduced the power of the Areopagus dramatically. The Assembly \"passed a measure to limit the powers of the Areopagos, in effect stripping it of all its controlling and supervisory powers.\" In the play The Eumenides , performed in 458, Aeschylus , himself a noble, portrays the Areopagus as a court established by Athena herself. It appears that Aeschylus \"is trying to preserve the dignity of a severely battered institution.\" [10] Officeholders [ edit ] Approximately 1100 citizens (including the members of the council of 500) held office each year. They were mostly chosen by lot , with a much smaller (and more prestigious) group of about 100 elected . Neither was compulsory; individuals had to nominate themselves for both selection methods. In particular, those chosen by lot were citizens acting without particular expertise. This was almost inevitable since, with the notable exception of the generals ( strategoi ), each office could be held by the same person only once. For example, \"The same person could not be a member of the Boule in two consecutive\nyears, and could only be a member twice in a lifetime.\" [52] Part of the ethos of democracy, however, was the building of general competence by ongoing involvement. In the 5th century version of the democracy, the ten annually elected generals were often very prominent, but for those who had power, it lay primarily in their frequent speeches and in the respect accorded them in the assembly, rather than their vested powers. While citizens voting in the assembly were the people and so were free of review or punishment, those same citizens when holding an office served the people and could be punished very severely. All of them were subject to a review beforehand that might disqualify them for office and an examination after stepping down. Officeholders were the agents of the people, not their representatives. Citizens active as office holders served in a quite different capacity from when they voted in the assembly or served as jurors. The assembly and the courts were regarded as the instantiation of the people of Athens: they were the people, no power was above them and they could not be reviewed, impeached or punished. However, when an Athenian took up an office, he was regarded as 'serving' the people. As such, he could be regarded as failing in his duty and be punished for it. There were in fact some limitations on who could hold office. Age restrictions were in place with thirty years as a minimum, rendering about a third of the adult citizen body ineligible at any one time. An unknown proportion of citizens were also subject to disenfranchisement ( atimia ), excluding some of them permanently and others temporarily (depending on the type). Furthermore, all citizens selected were reviewed before taking up office ( dokimasia ) at which they might be disqualified. Competence does not seem to have been the main issue, but rather, at least in the 4th century BC, whether they were loyal democrats or had oligarchic tendencies. However, magistrates, after leaving office were subject to a scrutiny ( euthunai , literally 'straightenings' or 'submission of accounts') to review their performance. Both of these processes were in most cases brief and formulaic, but they opened up in the possibility, if some citizen wanted to take some matter up, of a contest before a jury court. [53] In the case of a scrutiny going to trial, there was the risk for the former officeholder of suffering severe penalties. Finally, even during his period of office, any officeholder could be impeached and removed from office by the assembly. In each of the ten \"main meetings\" ( kuriai ekklesiai ) a year, the question was explicitly raised in the assembly agenda: were the office holders carrying out their duties correctly? By and large the power exercised by these officials was routine administration and quite limited. The powers of officials were precisely defined and their capacity for initiative limited. They administered rather than governed. When it came to penal sanctions, no officeholder could impose a fine over fifty drachmas. Anything higher had to go before a court. Selection by lot (sortition / allotment) [ edit ] The use of a lottery to select officeholders was regarded as the most democratic means: elections would favour those who were rich, noble, eloquent and well-known, while allotment spread the work of administration throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words, \"ruling and being ruled in turn\" (Politics 1317b28–30). The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. Samons writes that \"the system of selection by lottery for members of the Council of 500 and other officials (like the treasurers of the sacred funds) provided a potentially significant check on the dangers of demagoguery .\" However, this may not have been completely successful, as some \"increasingly pandered to the electorate and ... often told the\npeople only what they wanted to hear.\" [54] The random assignment of responsibility to individuals who may or may not be competent has obvious risks, but the system included features meant to obviate possible problems. Athenians selected for office served as teams (boards, panels). In a group someone will know the right way to do things and those that do not may learn from those that do. During the period of holding a particular office everyone on the team is observing everybody else. There were however officials such as the nine archons, who while seemingly a board carried out very different functions from each other. No office appointed by lot could be held twice by the same individual. The only exception was the boule or council of 500. In this case, simply by demographic necessity, an individual could serve twice in a lifetime. This principle extended down to the secretaries and undersecretaries who served as assistants to magistrates such as the archons. To the Athenians it seems what had to be guarded against was not incompetence but any tendency to use office as a way of accumulating ongoing power. [55] Election [ edit ] Bust of Pericles , marble Roman copy after a Greek original from c. 430 BC During an Athenian election, approximately one hundred officials out of a thousand were elected rather than chosen by lot. There were two main categories in this group: those required to handle large sums of money, and the 10 generals, the strategoi . One reason that financial officials were elected was that any money embezzled could be recovered from their estates; election in general strongly favoured the rich, but in this case wealth was virtually a prerequisite. Generals were elected not only because their role required expert knowledge but also because they needed to be people with experience and contacts in the wider Greek world where wars were fought. In the 5th century BC, principally as seen through the figure of Pericles , the generals could be among the most powerful people in the pols. Yet in the case of Pericles, it is wrong to see his power as coming from his long series of annual generalships (each year along with nine others). His office holding was rather an expression and a result of the influence he wielded. That influence was based on his relation with the assembly, a relation that in the first instance lay simply in the right of any citizen to stand and speak before the people. Under the 4th century version of democracy the roles of general and of key political speaker in the assembly tended to be filled by different persons. In part this was a consequence of the increasingly specialized forms of warfare practiced in the later period. Elected officials too were subject to review before holding office and scrutiny after office. And they too could be removed from office at any time that the assembly met. There was also a death penalty for \"inadequate performance\" while in office. [56] Individualism in Athenian democracy [ edit ] Pericles, according to Thucydides, characterized the Athenians as being very well-informed on politics: We do not say that a man who takes no interest in politics is a man who minds his own business; we say that he has no business here at all. [57] The word \"idiot\" originally simply meant \"private citizen\"; in combination with its more recent meaning of \"foolish person\", this is sometimes used by modern commentators to demonstrate that the ancient Athenians considered those who did not participate in politics as foolish. [58] [59] [60] But the sense history of the word does not support this interpretation. [61] [62] Although, under Athenian democracy, voters were allowed the same opportunity to voice their opinion and to sway the discussion, they were not always successful, and, often, the minority was forced to vote in favor of a motion that they did not agree with. [63] Environment [ edit ] It has been noted by several historians that Athens faced severe environmental issues like soil erosion and deforestation . [64] Murray Bookchin argued that the rise of the Polis created a more pro-environmental culture allowing for the reclamation of land via orchards and viticulture . [65] Criticism [ edit ] Main article: Slavery in ancient Greece Athenian democracy has had many critics, both ancient and modern. Ancient Greek critics of the democracy include Thucydides the general and historian, Aristophanes the playwright, Plato the pupil of Socrates, Aristotle the pupil of Plato, and a writer known as the Old Oligarch . Modern critics are more likely to find fault with the narrow definition of the citizen body, but in the ancient world the complaint, if anything, went in the opposite direction. For them, the common people were not necessarily the right people to rule and made huge mistakes. According to Samons: The modern desire to look to Athens for lessons or encouragement for modern thought, government, or society must confront this strange paradox: the people that gave rise to and practiced ancient democracy left us almost nothing but criticism of this form of regime (on a philosophical or theoretical level). And what is more, the actual history of Athens in the period of its democratic government is marked by numerous failures, mistakes, and misdeeds—most infamously, the execution of Socrates—that would seem to discredit the ubiquitous modern idea that democracy leads to good government. [66] Thucydides, from his Aristocratic and historical viewpoint, reasoned that the common people were often much too credulous about even contemporary facts to rule justly. Josiah Ober notes that \"Thucydides cites examples of two errors regarding Sparta : the beliefs that the two Spartan kings each had two votes in council and that there was a Spartan battalion called the 'Pitanate lochos .' Thucydides sums up: 'Such is the degree of carelessness among the many ( hoi polloi ) in the search for truth ( aletheia ) and their preference for ready-made accounts'.\" He contrasted his own critical-historical approach to history with the way the demos decided upon the truth. So \"Thucydides has established for his reader the existence of a potentially fatal structural flaw in the edifice of democratic ways of knowing and doing. The identification of this \"flaw\" is a key to his criticism of Athenian popular rule.\" [67] Also, Donald Kagan writes that \"In the fourth century, Plato and Aristotle must have been repeating old complaints when they pointed out the unfairness of democracy: 'it distributes a sort of equality to equal and unequal alike'.\" [68] Instead of seeing it as a fair system under which 'everyone' has equal rights, the critics saw it as the numerically preponderant poor tyrannizing the rich. They regarded this as manifestly unjust. In Aristotle this is categorized as the difference between 'arithmetic' and 'geometric' (i.e. proportional) equality. To its ancient detractors rule by the demos was also reckless and arbitrary. Two examples demonstrate this: In 406 BC, after years of defeats in the wake of the annihilation of their vast invasion force in Sicily, the Athenians at last won a naval victory at Arginusae over the Spartans. After the battle a storm arose and the generals in command failed to collect survivors: the Athenians tried and sentenced six of the eight generals to death. Technically, it was illegal, as the generals were tried and sentenced together, rather than one by one as Athenian law required. Socrates happened to be the citizen presiding over the assembly that day and refused to cooperate (though to little effect) and stood against the idea that it was outrageous for the people to be unable to do whatever they wanted. Later, \"the demos is reported to have regretted what had happened ... They decided that those who had misled the demos should be charged and put on trial, including [the] author of the motion by which the generals were tried and condemned en masse in the Assembly. This passage is often interpreted as a confession of collective regret and guilt on the part of the demos, once their anger gave way to second thoughts.\" [69] In 399 BC Socrates was put on trial and executed for 'corrupting the young and believing in strange gods'. His death gave Europe one of the first intellectual martyrs still recorded, but guaranteed the democracy an eternity of bad press at the hands of his disciple and enemy to democracy Plato . From Socrates' arguments at his trial, Loren Samons writes, \"It follows, of course, that any majority—including the majority of jurors—is unlikely to choose rightly.\" However, \"some might argue, Athens is the only state that can claim to have produced a Socrates. Surely, some might continue, we may simply write off events such as Socrates' execution as examples of the Athenians' failure to realize fully the meaning and potential of their own democracy.\" [70] While Plato blamed democracy for killing Socrates, his criticisms of the rule of the demos were much more extensive. Much of his writings were about his alternatives to democracy. His The Republic , The Statesman and Laws contained many arguments against democratic rule and in favour of a much narrower form of government: \"The organization of the city must be confided to those who possess knowledge, who alone can enable their fellow-citizens to attain virtue, and therefore excellence, by means of education.\" [71] Whether the democratic failures should be seen as systemic, or as a product of the extreme conditions of the Peloponnesian war, there does seem to have been a move toward correction. A new version of democracy was established from 403 BC, but it can be linked with both earlier and subsequent reforms ( graphē paranómōn 416 BC; end of assembly trials 355 BC). For instance, the system of nomothesia was introduced. In this: A new law might be proposed by any citizen. Any proposal to modify an existing law had to be accompanied by a proposed replacement law. The citizen making the proposal had to publish it [in] advance: publication consisted of writing the proposal on a whitened board located next to the statues of the Eponymous Heroes in the agora. The proposal would be considered by the Council, and would be placed on the agenda of the Assembly in the form of a motion. If the Assembly voted in favor of the proposed change, the proposal would be referred for further consideration by a group of citizens called nomothetai (literally \"establishers of the law\"). [19] Increasingly, responsibility was shifted from the assembly to the courts, with laws being made by jurors and all assembly decisions becoming reviewable by courts. That is to say, the mass meeting of all citizens lost some ground to gatherings of a thousand or so which were under oath, and with more time to focus on just one matter (though never more than a day). One downside was that the new democracy was less capable of rapid response. Another tack of criticism is to notice the disquieting links between democracy and a number of less than appealing features of Athenian life. Although democracy predated Athenian imperialism by over thirty years, they are sometimes associated with each other. For much of the 5th century at least democracy fed off an empire of subject states. Thucydides the son of Milesias (not the historian), an aristocrat, stood in opposition to these policies, for which he was ostracised in 443 BC. At times the imperialist democracy acted with extreme brutality, as in the decision to execute the entire male population of Melos and sell off its women and children simply for refusing to become subjects of Athens. The common people were numerically dominant in the navy, which they used to pursue their own interests in the form of work as rowers and in the hundreds of overseas administrative positions. Further they used the income from empire to fund payment for officeholding. This is the position set out by the anti-democratic pamphlet known whose anonymous author is often called the Old Oligarch . This writer (also called pseudo-Xenophon) produced several comments critical of democracy, such as: 1. Democracy is not the rule of the demos qua citizenship in the interest of the entire polis, but the self-interested rule of a sociological faction.\n2. The collectivization of political responsibility for decisions and agreements in a democracy leads to dishonesty and the tendency to scapegoat individual speakers or magistrates.\n3. Because it is an integrated system, democracy seems incapable of internal amelioration, yet because of its inclusivist tendencies, especially in regard to citizenship, it coopts its natural enemies and so generates few active opponents.\n4. There is a strong relationship between a democracy's domestic and foreign policies; a rational imperial democracy will be likely to foment democracy among its subjects.\n5. Democracy depends on naval power; naval power in turn depends on the control of capital resources; ergo a democracy will tend to be aggressively acquisitive.\n6. Democracy's core values of freedom and equality are not exclusive to the citizen population; noncitizens are also treated more equitably than is seemly.\n7. Democracy tends to blur the distinction between nature and political culture, thereby blinding elites to their own best interests and luring them into immorality. [72] Aristotle also wrote about what he considered to be a better form of government than democracy. Rather than any citizen partaking with equal share in the rule, he thought that \"Virtue understood as embracing courage and temperance and prudence as well as justice turns out to be the chief determinant for shares in rule. Those who are superior in virtue should receive greater shares in rule.\" [73] A case can be made that discriminatory lines came to be drawn more sharply under Athenian democracy than before or elsewhere, in particular in relation to women and slaves, as well as in the line between citizens and non-citizens. By so strongly validating one role, that of the male citizen, it has been argued that democracy compromised the status of those who did not share it. Originally, a male would be a citizen if his father was a citizen, Under Pericles , in 450 BC, restrictions were tightened so that a citizen had to be born to an Athenian father and an Athenian mother. So Metroxenoi , those with foreign mothers, were now to be excluded. Also, \"at least by Demosthenes' time, mixed marriages were actually heavily penalized.\" Many Athenians prominent earlier in the century would have lost citizenship, had this law applied to them: Cleisthenes , the founder of democracy, had a non-Athenian mother, and the mothers of Cimon and Themistocles were not Greek at all, but Thracian . [74] Likewise the status of women seems lower in Athens than in many Greek cities. At Sparta women competed in public exercise – so in Aristophanes ' Lysistrata the Athenian women admire the tanned, muscular bodies of their Spartan counterparts – and women could own property in their own right, as they could not at Athens. Misogyny was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that in regard to the position of women, it \"was worse in Athens than in other states\". [75] Yet democracy may well have been impossible without the contribution of women's labour (Hansen 1987: 318). Slavery was more widespread at Athens than in other Greek cities. Indeed, the extensive use of imported non-Greeks (\" barbarians \") as chattel slaves seems to have been an Athenian development. This triggers the paradoxical question: Was democracy \"based on\" slavery? It does seem clear that possession of slaves allowed even poorer Athenians — owning a few slaves was by no means equated with wealth — to devote more of their time to political life. [76] But whether democracy depended on this extra time is impossible to say. The breadth of slave ownership also meant that the leisure of the rich (the small minority who were actually free of the need to work) rested less than it would have on the exploitation of their less well-off fellow citizens. Working for wages was clearly regarded as subjection to the will of another, but at least debt servitude had been abolished at Athens (under the reforms of Solon at the start of the 6th century BC). By allowing a new kind of equality among citizens this opened the way to democracy, which in turn called for a new means, chattel slavery, to at least partially equalise the availability of leisure between rich and poor. In the absence of reliable statistics all these connections remain speculative. However, as Cornelius Castoriadis pointed out, other societies also kept slaves but did not develop democracy. Even with respect to slavery the new citizen law of 450 BC might have had effect: it is speculated that originally Athenian fathers had been able to register for citizenship offspring conceived with slave women. [74] Since the 19th century, the Athenian version of democracy has been seen by one group as a goal yet to be achieved by modern societies. They want representative democracy to be added to or even replaced by direct democracy in the Athenian way, perhaps by utilizing electronic democracy . Another group, on the other hand, considers that, since many Athenians were not allowed to participate in its government, Athenian democracy was not a democracy at all. \"[C]omparisons with Athens will continue to be made as long as societies keep striving to realize democracy under modern conditions and their successes and failures are discussed.\" [77] Greek philosopher and activist Takis Fotopoulos has argued that the ultimate failure of Athens was the inability to implement degrees of economic democracy and libertarian socialism . Combined with the institution of slavery, this allowed for massive economic inequality in the society which meant the polis would be dominated by wealthy aristocrats. Fotopoulos argues that if they had freed all slaves and expropriated the property of the wealthy into common ownership, Athens would have been wealthy enough to rely purely on internal revenue. Rather than having to invade other societies and begin its fall with its defeat in the Peloponnesian War . [78] Legacy [ edit ] Since the middle of the 20th century, most countries have claimed to be a democracy, regardless of the actual makeup of its government. Yet, after the demise of Athenian democracy, few looked upon it as a good form of government. This was because no legitimation of that rule was formulated to counter the negative accounts of Plato and Aristotle. They saw it as the rule of the poor that plundered the rich, and so democracy was viewed as a sort of \"collective tyranny\". \"Well into the 18th century democracy was consistently condemned.\" Sometimes, mixed constitutions evolved with a democratic element, but \"it definitely did not mean self-rule by citizens.\" [79] In the age of Cicero and Caesar , Rome was a republic, but not a democracy. Furthermore, it would be misleading to say that the tradition of Athenian democracy was an important part of the 18th-century revolutionaries' intellectual background. The classical example that inspired the American and French revolutionaries as well as the English radicals was Rome rather than Greece. Thus, the Founding Fathers who met in Philadelphia in 1787, did not set up a Council of the Areopagos, but a Senate , that, eventually, met on the Capitol . [80] Following Rousseau (1712–1778), \"democracy came to be associated with popular sovereignty instead of popular participation in the exercise of power.\" Several German philosophers and poets took delight in the fullness of life in Athens, and not long afterwards \"the English liberals put forward a new argument in favor of the Athenians\". In opposition, thinkers such as Samuel Johnson were worried about the ignorance of a democratic decision-making body. However, \" Macaulay and John Stuart Mill and George Grote saw the great strength of the Athenian democracy in the high level of cultivation that citizens enjoyed and called for improvements in the educational system of Britain that would make possible a shared civic consciousness parallel to that achieved by the ancient Athenians.\" [81] Therefore, it was George Grote, in his History of Greece (1846–1856), who would claim that \"Athenian democracy was neither the tyranny of the poor, nor the rule of the mob.\" He argued that only by giving every citizen the vote would people ensure that the state would be run in the general interest. Later, to the end of World War Il, democracy became dissociated from its ancient frame of reference. It was not anymore only one of the many possible ways in which political rule could be organised in a polity: it became the only possible political system in an egalitarian society. [82] References and sources [ edit ] References Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p. 74 . Jump up ^ Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2007): The Breakthrough of Demokratia in Mid-Fifth-Century Athens , p. 112, in: Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert, eds. (2007). Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece . Berkeley: University of California Press. Jump up ^ Xenophon , Anabasis 4.4.15. Jump up ^ Clarke, PB. and Foweraker, Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought . Routledge, 2003, p. 196. ^ Jump up to: a b Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.10. Jump up ^ Farrar, C., The Origins of Democratic Thinking: The Invention of Politics in Classical Athens , CUP Archive, 25 Aug 1989, p.7. Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica , Areopagus. Jump up ^ Farrar, C., The Origins of Democratic Thinking: The Invention of Politics in Classical Athens , CUP Archive, 25 Aug 1989, p.21. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.25. ^ Jump up to: a b Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, pp. 55–56 Jump up ^ Blackwell, Christopher. \"The Development of Athenian Democracy\" . Dēmos: Classical Athenian Democracy . Stoa . Retrieved 4 May 2016 . Jump up ^ https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/48.html Jump up ^ Habicht, C., Athens from Alexander to Antony , Harvard University Press, 1997, p. 42. Jump up ^ Green, P., Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age , University of California Press, 1993, p.29. ^ Jump up to: a b A Companion to Greek Studies , CUP Archive, p. 447. Jump up ^ Cartledge, P, Garnsey, P. and Gruen, ES., Hellenistic Constructs: Essays in Culture, History, and Historiography , University of California Press, 1997, Ch. 5. Jump up ^ Habicht, passim Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p. 74 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rothchild, JA., Introduction to Athenian Democracy of the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BCE . Jump up ^ Dixon, MD., Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Corinth: 338–196 BC , Routledge, 2014, p. 44. Jump up ^ Kamen, D., Status in Classical Athens , Princeton University Press, 2013 p. 9. Jump up ^ agathe.gr: The Unenfranchised II – Slaves and Resident Aliens Jump up ^ agathe.gr: The Unenfranchised I – Women Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.59. Jump up ^ Cohen D. and Gagarin, M., The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Greek Law Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 278. Jump up ^ Sinclair, RK., Democracy and Participation in Athens , Cambridge University Press, 30 Aug 1991, pp. 25–26. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.32. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.57. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p 33–34. Jump up ^ Manville, PB., The Origins of Citizenship in Ancient Athens , Princeton University Press, 2014 p. 182. Jump up ^ Aristophanes Acharnians 17–22. Jump up ^ Aristoph. Ekklesiazousai 378-9 Jump up ^ Terry Buckley, Aspects of Greek History: A Source-Based Approach , Routledge, 2006, p. 98 . Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica : boule. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, pp. 31–32 Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, pp. 30–31. Jump up ^ Hignett, History of the Athenian Constitution , 238 Jump up ^ Hignett, History of the Athenian Constitution , 241 Jump up ^ Dover, KJ., Greek Popular Morality in the Time of Plato and Aristotle , Hackett Publishing, 1994, p.23. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, pp. 36–38. Jump up ^ MacDowell, DM., The Law in Classical Athens , Cornell University Press, 1978, p.36. Jump up ^ Bertoch, MJ., The Greeks had a jury for it, ABA Journal , October, 1971, Vol. 57, p.1013. Jump up ^ Arnason, JP., Raaflaub, KA. and Wagner, P., The Greek Polis and the Invention of Democracy: A Politico-cultural Transformation and Its Interpretations , John Wiley & Sons, 2013' p. 167. Jump up ^ Rhodes, PJ., A History of the Classical Greek World: 478 – 323 BC , John Wiley & Sons, 2011, p. 235. Jump up ^ MacDowell, DM., The Law in Classical Athens , Cornell University Press, 1978, p.250. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.60. Jump up ^ Cohen D. and Gagarin, M., The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Greek Law Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 130. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, pp. 8–9. Jump up ^ Sinclair, RK., Democracy and Participation in Athens , Cambridge University Press, 30 Aug 1991, pp. 1–2. Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica : archon Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p. 55. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, p.29. Jump up ^ Thorley, J., Athenian Democracy , Routledge, 2005, pp. 42–43. Jump up ^ Samons, L., What's Wrong with Democracy?: From Athenian Practice to American Worship , University of California Press, 2004, pp. 44–45. Jump up ^ Raaflaub, Kurt A., Ober, Josiah and Wallace\nRobert W., Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece , University of California Press, 2007 p. 182. Jump up ^ Cartledge, Paul (July 2006). \"Ostracism: selection and de-selection in ancient Greece\" . History & Policy . United Kingdom : History & Policy . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Funeral Oration\", Thucydides II.40, trans. Rex Warner (1954). Jump up ^ Goldhill, S., 2004, The Good Citizen, in Love, Sex & Tragedy: Why Classics Matters. John Murray, London, 179-94. Jump up ^ Anthamatten, Eric (2017-06-12). \"Trump and the True Meaning of 'Idiot ' \" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-06-26 . Jump up ^ Parker, Walter C. (January 2005). \"Teaching Against Idiocy\". 86 (5). Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa: 344. ERIC EJ709337 . Jump up ^ Sparkes, A.W. (1988). \"Idiots, Ancient and Modern\". Australian Journal of Political Science . 23 (1): 101–102. doi : 10.1080/00323268808402051 . Jump up ^ see Idiot#Etymology Jump up ^ Benn, Stanley (2006). \"Democracy\" . In Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy . 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 699–703 – via Gale Virtual Reference Library. Jump up ^ Pointing, Clive. A New Green History of the World . London: Penguin Books. p. 75. Jump up ^ Murray Bookchin. \"Towards a Liberatory Technology,\" 1965 Jump up ^ Samons, L., What's Wrong with Democracy?: From Athenian Practice to American Worship , University of California Press, 2004, p. 6. Jump up ^ Ober, J., Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule , Princeton University Press, 2001, pp. 54 & 78–79. Jump up ^ Kagan, D., The Fall of the Athenian Empire , Cornell University Press, 2013, p. 108. Jump up ^ Hobden, F. and Tuplin, C., Xenophon: Ethical Principles and Historical Enquiry , BRILL, 2012, pp. 196–199. Jump up ^ Samons, L., What's Wrong with Democracy?: From Athenian Practice to American Worship , University of California Press, 2004, p. 12 & 195. Jump up ^ Beck, H., Companion to Ancient Greek Government , John Wiley & Sons, 2013, p. 103. Jump up ^ Ober, J., Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule , Princeton University Press, 2001, p. 43. Jump up ^ Beck, H., Companion to Ancient Greek Government , John Wiley & Sons, 2013, p.107. ^ Jump up to: a b Hansen, MH., The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles, and Ideology , University of Oklahoma Press, 1991, p.53. Jump up ^ Just, R., Women in Athenian Law and Life , Routledge, 2008, p. 15. Jump up ^ Rodriguez, JP., The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery , Volume 7, ABC-CLIO, 1997, pp. 312–314. Jump up ^ Grafton, A., Most, GA. and Settis, S., The Classical Tradition , Harvard University Press, 2010, p.259. Jump up ^ Fotopoulos, \"Direct and Economic Democracy in Ancient Athens and its Significance Today\". Jump up ^ Grafton, A., Most, GA. and Settis, S., The Classical Tradition , Harvard University Press, 2010, pp. 256–259. Jump up ^ Hansen, MH., The Tradition of Ancient Greek Democracy and Its Importance for Modern Democracy , Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 2005, p. 10. Jump up ^ Roberts, J., in Euben, JP et al., Athenian Political Thought and the Reconstruction of American Democracy', Cornell University Press, 1994, p. 96. Jump up ^ Vlassopoulos, K., Politics Antiquity and Its Legacy , Oxford University Press, 2009. Sources Habicht, Christian (1997). Athens from Alexander to Antony . Harvard. ISBN 0-674-05111-4 . Hansen, M.H. (1987). The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes . Oxford. ISBN 978-0-8061-3143-6 . Hignett, Charles (1962). A History of the Athenian Constitution . Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814213-7 . Manville, B.; Ober, Josiah (2003). A company of citizens : what the world's first democracy teaches leaders about creating great organizations . Boston. Meier C. 1998, Athens: a portrait of the city in its Golden Age (translated by R. and R. Kimber). New York Ober, Josiah (1989). Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens: Rhetoric, Ideology and the Power of the People . Princeton. Ober, Josiah; Hendrick, C. (1996). Demokratia: a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern . Princeton. Rhodes, P.J. (2004). Athenian democracy . Edinburgh. Sinclair, R. K. (1988). Democracy and Participation in Athens . Cambridge University Press. External links [ edit ] Ancient History Encyclopedia – Athenian Democracy Ewbank, N. 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{ "text": "Fisher (animal) - Wikipedia Fisher (animal) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with the fishing cat , a medium-sized wild felid . For other uses, see Fisher (disambiguation) . Fisher At Mount Rainier National Park Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Mustelidae Genus: Pekania Species: P. pennanti Binomial name Pekania pennanti ( Erxleben , 1777) Fisher range Synonyms List [show] Mustela pennantii Erxleben , 1777 Mustela canadensis Schreber, 1788 Mustela melanorhyncha Boddaert, 1784 Mustela zibellina nigra Kerr, 1792 Viverra piscator Shaw, 1800 Viverra canadensis Shaw, 1800 Mustela nigra Turton, 1802 Mustela piscatoria Lesson, 1827 Martes pennantii Smith, 1843 Martes pennanti Coues, 1877 The fisher ( Pekania pennanti ) is a small, carnivorous mammal native to North America . It is a member of the mustelid family (commonly referred to as the weasel family), and is in the monospecific genus Pekania . The fisher is closely related to, but larger than the American marten ( Martes americana ). The fisher is a forest-dwelling creature whose range covers much of the boreal forest in Canada to the northern United States. Names derived from aboriginal languages include pekan , pequam , wejack , and woolang . It is sometimes referred to as a fisher cat , although it is not a feline . Males and females look similar. Adult males are 90 to 120 cm (35–47 in) long and weigh 3.5 to 6.0 kilograms (8–13 lb). Adult females are 75 to 95 cm (30–37 in) long and weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg (4–6 lb). The fur of the fisher varies seasonally, being denser and glossier in the winter. During the summer, the color becomes more mottled, as the fur goes through a moulting cycle. The fisher prefers to hunt in full forest. Though an agile climber, it spends most of its time on the forest floor, where it prefers to forage around fallen trees. An omnivore , the fisher feeds on a wide variety of small animals and occasionally on fruits and mushrooms. It prefers the snowshoe hare and is one of the few animals able to prey successfully on porcupines . Despite its common name, the fisher rarely eats fish. The reproductive cycle of the fisher lasts almost a year. Female fishers give birth to a litter of three or four kits in the spring. They nurse and care for their kits until late summer, when they are old enough to set out on their own. Females enter estrus shortly after giving birth and leave the den to find a mate. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until the following spring, when they give birth and the cycle is renewed. Fishers have few predators besides humans. They have been trapped since the 18th century for their fur. Their pelts were in such demand that they were extirpated from several parts of the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Conservation and protection measures have allowed the species to rebound, but their current range is still reduced from its historic limits. In the 1920s, when pelt prices were high, some fur farmers attempted to raise fishers. However, their unusual delayed reproduction made breeding difficult. When pelt prices fell in the late 1940s, most fisher farming ended. While fishers usually avoid human contact, encroachments into forest habitats have resulted in some conflicts. Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 2.1 Evolution 3 Biology and behavior 3.1 Physical characteristics 3.2 Hunting and diet 3.3 Reproduction 3.4 Social structure and home range 3.5 Parasites 4 Habitat 5 Distribution 6 Fishers and people 6.1 Fur trade and conservation 6.2 Captivity 6.3 Interactions with domestic animals 6.4 Poisoning 6.5 Literature 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Etymology [ edit ] Despite the name \"fisher\", the animal is not known to eat fish. The name is instead related to the word \"fitch\", meaning a European polecat ( Mustela putorius ) or pelt thereof, due to the resemblance to that animal. The name comes from colonial Dutch equivalent fisse or visse . In the French language, the pelt of a polecat is also called fiche or fichet . [2] In some regions, the fisher is known as a pekan , derived from its name in the Abenaki language . Wejack is an Algonquian word (cf. Cree wuchak , otchock , Ojibwa ojiig ) borrowed by fur traders. Other American Indian names for the fisher are Chipewyan thacho [3] and Carrier chunihcho , [4] both meaning \"big marten\", and Wabanaki uskool . [2] Taxonomy [ edit ] Skull diagram The Latin specific name pennanti honors Thomas Pennant , who described the fisher in 1771. Buffon had first described the creature in 1765, calling it a pekan . Pennant examined the same specimen, but called it a fisher, unaware of Buffon's earlier description. Other 18th-century scientists gave it similar names, such as Schreber , who named it Mustela canadensis , and Boddaert , who named it Mustela melanorhyncha . [5] The fisher was eventually placed in the genus Martes by Smith in 1843. [6] In 2008, advances in DNA analysis allowed a more detailed study of the fisher's evolutionary history. The fisher and the Martes genera were determined to have descended from a common ancestor , but the fisher was distinct enough to put it in its own genera . It was decided to create the genus Pekania and reclassify the fisher as Pekania pennanti . [7] Members of the genus Pekania are distinguished by their four premolar teeth on the upper and lower jaws. Its close relative Mustela has just three. The fisher has 38 teeth. The dentition formula is: 3.1.4.1 2.1.4.2 [8] Evolution [ edit ] Some evidence shows that ancestors of the fisher migrated to North America during the Pliocene era between 2.5 and 5.0 million years ago. Two extinct mustelids, M. palaeosinensis and M. anderssoni , have been found in eastern Asia. The first true fisher, M. divuliana , has only been found in North America. M. divuliana is strongly indicated to be related to the Asian finds, which suggests a migration. M. pennanti has been found as early as the Late Pleistocene era, about 125,000 years ago. No major differences are seen between the Pleistocene fisher and the modern fisher. Fossil evidence indicates that the fisher's range extended farther south than it does today. [2] Three subspecies were identified by Goldman in 1935, M. p. columbiana , M. p. pacifica , and M. p. pennanti . Later research has debated whether these subspecies could be positively identified. In 1959, E.M. Hagmeier concluded that the subspecies are not separable based on either fur or skull characteristics. Although some debate still exists, in general, the fisher is recognized to be a monotypic species with no extant subspecies. [9] Biology and behavior [ edit ] Physical characteristics [ edit ] Fisher in winter coat Fishers are a medium-sized mammal, comparable in size to the domestic cat . Their bodies are long, thin, and low to the ground. The sexes have similar physical features, but they are sexually dimorphic in size, with the male being much larger than the female. Males are 90 to 120 cm (35–47 in) in length and weigh 3.5 to 6.0 kg (8–13 lb). Females measure 75 to 95 cm (30–37 in) and weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg (4–6 lb). [10] [11] The largest male fisher ever recorded weighed 9 kg (20 lb). [12] The fisher's fur changes with the season and differs slightly between sexes. Males have coarser coats than females. In the early winter, the coats are dense and glossy, ranging from 30 mm (1 in) on the chest to 70 mm (3 in) on the back. The color ranges from deep brown to black, although it appears to be much blacker in the winter when contrasted with white snow. From the face to the shoulders, fur can be hoary-gold or silver due to tricolored guard hairs. The underside of a fisher is almost completely brown except for randomly placed patches of white or cream-colored fur. In the summer, the fur color is more variable and may lighten considerably. Fishers undergo moulting starting in late summer and finishing by November or December. [13] Fishers have five toes on each foot, with unsheathed, retractable claws. [2] Their feet are large, making it easier for them to move on top of snow packs. In addition to the toes, four central pads are on each foot. On the hind paws are coarse hairs that grow between the pads and the toes, giving them added traction when walking on slippery surfaces. [14] Fishers have highly mobile ankle joints that can rotate their hind paws almost 180°, allowing them to maneuver well in trees and climb down head-first. [15] [16] The fisher is one of relatively few mammalian species with the ability to descend trees head-first. [17] A circular patch of hair on the central pad of their hind paws marks plantar glands that give off a distinctive odor. Since these patches become enlarged during breeding season, they are likely used to make a scent trail to allow fishers to find each other so they can mate. [14] Hunting and diet [ edit ] Fishers are generalist predators. Although their primary prey is snowshoe hares and porcupines , they are also known to supplement their diet with insects, nuts, berries, and mushrooms. Since they are solitary hunters, their choice of prey is limited by their size. Analyses of stomach contents and scat have found evidence of birds, small mammals, and even moose and deer—the latter two indicating that they are not averse to eating carrion . Fishers have been seen to feed on deer carcasses. [18] While the behavior is not common, fishers have been known to kill larger animals, such as wild turkey , bobcat , and lynx . [19] [20] [21] Fishers are one of the few predators that seek out and kill porcupines. Stories in popular literature indicate that fishers can flip a porcupine onto its back and \"scoop out its belly like a ripe melon\". [22] This was identified as an exaggerated misconception as early as 1966. [23] Observational studies show that fishers make repeated biting attacks on the face of a porcupine and kill it after about 25–30 minutes. [24] Reproduction [ edit ] The female fisher begins to breed at about one year of age and her reproductive cycle is an almost year-long event. Mating takes place in late March to early April. Blastocyst implantation is then delayed for 10 months until mid-February of the following year when active pregnancy begins. After gestating for about 50 days, the female gives birth to one to four kits. [25] The female then enters estrus 7–10 days later and the breeding cycle begins again. [26] Females den in hollow trees. Kits are born blind and helpless. They are partially covered with fine hair. Kits begin to crawl after about 3 weeks. After about 7 weeks, they open their eyes. They start to climb after 8 weeks. Kits are completely dependent on their mother's milk for the first 8–10 weeks, after which they begin to switch to a solid diet. After 4 months, kits become intolerant of their litter mates, and at 5 months, the mother pushes them out on their own. After one year, juveniles will have established their own range. [26] Social structure and home range [ edit ] Fishers are generally crepuscular , being most active at dawn and dusk. They are active year-round, and are solitary, associating with other fishers only for mating. Males become more active during mating season. Females are least active during pregnancy and gradually increase activity after birth of their kits. [26] A fisher's hunting range varies from 6.6 km 2 (3 sq mi) in the summer to 14.1 km 2 (5 sq mi) in the winter. Ranges up to 20.0 km 2 (8 sq mi) in the winter are possible depending on the quality of the habitat. Male and female fishers have overlapping territories. This behavior is imposed on females by males due to dominance in size and a male's desire to increase mating success. [27] Parasites [ edit ] Parasites of fishers include Baylisascaris devosi , Taenia sibirica , nematode Physaloptera sp., Alaria mustelae , trematode Metorchis conjunctus , nematode Trichinella spiralis , and Molineus sp. [28] Habitat [ edit ] A fisher in the woods near Ipswich, Massachusetts Although fishers are competent tree climbers, they spend most of their time on the forest floor and prefer continuous forest to other habitats. They have been found in extensive conifer forests typical of the boreal forest, but are also common in mixed-hardwood and conifer forests. Fishers prefer areas with continuous overhead cover with greater than 80% coverage and avoid areas with less than 50% coverage. [29] Fishers are more likely to be found in old-growth forests. Since female fishers require moderately large trees for denning, forests that have been heavily logged and have extensive second growth appears to be unsuitable for their needs. [30] Fishers also select for forest floors with large amounts of coarse woody debris . In western forests, where fire regularly removes understory debris, fishers show a preference for riparian woodland habitat. [27] [31] [32] Fishers tend to avoid areas with deep snow. Habitat is also affected by snow compaction and moisture content. [33] Distribution [ edit ] A fisher climbing a tree at night Fishers are widespread throughout the northern forests of North America. They are found from Nova Scotia in the east to the Pacific shore of British Columbia and Alaska. They can be found as far north as Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories and as far south as the mountains of Oregon. Isolated populations occur in the Sierra Nevada of California and the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, [34] and Virginia. [35] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fishers were virtually eliminated from the southern and eastern parts of their range, including most American states and eastern Canada including Nova Scotia. Overtrapping and loss of forest habitat were the reasons for the decline. [36] [37] Most states had placed restrictions on fisher trapping by the 1930s, coincidental with the end of the logging boom. A combination of forest regrowth in abandoned farmlands and improved forest management practices increased available habitat and allowed remnant populations to recover. Populations have since recovered sufficiently that the species is no longer endangered. Increasing forest cover in eastern North America means that fisher populations will remain sufficiently robust for the near future. Between 1955 and 1985, some states had allowed limited trapping to resume. In areas where fishers were eliminated, porcupine populations subsequently increased. Areas with a high density of porcupines were found to have extensive damage to timber crops. In these cases, fishers were reintroduced by releasing adults relocated from other places into the forest. Once the fisher populations became re-established, porcupine numbers returned to natural levels. [38] In Washington, fisher sightings were reported into the 1980s, but an extensive survey in the 1990s did not locate any. [39] Scattered fisher populations now exist in the Pacific Northwest. In 1961, fishers from British Columbia and Minnesota were reintroduced in Oregon to the southern Cascades near Klamath Falls and to the Wallowa Mountains near La Grande . From 1977–1980, fishers were introduced to the region around Crater Lake . [40] Starting in January 2008, fishers were reintroduced into Washington State. [41] The initial reintroduction was on the Olympic peninsula (90 animals), with subsequent reintroductions into the south Cascade Mountains. The reintroduced animals are monitored by radio collars and remote cameras, and have been shown to be reproducing. [42] From 2008 to 2011, about 40 fishers were reintroduced in the northern Sierra Nevada near Stirling City , complementing fisher populations in Yosemite National Park and along California's northern boundary between the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains . [43] Fishers are a protected species in Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. In Idaho and California, fishers are protected through a closed trapping season, but they are not afforded any specific protection; [44] however, in California the fisher has been granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Act . [45] In June 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that fishers be removed from the endangered list in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. [11] Recent studies, as well as anecdotal evidence, show that fishers have begun making inroads into suburban backyards, farmland, and periurban areas in several US states and eastern Canada, as far south as most of northern Massachusetts , New York , [46] [47] Connecticut , [48] Minnesota and Iowa , [49] and even rural New Jersey . [50] Having virtually disappeared after the construction of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 1900s, some reports have shown that populations have become re-established on Cape Cod , [51] [52] [53] although the populations are likely smaller than the populations in the western part of New England. [54] [55] Fishers and people [ edit ] Fishers have had a long history of contact with humans, but most of it has been to the detriment of fisher populations. Unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare, but fishers will attack if they feel threatened or cornered. In one case, a fisher was blamed for an attack on a 6-year-old boy. [56] [57] In another case, a fisher is believed to be responsible for an attack on a 12-year-old boy. [58] Fur trade and conservation [ edit ] Fisher pelts sold: 1920–1984 [59] [60] Fishers have been trapped since the 18th century. They have been popular with trappers due to the value of their fur, which has been used for scarves and neck pieces. The best pelts are from winter trapping, with secondary-quality pelts from spring trapping. The lowest-quality furs come from out-of-season trapping when fishers are moulting. They are easily trapped, and the value of their fur was a particular incentive for catching this species. [61] Prices for pelts have varied considerably over the past 100 years. They were highest in the 1920s and 1930s, when average prices were about US$100. [62] In 1936, pelts were being offered for sale in New York City for $450–750 per pelt. [63] Prices declined through the 1960s, but picked up again in the late 1970s. In 1979, the Hudson's Bay Company paid $410 for one female pelt. [63] In 1999, 16,638 pelts were sold in Canada for C$449,307 at an average price of $27. [64] Between 1900 and 1940, fishers were threatened with near extinction in the southern part of their range due to overtrapping and alterations to their habitat. In New England, fishers, along with most other furbearers, were nearly exterminated due to unregulated trapping. Fishers became extirpated in many northern U.S. states after 1930, but were still abundant enough in Canada to maintain a harvest over 3,000 fishers per year. Limited protection was afforded in the early 20th century, but total protection was not given to the few remaining fishers until 1934. Closed seasons, habitat recovery, and reintroductions have restored fishers to much of their original range. [2] Trapping resumed in the U.S. after 1962, once numbers had recovered sufficiently. During the early 1970s, the value of fisher pelts soared, leading to another population crash in 1976. After a few years of closed seasons, fisher trapping reopened in 1979 with a shortened season and restricted bag limits. The population has steadily increased since then, with steadily increasing numbers of trapped animals, despite a much lower pelt value. [59] Captivity [ edit ] Fisher fur pelt (dyed) Fishers have been captured live for fur farming , zoo specimens, and scientific research. From 1920–1946, pelt prices averaged about C$137. Since pelts were relatively valuable, attempts were made to raise fishers on farms. Fur farming was popular with other species such as mink and ermine , so the same techniques were thought to be applicable to fishers. However, farmers found it difficult to raise fishers due to their unusual reproductive cycle. In general, knowledge of delayed implantation in fishers was unknown at the time. Farmers noted that females mated in the spring but did not give birth. Due to declining pelt prices, most fisher farms closed operations by the late 1940s. [65] Fishers have also been captured and bred by zoos, but they are not a common zoo species. Fishers are poor animals to exhibit because, in general, they hide from visitors all day. Some zoos have had difficulty keeping fishers alive since they are susceptible to many diseases in captivity. [66] Yet at least one example shows a fisher kept in captivity that lived to be 10 years old, and another living to be about 14 years old, [67] well beyond its natural lifespan of 7 years. [68] [69] In 1974, R.A. Powell raised two fisher kits for the purpose of performing scientific research. His primary interest was an attempt to measure the activity of fishers to determine how much food the animals required to function. He did this by running them through treadmill exercises that simulated activity in the wild. He compared this to their food intake and used the data to estimate daily food requirements. The research lasted for two years. After one year, one of the fishers died due to unknown causes. The second was released back into the wilderness of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. [70] Interactions with domestic animals [ edit ] Fisher raiding a farmer's duck coop In some areas, fishers can become pests to farmers when they raid chicken coops.\nA few instances of fishers preying on cats and small dogs have been reported; [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] but in general, the evidence suggests these attacks are rare. A 1979 study examined the stomach contents of all fishers trapped in the state of New Hampshire; cat hairs were found in only one of over 1,000 stomachs. [77] More recent studies in suburban upstate New York and Massachusetts found no cat remains in 24 and 226 fisher diet samples (scat and stomach contents), respectively. [78] While a popular belief exists for more frequent attacks on pets, zoologists suggest bobcats or coyotes are more likely to prey upon domestic cats and chickens. Poisoning [ edit ] Male fisher killed by anticoagulant rodenticide on a marijuana grow site on US Forest Service lands, southern Sierra Nevada mountains In 2012, a study conducted by Integral Ecology Research Center , UC Davis , U.S. Forest Service , and the Hoopa tribe showed that fishers in California were exposed to and killed by anticoagulant rodenticides associated with marijuana cultivation. [79] In this study, 79% of fishers that were tested in California were exposed to an average of 1.61 different anticoagulant rodenticides and four fishers died directly attributed to these toxicants. A 2015 follow-up study building on these data determined that the trend of exposure and mortality from these toxicants increased to 85%, that California fishers were now exposed to an average of 1.73 different anticoagulant rodenticides, and that 9 more fishers died, bringing the total to 13. [80] The extent of marijuana cultivation within fishers' home ranges was highlighted in a 2013 study focusing on fisher survival and impacts from marijuana cultivation within the Sierra National Forest. [81] Fishers had an average of 5.3 individual grow sites within their home range. [81] One fisher had 16 individual grow sites within its territory. Literature [ edit ] One of the first mentions of fishers in literature occurred in The Audubon Book of True Nature Stories . Robert Snyder relates a tale of his encounter with fishers in the woods of the Adirondack Mountains of New York. He recounts three sightings, including one where he witnessed a fisher attacking a porcupine. [82] In Winter of the Fisher , Cameron Langford relates a fictional encounter between a fisher and an aging recluse living in the forest. The recluse frees the fisher from a trap and nurses it back to health. The fisher tolerates the attention, but being a wild animal, returns to the forest when well enough. Langford uses the ecology and known habits of the fisher to weave a tale of survival and tolerance in the northern woods of Canada. [83] Fishers are mentioned in several other books, including The Blood Jaguar (an animal shaman), Ereth's Birthday (a porcupine hunter) and in The Sign of the Beaver , where a fisher is thought to have been caught in a trap. [84] [85] [86] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Reid, F.; Helgen, K. (2008). \" Pekania pennanti \" . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved August 21, 2016 . Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Powell, R.A. (1981). \"Mammalian Species: Martes pennanti \" (PDF) . The American Society of Mammalogists: 156:1–6 . Retrieved October 21, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Fort Resolution Chipewyan Dictionary\" (PDF) . January 22, 2011. p. 40 . Retrieved December 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ Poser, William J. (1998). Nak'albun/Dzinghubun Whut'enne Bughuni (Stuart/Trembleur Lake Carrier Lexicon), 2nd edition . Vanderhoof, BC: Yinka Dene Language Institute. Jump up ^ Coues, p. 66. Jump up ^ Powell, pp. 11–12. Jump up ^ Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Deere, Kerry A; Slater, Graham J; Begg, Colleen; Begg, Keith; Grassman, Lon; Lucherini, Mauro; Veron, Geraldine; Wayne, Robert K (February 14, 2008). \"Multigene phylogeny of the Mustelidae: Resolving relationships, tempo and biogeographic history of a mammalian adaptive radiation\" . BMC Biology . 6 (10). Jump up ^ Powell, p. 12. Jump up ^ Powell, p. 14. Jump up ^ \"Martes pennanti: Fisher\" . Animal Diversity Web . University of Michigan Museum of Zoology . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Fisher\" . 2011. Jump up ^ Powell, p. 3. Jump up ^ Powell, pp. 4–6. ^ Jump up to: a b Powell, p. 9. Jump up ^ Fergus, p. 101. Jump up ^ Nations, Johnathan A.; Link, Olson. \"Scansoriality in Mammals\" . Animal Diversity Web . Jump up ^ Alexander, R. McNeill (2003). Principles of animal locomotion . Princeton University Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-691-08678-8 . Jump up ^ Fergus, p. 102. Jump up ^ \"Ecological Characteristics of Fishers in the Southern Oregon Cascade Range\" (PDF) . USDA Forest Service – Pacific Northwest Research Station 2006. Jump up ^ Vashon, Jennifer; Vashon, Adam; Crowley, Shannon. \"Partnership for Lynx Conservation in Main December 2001 – December 2002 Field Report\" (PDF) . Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. p. 9. Jump up ^ Richardson, John (March 17, 2010). \"Researchers collect data to track health of, threats to Canada lynx\" . The Portland Press Herald . Pressherald.com. Archived from the original on November 14, 2012 . Retrieved December 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Doyle, Brian (March 6, 2006). \"Fishering\" . High Country News . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ Coulter, M.W. (1966). Ecology and management of fishers in Maine. (Ph.D. thesis) . Syracuse, N.Y.: St. Univ. Coll. Forest. Syracuse University. Jump up ^ Powell, pp. 134–6. Jump up ^ Burt, Henry W. (1976) A Field Guide to the Mammals. Boston, p. 55. ISBN 0-395-24084-0 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Feldhamer, pp. 638–9. ^ Jump up to: a b Feldhamer, p. 641. Jump up ^ Dick T. A & Leonard R. D. (1979). \"Helminth parasites of fisher Martes pennanti (Erxleben) from Manitoba, Canada\". Journal of Wildlife Diseases 15 (3): 409-412. PMID 574167 . Jump up ^ Powell, p. 88. Jump up ^ Powell, p. 92. Jump up ^ \"Fisher Martes pennanti \" . Defenders of Wildlife . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Martes pennanti: North American range map\" . Discover Life . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ Powell, p. 93. Jump up ^ Feldhamer, p. 636. Jump up ^ \"fisher | VDGIF\" . www.dgif.virginia.gov . Retrieved July 30, 2016 . Jump up ^ Powell, p. 77. Jump up ^ Hardisky, Thomas, ed. (July 2001). \"Pennsylvania Fisher Reintroduction Project\" . Pennsylvania Game Commission, Bureau of Wildlife Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2012 . Retrieved December 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Powell, pp. 77–80. Jump up ^ \"Threatened and Endangered Wildlife in Washington: 2012 Annual Report\" (PDF) . Jump up ^ Keith B. Aubry; Jeffrey C. Lewis (November 2003). \"Extirpation and reintroduction of fishers (Martes pennanti) in Oregon: implications for their conservation in the Pacific states\" . Biological Conservation . 114 : 79–90. doi : 10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00003-X . Retrieved January 2, 2012 . Jump up ^ Mapes, Lynda V (January 28, 2008). \"Weasel-like fisher back in state after many decades\" . Seattle Times . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Threatened and Endangered Species in Washington: 2012 Annual Report\" (PDF) . Retrieved August 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Peter Fimrite (2011-12-09). \"Fishers returned to area in Sierra after 100 years\" . San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved January 2, 2012 . Jump up ^ Zielinski, William J.; Kucera, Thomas E. (1998). American Marten, Fisher, Lynx, and Wolverine: Survey Methods for Their Detection . DIANE Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7881-3628-3 . Retrieved October 21, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"CNDDB Endangered and Threatened Animals List\" (PDF) . April 1, 2017. p. 13 . Retrieved May 25, 2017 . Jump up ^ Zezima, Katie (June 10, 2008). \"A Fierce Predator Makes a Home in the Suburbs\" . New York Times . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ LaPoint S, Gallery P, Wikelski M, Kays R (2013) Animal behavior, cost-based corridor models, and real corridors. Landscape Ecology 28:1615-1630 Jump up ^ Polansky, Rob. \"West Haven residents concerned over fisher cats\" . WFSB Eyewitness News . Retrieved June 3, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Trail camera shows fierce mammal not seen in Iowa since 1800s\" . February 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kontos, Charles (October 19, 2013). \"Rutgers, friends memorialize naturalist Charlie Kontos\" . Retrieved April 9, 2015 . Jump up ^ Ward, Katy (2017-03-23). \"Fisher cat found dead on the beach near MacMillan Pier\" . Wicked Local Provincetown . Retrieved 2017-04-28 . Jump up ^ BRENNAN, GEORGE (2004-03-08). \"Rare Cape fisher caught on camera\" . Cape Cod Times . Retrieved 2017-10-05 . Jump up ^ Schanbacher, Mike (2017-10-05). \"Fisher in Falmouth\" . Cape Cod Times . Retrieved 2017-10-05 . Jump up ^ Davis, Chase (November 13, 2005). \"Elusive fisher cats returning to Cape\" . Archived from the original on March 7, 2014 . Retrieved March 6, 2014 . Jump up ^ Brennan, George (April 3, 2008). \"Rare Cape fisher caught on camera\" . Archived from the original on March 7, 2014 . Retrieved March 6, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Fisher cat attacks boy\" . Westerly Sun . Jump up ^ \"Fisher Cat Attacks Child at Bus Stop\" . FOX News, Providence, RI. June 23, 2009. Archived from the original on March 6, 2011 . Retrieved August 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Family says boy, 12, attacked by fisher cat\" . WCVB News. July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 1, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Milan Novak, ed. (1987). Furbearer harvests in North America, 1600–1984 . Ontario Trappers Association. Jump up ^ \"Bank of Canada inflation calculator\" . Bank of Canada . Retrieved November 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ Hodgson, pp. 17–18. Jump up ^ Powell, Roger A. Martes pennanti. The American Society of Mammalogists. May 8, 1981. ^ Jump up to: a b Hodgson, pp. 97–98. Jump up ^ Statistics Canada. Agriculture Division (2008). Fur Statistics (Report). Jump up ^ Hodgson, pp. 4–5. Jump up ^ Powell, pp. 207–8. Jump up ^ \"Feds issue notice after Pacific fisher dies at HSU\" . times-standard.com . Jump up ^ New York Zoological Society (1971). Bronx Zoo (Report). Jump up ^ \"Basic Facts About Fishers\" . Defenders of Wildlife . Retrieved June 3, 2016 . Jump up ^ Powell, pp. xi–xv. Jump up ^ \"Weasel-like fishers rebound; backyard pets become prey\" . San Diego Union-Tribune. June 12, 2008 . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Fisher: The fisher is a North American marten, a medium sized mustelid\" . Science Daily. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved August 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"What is a Fisher Cat?\" . WPRI.com. June 23, 2009. Archived from the original on June 26, 2009 . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Fisher [sic] in Massachusetts\" . Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008 . Retrieved August 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ O'Brian, Brian (August 25, 2005). \"On the wild side: Once nearly extinct, weasel-like fishers thrive in the suburbs, where their ravenous feeding habits threaten family pets\" . Boston Globe . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ Fahim, Kareem (July 4, 2007). \"A Cat Fight? Sort of, only louder and uglier\" . New York Times . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ Orff, Eric B. \"The Fisher: New Hampshire's Rodney Dangerfield\" . New Hampshire Fish and Wildlife News . Retrieved April 28, 2010 . Jump up ^ Kays, Roland (April 6, 2011). \"Do Fishers Really Eat Cats?\" . New York Times . Retrieved August 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Gabriel, Mourad W.; Woods, Leslie W.; Poppenga, Robert; Sweitzer, Rick A.; Thompson, Craig; Matthews, Sean M.; Higley, J. Mark; Keller, Stefan M.; Purcell, Kathryn (July 13, 2012). \"Anticoagulant Rodenticides on our Public and Community Lands: Spatial Distribution of Exposure and Poisoning of a Rare Forest Carnivore\" . PLoS ONE . 7 (7): e40163. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0040163 . PMC 3396649 . PMID 22808110 . Jump up ^ Gabriel, Mourad W.; Woods, Leslie W.; Wengert, Greta M.; Stephenson, Nicole; Higley, J. Mark; Thompson, Craig; Matthews, Sean M.; Sweitzer, Rick A.; Purcell, Kathryn (November 4, 2015). \"Patterns of Natural and Human-Caused Mortality Factors of a Rare Forest Carnivore, the Fisher (Pekania pennanti) in California\" . PLoS ONE . 10 (11): e0140640. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0140640 . PMC 4633177 . PMID 26536481 . ^ Jump up to: a b Thompson, Craig; Sweitzer, Richard; Gabriel, Mourad; Purcell, Kathryn; Barrett, Reginald; Poppenga, Robert (March 1, 2014). \"Impacts of Rodenticide and Insecticide Toxicants from Marijuana Cultivation Sites on Fisher Survival Rates in the Sierra National Forest, California\" . Conservation Letters . 7 (2): 91–102. doi : 10.1111/conl.12038 . ISSN 1755-263X . Jump up ^ Snyder, Robert G. (1958). Terres JK, ed. The Audubon Book of True Nature Stories . Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York. pp. 205–9. Jump up ^ Langford, Cameron (1971). Winter of the Fisher . Macmillan of Canada Company, Toronto, Ontario. ISBN 0-7089-2937-0 . Jump up ^ Payne, Michael H. (1998). The Blood Jaguar . Tor, New York. ISBN 0-312-86783-2 . Jump up ^ Avi (2000). Ereth's Birthday . HarperCollins, New York. ISBN 0-380-80490-5 . Jump up ^ Speare, Elizabeth George (1983). The Sign of the Beaver . Bantam Doubleday Dell Books for Young Readers, New York. ISBN 0-547-34870-3 . Further reading [ edit ] Coues, Elliott (1877). Fur Bearing Animals: a Monograph of North American Mustelidae . Department of the Interior (US). pp. 62–74 . Retrieved October 21, 2011 . Feldhamer, George A.; Thompson, Bruce C.; Chapman, Joseph A. (2003). Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and conservation . (Google books limited preview) Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 635–649. ISBN 0-8018-7416-5 . Retrieved October 21, 2011 . Fergus, Charles (2006). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland and Washington . Stackpole Books. pp. 101–103. ISBN 0-8117-2821-8 . Retrieved October 21, 2011 . Hodgson, Robert G. (1937). Fisher Farming . Fur Trade Journal of Canada. Powell, Roger A. (November 1993). The Fisher: Life History, Ecology, and Behavior . University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-2266-5 . Buskirk, Steven W.; Harestad, Alton S.; Raphael, Martin G.; Powell, Roger A. (1994). Martens, sables, and fishers: biology and conservation . Comstock Publishing Associates. ISBN 978-0-8014-2894-4 . External links [ edit ] Fisher videos, photos and facts Arkive.org. Fisher Cat Screech Online community of fisher cat sightings, sounds, and videos. Texts on Wikisource: \" Fisher \". Encyclopedia Americana . 1920. \" Fisher \". New International Encyclopedia . 1905. \" Fisher \". The American Cyclopædia . 1879. show v t e Extant Carnivora species Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Laurasiatheria show Suborder Feliformia Nandiniidae Nandinia African palm civet ( N. binotata ) Herpestidae (Mongooses) Atilax Marsh mongoose ( A. paludinosus ) Bdeogale Bushy-tailed mongoose ( B. crassicauda ) Jackson's mongoose ( B. jacksoni ) Black-footed mongoose ( B. nigripes ) Crossarchus Alexander's kusimanse ( C. alexandri ) Angolan kusimanse ( C. ansorgei ) Common kusimanse ( C. obscurus ) Flat-headed kusimanse ( C. platycephalus ) Cynictis Yellow mongoose ( C. penicillata ) Dologale Pousargues's mongoose ( D. dybowskii ) Galerella Angolan slender mongoose ( G. flavescens ) Black mongoose ( G. nigrata ) Somalian slender mongoose ( G. ochracea ) Cape gray mongoose ( G. pulverulenta ) Slender mongoose ( G. sanguinea ) Helogale Ethiopian dwarf mongoose ( H. hirtula ) Common dwarf mongoose ( H. parvula ) Herpestes Short-tailed mongoose ( H. brachyurus ) Indian gray mongoose ( H. edwardsii ) Indian brown mongoose ( H. fuscus ) Egyptian mongoose ( H. ichneumon ) Small Asian mongoose ( H. javanicus ) Long-nosed mongoose ( H. naso ) Collared mongoose ( H. semitorquatus ) Ruddy mongoose ( H. smithii ) Crab-eating mongoose ( H. urva ) Stripe-necked mongoose ( H. vitticollis ) Ichneumia White-tailed mongoose ( I. albicauda ) Liberiictus Liberian mongoose ( L. kuhni ) Mungos Gambian mongoose ( M. gambianus ) Banded mongoose ( M. mungo ) Paracynictis Selous' mongoose ( P. selousi ) Rhynchogale Meller's mongoose ( R. melleri ) Suricata Meerkat ( S. suricatta ) Hyaenidae (Hyenas) Crocuta Spotted hyena ( C. crocuta ) Hyaena Brown hyena ( H. brunnea ) Striped hyena ( H. hyaena ) Proteles Aardwolf ( P. cristatus ) Felidae Large family listed below Viverridae Large family listed below Eupleridae Small family listed below show Family Felidae Felinae Acinonyx Cheetah ( A. jubatus ) Caracal Caracal ( C. caracal ) African golden cat ( C. aurata ) Catopuma Bay cat ( C. badia ) Asian golden cat ( C. temminckii ) Felis European wildcat ( F. silvestris ) African wildcat ( F. lybica ) Jungle cat ( F. chaus ) Black-footed cat ( F. nigripes ) Sand cat ( F. margarita ) Chinese mountain cat ( F. bieti ) Domestic cat ( F. catus ) Leopardus Ocelot ( L. pardalis ) Margay ( L. wiedii ) Pampas cat ( L. colocola ) Geoffroy's cat ( L. geoffroyi ) Kodkod ( L. guigna ) Andean mountain cat ( L. jacobita ) Oncilla ( L. tigrinus ) Southern tigrina ( L. guttulus ) Leptailurus Serval ( L. serval ) Lynx Canadian lynx ( L. canadensis ) Eurasian lynx ( L. lynx ) Iberian lynx ( L. pardinus ) Bobcat ( L. rufus ) Otocolobus Pallas's cat ( O. manul ) Pardofelis Marbled cat ( P. marmorata ) Prionailurus Fishing cat ( P. viverrinus ) Leopard cat ( P. bengalensis ) Sundaland leopard cat ( P. javanensis ) Flat-headed cat ( P. planiceps ) Rusty-spotted cat ( P. rubiginosus ) Puma Cougar ( P. concolor ) Herpailurus Jaguarundi ( H. yagouaroundi ) Pantherinae Panthera Lion ( P. leo ) Jaguar ( P. onca ) Leopard ( P. pardus ) Tiger ( P. tigris ) Snow leopard ( P. uncia ) Neofelis Clouded leopard ( N. nebulosa ) Sunda clouded leopard ( N. diardi ) show Family Viverridae (includes Civets ) Paradoxurinae Arctictis Binturong ( A. binturong ) Arctogalidia Small-toothed palm civet ( A. trivirgata ) Macrogalidia Sulawesi palm civet ( M. musschenbroekii ) Paguma Masked palm civet ( P. larvata ) Paradoxurus Golden wet-zone palm civet ( P. aureus ) Asian palm civet ( P. hermaphroditus ) Jerdon's palm civet ( P. jerdoni ) Golden palm civet ( P. zeylonensis ) Hemigalinae Chrotogale Owston's palm civet ( C. owstoni ) Cynogale Otter civet ( C. bennettii ) Diplogale Hose's palm civet ( D. hosei ) Hemigalus Banded palm civet ( H. derbyanus ) Prionodontinae (Asiatic linsangs) Prionodon Banded linsang ( P. linsang ) Spotted linsang ( P. pardicolor ) Viverrinae Civettictis African civet ( C. civetta ) Genetta (Genets) Abyssinian genet ( G. abyssinica ) Angolan genet ( G. angolensis ) Bourlon's genet ( G. bourloni ) Crested servaline genet ( G. cristata ) Common genet ( G. genetta ) Johnston's genet ( G. johnstoni ) Rusty-spotted genet ( G. maculata ) Pardine genet ( G. pardina ) Aquatic genet ( G. piscivora ) King genet ( G. poensis ) Servaline genet ( G. servalina ) Haussa genet ( G. thierryi ) Cape genet ( G. tigrina ) Giant forest genet ( G. victoriae ) Poiana African linsang ( P. richardsonii ) Leighton's linsang ( P. leightoni ) Viverra Malabar large-spotted civet ( V. civettina ) Large-spotted civet ( V. megaspila ) Malayan civet ( V. tangalunga ) Large Indian civet ( V. zibetha ) Viverricula Small Indian civet ( V. indica ) show Family Eupleridae Euplerinae Cryptoprocta Fossa ( C. ferox ) Eupleres Eastern falanouc ( E. goudotii ) Western falanouc ( E. major ) Fossa Malagasy civet ( F. fossana ) Galidiinae Galidia Ring-tailed mongoose ( G. elegans ) Galidictis Broad-striped Malagasy mongoose ( G. fasciata ) Grandidier's mongoose ( G. grandidieri ) Mungotictis Narrow-striped mongoose ( M. decemlineata ) Salanoia Brown-tailed mongoose ( S. concolor ) Durrell's vontsira ( S. durrelli ) show Suborder Caniformia (cont. below) Ursidae (Bears) Ailuropoda Giant panda ( A. melanoleuca ) Helarctos Sun bear ( H. malayanus ) Melursus Sloth bear ( M. ursinus ) Tremarctos Spectacled bear ( T. ornatus ) Ursus American black bear ( U. americanus ) Brown bear ( U. arctos ) Polar bear ( U. maritimus ) Asian black bear ( U. thibetanus ) Mephitidae Conepatus (Hog-nosed skunks) Molina's hog-nosed skunk ( C. chinga ) Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk ( C. humboldtii ) American hog-nosed skunk ( C. leuconotus ) Striped hog-nosed skunk ( C. semistriatus ) Mephitis Hooded skunk ( M. macroura ) Striped skunk ( M. mephitis ) Mydaus Sunda stink badger ( M. javanensis ) Palawan stink badger ( M. marchei ) Spilogale (Spotted skunks) Southern spotted skunk ( S. angustifrons ) Western spotted skunk ( S. gracilis ) Eastern spotted skunk ( S. putorius ) Pygmy spotted skunk ( S. pygmaea ) Procyonidae Bassaricyon (Olingos) Eastern lowland olingo ( B. alleni ) Northern olingo ( B. gabbii ) Western lowland olingo ( B. medius ) Olinguito ( B. neblina ) Bassariscus Ring-tailed cat ( B. astutus ) Cacomistle ( B. sumichrasti ) Nasua ( Coatis inclusive) White-nosed coati ( N. narica ) South American coati ( N. nasua ) Nasuella ( Coatis inclusive) Western mountain coati ( N. olivacea ) Eastern mountain coati ( N. meridensis ) Potos Kinkajou ( P. flavus ) Procyon Crab-eating raccoon ( P. cancrivorus ) Raccoon ( P. lotor ) Cozumel raccoon ( P. pygmaeus ) Ailuridae Ailurus Red panda ( A. fulgens ) show Suborder Caniformia (cont. above) Otariidae (Eared seals) (includes fur seals and sea lions ) ( Pinniped inclusive) Arctocephalus South American fur seal ( A. australis ) Australasian fur seal ( A. forsteri ) Galápagos fur seal ( A. galapagoensis ) Antarctic fur seal ( A. gazella ) Juan Fernández fur seal ( A. philippii ) Brown fur seal ( A. pusillus ) Guadalupe fur seal ( A. townsendi ) Subantarctic fur seal ( A. tropicalis ) Callorhinus Northern fur seal ( C. ursinus ) Eumetopias Steller sea lion ( E. jubatus ) Neophoca Australian sea lion ( N. cinerea ) Otaria South American sea lion ( O. flavescens ) Phocarctos New Zealand sea lion ( P. hookeri ) Zalophus California sea lion ( Z. californianus ) Galápagos sea lion ( Z. wollebaeki ) Odobenidae ( Pinniped inclusive) Odobenus Walrus ( O. rosmarus ) Phocidae (Earless seals) ( Pinniped inclusive) Cystophora Hooded seal ( C. cristata ) Erignathus Bearded seal ( E. barbatus ) Halichoerus Gray seal ( H. grypus ) Histriophoca Ribbon seal ( H. fasciata ) Hydrurga Leopard seal ( H. leptonyx ) Leptonychotes Weddell seal ( L. weddellii ) Lobodon Crabeater seal ( L. carcinophagus ) Mirounga (Elephant seals) Northern elephant seal ( M. angustirostris ) Southern elephant seal ( M. leonina ) Monachus Mediterranean monk seal ( M. monachus ) Hawaiian monk seal ( M. schauinslandi ) Ommatophoca Ross seal ( O. rossi ) Pagophilus Harp seal ( P. groenlandicus ) Phoca Spotted seal ( P. largha ) Harbor seal ( P. vitulina ) Pusa Caspian seal ( P. caspica ) Ringed seal ( P. hispida ) Baikal seal ( P. sibirica ) Canidae Large family listed below Mustelidae Large family listed below show Family Canidae (includes dogs ) Atelocynus Short-eared dog ( A. microtis ) Canis Side-striped jackal ( C. adustus ) African golden wolf ( C. anthus ) Golden jackal ( C. aureus ) Coyote ( C. latrans ) Gray wolf ( C. lupus ) Black-backed jackal ( C. mesomelas ) Red wolf ( C. rufus ) Ethiopian wolf ( C. simensis ) Cerdocyon Crab-eating fox ( C. thous ) Chrysocyon Maned wolf ( C. brachyurus ) Cuon Dhole ( C. alpinus ) Lycalopex Culpeo ( L. culpaeus ) Darwin's fox ( L. fulvipes ) South American gray fox ( L. griseus ) Pampas fox ( L. gymnocercus ) Sechuran fox ( L. sechurae ) Hoary fox ( L. vetulus ) Lycaon African wild dog ( L. pictus ) Nyctereutes Raccoon dog ( N. procyonoides ) Otocyon Bat-eared fox ( O. megalotis ) Speothos Bush dog ( S. venaticus ) Urocyon Gray fox ( U. cinereoargenteus ) Island fox ( U. littoralis ) Vulpes ( Foxes ) Bengal fox ( V. bengalensis ) Blanford's fox ( V. cana ) Cape fox ( V. chama ) Corsac fox ( V. corsac ) Tibetan sand fox ( V. ferrilata ) Arctic fox ( V. lagopus ) Kit fox ( V. macrotis ) Pale fox ( V. pallida ) Rüppell's fox ( V. rueppelli ) Swift fox ( V. velox ) Red fox ( V. vulpes ) Fennec fox ( V. zerda ) hide Family Mustelidae Lutrinae (Otters) Aonyx African clawless otter ( A. capensis ) Oriental small-clawed otter ( A. cinerea ) Enhydra Sea otter ( E. lutris ) Hydrictis Spotted-necked otter ( H. maculicollis ) Lontra North American river otter ( L. canadensis ) Marine otter ( L. felina ) Neotropical otter ( L. longicaudis ) Southern river otter ( L. provocax ) Lutra Eurasian otter ( L. lutra ) Hairy-nosed otter ( L. sumatrana ) Lutrogale Smooth-coated otter ( L. perspicillata ) Pteronura Giant otter ( P. brasiliensis ) Mustelinae (including badgers ) Arctonyx Hog badger ( A. collaris ) Eira Tayra ( E. barbara ) Galictis Lesser grison ( G. cuja ) Greater grison ( G. vittata ) Gulo Wolverine ( G. gulo ) Ictonyx Saharan striped polecat ( I. libyca ) Striped polecat ( I. striatus ) Lyncodon Patagonian weasel ( L. patagonicus ) Martes (Martens) American marten ( M. americana ) Yellow-throated marten ( M. flavigula ) Beech marten ( M. foina ) Nilgiri marten ( M. gwatkinsii ) European pine marten ( M. martes ) Japanese marten ( M. melampus ) Sable ( M. zibellina ) Pekania Fisher ( P. pennanti ) Meles Japanese badger ( M. anakuma ) Asian badger ( M. leucurus ) European badger ( M. meles ) Mellivora Honey badger ( M. capensis ) Melogale (Ferret-badgers) Bornean ferret-badger ( M. everetti ) Chinese ferret-badger ( M. moschata ) Javan ferret-badger ( M. orientalis ) Burmese ferret-badger ( M. personata ) Mustela ( Weasels and Ferrets ) Amazon weasel ( M. africana ) Mountain weasel ( M. altaica ) Stoat ( M. erminea ) Steppe polecat ( M. eversmannii ) Colombian weasel ( M. felipei ) Long-tailed weasel ( M. frenata ) Japanese weasel ( M. itatsi ) Yellow-bellied weasel ( M. kathiah ) European mink ( M. lutreola ) Indonesian mountain weasel ( M. lutreolina ) Black-footed ferret ( M. nigripes ) Least weasel ( M. nivalis ) Malayan weasel ( M. nudipes ) European polecat ( M. putorius ) Siberian weasel ( M. sibirica ) Back-striped weasel ( M. strigidorsa ) Egyptian weasel ( M. subpalmata ) Neovison ( Minks ) American mink ( N. vison ) Poecilogale African striped weasel ( P. albinucha ) Taxidea American badger ( T. taxus ) Vormela Marbled polecat ( V. peregusna ) Taxon identifiers Wikidata : Q584064 Wikispecies : Martes pennanti ADW : Martes_pennanti ARKive : martes-pennanti EoL : 328592 Fossilworks : 47925 GBIF : 5218855 iNaturalist : 41799 IRMNG: 10198732 ITIS : 180560 IUCN : 41651 MSW : 14001254 NCBI : 76720 uBio: 105653 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fisher_(animal)&oldid=848339458 \" Categories : IUCN Red List least concern species Fauna of the Great Lakes region (North America) Fauna of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Mammals of Canada Mammals of the United States Martens Mammals described in 1777 Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from August 2016 Articles with 'species' microformats Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia with a Wikisource reference Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate 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{ "text": "Passiflora - Wikipedia Passiflora From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \"Passion Flower\" redirects here. For other uses, see Passion Flower (disambiguation) . Passiflora Passiflora incarnata P. platyloba fruit, often confused with P. quadrangularis Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade : Angiosperms Clade : Eudicots Clade : Rosids Order: Malpighiales Family: Passifloraceae Subfamily: Passifloroideae Tribe: Passifloreae Genus: Passiflora L. Species About 550, see list Synonyms Anthactinia Bory ex M.Roem. Asephananthes Bory Astrophea Lam. ex M.Roem. Baldwinia Raf. Ceratosepalum Oerst. Cieca Medik. Decaloba M.Roem. Disemma Labill. Granadilla Mill. Hollrungia K.Schum. Monactineirma Bory Murucuja Medik. Pentaria M.Roem. Poggendorffia H.Karst. Tacsonia Juss. Tetrapathaea ( DC. ) Rchb. Tetrastylis Barb.Rodr. Passiflora , known also as the passion flowers or passion vines , is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants , the type genus of the family Passifloraceae . They are mostly tendril-bearing vines , with some being shrubs or trees . They can be woody or herbaceous . Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy flowers with a distinctive corona . The flower is pentamerous and ripens into an indehiscent fruit with numerous seeds. For more information about the fruit of the Passiflora plant, see passionfruit . Contents 1 List of species 2 Distribution 3 Ecology 4 Use by humans 4.1 Ornamental 4.2 Fruit 4.3 Traditional medicine 5 Chemistry 6 Etymology and names 7 Taxonomy 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 External links List of species [ edit ] A list of Passiflora species is found at List of Passiflora species . Distribution [ edit ] Passiflora has a largely neotropic distribution, unlike its family Passifloraceae , which includes more Old World species (such as the genus Adenia ). The vast majority of Passiflora are found in Mexico , Central and South America , although there are additional representatives in the United States , Southeast Asia , and Oceania . [1] New species continue to be identified: for example, P. xishuangbannaensis and P. pardifolia have only been known to the scientific community since 2005 and 2006, respectively. Some species of Passiflora have been naturalized beyond their native ranges. For example, the blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) now grows wild in Spain. [2] The purple passionfruit ( P. edulis ) and its yellow relative flavicarpa have been introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops. Ecology [ edit ] Stinking passion flower or Wild water lemon ( P. foetida ) bracts with insect-catching hairs. The sword-billed hummingbird ( Ensifera ensifera ) is adapted to feed on Passiflora mixta and similar flowers. A Passiflora introduced in the Canary Islands. Passiflora foetida in Tumkur , India Passion flowers have unique floral structures, which in most cases require biotic pollination . Pollinators of Passiflora include bumblebees , carpenter bees ( Xylocopa varipuncta ), wasps , bats , and hummingbirds (especially hermits such as Phaethornis ); some others are additionally capable of self-pollination . Passiflora often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across the genus. The sword-billed hummingbird ( Ensifera ensifera ) is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high Andean Passiflora in the supersection Tacsonia . [3] Bud of the passion flower The leaves are used for feeding by the larvae of a number of species of Lepidoptera . Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe Heliconiini . The many defensive adaptations visible on Passiflora include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on a seemingly crowded leaf), extrafloral nectaries , trichomes , variegation , and chemical defenses. [4] These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of coevolutionary theory . [5] [6] The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on Passiflora : Longwing butterflies ( Heliconiinae ) Cydno longwing ( Heliconius cydno ), one of few Heliconians to feed on multiple species of Passiflora [7] Gulf fritillary ( Agraulis vanillae ), which feeds on several species of Passiflora , such as Passiflora lutea , Passiflora affinis , [8] [9] stinking passion flower ( P. foetida ), [10] and Maypop ( P. incarnata ) American Sara longwing ( Heliconius sara ) Red postman ( Heliconius erato ) Asian leopard lacewing ( Cethosia cyane ). Postman butterfly ( Heliconius melpomene ) prefer P. menispermifolia and P. oerstedii Zebra longwing ( Heliconius charithonia ) feed on yellow passion flower, two-flowered passion flower ( P. biflora ), and corky-stemmed passion flower ( P. suberosa ) Banded orange ( Dryadula phaetusa ) feed on P. tetrastylis Julia butterfly ( Dryas iulia ) feed on yellow passion flower and P. affinis Swift moth Cibyra serta The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity in Passiflora may have led to the tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest foliar diversity among all plant genera, [11] with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant. [12] Coevolution can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of Passiflora such as Tacsonia . The bracts of the stinking passion flower are covered by hairs which exude a sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to nutrient -rich goo by proteases and acid phosphatases . Since the insects usually killed are rarely major pests , this passion flower seems to be a protocarnivorous plant . [13] Banana passion flower or \"banana poka\" ( P. tarminiana ), originally from Central Brazil , is an invasive weed , especially on the islands of Hawaii . It is commonly spread by feral pigs eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of endemic vegetation, mainly on roadsides. Blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) is holding its own in Spain these days, and it probably needs to be watched so that unwanted spreading can be curtailed. [2] On the other hand, some species are endangered due to unsustainable logging and other forms of habitat destruction . For example, the Chilean passion flower ( P. pinnatistipula ) is a rare vine growing in the Andes from Venezuela to Chile between 2,500 and 3,800 meters altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it occurs in woody Chilean Mediterranean forests. P. pinnatistipula has a round fruit, unusual in Tacsonia group species like banana passion flower and P. mixta , with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals. Notable and sometimes economically significant pathogens of Passiflora are several sac fungi of the genus Septoria (including S. passiflorae ), the undescribed proteobacterium called \" Pseudomonas tomato \" ( pv. passiflorae ), the Potyvirus passionfruit woodiness virus , and the Carlavirus Passiflora latent virus . Use by humans [ edit ] Ornamental [ edit ] Passiflora incarnata , one of the most common passion flowers Passiflora entwine this 1880 Baxter process illustration by Joseph Martin Kronheim A number of species of Passiflora are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : 'Amethyst' [14] P. × exoniensis [15] (Exeter passion flower) P. × violacea [16] During the Victorian era the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular, and many hybrids were created using the winged-stem passion flower ( P. alata ), the blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) and other tropical species. Many cool-growing Passiflora from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the Monterey Bay and San Francisco in California and along the western coast of the U.S. into Canada . One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at Malmö Central Station in Sweden . [17] Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating extranuclear inheritance ; paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been documented in this genus. [18] The plastome of the two-flowered passion flower ( P. biflora ) has been sequenced . The French name for this plant has lent itself to La Famille Passiflore , a highly successful children's book series by Geneviève Huriet , and an animated series based upon it. These have been translated into English as Beechwood Bunny Tales and The Bellflower Bunnies . Fruit [ edit ] Unripened Passiflora fruit Most species have round or elongated edible fruit from two to eight inches long and an inch to two inches across, depending upon the species or cultivar . The passion fruit or maracujá ( P. edulis ) is cultivated extensively in the Caribbean , South America , south Florida and South Africa for its fruit, which is used as a source of juice. A small pink fruit which wrinkles easily and a larger shiny yellow to orange fruit are traded under this name. The latter is usually considered just a variety flavicarpa , but seems to be more distinct in fact. [ citation needed ] Sweet granadilla ( P. ligularis ) is another widely grown species. In large parts of Africa and Australia it is the plant called \"passionfruit\": confusingly, in South African English the latter species is more often called \"granadilla\" (without an adjective). Its fruit is somewhat intermediate between the two sold as P. edulis . Maypop ( P. incarnata ), a common species in the southeastern US. This is a subtropical representative of this mostly tropical family. However, unlike the more tropical cousins, this particular species is hardy enough to withstand the cold down to −20 °C (−4 °F) before its roots die (it is native as far north as Pennsylvania and has been cultivated as far north as Boston and Chicago .) The fruit is sweet, yellowish, and roughly the size of a chicken's egg; it enjoys some popularity as a native plant with edible fruit and few pests . Giant granadilla (giant tumbo or badea , P. quadrangularis ), water lemon ( P. laurifolia ) and sweet calabash ( P. maliformis ) are Passiflora species locally famed for their fruit, but not widely known elsewhere yet. Wild maracuja are the fruit of P. foetida , which are popular in Southeast Asia . Banana passionfruits are the very elongated fruits of P. tripartita var. mollissima and P. tarminiana . These are locally eaten, but their invasive properties make them a poor choice to grow outside of their native range. [19] [20] Traditional medicine [ edit ] This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources . Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed . (September 2015) P. incarnata (maypop) leaves and roots have a long history of use among Native Americans in North America and were adapted by the European colonists . The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a tea that is used for insomnia , hysteria , and epilepsy , and is also valued for its analgesic properties. [21] [ medical citation needed ] P. edulis (passion fruit) and a few other species are used in Central and South America for similar purposes. Once dried, the leaves can also be smoked. The medical utility of only a few species of Passiflora has been scientifically studied. [22] In initial study in 2001 for treatment of generalized anxiety disorder , maypop extract performed as well as oxazepam but with fewer short-term side effects. [23] It was recommended to follow up with long-term studies to confirm these results. A study performed on mice demonstrated that Passiflora alata has a genotoxic effect on cells, and suggested further research was recommended before this one species is considered safe for human consumption. [24] In another study performed with non-smoking patients, it demonstrates that oral administration of Passifora incarnata following extubation for patients surgery reduced the patients coughing versus the control group. By administering Passiflora incarnata orally with the correct dosage, it can result in antitussive activities without impairing the patient drastically. The results presented show a decrease of post extubation cough after out-patient surgery but it was only recorded early on. With this information, further research can be applied to create other medications for coughing but the authors note the limitations on the study included short observation period as well as a small sample size. [25] Passionflower herb (Passiflorae herba) from P. incarnata is listed in the European Pharmacopoeia . The herbal drug should contain not less than 1.5% total flavonoids expressed as vitexin . [ citation needed ] Passionflower is reputed to have sedative effects and has been used in sedative products in Europe, but in 1978, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration prohibited its use in over-the-counter sedative preparations because it had not been proven safe and effective. In 2011, the University of Maryland Medical Center reported that passionflower \"... can trigger side effects and can interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For these reasons, you should take herbs with care, under the supervision of a health care provider.\" [26] [27] Passionflower is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use in foods in the US, [28] and is “possibly safe when used orally and appropriately for short-term medicinal purposes,” “possibly unsafe when used in excessive amounts,” but unsafe when used orally during pregnancy since “...passionflower constituents show evidence of uterine stimulation.” The database suggests it is possibly effective for adjustment disorder with anxious mood, anxiety, and opiate withdrawal, but it “can cause dizziness, confusion, sedation, and ataxia” and there are some reports of more severe side effects including vasculitis and altered consciousness. Chemistry [ edit ] Chrysin , a commercially important flavone found in the blue passion flower, P. caerulea Harman, a harmala alkaloid found in many species of Passiflora Many species of Passiflora have been found to contain beta-carboline harmala alkaloids , [22] [29] [30] some of which are MAO inhibitors . The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots often contain more. [30] The most common of these alkaloids is harman , but harmaline , harmalol , harmine , and harmol are also present. [22] [29] The species known to bear such alkaloids include: P. actinea , P. alata (winged-stem passion flower), P. alba , P. bryonioides (cupped passion flower), P. caerulea (blue passion flower), P. capsularis , P. decaisneana , P. edulis (passion fruit), P. eichleriana , P. foetida (stinking passion flower), P. incarnata (maypop), P. quadrangularis (giant granadilla), P. suberosa , P. subpeltata and P. warmingii . [22] [29] Other compounds found in passion flowers are coumarins (e.g. scopoletin and umbelliferone ), maltol , phytosterols (e.g. lutenin ) and cyanogenic glycosides (e.g. gynocardin ) which render some species, i.e. P. adenopoda , somewhat poisonous. Many flavonoids and their glycosides have been found in Passiflora , including apigenin , benzoflavone , homoorientin , 7-isoorientin , isoshaftoside , isovitexin (or saponaretin ), kaempferol , lucenin , luteolin , n- orientin , passiflorine (named after the genus), quercetin , rutin , saponarin , shaftoside , vicenin and vitexin . Maypop, blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ), and perhaps others contain the flavone chrysin . Also documented to occur at least in some Passiflora in quantity are the hydrocarbon nonacosane and the anthocyanidin pelargonidin -3-diglycoside. [22] [29] [31] The genus is rich in organic acids including formic , butyric , linoleic , linolenic , malic , myristic , oleic and palmitic acids as well as phenolic compounds, and the amino acid α- alanine . Esters like ethyl butyrate , ethyl caproate , n - hexyl butyrate and n - hexyl caproate give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. Sugars , contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d- fructose , d- glucose and raffinose . Among enzymes , Passiflora was found to be rich in catalase , pectin methylesterase and phenolase . [22] [29] Etymology and names [ edit ] The \"Passion\" in \"passion flower\" refers to the passion of Jesus in Christian theology . In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of Jesus and especially his crucifixion : [32] Blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) showing most elements of the Christian symbolism The pointed tips of the leaves were taken to represent the Holy Lance . The tendrils represent the whips used in the flagellation of Christ . The ten petals and sepals represent the ten faithful apostles (excluding St. Peter the denier and Judas Iscariot the betrayer). The flower's radial filaments , which can number more than a hundred and vary from flower to flower, represent the crown of thorns . The chalice -shaped ovary with its receptacle represents a hammer or the Holy Grail . The 3 stigmas represent the 3 nails and the 5 anthers below them the 5 wounds (four by the nails and one by the lance). The blue and white colors of many species' flowers represent Heaven and Purity . The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since that time. In Spain , it is known as espina de Cristo (\"thorn of Christ'\"). Older Germanic names [33] include Christus-Krone (\"Christ's crown\"), Christus-Strauss (\"Christ's bouquet\" [34] ), Dorn-Krone (\"crown of thorns\"), Jesus-Lijden (\"Jesus' passion\"), Marter (\"passion\" [35] ) or Muttergottes-Stern (\"Mother of God's star\" [36] ). Outside the Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a clock . In Israel they are known as \"clock-flower\" (שעונית) and in Greece as \"clock plant\" (ρολογιά); in Japan too, they are known as tokeisō (時計草, \"clock plant\"). In Hawaiian, they are called lilikoʻi ; [37] lī is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a shoelace , and liko means \"to spring forth leaves\". [38] In India , blue passionflowers are called Krishnakamala in Karnataka and Maharashtra, while in Uttar Pradesh and generally north it is colloquially called \"Paanch Paandav\" (referring to the five Pandavas in the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata ). The five anthers are interpreted as the five Pandavas, the divine Krishna is at the centre, and the radial filaments are opposing hundred. The colour blue is moreover associated with Krishna as the colour of his aura. Passiflora 'Soi Fah' aka Krishnakamala in India In northern Peru and Bolivia, the banana passionfruits are known as tumbos . This is one possible source of the name of the Tumbes region of Peru. In Turkey , the shape of the flowers have reminded people of Rota Fortunae , thus it called Çarkıfelek . Taxonomy [ edit ] See also: List of Passiflora species Passiflora is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of Passiflora not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection. The New World species of Passiflora were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in the first monograph of the genus. [11] More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently branching): [39] Astrophea (Americas, ~60 species), trees and shrubs with simple, unlobed leaves Passiflora (Americas, ~250 species), woody vines with large flowers and elaborate corolla Deidamioides (Americas, 13 species), woody or herbaceous vines Decaloba (Americas, Asia and Australasia, ~230 species), herbaceous vines with palmately veined leaves Some studies have shown that the segregate Old World genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathaea are nested within Passiflora , and form a fifth subgenus ( Tetrapathaea ). [40] Other studies support the current 4 subgenus classification. [41] Relationships below the subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades - supersection Disemma (part of subgenus Decaloba ) and subgenus Tetrapathaea . The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections Disemma (3 Australian species), Holrungiella (1 New Guinean species) and Octandranthus (17 south and east Asian species). [42] The remaining (New World) species of subgenus Decaloba are divided into 7 supersections. Supersection Pterosperma includes 4 species from Central America and southern Mexico. Supersection Hahniopathanthus includes 5 species from Central America, Mexico and northernmost South America. Supersection Cicea includes 19 species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection Bryonioides includes 21 species, with a distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection Auriculata includes 8 species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection Multiflora includes 19 species. Supersection Decaloba includes 123 species. [43] See also [ edit ] List of culinary fruits Footnotes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Krosnick, S.E.; Porter-Utley, K.E.; MacDougal, J.M.; Jørgensen, P.M.; McDade, L.A. (2013). \"New insights into the evolution of Passiflora subgenus Decaloba (Passifloraceae): phylogenetic relationships and morphological synapomorphies\" . Systematic Botany . 38 (3): 692–713. doi : 10.1600/036364413x670359 . ^ Jump up to: a b Dana et al. [2001] Jump up ^ Abrahamczyk, S. (2014). \"Escape from extreme specialization: passionflowers, bats and the sword-billed hummingbird\" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B . 281 (1795): 20140888. doi : 10.1098/rspb.2014.0888 . PMC 4213610 . Jump up ^ de Castro, É.C.P.; Zagrobelny, M.; Cardoso, M.Z.; Bak, S. (2017). \"The arms race between heliconiine butterflies and Passiflora plants - new insights on an ancient subject\" . Biological Reviews . doi : 10.1111/brv.12357 . Jump up ^ Ehrlich, P.R.; Raven, P.H. (1964). \"Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution\" . Evolution . 18 (4): 586–608. doi : 10.2307/2406212 . Jump up ^ Benson, W.W; Brown, K.S.; Gilbert, L.E. (1975). \"Coevolution of plants and herbivores: passion flower butterflies\" . Evolution . 29 : 659–680. doi : 10.2307/2407076 . Jump up ^ Merrill, R.M.; Naisbit, R.E.; Mallet, J.; Jiggins, C.D. (2013). \"Ecological and genetic factors influencing the transition between host-use strategies in sympatric Heliconius butterflies\". Journal of Evolutionary Biology . 26 : 1959–1967. doi : 10.1111/jeb.12194 . Jump up ^ Knight, R.J.; Payne, J.A.; Schnell, R.J.; Amis, A.A. (1995). \" ' Byron Beauty', An Ornamental Passion Vine for the Temperate Zone\" (PDF) . HortScience . 30 (5): 1112. Jump up ^ Neck, Raymond W. (1976). \"Lepidopteran Foodplant Records from Texas\" (PDF) . Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera . 15 (2): 75–82 . Retrieved 25 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Soule, J.A. 2012. Butterfly Gardening in Southern Arizona. Tierra del Soule Press, Tucson, AZ ^ Jump up to: a b Killip, E.P. (1938). The American Species of Passifloraceae . Chicago, US: Field Museum of Natural History. Jump up ^ Chitwood, D.; Otoni, W. (2017). \"Divergent leaf shapes among Passiflora species arise from a shared juvenile morphology\" . Plant Direct . 1 (5). doi : 10.1002/pld3.28 . Jump up ^ Radhamani et al. (1995) Jump up ^ \"RHS Plant Selector Passiflora 'Amethyst' AGM / RHS Gardening\" . Apps.rhs.org.uk . Retrieved 2013-01-28 . Jump up ^ \"RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × exoniensis AGM / RHS Gardening\" . Apps.rhs.org.uk . Retrieved 2013-01-28 . Jump up ^ \"RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × violacea AGM / RHS Gardening\" . Apps.rhs.org.uk . Retrieved 2013-01-28 . Jump up ^ Petersen (1966) Jump up ^ E.g. Hansen et al. (2006) Jump up ^ Smith, Clifford W. \"Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai'i's Native Biota\" . University of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011 . Retrieved 8 March 2011 . Jump up ^ The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health and the National Park Service (17 February 2011). \"Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States\" . Retrieved 8 March 2011 . Jump up ^ UMMC (2008) [ dead link ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Duke (2008) Jump up ^ Akhondzadeh, S. (October 2001). \"Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: a pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial with oxazepam\". Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics . 26 (5): 363–367. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2710.2001.00367.x . Jump up ^ Boeira, JM; Fenner, R; Betti, AH; et al. (March 2010). \"Toxicity and genotoxicity evaluation of Passiflora alata Curtis (Passifloraceae)\". J Ethnopharmacol . 128 (2): 526–32. doi : 10.1016/j.jep.2009.09.037 . PMID 19799991 . CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ Saliminia, Alireza; Azimaraghi, Omid (June 12, 2017). \"Preoperative Oral Passiflora Incarnata Reduces Coughing Following Extubation: A Double Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study\" . Archives of Anesthesiology and Critical Care . 3 (3): 338–341. ISSN 2423-5849 . Jump up ^ \"Passionflower\" . nih.gov . Jump up ^ \"Passionflower\" . University of Maryland Medical Center . Jump up ^ \"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21\" . fda.gov . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Drugs.com (2008) ^ Jump up to: a b Medicinal Plants of North America: A Field Guide\nBy Jim Meuninck, p. 38, https://books.google.com/books?id=AVOsBwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA38&ots=2Mqv0Yy6Jx&dq=native%20%22north%20america%22%20%22beta-Carboline%22&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q=beta-Carboline&f=false Jump up ^ Dhawan, et al. (2002) Jump up ^ Roger L. Hammer (6 January 2015). Everglades Wildflowers: A Field Guide to Wildflowers of the Historic Everglades, including Big Cypress, Corkscrew, and Fakahatchee Swamps . Falcon Guides. pp. 206–. ISBN 978-1-4930-1459-0 . Jump up ^ Marzell (1927) Jump up ^ \"Christ's flower\" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927) Jump up ^ \"Martyr\" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927) Jump up ^ Muttergottes-Schuzchen (or -Schurzchen ) is a nonsensical misreading of Marzell (1927) Jump up ^ Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel Hoyt Elbert (2003). \"lookup of lilikoʻi \" . in Hawaiian Dictionary . Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii Press . Retrieved 2014-11-02 . Jump up ^ Pukui et al. (1992) Jump up ^ Feuillet, C.; MacDougal, J. (2004). \"A new infrageneric classification of Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae)\". Passiflora . 13 (2): 34–35, 37–38. Jump up ^ Krosnick, S.E.; Ford, A.J.; Freudenstein, J.V. (2009). \"Taxonomic Revision of Passiflora Subgenus Tetrapathea Including the Monotypic Genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathea (Passifloraceae), and a New Species of Passiflora\". Systematic Botany . 34 (2): 375–385. doi : 10.1600/036364409788606343 . Jump up ^ Hansen, K.A.; Gilbert, L.E.; Simpson, B.B.; Downie, S.R.; Cervi, A.C.; Jansen, R.K. (2006). \"Phylogenetic Relationships and Chromosome Number Evolution in Passiflora\". Systematic Botany . 31 (1): 138–150. doi : 10.1600/036364406775971769 . Jump up ^ Shawn Elizabeth Krosnick, Ph.D. thesis, Phylogenetic relationships and patterns of morphological evolution in the Old Word species of Passiflora (subgenus Decaloba : supersection Disemma and subgenus Tetrapathaea ) Jump up ^ \"MBG: Research: Passiflora Research Network\" . mobot.org . References [ edit ] Akhondzadeh, Shahin; Naghavi, H.R.; Vazirian, M.; Shayeganpour, A.; Rashidi, H.; Khani, M. (2001). \"Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: a pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial with oxazepam\" (PDF) . Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics . 26 (5): 363–367. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2710.2001.00367.x . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009 . Retrieved 6 September 2008 . Dana, E.D.; Sanz-Elorza, M. & Sobrino, E. [2001]: Plant Invaders in Spain Check-List. PDF fulltext Dhawan, Kamaldeep; Kumar, Suresh; Sharma, Anupam (2002). \"Beneficial Effects of Chrysin and Benzoflavone on Virility in 2-Year-Old Male Rats\". Journal of Medicinal Food . 5 (1): 43–48. doi : 10.1089/109662002753723214 . Drugs.com [2008]: Passion Flower . Retrieved 2008-NOV-01. Duke, James A. [2008]: Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases – Passiflora spp. Retrieved 2008-NOV-01. Hansen, A. Katie; Escobar, Linda K.; Gilbert, Lawrence E.; Jansen, Robert K. (2006). \"Paternal, maternal, and biparental inheritance of the chloroplast genome in Passiflora (Passifloraceae): implications for phylogenic studies\" (PDF) . American Journal of Botany . 94 (1): 42–46. doi : 10.3732/ajb.94.1.42 . PMID 21642206 . Marzell, Heinrich (1927): Deutsches Wörterbuch der Pflanzennamen [\"German Plant Name Dictionary\"]. Leipzig. Pukui, Mary Kawena ; Elbert, Samuel Hoyt ; Mookini, Esther T. & Nishizawa, Yu Mapuana (1992): New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary with a Concise Grammars and Given Names in Hawaiian . University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. ISBN 0-8248-1392-8 Petersen, Elly (1966): Passionsblume [\"Passion flowers\"]. In: Praktisches Gartenlexikon der Büchergilde (2nd ed.): 270-271 [in German]. Büchergilde Gutenberg. Frankfurt am Main, Vienna, Zürich. Radhamani, T.R.; Sudarshana, L.; Krishnan, R. (1995). \"Defence and carnivory: dual roles of bracts\". Passiflora foetida. Journal of Biosciences . 20 (5): 657–664. doi : 10.1007/BF02703305 . University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC) (2008): Passionflower . Retrieved 2008-NOV-01. External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Passiflora . Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Passion-flower . Passiflora at the Encyclopedia of Life The Passiflora Society International Killip, The American Species of Passifloraceae, Fieldiana, Bot. 19 (1938) Passiflora online Passiflora edulis Passiflora Picture Gallery Chilean Passiflora pictures A list of Heliconius Butterflies and the Passiflora species their larvae consume show v t e Carnivorous and protocarnivorous plants Carnivorous genera († extinct) Aldrovanda † Archaeamphora Brocchinia Byblis Catopsis Cephalotus Darlingtonia Dionaea Drosera † Droserapites † Droserapollis † Droseridites Drosophyllum † Fischeripollis Genlisea Heliamphora Nepenthes † Palaeoaldrovanda Philcoxia Pinguicula Roridula Sarracenia † Saxonipollis Triphyophyllum Utricularia Protocarnivorous genera Aracamunia Capsella Colura Dipsacus Drymocallis Geranium Ibicella Lathraea Paepalanthus Passiflora Plumbago Proboscidea Stylidium See also International Carnivorous Plant Society Insectivorous Plant Society List of carnivorous plants List of carnivorous plant periodicals Pitcher plant show v t e Passiflora Section Astrophea arborea ascidia balbis chlorina lindeniana putumayensis sphaerocarpa saulensis tica Section Coccinea aimae coccinea guyanensis miniata quadriglandulosa speciosa vitifolia Section Decaloba Auriculata auriculata fanchonae ferruginea jatunsachensis Bryonioides adenopoda bryonioides colimensis dioscoreifolia dolichocarpa exsudans gracilis karwinskii lobata morifolia oaxacensis pendens pilosa podadenia pterocarpa quercetorum sicyoides trichopoda uncinata Cieca clypeophylla coriacea eglandulosa juliana lancifolia macfadyenii mcvaughiana obtusifolia pallida sexocellata suberosa tenuiloba tridactylites trinifolia viridiflora xiikzodz Decaloba affinis allantophylla alnifolia amalocarpa anadenia andersonii andreana anfracta apetala azeroana berteroana bicornis bicrura bicuspidata biflora bilobata boenderi bogotensis bucaramangensis calcicola candollei capsularis carnosisepala chelidonea chrysosepala citrina lutea rubra sanguinolenta tulae urnifolia vespertilio viridescens xiikzodz yucatanensis Disemma aurantia aurantioides cinnabarina cochinchinensis cupiformis eberhardtii henryi herbertiana hollrungii jiangfengensis jugorum kwangtungensis leschenaultii moluccana papilio perakensis siamica xishuangbannaensis Hahniopathanthus cissampeloides guatemalensis hahnii membranacea quetzal Deidamioides arbelaezii gracillima pacifica tryphostemmatoides Distephana glandulosa miniata variolata Laurifolia Laurifolia ambigua acuminata laurifolia nitida Quadrangulares alata christianii marcocarpa quadrangularis trialata Tiliifolia ligularis maliformis seemannii Passiflora Passiflora bahiensis cincinnata edulis filamentosa incarnata malacophylla mayarum palmatisecta pedata prolata recurva serratifolia setacea trintae Stipulata actinia amethystina arida bahamensis caerulea castellanosii catharinensis chocoensis crassifolia cyanea deltoifolia dispar eichleriana elegans exura foetida galbana garckei gardneri gibertii gritensis imbeana jilekii loefgrenii lonchophora madidiana mapiriensis menispermifolia mooreana mucronata mucugeana oerstedii picturata racemosa resticulata retipetala saccoi setulosa sprucei subpeltata subrotunda tenuifolia trisulca tucumanensis umbilicata urbaniana urubiciensis Tacsonia Boliviana gracilens Colombiana adulterina ampullacea antioquiensis crispolanata cremastantha cuatrecasasii coactilis cremastantha flexipes formosa lanata leptomischa linearistipula pamplonensis quindeinsis rigidifolia rugosa tenerifensis trianae truxillensis unipetala Elkea anastomosans brachyantha cumbalensis jamesonii linda luzmarina roseorum sanctae-barbarae tarminiana tripartita zamorana Fimbriatistipula fimbriatistipula uribei Insignes carrascoensis insignis lanceolata mandonii pilosicorona pinnatistipula Manicata macropoda manicata peduncularis trisecta Parritana jardinensis parritae Tasconia amazonica matthewsii mixta schlimiana Rathea andina harlingii colombiana Tasconiopsis bracteosa purdiei Trifoliata trifoliata Taxon identifiers Wikidata : Q161185 Wikispecies : Passiflora APDB: 193454 EoL : 38402 EPPO : 1PAQG FloraBase : 21795 FoC : 124132 GBIF : 2874172 GRIN : 8936 iNaturalist : 51452 IRMNG: 1042033 ITIS : 22219 NBN : NHMSYS0000461533 NCBI : 3684 NZOR: 5e5c1ba5-2374-4ef3-92ec-907b675f0c44 PLANTS : PASSI POWO : urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:328300-2 Tropicos : 40002275 uBio: 5866220 WoRMS : 415781 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passiflora&oldid=865248664 \" Categories : Passiflora Malpighiales genera Butterfly food plants Flora of Central America Flora of South America Garden plants of North America Garden plants of Central America Garden plants of South America Medicinal plants Edible fruits Tropical fruit Vines Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Pantropical flora Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2014 CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. 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{ "text": "History of Delhi - Wikipedia History of Delhi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See also: Timeline of Delhi Historical Region of North India Delhi Location Delhi State established: 736 CE Language Khariboli , Hindi , Urdu , Punjabi , English Dynasties Tomara Dynasty (736-1160) Chauhans of Shakambhari (1160-1206) Mamluk (1206–1289) Khalji (1290–1320) Tughlaqs (1320–1413) Sayyids (1414–51) Lodis (1451–1526) Mughals (1526–1540) Suris (1540-1553) Hindu - Hemu (1553–56) Mughals (1556-1757) Marathas (1757-1803) Company Rule (1803-1857) British (1857–1947) Independence (1947–Present) The Indian capital city of Delhi has a long history, and has been an important political centre of India as the capital of several empires. Much of Delhi's ancient history finds no record and this may be regarded as a lost period of its history. Extensive coverage of Delhi's history begins with the onset of the Delhi Sultanate in the 12th century. Since then, Delhi has been the centre of a succession of mighty empires and powerful kingdoms, making Delhi one of the longest serving Capitals and one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world. [1] [2] It is considered to be a city built, destroyed and rebuilt several times, as outsiders who successfully invaded the Indian Subcontinent would ransack the existing capital city in Delhi, and those who came to conquer and stay would be so impressed by the city's strategic location as to make it their capital and rebuild it in their own way. [3] [4] The core of Delhi's tangible heritage is Hindu, Islamic (spanning over seven centuries of Islamic rule over the city) with expansive British-era architecture in Lutyens' Delhi dating to the British rule in India. Significant prehistoric sites in Delhi include Anangpur (in the Badarpur region), as well as Harappan excavations near Narela and Nand Nagari. [5] References to Delhi's history in ancient literature are based on myths and legends. According to the Hindu epic Mahabharata , a city called Indraprastha , “ City of the God Indra ”, was the capital of the Pandavas . There is a strong belief that Purana Qila was built over the site of ancient Indraprastha. Northern Black Polished Ware (c. 700-200 BCE) have been excavated at the site, and pieces of Painted Grey Ware were found on the surface, suggesting an even older settlement, possibly going back to ca. 1000 BCE. [5] In 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (273-236 BCE) was discovered near Srinivaspur. Two sandstone pillars inscribed with the edicts of Ashoka were brought to by Firuz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century. The famous Iron pillar near the Qutub Minar was commissioned by the emperor Kumara Gupta I of the Gupta dynasty (320-540 CE) and transplanted to Delhi during the 10th century. Contents 1 Cities of Delhi 2 Early history 3 8th century to 16th century 4 16th century to 19th century 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Cities of Delhi [ edit ] Historic map of Shahjahanabad (now known as Old Delhi ), in 1863 It is popularly said that Delhi was the site for a total of seven different cities between 3000 BCE and the 17th century BCE, although taking smaller towns and strongholds into account, as many as 15 settlements can be identified. All the earlier locations of Delhi fall within an area commonly called the 'Delhi Triangle,' bounded on the south and the west by the Aravalli Range , known as the Delhi Ridge , and to the east by the Yamuna River . [6] [7] Notable settlements to have been established in the region include: [6] [7] Indraprastha , supposedly built by the Pandavas . Surajkund (Anangpur), Tomar city dating from the 9th or 10th century, where a large masonry tank can be found. Lalkot , built ca. 1052 A.D. by the Tomara ruler, Anangpal . In ca. 1180 A.D. Prithviraj Chauhan extended and fortified it as a defence against invaders; the city then became known as Qila Rai Pithora . This area, now called as Mehrauli , was also the seat of the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty . Siri , first established as a camp for protection against invading Mongols by Alauddin Khalji , and fortified in about ca. 1303 A.D. Tughluqabad , built by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq in ca. 1320 A.D. A subsidiary fort Adilabad was built by his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq in ca. 1325 A.D. Jahanpanah , Refuge of the World , name given to the area enclosed by walling-in of the suburbs between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri, built by Muhammad bin Tughluq in ca. 1325 A.D. Ferozabad , built by Firuz Shah Tughluq in ca. 1354 A.D.; all that remains is the palace, known as Feroz Shah Kotla . Feroz Shah’s building activity indicates that the suburbs were still occupied; major mosques were built inside Jahanpanah ( Khirki and Begumpur ) and Nizamuddin ; and the area around Khalji reservoir Hauz Khas was developed. Dinpanah built by Humayun and Shergarh built by Sher Shah Suri , both in the area near the speculated site of the legendary Indraprastha (1538–1545). Shahjahanabad , the walled city built by Shah Jahan from 1638 to 1649, containing the Lal Qila and the Chandni Chowk . It was the capital of the Mughal Empire during Shah Jahan's reign. It is presently referred to as \" Old Delhi \". Lutyens' Delhi or New Delhi , the city built by the British on the south-west, declared Capital on 12 December 1911. On 12 December 2011 New Delhi celebrated 100 years of serving as India's National Capital . [8] Early Political History of Delhi, 1060-1947 Modern Delhi, referred to as ' Dilli ' locally, derived from its historical name Dhili , is an amalgam all of the above. Officially, however, only seven of the above-mentioned settlements are recognised [9] as historical cities with distinct identities and indigenous heritage: Qila Rai Pithora , Mehrauli , Siri , Tughlaqabad , Ferozabad , Dinpanah and Shahjahanabad . The rest are not officially identified as Cities of Delhi because of some specific reasons. Indraprastha , the legendary Ancient City is believed to have been established 5000 years ago (c. 2800 BC), as per the ancient Indian text- the Mahabharata . Though very much a part of India's very Ancient history , it lacks any tangible evidence to say without doubt that it existed. Archaeological evidence exists, but in such scarcity as be inconclusive. As acknowledged by British historian Michael Wood in his BBC documentary The Story of India , [10] the excavated ceramic pottery from the site of today's Purana Qila in Delhi and the excavated layers of the ancient city seem to match what the verses of the Mahabharata indicate. More possible evidence in its favour is the existence of a village named Indraprastha very close to the Purana Qila that was destroyed by the British during the construction of Lutyens' Delhi . [11] Jahanpanah is not considered as a City of Delhi because it is very much in ruins and too diffused now to be considered a distinct city. Moreover, sections of the city still standing are now counted in Siri or Mehrauli . Lodi Complex is not counted as a distinct city because their architectures are too few to be counted as a whole city. The Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties that followed the Tughlak dynasty were far more concerned with restoring stability than patronisation of arts or architecture. Tombs erected in the honour of the rulers are the only monuments of these times and these are scattered all over current South and Central Delhis. [12] New Delhi , the Capital city of modern India is also not counted as a City of Delhi because the structures of those times are still in use as government buildings. So there seems no such thing as \"history\" about it. Early history [ edit ] The ancient Yogmaya Temple , claimed to be one of the five temples of Mahabharata days in Delhi. The iron pillar of Delhi , is said to have been fashioned at the time of Chandragupta Vikramaditya (375–413) of the Gupta Empire . [13] [14] According to Indian folklore , Delhi was the site of the magnificent and opulent Indraprastha , capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata , founded around 3500 BC. It was, one of the five prasthas or `plains', which included Sonepat , Panipat , Tilpat (near Faridabad ), and Baghpat . [15] 16th-century, Persian historian, Firishta , recorded a tradition that Delhi or Dilli was founded by a Raja Dhilu before the Yavana (Greek) invasions. However, it should be noted that the kings then referred to the initial Muslim invaders as Yavanas. [15] Hindu texts state that the city of Delhi used to be referred to in Sanskrit as Hasthinapur , which means \"elephant-city\". The name Delhi may be derived from the word ' Dhillika ', though there are other theories. According to Satyarth Prakash (1874) of Swami Dayanand , Raja Dhilu (King Dihlu) founded ancient Delhi in 800 BCE. [16] It was the name of the first medieval township of Delhi, located on the southwestern border of the present Delhi, in Mehrauli . This was the first in the series of seven medieval cities. It is also known as Yoginipura, that is, the fortress of the Yoginis (female divinities). It gained importance during the time of Anangpal Tomar . In the 12th century, the city was included in the dominions of Prithviraj Chauhan . Pasanaha Chariu of Vibudh Shridhar ( VS 1189-1230) an Apabhramsha writer, provides the first reference to the legend of the origin of the name Dhilli for Delhi . [17] हरियाणए देसे असंखगाम, गामियण जणि अणवरथ काम| परचक्क विहट्टणु सिरिसंघट्टणु, जो सुरव इणा परिगणियं| रिउ रुहिरावट्टणु बिउलु पवट्टणु, ढिल्ली नामेण जि भणियं| Translation: There are countless villages in Haryana country. The villagers there work hard. They don't accept domination of others, and are experts in making the blood of their enemies flow. Indra himself praises this country. The capital of this country is Dhilli. जहिं असिवर तोडिय रिउ कवालु, णरणाहु पसिद्धउ अणंगवालु || वलभर कम्पाविउ णायरायु, माणिणियण मणसंजनीय || Translation: The ruler Anangapal is famous, he can slay his enemies with his sword. The weight (of the Iron pillar) caused the Nagaraj to shake. A VS 1383 inscription in Delhi Museum confirms the founding of Delhi by the Tomars: देशोऽस्ति हरियानाख्यो पॄथिव्यां स्वर्गसन्निभः | ढिल्लिकाख्या पुरी तत्र तोमरैरस्ति निर्मिता || Prithviraj Raso also confirms the founding by the Tomars and the legend of the loose nail: हुं गड्डि गयौ किल्ली सज्जीव हल्लाय करी ढिल्ली सईव | फिरि व्यास कहै सुनि अनंगराइ भवितव्य बात मेटी न जाइ || 8th century to 16th century [ edit ] See also: Delhi Sultanate The bastion of Lal Kot fort in Delhi's Mehrauli built by Tomara Rajput ruler, Anangpal in c. AD 736. The Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret at 72.5 metres, built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak of Turkic Slave dynasty in 1192. The Tomar dynasty founded Lal Kot in 736. The Prithviraj Raso names the Tomar Anangpal as the founder of Lal Kot, whose name is inscribed on Iron Pillar of Delhi at Qutb complex , ascribed to Chandra or Chandragupta II . [18] Anangpal Tomar, who, according to historian Augustus Hoernle , was a Rajput [19] ruler of Delhi, often described as the founder of Delhi, built the citadel some 10 kilometres from Suraj Kund . The Chauhan kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora. Museum and remnants of the walls at Qila Rai Pithora, the first city of Delhi, founded during the 10th century by Prithviraj Chauhan The Chauhan king Prithviraj III was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori . From 1206, Delhi became the capital of the Delhi Sultanate under the Slave Dynasty . The first Sultan of Delhi, Qutb-ud-din Aybak , was a former slave who rose through the ranks to become a general, a governor and then Sultan of Delhi. Qutb-ud-din started the construction of the Qutub Minar, a recognisable symbol of Delhi, to commemorate his victory but died before its completion. In the Qutb complex he also constructed the Quwwat-al-Islam (might of Islam), which is the earliest extant mosque in India. He was said to have destroyed twenty-seven Jain temples initially housed in the Qutb complex and pillaged exquisitely carved pillars and building material from their debris for this mosque, many of which can still be seen. [20] After the end of the Slave dynasty, a succession of Turkic Central Asian and Afghan dynasties, the Khalji dynasty , the Tughluq dynasty , the Sayyid dynasty and the Lodi dynasty held power in the late medieval period and built a sequence of forts and townships in Delhi. [21] In 1398, Timur Lang invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too tolerant of their Hindu subjects. After defeating the armies of Nasiruddin Mahmud of Tughlaq dynasty , on 15 December 1398, Timur entered Delhi on 18 December 1398, and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, and over 100,000 war prisoners were killed as well. [22] [23] In 1526, following the First Battle of Panipat , Zahiruddin Babur , the former ruler of Fergana , defeated the last Afghan Lodi sultan and founded the Mughal dynasty which ruled from Delhi, Agra and Lahore . 16th century to 19th century [ edit ] The India Gate commemorates the 90,000 Indian soldiers who died in the Afghan Wars and World War I . Hemu , Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu emperor of North India who resisted Mughals in the 16th century. Jama Masjid built by Shah Jahan , 1656 In the mid-16th century there was an interruption in the Mughal rule of India as Sher Shah Suri defeated Babur's son Humayun and forced him to flee to Persia . Sher Shah Suri built the sixth city of Delhi, as well as the old fort known as Purana Qila , even though this city was settled since the ancient era. After Sher Shah Suri’s death in 1545, his son Islam Shah took the reins of north India from Delhi. Islam Shah ruled from Delhi till 1553 when Hindu king Hem Chandra Vikramaditya , also called Hemu , became the Prime Minister and Chief of Army of Adil Shah. Hem Chandra fought and won 22 battles in all against rebels and twice against Akbar's army in Agra and Delhi, without losing any. After defeating Akbar's army on 7 October 1556 at Tughlakabad fort area in Battle of Delhi (1556) , Hemu acceded to Delhi throne and established Hindu Raj in North India for a brief period, and was bestowed with the title 'Vikramaditya', at his coronation in Purana Quila , Delhi. The third and greatest Mughal emperor, Akbar , moved the capital to Agra , resulting in a decline in the fortunes of Delhi. In the mid-17th century, the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1628–1658) built the city that sometimes bears his name Shahjahanabad , the seventh city of Delhi that is more commonly known as the old city or old Delhi. This city contains a number of significant architectural features, including the Red Fort (Lal Qila) and the Jama Masjid . The old city served as the capital of the later Mughal Empire from 1638 onwards, when Shah Jahan transferred the capital back from Agra. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) crowned himself as emperor in Delhi in 1658 at the Shalimar garden ('Aizzabad-Bagh) with a second coronation in 1659. After 1680, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire rose to prominence. [24] Raghunath Rao , the Maratha peshwa who played a key role in capturing Delhi from the Afghans in the Second Battle of Delhi . In 1737, Bajirao I marched towards Delhi with a huge army. The Marathas defeated the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi . [25] [26] The Maratha forces sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but military superior Persian army led by Nader Shah during his invasion after which he completely sacked and looted Delhi , the Mughal capital, followed by massacre for 2 days, killing over 30,000 civilians and carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne , the Daria-i-Noor , and Koh-i-Noor . Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury. [27] A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protector of the Mughal throne at Delhi. [28] Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded North India for the fourth time in early 1757. He entered Delhi in January 1757 and kept the Mughal emperor under arrest. In August 1757, the Marathas once again attacked Delhi, decisively defeating Najib-ud-Daula and his Rohilla Afghan army in the Second Battle of Delhi . [29] Thus, the Marathas established full control over the city. In 1803, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War , the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Third Battle of Delhi , ending the Maratha rule over the city. [30] As a result, Delhi came under the control of British East India Company . Between 1836 and 1858, Delhi was a part of what then known as the North-Western Provinces . Delhi passed into the direct control of British Government in 1857 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The city received significant damage during the 1857 siege . Afterwards, the last titular Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II was exiled to Rangoon and the remaining Mughal territories were annexed as a part of British India . Delhi today The Raj Ghat , where Mahatma Gandhi was cremated . Calcutta was declared the capital of British India but in 1911 at the Delhi Durbar of 1911 , held at the Coronation Park , King George V announced the shifting of the capital back to Delhi. Parts of the old city were New Delhi , a monumental new quarter of the city designed by the British architect Edwin Lutyens to house the government buildings was inaugurated in 1931 after its construction was delayed due to World War I. [31] New Delhi was officially declared as the seat of the Government of India after independence in 1949. During the Partition of India thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from West Punjab migrated to Delhi, and subsequently settled in North and West Delhi areas, while Hindus from East Pakistan , settled in the late 1960s at EPDP Colony (EPDP: East Pakistan Displaced Persons) in South Delhi, later named Chittaranjan Park in the 1980s. Further reading [ edit ] Hartcourt, A., Assistant Commissioner Delhi (1873). The New guide to Delhi . Lahore, Victoria Press. Fanshawe, H. C. (1902). Delhi - Past and Present . London, J. Murray. Fraser, Lovat (1903). At Delhi (An account of the Delhi Durbar, 1903) . Bombay : Times of India Press and Thacker. Bardiar, Nilendra. Urban, Cultural, Economic and Social Transformation: History of New Delhi 1947-65) . New Delhi, Ruby Press & Co. Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Hearn, Gordon Risley (1906). The Seven Cities of Delhi . W. Thacker & Co., London. See also [ edit ] Agrasen ki Baoli Gates of Delhi Mehrauli Archaeological Park References [ edit ] Jump up ^ [1] Jump up ^ List of cities by time of continuous habitation#Central and South Asia Jump up ^ [2] Jump up ^ [3] ^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Upinder (2006). Delhi: Ancient History . Berghahn Books. ISBN 9788187358299 . ^ Jump up to: a b Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World . BRILL. ISBN 9789004153882 . ^ Jump up to: a b Pletcher, Kenneth. The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places . 2010: The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 9781615301423 . Jump up ^ New Delhi celebrates 100 years Jump up ^ Seven Cities of Delhi Jump up ^ Indraprastha did exist! The Mahabharata is a reality!- British historian Michael Wood Jump up ^ Indraprastha Village Jump up ^ Why Lodi Complex isn't counted as a distinct city? Jump up ^ Balasubramaniam, R. 2002 Jump up ^ Arnold Silcock; Maxwell Ayrton (2003). Wrought iron and its decorative use: with 241 illustrations (reprint ed.). Mineola, N.Y: Dover. p. 4. ISBN 0-486-42326-3 . ^ Jump up to: a b Gazetter, p. 233 Jump up ^ Satyarth Prakash-Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Jump up ^ Cohen, Richard J. \"An Early Attestation of the Toponym Ḍhillī\". Journal of the American Oriental Society . 1989 : 513–519. Jump up ^ Ghosh, A. (1991). Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology . BRILL. p. 251. ISBN 90-04-09264-1 . Jump up ^ http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/480820/Prithviraja-III Jump up ^ Jāvīd, ʻAlī. \"World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India\" . Pg.107 . Google Books . Retrieved 2009-05-27 . Jump up ^ Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India Archived 23 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Timurid Empire) Archived 16 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Hunter, Sir William Wilson (1909). \"The Indian Empire: Timur's invasion 1398\". The Imperial Gazetteer of India . 2 . p. 366. Jump up ^ Thomas, Amelia. Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra . Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74104-690-8 . Jump up ^ Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813 Jump up ^ History Modern India Jump up ^ Soul and Structure of Governance in India . Retrieved 2 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818, Volume 2 . Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0-521-26883-7 . Jump up ^ The Pearson General Studies Manual 2009, Showick Thorpe Edgar Thorpe Jump up ^ Mayaram, Shail. Against history, against state: counterperspectives from the margins Cultures of history . Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-231-12731-8 . Jump up ^ A brief but fascinating account of the Indian contractors behind this constructed a Little Malice . Bibliography [ edit ] Kishore, Raghav (2016). \"Planning, traffic and the city: railway development in colonial Delhi, c. 1899–1905\". Urban History : 1–17. doi : 10.1017/S0963926816000353 . \"History of Delhi District\" . The Imperial Gazetteer of India , Vol. 11 . Oxford at Clarendon Press. 1909. p. 225. Kapoor, Pramod; Malvika Singh; Rudrangshu Mukherjee (2009). New Delhi: Making of a Capital . Lustre Press. ISBN 978-81-7436-574-3 . Byron, Robert (1931). New Delhi . The Architectural Review , Westminster. External links [ edit ] Delhi (1938), a documentary by BFI archives \"Scenes from Delhi (Silent film, 18:16 - 23.27)\" . University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Films. c. 1930. Land and Acquisition Act of 1894, under which the new city of Delhi was acquired The agreement of construction of new city of Delhi with original signatures of Herbert Baker and Edwin Luteyns show v t e Delhi topics Topics History Government Economy Tourism Education Sport Transport Neighbourhoods History Timeline Indraprastha Hastinapur Tomaras Chauhan Prithviraj Raso Islamic invasions of India Delhi Sultanate Slave dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughluq dynasty Sayyid dynasty Lodhi dynasty Sher Shah Suri Mughal dynasty Maratha Empire British East India Company Bahadur Shah Zafar Indian rebellion of 1857 British Raj Viceroy of India Indian independence movement Partition of India New Delhi Government and localities Government Legislative Assembly Lt. Governor Chief Minister High Court Delhi Commission for Women Districts District Centres Municipal Corporation Development Authority New Delhi Municipal Council Cantonment Board New Delhi Connaught Place Chandni Chowk Karol Bagh Chanakyapuri Lajpat Nagar Hauz Khas Buildings and landmarks Tourist attractions Agrasen ki Baoli Akshardham Temple Amar Jawan Jyoti Ashokan Edicts Bahá'í House of Worship Bara Gumbad Barakhamba Central Park (Sunder Nursery) Chausath Khamba Chhatarpur Temple Chor Minar Coronation Park Gates of Delhi Hanuman Temple, Connaught Place Hauz Khas Complex Hauz-i-Shamsi Hijron Ka Khanqah Humayun's Tomb India Gate ISKCON Temple Jahanpanah Jahaz Mahal Jama Masjid Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb Jantar Mantar Khirki Masjid List of parks Mehrauli complex Metcalfe House Moth Ki Masjid Nizamuddin Dargah Parliament of India Purana Qila Qutb Minar Ramlila Maidan Raj Ghat Rajpath Rashtrapati Bhavan Red Fort Safdarjung's Tomb Salimgarh Fort Shisha Gumbad Siri Fort Sultan Ghari Teen Murti Bhavan Vijay Chowk Yogmaya Temple Economy Stock Exchange Association Transport Air Indira Gandhi International Airport Safdarjung Airport Rail Anand Vihar Terminal Delhi Junction Hazrat Nizamuddin New Delhi Sarai Rohilla Delhi Light Rail Transit Delhi Metro Delhi Monorail Delhi Suburban Railway Road Delhi Transport Corporation Inter State Bus Terminals Delhi BRTS Culture Independence Day Republic Day Punjabi cuisine Dilli Haat Ghantewala Khari Baoli Hinduism Sikhism Islam Cinema Shopping Sports Teams Delhi cricket team Delhi Daredevils Hindustan Football Club New Delhi Heroes FC Delhi United S.C. Delhi Waveriders Delhi Smashers Delhi Dynamos FC Delhi football team Delhi Defenders Delhi Giants Delhi Wizards Garhwal F.C. Dabang Delhi Simla Youngs F.C. Stadiums Ambedkar Stadium Chhatrasal Stadium Delhi University Stadium Dr. Karni Singh Shooting Range Ferozshah Kotla Harbax Singh Stadium Indira Gandhi Arena Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium Jamia Millia Islamia University Ground Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Karnail Singh Stadium Dhyan Chand National Stadium Siri Fort Sports Complex SPM Swimming Pool Complex Talkatora Stadium Thyagaraj Sports Complex Yamuna Sports Complex Games 1951 Asian Games 1982 Asian Games 1987 Cricket World Cup 1989 Asian Athletics Championships 1996 Cricket World Cup 2010 Commonwealth Games 2010 Hockey World Cup 2011 Cricket World Cup Nehru Cup Delhi Half Marathon Districts Central Delhi East Delhi New Delhi North Delhi North East Delhi North West Delhi South Delhi South West Delhi West Delhi National Capital Region (NCR) Gurgaon Noida Faridabad Ghaziabad Greater Noida Other topics Famous people from Delhi Buildings and structures List of cities in India See also Hindu temples Landmarks Museums Neighbourhoods Power Plants Universities Delhi portal show v t e Historical regions of North India Ajmer Awadh Bagelkhand Bhojpur Braj Bundelkhand Delhi Doab Doaba Dhundhar Garhwal Gird Godwar Hadoti Jaisalmer Jangladesh Kumaon Magadha Mahakoshal Majha Malwa Malwa (Punjab) Marwar Mewar Mewat Mithila Nimar Purvanchal Rohilkhand Shekhawati Vagad show v t e History of India States Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Odisha Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Telangana Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal NCT Delhi Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Puducherry History portal Delhi portal Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Delhi&oldid=854304855 \" Categories : New Delhi History of Delhi Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from March 2013 Use Indian English from June 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Cymraeg Français हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 10 August 2018, at 10:44 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Lists of time zones - Wikipedia Lists of time zones From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Main article: Time zone International: List of time zones by country – sorted by number of current time zones in the world List of time zones by UTC offset – current UTC offsets List of time zone abbreviations – abbreviations List of IANA time zones – zones that have the same time since 1970 List of military time zones Country-specific: List of time zones by U.S. state See also [ edit ] Category:Time by country This article includes a list of related items that share the same name (or similar names). Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lists_of_time_zones&oldid=794469429 \" Categories : Set indices Time zones Lists of lists Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikidata Languages فارسی Français Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia မြန်မာဘာသာ Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 August 2017, at 06:53. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "Lists of time zones", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Lists_of_time_zones&amp;oldid=794469429" }

{ "text": "Avatar (2009 film) - Wikipedia Avatar (2009 film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Avatar Theatrical release poster Directed by James Cameron Produced by James Cameron Jon Landau Written by James Cameron Starring Sam Worthington Zoe Saldana Stephen Lang Michelle Rodriguez Sigourney Weaver Music by James Horner Cinematography Mauro Fiore Edited by James Cameron John Refoua Stephen E. Rivkin Production company Lightstorm Entertainment Dune Entertainment Ingenious Media Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date December 10, 2009 ( 2009-12-10 ) (London premiere) December 17, 2009 ( 2009-12-17 ) (United Kingdom) December 18, 2009 ( 2009-12-18 ) (United States) Running time 161 minutes [1] Country United States United Kingdom [2] Language English Budget $237 million [3] $9 million+ (re-release) [4] Box office $2.788 billion [5] [6] Avatar , marketed as James Cameron's Avatar , is a 2009 American [7] [8] epic science fiction film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron , and starring Sam Worthington , Zoe Saldana , Stephen Lang , Michelle Rodriguez , and Sigourney Weaver . The film is set in the mid-22nd century, when humans are colonizing Pandora , a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system, in order to mine the mineral unobtanium , [9] [10] a room-temperature superconductor . [11] The expansion of the mining colony threatens the continued existence of a local tribe of Na'vi – a humanoid species indigenous to Pandora. The film's title refers to a genetically engineered Na'vi body with the mind of a remotely located human that is used to interact with the natives of Pandora. [12] Development of Avatar began in 1994, when Cameron wrote an 80-page treatment for the film. [13] [14] Filming was supposed to take place after the completion of Cameron's 1997 film Titanic , for a planned release in 1999, [15] but, according to Cameron, the necessary technology was not yet available to achieve his vision of the film. [16] Work on the language of the film's extraterrestrial beings began in 2005, and Cameron began developing the screenplay and fictional universe in early 2006. [17] [18] Avatar was officially budgeted at $237 million. [3] Other estimates put the cost between $280 million and $310 million for production and at $150 million for promotion. [19] [20] [21] The film made extensive use of new motion capture filming techniques, and was released for traditional viewing, 3D viewing (using the RealD 3D , Dolby 3D , XpanD 3D , and IMAX 3D formats), and for \" 4D \" experiences in select South Korean theaters. [22] The stereoscopic filmmaking was touted as a breakthrough in cinematic technology. [23] Avatar premiered in London on December 10 , 2009, and was internationally released on December 16 and in the United States and Canada on December 18 , to positive critical reviews, with critics highly praising its groundbreaking visual effects. [24] [25] [26] During its theatrical run, the film broke several box office records and became the highest-grossing film of all time , as well as in the United States and Canada , [27] surpassing Cameron's Titanic , which had held those records for twelve years. [28] It also became the first film to gross more than $2 billion [29] and the best-selling film of 2010 in the United States . Avatar was nominated for nine Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Director , [30] and won three, for Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects . Following the film's success, Cameron signed with 20th Century Fox to produce three sequels, making Avatar the first of a planned tetralogy. [31] On April 14, 2016, Cameron confirmed that there were now plans for four sequels. Avatar 2 was scheduled for release in December 2018 before being delayed, with the sequels following in December 2020, 2022, and 2023, respectively. [32] The sequels are scheduled for release in 2020, 2021, 2024 and 2025. [33] Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Origins 3.2 Development 3.3 Themes and inspirations 3.4 Filming 3.5 Visual effects 3.6 Music and soundtrack 4 Marketing 4.1 Promotions 4.2 Books 4.3 Video games 4.4 Action figures and postage stamps 5 Release 5.1 Initial screening 5.2 Box office 5.2.1 General 5.2.2 Commercial analysis 5.3 Critical reception 5.4 Accolades 5.5 Extended theatrical re-release 5.6 Home media 6 Sequels 7 Related media 7.1 Stage adaptation 7.2 Theme park attraction 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Plot By 2154, humans have depleted Earth 's natural resources, leading to a severe energy crisis. The Resources Development Administration (RDA for short) mines for a valuable mineral — unobtanium — on Pandora, a densely forested habitable moon orbiting the gas giant Polyphemus in the Alpha Centauri star system. [10] Pandora, whose atmosphere is poisonous to humans, is inhabited by the Na'vi , a species of 10-foot tall (3.0 m), blue-skinned, sapient humanoids [34] that live in harmony with nature and worship a mother goddess named Eywa . To explore Pandora's biosphere , scientists use Na'vi-human hybrids called \"avatars,\" operated by genetically matched humans; Jake Sully, a paraplegic former Marine , replaces his deceased identical twin brother as an operator of one. Dr. Grace Augustine, head of the Avatar Program, considers Sully an inadequate replacement but accepts his assignment as a bodyguard. While protecting the avatars of Grace and fellow scientist Dr. Norm Spellman as they collect biological data, Jake's avatar is attacked by a thanator and flees into the forest, where he is rescued by Neytiri, a female Na'vi. Witnessing an auspicious sign, she takes him to her clan, whereupon Neytiri's mother Mo'at, the clan's spiritual leader, orders her daughter to initiate Jake into their society. Colonel Miles Quaritch, head of RDA's private security force , promises Jake that the company will restore his legs if he gathers information about the Na'vi and the clan's gathering place, a giant tree called Hometree, [35] on grounds that it stands above the richest deposit of unobtanium in the area. When Grace learns of this, she transfers herself, Jake, and Norm to an outpost . Over the following three months, Jake grows to sympathize with the natives. After Jake is initiated into the tribe, he and Neytiri choose each other as mates, and soon afterward, Jake reveals his change of allegiance when he attempts to disable a bulldozer that threatens to destroy a sacred Na'vi site. When Quaritch shows a video recording of Jake's attack on the bulldozer to Administrator Parker Selfridge, [36] and another in which Jake admits that the Na'vi will never abandon Hometree, Selfridge orders Hometree destroyed. Despite Grace's argument that destroying Hometree could damage the biological neural network native to Pandora, Selfridge gives Jake and Grace one hour to convince the Na'vi to evacuate before commencing the attack. While trying to warn the Na'vi, Jake confesses to being a spy and the Na'vi take him and Grace captive. Seeing this, Quaritch's men destroy Hometree, killing Neytiri's father (the clan chief) and many others. Mo'at frees Jake and Grace, but they are detached from their avatars and imprisoned by Quaritch's forces. Pilot Trudy Chacón, disgusted by Quaritch's brutality, carries them to Grace's outpost, but during the escape, Quaritch fires at them, hitting Grace. To regain the Na'vi's trust, Jake connects his mind to that of Toruk, a dragon-like predator feared and honored by the Na'vi. Jake finds the refugees at the sacred Tree of Souls and pleads with Mo'at to heal Grace. The clan attempts to transfer Grace from her human body into her avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls, but she dies before the process can be completed. Supported by the new chief Tsu'tey, who acts as Jake's translator, Jake speaks to unite the clan and tells them to gather all of the clans to battle against the RDA. Noticing the impending gathering, Quaritch organizes a pre-emptive strike against the Tree of Souls, believing that its destruction will demoralize the natives. On the eve of battle, Jake prays to Eywa, via a neural connection to the Tree of Souls, to intercede on behalf of the Na'vi. During the subsequent battle, the Na'vi suffer heavy casualties, including Tsu'tey and Trudy; but are rescued when Pandoran wildlife unexpectedly join the attack and overwhelm the humans, which Neytiri interprets as Eywa's answer to Jake's prayer. Jake destroys a makeshift bomber before it can reach the Tree of Souls; Quaritch escapes from his own damaged aircraft, wearing an AMP suit and breaks open the avatar link unit containing Jake's human body, exposing it to Pandora's poisonous atmosphere. Quaritch prepares to slit the throat of Jake's avatar, but Neytiri kills Quaritch and saves Jake from suffocation. With the exceptions of Jake, Norm and a select few others, all humans are expelled from Pandora and sent back to Earth, after which Jake is permanently transferred into his avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls. Cast Further information: Fictional universe of Avatar Humans Sam Worthington as Jake Sully, a disabled former Marine who becomes part of the Avatar Program after his twin brother is killed. His military background helps the Na'vi warriors relate to him. Cameron cast the Australian actor after a worldwide search for promising young actors, preferring relative unknowns to keep the budget down. [37] Worthington, who was living in his car at the time, [38] auditioned twice early in development, [39] and he has signed on for possible sequels. [40] Cameron felt that because Worthington had not done a major film, he would give the character \"a quality that is really real\". Cameron said he \"has that quality of being a guy you'd want to have a beer with, and he ultimately becomes a leader who transforms the world\". [41] Stephen Lang as Colonel Miles Quaritch, the head of the mining operation's security detail. Fiercely loyal to his military code, he has a profound disregard for Pandora's inhabitants that is evident in both his actions and his language. Lang had unsuccessfully auditioned for a role in Cameron's Aliens (1986), but the director remembered Lang and sought him for Avatar . [42] Michael Biehn , who was in Aliens , read the script and watched some of the 3-D footage with Cameron, [43] but was ultimately not cast in the role. Sigourney Weaver as Dr. Grace Augustine, an exobiologist and head of the Avatar Program. She is also Sully's mentor and an advocate of peaceful relations with the Na'vi, having set up a school to teach them English. [44] Michelle Rodriguez as Trudy Chacón, a combat pilot assigned to support the Avatar Program who is sympathetic to the Na'vi. Cameron had wanted to work with Rodriguez since seeing her in Girlfight . [42] Giovanni Ribisi as Parker Selfridge, the corporate administrator for the RDA mining operation. [45] While he is at first willing to destroy the Na'vi civilization to preserve the company's bottom line , he is reluctant to authorize the attacks on the Na'vi and taint his image, doing so only after Quaritch persuades him that it is necessary, and the attacks will be humane. When the attacks are broadcast to the base, Selfridge displays discomfort at the violence. Joel David Moore as Dr. Norm Spellman, a xenoanthropologist [46] who studies plant and animal life as part of the Avatar Program. [47] He arrives on Pandora at the same time as Sully and operates an avatar. Although he is expected to lead the diplomatic contact with the Na'vi, it turns out that Jake has the personality better suited to win the natives' respect. Dileep Rao as Dr. Max Patel, a scientist who works in the Avatar Program and comes to support Jake's rebellion against the RDA. [48] Na'vi Zoe Saldana as Neytiri, the daughter of the leader of the Omaticaya (the Na'vi clan central to the story). She is attracted to Jake because of his bravery, though frustrated with him for what she sees as his naiveté and stupidity. She serves as Jake's love interest. [49] The character, like all the Na'vi, was created using performance capture , and its visual aspect is entirely computer generated. [50] Saldana has also signed on for potential sequels. [51] C. C. H. Pounder as Mo'at, the Omaticaya's spiritual leader, Neytiri's mother, and consort to clan leader Eytukan. [52] Wes Studi as Eytukan, the Omaticaya's clan leader, Neytiri's father, and Mo'at's mate. Laz Alonso as Tsu'tey, the finest warrior of the Omaticaya. He is heir to the chieftainship of the tribe. At the beginning of the film's story, he is betrothed to Neytiri. Production Origins In 1994, [14] director James Cameron wrote an 80-page treatment for Avatar , drawing inspiration from \"every single science fiction book\" he had read in his childhood as well as from adventure novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and H. Rider Haggard . [13] In August 1996 , Cameron announced that after completing Titanic , he would film Avatar , which would make use of synthetic, or computer-generated , actors. [16] The project would cost $100 million and involve at least six actors in leading roles \"who appear to be real but do not exist in the physical world\". [53] [ verification needed ] Visual effects house Digital Domain , with whom Cameron has a partnership, joined the project, which was supposed to begin production in mid-1997 for a 1999 release. [15] However, Cameron felt that the technology had not caught up with the story and vision that he intended to tell. He decided to concentrate on making documentaries and refining the technology for the next few years. It was revealed in a Bloomberg BusinessWeek cover story that 20th Century Fox had fronted $10 million to Cameron to film a proof-of-concept clip for Avatar , which he showed to Fox executives in October 2005 . [54] In February 2006, Cameron revealed that his film Project 880 was \"a retooled version of Avatar \", a film that he had tried to make years earlier, [55] citing the technological advances in the creation of the computer-generated characters Gollum , King Kong , and Davy Jones . [13] Cameron had chosen Avatar over his project Battle Angel after completing a five-day camera test in the previous year. [56] Development Wikinews has related news: Elvish, Klingon and Na'vi: Constructed languages gain foothold in film From January to April 2006, Cameron worked on the script and developed a culture for the film's aliens, the Na'vi. Their language was created by Dr. Paul Frommer , a linguist at USC . [13] The Na'vi language has a lexicon of about 1000 words, with some 30 added by Cameron. The tongue's phonemes include ejective consonants (such as the \"kx\" in \"skxawng\") that are found in the Amharic language of Ethiopia , and the initial \"ng\" that Cameron may have taken from New Zealand Māori . [18] Actress Sigourney Weaver and the film's set designers met with Jodie S. Holt, professor of plant physiology at University of California, Riverside , to learn about the methods used by botanists to study and sample plants, and to discuss ways to explain the communication between Pandora's organisms depicted in the film. [57] From 2005 to 2007, Cameron worked with a handful of designers, including famed fantasy illustrator Wayne Barlowe and renowned concept artist Jordu Schell , to shape the design of the Na'vi with paintings and physical sculptures when Cameron felt that 3-D brush renderings were not capturing his vision, [58] often working together in the kitchen of Cameron's Malibu home. [59] In July 2006 , Cameron announced that he would film Avatar for a mid-2008 release and planned to begin principal photography with an established cast by February 2007 . [60] The following August, the visual effects studio Weta Digital signed on to help Cameron produce Avatar . [61] Stan Winston , who had collaborated with Cameron in the past, joined Avatar to help with the film's designs. [62] Production design for the film took several years. The film had two different production designers, and two separate art departments, one of which focused on the flora and fauna of Pandora, and another that created human machines and human factors. [63] In September 2006 , Cameron was announced to be using his own Reality Camera System to film in 3-D. The system would use two high-definition cameras in a single camera body to create depth perception. [64] While these preparations were underway, Fox kept wavering in its commitment to Avatar because of its painful experience with cost overruns and delays on Cameron's previous picture, Titanic , even though Cameron rewrote the script to combine several characters together and offered to cut his fee in case the film flopped. [54] Cameron installed a traffic light with the amber signal lit outside of co-producer Jon Landau 's office to represent the film's uncertain future. [54] In mid-2006, Fox told Cameron \"in no uncertain terms that they were passing on this film,\" so he began shopping it around to other studios, and approached Walt Disney Studios , showing his proof-of-concept to then-chairman Dick Cook . [54] However, when Disney attempted to take over, Fox exercised its right of first refusal . [54] In October 2006 , Fox finally agreed to commit to making Avatar after Ingenious Media agreed to back the film, which reduced Fox's financial exposure to less than half of the film's official $237 million budget. [54] After Fox accepted Avatar , one skeptical Fox executive shook his head and told Cameron and Landau, \"I don't know if we're crazier for letting you do this, or if you're crazier for thinking you can do this ...\" [65] External audio James Cameron interviewed by F. X. Feeney on writing Avatar. Interview [66] In December 2006, Cameron described Avatar as \"a futuristic tale set on a planet 200 years hence ... an old-fashioned jungle adventure with an environmental conscience [that] aspires to a mythic level of storytelling\". [67] The January 2007 press release described the film as \"an emotional journey of redemption and revolution\" and said the story is of \"a wounded former Marine, thrust unwillingly into an effort to settle and exploit an exotic planet rich in biodiversity , who eventually crosses over to lead the indigenous race in a battle for survival\". The story would be of an entire world complete with an ecosystem of phantasmagorical plants and creatures, and native people with a rich culture and language. [51] Estimates put the cost of the film at about $280–310 million to produce and an estimated $150 million for marketing, noting that about $30 million in tax credits will lessen the financial impact on the studio and its financiers. [19] [20] [21] A studio spokesperson said that the budget was \"$237 million, with $150 million for promotion, end of story.\" [3] Themes and inspirations Main article: Themes in Avatar Avatar is primarily an action-adventure journey of self-discovery, in the context of imperialism and deep ecology . [68] Cameron said his inspiration was \"every single science fiction book I read as a kid\", and that he was particularly striving to update the style of Edgar Rice Burroughs's John Carter series and the deep jungles of Pandora were visualized from Disney's 37th animated film, Tarzan . [39] He acknowledged that Avatar shares themes with the films At Play in the Fields of the Lord , The Emerald Forest , and Princess Mononoke , which feature clashes between cultures and civilizations, and with Dances with Wolves , where a battered soldier finds himself drawn to the culture he was initially fighting against. [69] [70] In a 2007 interview with Time magazine, Cameron was asked about the meaning of the term Avatar , to which he replied, \"It's an incarnation of one of the Hindu gods taking a flesh form. In this film what that means is that the human technology in the future is capable of injecting a human's intelligence into a remotely located body, a biological body.\" [12] Jake's avatar and Neytiri. One of the inspirations for the look of the Na'vi came from a dream that Cameron's mother had told him about. [68] The look of the Na'vi – the humanoids indigenous to Pandora – was inspired by a dream that Cameron's mother had, long before he started work on Avatar . In her dream, she saw a blue-skinned woman 12 feet ( 4 m ) tall, which he thought was \"kind of a cool image\". [68] Also he said, \"I just like blue. It's a good color ... plus, there's a connection to the Hindu deities, [71] which I like conceptually.\" [72] He included similar creatures in his first screenplay (written in 1976 or 1977), which featured a planet with a native population of \"gorgeous\" tall blue aliens. The Na'vi were based on them. [68] For the love story between characters Jake and Neytiri, Cameron applied a star-crossed love theme, and acknowledged its similarity to the pairing of Jack and Rose from his film Titanic. An interviewer stated, \"Both couples come from radically different cultures that are contemptuous of their relationship and are forced to choose sides between the competing communities.\" [73] Cameron felt that whether or not the Jake and Neytiri love story would be perceived as believable partially hinged on the physical attractiveness of Neytiri's alien appearance, which was developed by considering her appeal to the all-male crew of artists. [74] Though Cameron felt Jake and Neytiri do not fall in love right away, their portrayers ( Worthington and Saldana ) felt the characters do. Cameron said the two actors \"had a great chemistry\" during filming. [73] Pandora's floating \"Hallelujah Mountains\" were inspired in part by the Chinese Huang Shan mountains (pictured). [75] Zhangjiajie National Forest Park For the film's floating \"Hallelujah Mountains\", the designers drew inspiration from \"many different types of mountains, but mainly the karst limestone formations in China.\" [76] According to production designer Dylan Cole, the fictional floating rocks were inspired by Mount Huang (also known as Huangshan), Guilin , Zhangjiajie , among others around the world. [76] Director Cameron had noted the influence of the Chinese peaks on the design of the floating mountains. [77] To create the interiors of the human mining colony on Pandora, production designers visited the Noble Clyde Boudreaux [78] oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico during June 2007 . They photographed, measured and filmed every aspect of the platform, which was later replicated on-screen with photorealistic CGI during post-production. [79] Cameron said that he wanted to make \"something that has this spoonful of sugar of all the action and the adventure and all that\" but also have a conscience \"that maybe in the enjoying of it makes you think a little bit about the way you interact with nature and your fellow man\". He added that \"the Na'vi represent something that is our higher selves, or our aspirational selves, what we would like to think we are\" and that even though there are good humans within the film, the humans \"represent what we know to be the parts of ourselves that are trashing our world and maybe condemning ourselves to a grim future\". [80] Cameron acknowledges that Avatar implicitly criticizes the United States' role in the Iraq War and the impersonal nature of mechanized warfare in general. In reference to the use of the term shock and awe in the film, Cameron said, \"We know what it feels like to launch the missiles. We don't know what it feels like for them to land on our home soil, not in America.\" [81] He said in later interviews, \"... I think it's very patriotic to question a system that needs to be corralled ...\" [82] and, \"The film is definitely not anti-American.\" [83] A scene in the film portrays the violent destruction of the towering Na'vi Hometree, which collapses in flames after a missile attack, coating the landscape with ash and floating embers. Asked about the scene's resemblance to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center , Cameron said he had been \"surprised at how much it did look like September 11 \". [81] Filming Principal photography for Avatar began in April 2007 in Los Angeles and Wellington , New Zealand. Cameron described the film as a hybrid with a full live-action shoot in combination with computer-generated characters and live environments. \"Ideally at the end of the day the audience has no idea which they're looking at,\" Cameron said. The director indicated that he had already worked four months on nonprincipal scenes for the film. [84] The live action was shot with a modified version of the proprietary digital 3-D Fusion Camera System , developed by Cameron and Vince Pace. [85] In January 2007 , Fox had announced that 3-D filming for Avatar would be done at 24 frames per second despite Cameron's strong opinion that a 3-D film requires higher frame rate to make strobing less noticeable. [86] According to Cameron, the film is composed of 60% computer-generated elements and 40% live action, as well as traditional miniatures . [87] Motion-capture photography lasted 31 days at the Hughes Aircraft stage in Playa Vista in Los Angeles. [56] [88] Live action photography began in October 2007 at Stone Street Studios in Wellington , New Zealand, and was scheduled to last 31 days. [89] More than a thousand people worked on the production. [88] In preparation of the filming sequences, all of the actors underwent professional training specific to their characters such as archery, horseback riding, firearm use, and hand-to-hand combat. They received language and dialect training in the Na'vi language created for the film. [90] Before shooting the film, Cameron also sent the cast to the Hawaiian tropical rainforests [91] to get a feel for a rainforest setting before shooting on the soundstage. [90] During filming, Cameron made use of his virtual camera system , a new way of directing motion-capture filmmaking. The system shows the actors' virtual counterparts in their digital surroundings in real time, allowing the director to adjust and direct scenes just as if shooting live action. According to Cameron, \"It's like a big, powerful game engine . If I want to fly through space, or change my perspective, I can. I can turn the whole scene into a living miniature and go through it on a 50 to 1 scale.\" [92] Using conventional techniques, the complete virtual world cannot be seen until the motion-capture of the actors is complete. Cameron said this process does not diminish the value or importance of acting. On the contrary, because there is no need for repeated camera and lighting setups, costume fittings and make-up touch-ups, scenes do not need to be interrupted repeatedly. [93] Cameron described the system as a \"form of pure creation where if you want to move a tree or a mountain or the sky or change the time of day, you have complete control over the elements\". [94] Cameron gave fellow directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson a chance to test the new technology. [67] Spielberg said, \"I like to think of it as digital makeup, not augmented animation ... Motion capture brings the director back to a kind of intimacy that actors and directors only know when they're working in live theater.\" [93] Spielberg and George Lucas were also able to visit the set to watch Cameron direct with the equipment. [95] To film the shots where CGI interacts with live action, a unique camera referred to as a \"simulcam\" was used, a merger of the 3-D fusion camera and the virtual camera systems. While filming live action in real time with the simulcam, the CGI images captured with the virtual camera or designed from scratch, are superimposed over the live action images as in augmented reality and shown on a small monitor, making it possible for the director to instruct the actors how to relate to the virtual material in the scene. [90] Visual effects Cameron pioneered a specially designed camera built into a 6-inch boom that allowed the facial expressions of the actors to be captured and digitally recorded for the animators to use later. [96] A number of innovative visual effects techniques were used during production. According to Cameron, work on the film had been delayed since the 1990s to allow the techniques to reach the necessary degree of advancement to adequately portray his vision of the film. [15] [16] The director planned to make use of photorealistic computer-generated characters, created using new motion capture animation technologies he had been developing in the 14 months leading up to December 2006 . [92] Innovations include a new system for lighting massive areas like Pandora's jungle, [97] a motion-capture stage or \"volume\" six times larger than any previously used, and an improved method of capturing facial expressions, enabling full performance capture . To achieve the face capturing, actors wore individually made skull caps fitted with a tiny camera positioned in front of the actors' faces; the information collected about their facial expressions and eyes is then transmitted to computers. [98] According to Cameron, the method allows the filmmakers to transfer 100% of the actors' physical performances to their digital counterparts. [99] Besides the performance capture data which were transferred directly to the computers, numerous reference cameras gave the digital artists multiple angles of each performance. [100] A technically challenging scene was near the end of the film when the computer-generated Neytiri held the live action Jake in human form, and attention was given to the details of the shadows and reflected light between them. [101] The lead visual effects company was Weta Digital in Wellington , New Zealand, at one point employing 900 people to work on the film. [102] Because of the huge amount of data which needed to be stored, cataloged and available for everybody involved, even on the other side of the world, a new cloud computing and Digital Asset Management (DAM) system named Gaia was created by Microsoft especially for Avatar , which allowed the crews to keep track of and coordinate all stages in the digital processing. [103] To render Avatar , Weta used a 10,000 sq ft (930 m 2 ) server farm making use of 4,000 Hewlett-Packard servers with 35,000 processor cores with 104 terabytes of RAM and three petabytes of network area storage running Ubuntu Linux , Grid Engine cluster manager, and 2 of the animation software and managers, Pixar 's RenderMan and Pixar's Alfred queue management system . [104] [105] [106] [107] The render farm occupies the 193rd to 197th spots in the TOP500 list of the world's most powerful supercomputers . A new texturing and paint software system, called Mari, was developed by The Foundry in cooperation with Weta. [108] [109] Creating the Na'vi characters and the virtual world of Pandora required over a petabyte of digital storage, [110] and each minute of the final footage for Avatar occupies 17.28 gigabytes of storage. [111] Often, it would take each frame of the movie several hours to render. [112] To help finish preparing the special effects sequences on time, a number of other companies were brought on board, including Industrial Light & Magic , which worked alongside Weta Digital to create the battle sequences. ILM was responsible for the visual effects for many of the film's specialized vehicles and devised a new way to make CGI explosions. [113] Joe Letteri was the film's visual effects general supervisor. [114] Music and soundtrack Main article: Avatar: Music from the Motion Picture James Horner – \"Jake Enters His Avatar World\" listen to a clip from the score of the 2009 film Avatar . Problems playing this file? See media help . Composer James Horner scored the film, his third collaboration with Cameron after Aliens and Titanic . [115] Horner recorded parts of the score with a small chorus singing in the alien language Na'vi in March 2008 . [116] He also worked with Wanda Bryant, an ethnomusicologist , to create a music culture for the alien race. [117] The first scoring sessions were planned to take place in early 2009. [118] During production, Horner promised Cameron that he would not work on any other project except for Avatar and reportedly worked on the score from four in the morning till ten at night throughout the process. He stated in an interview, \" Avatar has been the most difficult film I have worked on and the biggest job I have undertaken.\" [119] Horner composed the score as two different scores merged into one. He first created a score that reflected the Na'vi way of sound and then combined it with a separate \"traditional\" score to drive the film. [90] British singer Leona Lewis was chosen to sing the theme song for the film, called \" I See You \". An accompanying music video, directed by Jake Nava , premiered December 15 , 2009, on MySpace. [120] Marketing Promotions Cameron at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con promoting the film The first photo of the film was released on August 14 , 2009, [121] and Empire released exclusive images from the film in its October issue. [122] Cameron, producer Jon Landau , Zoe Saldana , Stephen Lang , and Sigourney Weaver appeared at a panel, moderated by Tom Rothman , at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con on July 23 . Twenty-five minutes of footage was screened [123] in Dolby 3D . [124] Weaver and Cameron appeared at additional panels to promote the film, speaking on the 23rd [125] and 24th [126] respectively. James Cameron announced at the Comic-Con Avatar Panel that August 21 will be 'Avatar Day'. On this day, the trailer was released in all theatrical formats. The official game trailer and toy line of the film were also unveiled on this day. [127] The 129-second trailer was released online on August 20 , 2009. [128] The new 210-second trailer was premiered in theatres on October 23 , 2009, then soon after premiered online on Yahoo! on October 29 , 2009, to positive reviews. [129] [130] An extended version in IMAX 3D received overwhelmingly positive reviews. [128] The Hollywood Reporter said that audience expectations were coloured by \"the [same] establishment skepticism that preceded Titanic \" and suggested the showing reflected the desire for original storytelling. [131] The teaser has been among the most viewed trailers in the history of film marketing, reaching the first place of all trailers viewed on Apple.com with 4 million views. [132] On October 30, to celebrate the opening of the first 3-D cinema in Vietnam, Fox allowed Megastar Cinema to screen exclusive 16 minutes of Avatar to a number of press. [133] The three-and-a-half-minute trailer of the film premiered live on November 1 , 2009, during a Dallas Cowboys football game at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, on the Diamond Vision screen, one of the world's largest video displays, and to TV audiences viewing the game on Fox . It is said to be the largest live motion picture trailer viewing in history. [134] The Coca-Cola Company collaborated with Fox to launch a worldwide marketing campaign to promote the film. The highlight of the campaign was the website AVTR.com. Specially marked bottles and cans of Coca-Cola Zero , when held in front of a webcam, enabled users to interact with the website's 3-D features using augmented reality (AR) technology. [135] The film was heavily promoted in an episode of the Fox Network series Bones in the episode \"The Gamer In The Grease\" (Season 5, Episode 9). Avatar star Joel David Moore has a recurring role on the program, and is seen in the episode anxiously awaiting the release of the film. [136] A week prior to the American release, Zoe Saldana promoted the film on Adult Swim when she was interviewed by an animated Space Ghost . [137] McDonald's had a promotion mentioned in television commercials in Europe called \"Avatarize yourself\", which encouraged people to go to the website set up by Oddcast , and use a photograph of themselves to change into a Na'vi. [138] Books Avatar: A Confidential Report on the Biological and Social History of Pandora , a 224-page book in the form of a field guide to the film's fictional setting of the planet of Pandora, was released by Harper Entertainment on November 24 , 2009. [139] It is presented as a compilation of data collected by the humans about Pandora and the life on it, written by Maria Wilhelm and Dirk Mathison. HarperFestival also released Wilhelm's 48-page James Cameron's Avatar: The Reusable Scrapbook for children. [140] The Art of Avatar was released on November 30 , 2009, by Abrams Books . The book features detailed production artwork from the film, including production sketches, illustrations by Lisa Fitzpatrick, and film stills. Producer Jon Landau wrote the foreword, Cameron wrote the epilogue, and director Peter Jackson wrote the preface. [141] In October 2010 , Abrams Books also released The Making of Avatar , a 272-page book that detailed the film's production process and contains over 500 color photographs and illustrations. [142] In a 2009 interview, Cameron said that he planned to write a novel version of Avatar after the film was released. [143] In February 2010 , producer Jon Landau stated that Cameron plans a prequel novel for Avatar that will \"lead up to telling the story of the movie, but it would go into much more depth about all the stories that we didn't have time to deal with\", saying that \"Jim wants to write a novel that is a big, epic story that fills in a lot of things\". [144] In August 2013 it was announced that Cameron hired Steven Gould to pen four standalone novels to expand the Avatar universe. [145] Video games Main article: James Cameron's Avatar: The Game Cameron chose Ubisoft Montreal to create an Avatar game for the film in 2007. The filmmakers and game developers collaborated heavily, and Cameron decided to include some of Ubisoft's vehicle and creature designs in the film. [146] James Cameron's Avatar: The Game was released on December 1 , 2009, [147] for most home video game consoles ( PS3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , Nintendo DS , iPhone ), Microsoft Windows and December 8 for PSP . Action figures and postage stamps Mattel Toys announced in December 2009 that it would be introducing a line of Avatar action figures. [148] [149] Each action figure will be made with a 3-D web tag, called an i-TAG, that consumers can scan using a web cam , revealing unique on-screen content that is special to each specific action figure. [148] A series of toys representing six different characters from the film were also distributed globally in McDonald's Happy Meals . [150] [151] In December 2009, France Post released a special limited edition stamp based on Avatar , coinciding with the film's worldwide release. [152] Release Initial screening Avatar premiered in London on December 10 , 2009, and was released theatrically worldwide from December 16 to 18. [153] The film was originally set for release on May 22 , 2009, during filming, [154] but was pushed back to allow more post-production time (the last shots were delivered in November), [97] and to give more time for theatres worldwide to install 3D projectors. [155] Cameron stated that the film's aspect ratio would be 1.78:1 for 3D screenings and that a 2.39:1 image would be extracted for 2D screenings. [156] However, a 3D 2.39:1 extract was approved for use with constant-image-height screens (i.e. screens which increase in width to display 2.39:1 films). [157] During a 3D preview showing in Germany on December 16 , the movie's DRM 'protection' system failed, and some copies delivered could not be watched at all in the theaters. The problems were fixed in time for the public premiere. [158] Avatar was released in a total of 3,457 theatres in the US, of which 2,032 theatres ran it in 3D. In total 90% of all advance ticket sales for Avatar were for 3D screenings. [159] Internationally, Avatar opened on a total of 14,604 screens in 106 territories, of which 3,671 were showing the film in 3D (producing 56% of the first weekend gross). [160] [161] The film was simultaneously presented in IMAX 3D format, opening in 178 theaters in the United States on December 18 . The international IMAX release included 58 theaters beginning on December 16 , and 25 more theaters were to be added in the coming weeks. [162] The IMAX release was the company's widest to date, a total of 261 theaters worldwide. The previous IMAX record opening was Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince , which opened in 161 IMAX theatres in the US, and about 70 international. [163] 20th Century Fox Korea adapted and later released Avatar in 4D version , which included \"moving seats, smells of explosives, sprinkling water, laser lights and wind\". [22] Box office General Main article: List of box office records set by Avatar Avatar was released internationally on more than 14,000 screens. [164] It earned $3,537,000 from midnight screenings domestically (United States and Canada), with the initial 3D release limited to 2,200 screens. [165] The film earned $26,752,099 on its opening day, and $77,025,481 over its opening weekend, making it the second-largest December opening ever behind I Am Legend , [25] [166] the largest domestic opening weekend for a film not based on a franchise (topping The Incredibles ), the highest opening weekend for a film entirely in 3D (breaking Up ' s record), [167] the highest opening weekend for an environmentalist film (breaking The Day After Tomorrow ' s record), [168] and the 40th largest opening weekend in North America, [5] despite a blizzard that blanketed the East Coast of the United States and reportedly hurt its opening weekend results. [19] [25] [26] The film also set an IMAX opening weekend record, with 178 theaters generating approximately $9.5 million, 12% of the film's $77 million (at the time) North American gross on less than 3% of the screens. [162] International markets generating opening weekend tallies of at least $10 million were for Russia ($19.7 million), France ($17.4 million), the UK ($13.8 million), Germany ($13.3 million), South Korea ($11.7 million), Australia ($11.5 million) and Spain ($11.0 million). [169] Avatar ' s worldwide gross was US$241.6 million after five days, the ninth largest opening-weekend gross of all time, and the largest for a non-franchise, non-sequel and original film. [170] 58 international IMAX screens generated an estimated $4.1 million during the opening weekend. [162] Revenues in the film's second weekend decreased by only 1.8% in domestic markets, marking a rare occurrence, [171] earning $75,617,183, to remain in first place at the box office [172] and recording what was then the biggest second weekend of all time. [173] The film experienced another marginal decrease in revenue in its third weekend, dropping 9.4% to $68,490,688 domestically, remaining in first place at the box office, [174] to set a third-weekend record. [175] Avatar crossed the $1 billion mark on the 19th day of its international release, making it the first film to reach this mark in only 19 days. [176] It became the fifth film grossing more than $1 billion worldwide, and the only film of 2009 to do so. [177] In its fourth weekend, Avatar continued to lead the box office domestically, setting a new all-time fourth-weekend record of $50,306,217, [178] and becoming the highest-grossing 2009 release in the United States. [179] In the film's fifth weekend, it set the Martin Luther King Day weekend record, grossing $54,401,446, [180] and set a fifth-weekend record with a take of $42,785,612. [181] It held the top spot to set the sixth and seventh weekend records earning $34,944,081 [182] and $31,280,029 [183] respectively. It was the fastest film to gross $600 million domestically, on its 47th day in theatres. [184] On January 31 , it became the first film to earn over $2 billion worldwide, [185] and it became the first film to gross over $700 million in the U.S. and Canada, on February 27 , after 72 days of release. [186] It remained at number one at the domestic box office for seven consecutive weeks – the most consecutive No. 1 weekends since Titanic spent 15 weekends at No.1 in 1997 and 1998 [187] – and also spent 11 consecutive weekends at the top of the box office outside the United States and Canada, breaking the record of nine consecutive weekends set by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest . [188] By the end of its first theatrical release Avatar had grossed $749,766,139 in the U.S. and Canada, and $1,999,298,189 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $2,749,064,328. [5] Including the revenue from a re-release of Avatar featuring extended footage, Avatar grossed $760,507,625 in the U.S. and Canada, and $2,027,457,462 in other countries for a worldwide total of $2,787,965,087 [5] [6] with 72.7% of its total worldwide gross in international markets. [5] [6] Avatar has set a number of box office records during its release: on January 25 , 2010, it surpassed Titanic ' s worldwide gross to become the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide 41 days after its international release, [189] [190] [191] just two days after taking the foreign box office record. [192] On February 2 , 47 days after its domestic release, Avatar surpassed Titanic to become the highest-grossing film of all time in Canada and the United States. [193] It became the highest-grossing film of all time in at least 30 other countries [194] [195] [196] [197] [198] [199] and is the first film to earn over $2 billion in foreign box office receipts. [28] IMAX ticket sales account for $243.3 million of its worldwide gross, [200] more than double the previous record. [201] Box Office Mojo estimates that after adjusting for the rise in average ticket prices, Avatar would be the 14th-highest-grossing film of all time in North America. [202] Box Office Mojo also observes that the higher ticket prices for 3D and IMAX screenings have had a significant impact on Avatar ' s gross; it estimated, on April 21 , 2010, that Avatar had sold approximately 75 million tickets in North American theatres, more than any other film since 1999's Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace . [203] On a worldwide basis, when Avatar ' s gross stood at $2 billion just 35 days into its run, The Daily Telegraph estimated its gross was surpassed by only Gone with the Wind ($3.0 billion), Titanic ($2.9 billion) and Star Wars ($2.2 billion) after adjusting for inflation to 2010 prices, [204] with Avatar ultimately winding up with $2.8 billion by the end of its run in 2010. [5] Reuters even placed it ahead of Titanic after adjusting the global total for inflation. [205] Commercial analysis Before its release, various film critics and fan communities predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office , in line with predictions made for Cameron's previous blockbuster Titanic . [206] [207] [208] This criticism ranged from Avatar ' s film budget, to its concept and use of 3-D \"blue cat people\". [206] [207] Slate magazine's Daniel Engber complimented the 3D effects, but criticized them for reminding him of certain CGI characters from the Star Wars prequel films and for having the \" uncanny valley \" effect. [209] The New York Times noted that 20th Century Fox executives had decided to release Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel alongside Avatar , calling it a \"secret weapon\" to cover any unforeseeable losses at the box-office. [210] \"I think if everybody was embracing the film before the fact, the film could never live up to that expectation ... Have them go with some sense of wanting to find the answer.\" James Cameron on criticism of Avatar before its release. [207] Box office analysts, on the other hand, estimated that the film would be a box office success. [206] [211] \"The holy grail of 3-D has finally arrived,\" said an analyst for Exhibitor Relations. \"This is why all these 3-D venues were built: for Avatar. This is the one. The behemoth.\" [211] The \"cautionary estimate\" was that Avatar would bring in around $60 million in its opening weekend. Others guessed higher. [211] [212] There were also analysts who believed that the film's three-dimensionality would help its box office performance, given that recent 3D films had been successful. [206] Cameron said he felt the pressure of the predictions, but that pressure is good for film-makers. \"It makes us think about our audiences and what the audience wants,\" he stated. \"We owe them a good time. We owe them a piece of good entertainment.\" [207] Although he felt Avatar would appeal to everyone and that the film could not afford to have a target demographic , [207] he especially wanted hard-core science-fiction fans to see it: \"If I can just get 'em in the damn theater, the film will act on them in the way it's supposed to, in terms of taking them on an amazing journey and giving them this rich emotional experience.\" [213] Cameron was aware of the sentiment that Avatar would need significant \"repeat business\" just to make up for its budget and achieve box office success, and believed Avatar could inspire the same \"sharing\" reaction as Titanic . He said that film worked because, \"When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it. They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life.\" [207] After the film's release and unusually strong box office performance over its first two weeks, it was debated as the one film capable of surpassing Titanic ' s worldwide gross, and its continued strength perplexed box office analysts. [214] Other films in recent years had been cited as contenders for surpassing Titanic , such as 2008's The Dark Knight , [215] but Avatar was considered the first film with a genuine chance to do so, and its numbers being aided by higher ticket prices for 3D screenings [214] did not fully explain its success to box office analysts. \"Most films are considered to be healthy if they manage anything less than a 50% drop from their first weekend to their second. Dipping just 11% from the first to the third is unheard of,\" said Paul Dergarabedian, president of box-office analysis for Hollywood.com. \"This is just unprecedented. I had to do a double take. I thought it was a miscalculation.\" [171] Analysts predicted second place for the film's worldwide gross, but most were uncertain about it surpassing Titanic because \"Today's films flame out much faster than they did when Titanic was released.\" [171] Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, believed in the film's chances of becoming the highest-grossing film of all time, though he also believed it was too early to surmise because it had only played during the holidays. He said, \"While Avatar may beat Titanic ' s record, it will be tough, and the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s.\" [171] Cameron said he did not think it was realistic to \"try to topple Titanic off its perch\" because it \"just struck some kind of chord\" and there had been other good films in recent years. [216] He changed his prediction by mid-January. \"It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time,\" he said. [217] \"You've got to compete head on with these other epic works of fantasy and fiction, the Tolkiens and the Star Wars and the Star Treks . People want a persistent alternate reality to invest themselves in and they want the detail that makes it rich and worth their time. They want to live somewhere else. Like Pandora .\" James Cameron on the success of Avatar [218] Though analysts have been unable to agree that Avatar ' s success is attributable to one primary factor, several explanations have been advanced. First, January is historically \"the dumping ground for the year's weakest films\", and this also applied to 2010. [219] Cameron himself said he decided to open the film in December so that it would have less competition from then to January. [207] Titanic capitalized on the same January predictability, and earned most of its gross in 1998. [219] Additionally, Avatar established itself as a \"must-see\" event. Gray said, \"At this point, people who are going to see Avatar are going to see Avatar and would even if the slate was strong.\" [219] Marketing the film as a \"novelty factor\" also helped. Fox positioned the film as a cinematic event that should be seen in the theatres. \"It's really hard to sell the idea that you can have the same experience at home,\" stated David Mumpower, an analyst at BoxOfficeProphets.com. [219] The \" Oscar buzz\" surrounding the film and international viewings helped. \"Two-thirds of Titanic ' s haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly ... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was No. 1 in all of them\", and the markets \"such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today\" with \"more screens and moviegoers\" than before. [219] According to Variety , films in 3D accumulated $1.3 billion in 2009, \"a threefold increase over 2008 and more than 10% of the total 2009 box-office gross\". The increased ticket price – an average of $2 to $3 per ticket in most markets – helped the film. [219] Likewise, Entertainment Weekly attributed the film's success to 3D glasses, but also to its \"astronomic word-of-mouth \". Not only do some theaters charge up to $18.50 for IMAX tickets, but \"the buzz\" created by the new technology was the possible cause for sold-out screenings. [220] Gray said Avatar having no basis in previously established material makes its performance remarkable and even more impressive. \"The movie might be derivative of many movies in its story and themes,\" he said, \"but it had no direct antecedent like the other top-grossing films: Titanic (historical events), the Star Wars movies (an established film franchise), or The Lord of the Rings (literature). It was a tougher sell ...\" [219] Critical reception See also: Themes in Avatar for more reviews The film received mostly positive reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 83% based on 293 reviews, with a rating average of 7.5/10. The site's consensus reads \"It might be more impressive on a technical level than as a piece of storytelling, but Avatar reaffirms James Cameron's singular gift for imaginative, absorbing filmmaking.\" [221] On Metacritic — which assigns a weighted mean score — the film has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". [222] CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave Avatar was \"A\" on an A+ to F scale. Every demographic surveyed was reported to give this rating. These polls also indicated that the main draw of the film was its use of 3D . [223] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times called the film \"extraordinary\" and gave it four stars out of four. \"Watching Avatar , I felt sort of the same as when I saw Star Wars in 1977,\" he said, adding that like Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring , the film \"employs a new generation of special effects\" and it \"is not simply a sensational entertainment, although it is that. It's a technical breakthrough. It has a flat-out Green and anti-war message\". [224] A. O. Scott of At The Movies also compared his viewing of the film to the first time he viewed Star Wars and he said \"although the script is a little bit ... obvious,\" it was \"part of what made it work\". [225] Todd McCarthy of Variety praised the film, saying \"The King of the World sets his sights on creating another world entirely in Avatar , and it's very much a place worth visiting.\" [226] Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review. \"The screen is alive with more action and the soundtrack pops with more robust music than any dozen sci-fi shoot-'em-ups you care to mention,\" he stated. [227] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded Avatar a three-and-a-half out of four star rating and wrote in his print review \"It extends the possibilities of what movies can do. Cameron's talent may just be as big as his dreams.\" [228] Richard Corliss of Time magazine thought that the film was \"the most vivid and convincing creation of a fantasy world ever seen in the history of moving pictures.\" [229] Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film has \"powerful\" visual accomplishments but \"flat dialogue\" and \"obvious characterization\". [230] James Berardinelli of ReelViews praised the film and its story, giving it four out of four stars; he wrote \"In 3-D, it's immersive – but the traditional film elements – story, character, editing, theme, emotional resonance, etc. – are presented with sufficient expertise to make even the 2-D version an engrossing 2½-hour experience.\" [231] Avatar ' s underlying social and political themes attracted attention. Armond White of the New York Press wrote that Cameron used \"villainous American characters\" to \"misrepresent facets of militarism , capitalism, and imperialism \". [232] [233] Russell D. Moore of The Christian Post concluded that \"propaganda exists in the film\" and stated \"If you can get a theater full of people in Kentucky to stand and applaud the defeat of their country in war, then you've got some amazing special effects.\" [234] Some commentators sympathetic to anarcho-primitivism have even praised the film as a manifesto for their cause. [235] [236] Adam Cohen of The New York Times was more positive about the film, calling its anti-imperialist message \"a 22nd-century version of the American colonists vs. the British , India vs. the Raj , or Latin America vs. United Fruit \". [237] Ross Douthat of The New York Times opined that the film is \"Cameron's long apologia for pantheism ... Hollywood's religion of choice for a generation now\", [238] while Saritha Prabhu of The Tennessean called the film a \"misportrayal of pantheism and Eastern spirituality in general\", [239] and Maxim Osipov of The Hindustan Times , on the contrary, commended the film's message for its overall consistency with the teachings of Hinduism in the Bhagavad Gita . [240] Annalee Newitz of io9 concluded that Avatar is another film that has the recurring \"fantasy about race\" whereby \"some white guy\" becomes the \"most awesome\" member of a non-white culture. [241] Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune called Avatar \"the season's ideological Rorschach blot \", [242] while Miranda Devine of The Sydney Morning Herald thought that \"It [was] impossible to watch Avatar without being banged over the head with the director's ideological hammer.\" [243] Nidesh Lawtoo believed that an essential, yet less visible social theme that contributed to Avatar ' s success concerns contemporary fascinations with virtual avatars and \"the transition from the world of reality to that of virtual reality.\". [244] Critics and audiences have cited similarities with other films, literature or media, describing the perceived connections in ways ranging from simple \"borrowing\" to outright plagiarism. Ty Burr of the Boston Globe called it \"the same movie\" as Dances with Wolves . [245] Like Dances with Wolves , Avatar has been characterized as being a \"white savior\" movie , in which a \"backwards\" native people is impotent without the leadership of a member of the invading white culture. [246] [247] Parallels to the concept and use of an avatar are in Poul Anderson's 1957 novelette \" Call Me Joe \", in which a paralyzed man uses his mind from orbit to control an artificial body on Jupiter. [248] [249] Cinema audiences in Russia have noted that Avatar has elements in common with the 1960s Noon Universe novels by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky , which are set in the 22nd century on a forested world called Pandora with a sentient indigenous species called the Nave. [250] Various reviews have compared Avatar to the films FernGully: The Last Rainforest , [251] [252] Pocahontas [253] and The Last Samurai . [254] NPR 's Morning Edition has compared the film to a montage of tropes , with one commentator stating that Avatar was made by \"mixing a bunch of film scripts in a blender\". [255] Gary Westfahl wrote that \"the science fiction story that most closely resembles Avatar has to be Ursula K. Le Guin's novella \" The Word for World Is Forest \" (1972), another epic about a benevolent race of alien beings who happily inhabit dense forests while living in harmony with nature until they are attacked and slaughtered by invading human soldiers who believe that the only good gook is a dead gook.\" [256] The science fiction writer and editor Gardner Dozois said that along with the Anderson and Le Guin stories, the \"mash-up\" included Alan Dean Foster 's 1975 novel, Midworld . [257] Some sources saw similarities to the artwork of Roger Dean , which featured fantastic images of floating rock formations and dragons. [258] [259] In 2013, Dean sued Cameron and Fox, claiming that Pandora was inspired by 14 of his images. Dean sought damages of $50m. [260] Dean's case was dismissed in 2014, and The Hollywood Reporter noted that Cameron has won multiple Avatar idea theft cases. [261] Avatar received compliments from filmmakers, with Steven Spielberg praising it as \"the most evocative and amazing science-fiction movie since Star Wars \" and others calling it \"audacious and awe inspiring\", \"master class\", and \"brilliant\". Noted art director-turned-filmmaker Roger Christian is also a noted fan of the film. [262] On the other hand, Duncan Jones said: \"It's not in my top three James Cameron films. ... [A]t what point in the film did you have any doubt what was going to happen next?\". [263] For French filmmaker Luc Besson , Avatar opened the doors for him to now create an adaptation of the graphic novel series Valérian and Laureline that technologically supports the scope of its source material, with Besson even throwing his original script in the trash and redoing it after seeing the film. [264] TIME ranked Avatar number 3 in their list of \"The 10 Greatest Movies of the Millennium (Thus Far)\" [265] also earning it a spot on the magazine's All-TIME 100 list , [266] and IGN listed Avatar as number 22 on their list of the top 25 Sci-Fi movies of all time. [267] Accolades Main article: List of accolades received by Avatar (2009 film) Avatar won the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , and Best Visual Effects , and was nominated for a total of nine, including Best Picture and Best Director . [30] Avatar also won the 67th Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama and Best Director , and was nominated for two others. [268] At the 36th Saturn Awards , Avatar won all ten awards it was nominated for: Best Science Fiction Film , Best Actor , Best Actress , Best Supporting Actor , Best Supporting Actress , Best Director , Best Writing , Best Music , Best Production Design and Best Special Effects . The New York Film Critics Online honored the film with its Best Picture award. [269] The film also won the Critics' Choice Awards of the Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Action Film and several technical categories, out of nine nominations. [270] It won two of the St. Louis Film Critics awards: Best Visual Effects and Most Original, Innovative or Creative Film. [271] The film also won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) award for Production Design and Special Visual Effects, and was nominated for seven others, including Best Film and Director. [272] The film has received numerous other major awards, nominations and honors. Extended theatrical re-release In July 2010, Cameron confirmed that there would be an extended theatrical re-release of the film on August 27 , 2010, exclusively in 3D theaters and IMAX 3D. [273] Avatar: Special Edition includes an additional nine minutes of footage, all of which is CG , [274] including an extension of the sex scene [275] and various other scenes that were cut from the original theatrical film. [274] This extended re-release resulted in the film's run time approaching the current IMAX platter maximum of 170 minutes, thereby leaving less time for the end credits. Cameron stated that the nine minutes of added scenes cost more than $1 million a minute to produce and finish. [4] During its 12-week re-release, Avatar: Special Edition grossed an additional $10.74 million in North America and $22.46 million overseas for a worldwide total of $33.2 million. [5] Home media 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu-ray in the US on April 22 , 2010 [276] and in the UK on April 26 . [277] The US release was not on a Tuesday as is the norm, but was done to coincide with Earth Day . [278] The first DVD and Blu-ray release does not contain any supplemental features other than the theatrical film and the disc menu in favor of and to make space for optimal picture and sound. The release also preserves the film's native 1.78:1 ( 16:9 ) format as Cameron felt that was the best format to watch the film. [279] The Blu-ray disc contains DRM ( BD+ 5 ) which some Blu-ray players might not support without a firmware update. [280] [281] Avatar set a first-day launch record in the U.S. for Blu-ray sales at 1.5 million units sold, breaking the record previously held by The Dark Knight (600,000 units sold). First-day DVD and Blu-ray sales combined were over four million units sold. [282] In its first four days of release, sales of Avatar on Blu-ray reached 2.7 million in the United States and Canada – overtaking The Dark Knight to become the best ever selling Blu-ray release in the region. [283] [284] The release later broke the Blu-ray sales record in the UK the following week. [285] In its first three weeks of release, the film sold a total of 19.7 million DVD and Blu-ray discs combined, a new record for sales in that period. [286] As of July 18 , 2012, DVD sales (not including Blu-ray) totaled over 10.5 million units sold with $190,806,055 in revenue. [287] Avatar retained its record as the top-selling Blu-ray in the US market until January 2015 when Disney's Frozen surpassed it. [288] The Avatar Three-Disc Extended Collector's Edition on DVD and Blu-ray was released on November 16 , 2010. Three different versions of the film are present on the discs: the original theatrical cut, the special edition cut, and a collector's extended cut [289] (with the DVD set spreading them on two discs, but the Blu-ray set presenting them on a single disc). The collector's extended cut contains 6 more minutes of footage, thus making it 16 minutes longer than the original theatrical cut. Cameron mentioned, \"you can sit down, and in a continuous screening of the film, watch it with the Earth opening\". He stated the \"Earth opening\" is an additional 4½ minutes of scenes that were in the film for much of its production but were ultimately cut before the film's theatrical release. [290] The release also includes an additional 45 minutes of deleted scenes and other extras. [289] Cameron initially stated that Avatar would be released in 3D around November 2010 , but the studio issued a correction: \"3-D is in the conceptual stage and Avatar will not be out on 3D Blu-ray in November.\" [291] In May 2010 , Fox stated that the 3D version would be released some time in 2011. [286] It was later revealed that Fox had given Panasonic an exclusive license for the 3D Blu-ray version and only with the purchase of a Panasonic 3DTV . The length of Panasonic's exclusivity period is stated to last until February 2012 . [292] On October 2010 , Cameron stated that the standalone 3D Blu-ray would be the final version of the film's home release and that it was, \"maybe one, two years out\". [293] On Christmas Eve 2010, Avatar had its 3D television world premiere on Sky . [294] [295] [296] On August 13, 2012, Cameron announced on Facebook that Avatar would be released globally on Blu-ray 3D. [297] The Blu-ray 3D version was finally released on October 16, 2012. [298] Sequels In 2006, Cameron stated that if Avatar was successful, he hoped to make two sequels to the film. [299] In 2010, he said the film's widespread success confirmed that he would do so. [300] He included certain scenes in the first film for future story follow-ups. [299] [301] Cameron planned to shoot the sequels back-to-back and to begin work \"once the novel is nailed down\". [302] He stated that the sequels would widen the universe while exploring other moons of Polyphemus . [291] The first sequel would focus on the ocean of Pandora and also feature more of the rainforest. [303] He intended to capture footage for this sequel at the bottom of the Mariana Trench using a deepwater submersible. [304] In 2011, Cameron stated that he was just starting to design the ocean ecosystem of Pandora and the other worlds to be included in the story. The storyline, although continuing the environmental theme of the first film, would not be \"strident\" since the film will concentrate on entertainment. [305] The sequels would continue to follow the characters of Jake and Neytiri. [306] Cameron implied that the humans would return as the antagonists of the story. [307] Worthington and Saldana signed on to reprise their roles in the sequels. [301] In 2010, Cameron confirmed that Sigourney Weaver [308] and Stephen Lang were also expected to return despite the demise of their characters. [309] The sequels were originally scheduled for release in December 2014 and 2015. [310] In 2011, Cameron stated his intention to film the sequels at a higher frame rate than the industry standard 24 frames per second, in order to add a heightened sense of reality. [311] [312] In 2012, Cameron first mentioned a possible third sequel. [313] That year, Cameron stated that the sequels were being written as \"separate stories that have an overall arc inclusive of the first film\", with the second having a clear conclusion instead of a cliffhanger to the next film. Cameron expected to release Avatar 2 in 2015. [314] In 2013, it was confirmed that there would be three sequels. Screenwriters were also announced: Josh Friedman for the first, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver for the second, and Shane Salerno for the third. Production was rescheduled for 2014 with the films to be released in December 2016, 2017, and 2018. [315] Steven Gould was engaged to write four novels based on the films. [316] Later that year, Cameron announced that the sequels would be filmed in New Zealand, with performance capture to take place in 2014. An agreement with the New Zealand government required at least one world premiere to be held in Wellington and at least NZ$ 500 million (approximately US$410 million at December 2013 exchange rates) to be spent on production activity in New Zealand, including live-action filming and visual effects. The New Zealand government announced it would raise its baseline tax rebate for filmmaking from 15% to 20%, with 25% available to international productions in some cases and 40% for New Zealand productions (as defined by section 18 of the New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978). [317] [318] In April 2014, Cameron expected to finish the three scripts within six weeks, stating that all three sequels would be in production simultaneously and were still slated for December 2016 to 2018 releases. [319] [320] He stated that although Friedman, Jaffa and Silver, and Salerno are each co-writing one sequel with him, they at first all worked together on all three scripts: \"I didn't assign each writer which film they were going to work on until the last day. I knew if I assigned them their scripts ahead of time, they'd tune out every time we were talking about the other movie.\" [321] [322] \"We... worked out every beat of the story across all three films so it all connects as one, sort of, three-film saga.\" [323] Cameron also stated that Weaver would be featured in all three sequels and that her character Grace Augustine would be alive. [324] In March 2015, however, Weaver said that she will play a new character in the next film. [325] By 2015, the scheduled release dates for the sequels were each delayed by another year, with the first sequel expected to be released in December 2017; Cameron called the writing process \"a complex job\". [326] [327] In June 2015, James Horner , who was reported to be engaged to write music for the franchise, was killed in a plane crash. [328] In December, Cameron stated that he was \"doing another pass through all three scripts ... Just refining. That's in parallel with the design process. The design process is very mature at this point. We've been designing for about a year and a half. All the characters, settings and creatures are all pretty much [set].\" [329] The following month, Fox announced a further release delay. [330] As of February 2016, production of the sequels was scheduled to begin in April 2016 in New Zealand. [331] In April 2016, Cameron announced at CinemaCon that there will be four Avatar sequels, all of which will be filmed simultaneously, with release dates in December 2018, 2020, 2022 and 2023, respectively. [332] [333] In late October 2016, it was reported that Cameron was going to push for \"glasses-free 3D\" with the sequels, [334] but he later disagreed with these rumors and did not think the technology would be there yet. [335] In February 2017, the media website My Entertainment World stated that Avatar 2 had entered production and shooting would start on August 15, 2017, with Manhattan Beach, California as the main shooting location. [336] [337] [338] [339] [340] Cameron confirmed the upcoming shooting, and that the writing of all four sequels was now complete. [341] The following sequels are expected to start shooting right after Avatar 2 wraps filming. [342] The following month, Cameron revealed that Avatar 2 would not be released in 2018, as originally believed. [343] The sequel release dates were announced as starting on Dec. 18, 2020, for Avatar 2 , Dec. 17, 2021 for Avatar 3 , Dec. 20, 2024 for Avatar 4 , and Dec. 19, 2025 for Avatar 5 . [33] In June 2017, Jon Landau stated at the CineEurope conference that principal photography will begin on September 25, 2017. [344] [345] Related media Stage adaptation Toruk - The First Flight is an original stage production by the Montreal -based Cirque du Soleil which premiered in November 2015 and has been touring other cities since 2016. Inspired by Avatar , the story is set in Pandora's past, involving a prophecy concerning a threat to the Tree of Souls and a quest for totems from different tribes. Audience members can download an app in order to participate in show effects. On January 18, 2016, it was announced via the Toruk Facebook page that filming for an upcoming DVD has been completed and is currently undergoing editing. [346] Theme park attraction Main article: Pandora – The World of Avatar In 2011, Cameron, Lightstorm, and Fox entered an exclusive licensing agreement with The Walt Disney Company to feature Avatar -themed attractions at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts worldwide, including a themed land for Disney's Animal Kingdom in Lake Buena Vista, Florida . The area, known as Pandora – The World of Avatar , opened on May 27, 2017. [347] [348] See also Film in the United States portal 2000s portal List of films featuring extraterrestrials List of films featuring powered exoskeletons References Jump up ^ \" AVATAR [3D] (12A)\" . British Board of Film Classification . December 8, 2009 . Retrieved August 19, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar\" . BFI . Retrieved July 20, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Patten, D. (December 3, 2009). \" ' Avatar's' True Cost – and Consequences\" . The Wrap. Archived from the original on December 16, 2009 . 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Fox.com. Archived from the original on December 13, 2009 . Retrieved December 6, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Space Ghost to Come out of Retirement For Interview with Avatar Star Zoë Saldana\" . Adult Swim . December 7, 2009. Archived from the original on May 11, 2010 . Retrieved February 18, 2010 . Jump up ^ Elliott, Stuart (February 8, 2010). \"Campaign Spotlight – This Campaign Is Wet (and Wild)\" . The New York Times . Retrieved February 1, 2012 . Jump up ^ Avatar: A Confidential Report on the Biological and Social History of Pandora . ISBN 978-0-06-189675-0 Jump up ^ James Cameron's Avatar: The Movie Scrapbook . ISBN 978-0-06-180124-2 Jump up ^ The Art of Avatar: James Cameron's Epic Adventure . ISBN 978-0-8109-8286-4 Jump up ^ The Making of Avatar . ISBN 0-8109-9706-1 Jump up ^ Germain, David (December 21, 2009). \" Avatar creator Cameron shares alien shop talk\" . Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010 . Retrieved January 26, 2010 . 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'Avatar' unprecedented in staying power, international sales\" . MarketWatch . Archived from the original on January 6, 2010 . Retrieved January 4, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Weekend Box Office Results for December 25–27, 2009\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Archived from the original on January 1, 2010 . Retrieved December 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Top Grossing Movies in Their 2nd Weekend at the Box Office\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database. Archived from the original on December 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 12, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Weekend Box Office Results for January 1–3, 2010\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010 . Retrieved January 3, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Top Grossing Movies in Their 3rd Weekend at the Box Office\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database. Archived from the original on January 8, 2010 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ \" Avatar fastest film to break $1 billion mark\" . 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Jump up ^ Blair, Iain (December 8, 2009). \"Avatar's Cameron shrugs off buzz – and promises a sequel\" . SciFiWIRE.com . Archived from the original on January 2, 2010 . Retrieved January 1, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \" ' Avatar' Hits $1 Billion Mark, Eyes 'Titanic' Record\" . omg! . Yahoo! News . January 3, 2010. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010 . Retrieved January 4, 2010 . Jump up ^ Tramontana, Stephen (January 5, 2010). \"Why Avatar will not beat Titanic\" . Manolith.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2010 . Retrieved January 6, 2010 . Jump up ^ Ditzian, Eric (January 4, 2010). \"Will 'Avatar' Top James Cameron's 'Titanic' Box-Office Record?\" . MTV. Archived from the original on January 9, 2010 . Retrieved January 8, 2010 . Jump up ^ Jacks, Brian (January 16, 2010). \"EXCLUSIVE: James Cameron Says 'Avatar' Will Beat 'Titanic' To Become Biggest Of All Time\" . Archived from the original on January 17, 2010 . Retrieved January 17, 2010 . Jump up ^ Boucher, Geoff (August 25, 2010). \"James Cameron: I want to compete with 'Star Wars' and Tolkien\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 26, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Ball, Sarah (January 6, 2010). \"Why 'Avatar' Could Out-Earn 'Titanic'. James Cameron is king of the box office again, but will his latest eclipse his Titanic success?\" . Newsweek . Archived from the original on January 9, 2010 . Retrieved January 9, 2010 . Jump up ^ Vary, Adam B. (January 2, 2010). \"Box Office Report: 'Avatar' is No. 1 again, soars past $1 billion worldwide\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on May 27, 2010 . Retrieved January 9, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Archived from the original on December 31, 2010 . Retrieved Sep 26, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar (2009): Reviews\" . Metacritic . Archived from the original on January 17, 2010 . Retrieved December 29, 2009 . 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Retrieved January 17, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Movie News: Avatar to Follow a Pocahontas Narrative\" . Reelzchannel.com. August 6, 2009. Archived from the original on December 12, 2009 . Retrieved December 21, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar: James Cameron deserves the Worst Lefty Award 2009\" (Blog) . The Daily Telegraph . UK. December 24, 2009. Jump up ^ Neda Ulaby , Zoe Chace (January 6, 2010). \" ' Avatar' And Ke$ha: A Denominator In Common?\" . NPR Morning Edition . Archived from the original on January 14, 2010 . Retrieved January 6, 2010 . Jump up ^ Westfahl, Gary (December 20, 2009). \"All Energy Is Borrowed: A Review of Avatar \" . Locus Online . Archived from the original on June 5, 2011 . Retrieved May 17, 2011 . Jump up ^ Dozois, Gardner (2010). \"Summation: 2009\". The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Seventh Annual Collection . Macmillan. p. xxxv. ISBN 0-312-60898-5 . Retrieved January 18, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Did Prog Rock's Greatest Artist Inspire Avatar? 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Jump up ^ Fleming Jr., Mike (May 18, 2017). \"Luc Besson Lays It On The Line For Passion Pic ‘Valerian’ — Deadline Disruptors\" . Deadline.com . Penske Business Media, LLC . Retrieved June 22, 2017 . I thought the script was kind of good a few years ago, and I was ready to start the financing. Then, Avatar arrived. The good news was that, technically, I could see that we can do everything now. The film proved that imagination is the only limit. The bad news is, I threw my script in the garbage, literally, when I came back from the screening. Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (May 17, 2012). \"The 10 Greatest Movies of the Millennium (Thus Far)\" . TIME . Retrieved May 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (May 17, 2012). \"Rethinking the Movie Masterpieces: Richard Corliss Expands TIME’s List of Cinematic Greats\" . Time . Retrieved May 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Top 25 Sci-Fi Movies of All Time\" . IGN . September 17, 2010. Archived from the original on December 4, 2010 . 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Talks AVATAR Re-release, Sequels, 3D Conversions & Working With Del Toro!\" . MarketSaw. Archived from the original on August 15, 2010 . Retrieved August 14, 2010 . Jump up ^ Kara Warner (August 11, 2010). \" ' Avatar' Director James Cameron Talks 'Alien Kink Scene ' \" . MTV. Archived from the original on August 14, 2010 . Retrieved August 14, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar Blu-ray 2 Disc Set\" . 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . Archived from the original on May 27, 2010 . Retrieved April 8, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"James Cameron's Avatar: Combi Pack (Blu-ray & DVD) (2009) (Blu-ray)\" . Play.com. Archived from the original on March 22, 2010 . Retrieved May 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar Earth Day RELEASE: James Cameron Film Comes Out On DVD, Inspires 'Home Tree' Earth Day 2010\" . The Huffington Post . April 21, 2010. Archived from the original on April 27, 2010 . Retrieved May 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ Juan Calonge (March 25, 2010). \"Makers of Avatar Unveil Blu-ray Launch\" . Blu-ray.com. Archived from the original on April 14, 2010 . Retrieved March 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Some 'Avatar' Fans Struggle With Blu-Ray\" . Yahoo! Movies . April 30, 2010. Archived from the original on May 3, 2010 . Retrieved April 30, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"This is why early adopting sucks: 'Avatar' doesn't play on some Samsung BR players\" . CrunchGear . April 23, 2010. Archived from the original on April 26, 2010 . Retrieved April 30, 2010 . Jump up ^ \" ' Avatar' shatters sales records – and inspires an armed heist in Mexico City\" . Los Angeles Times . April 23, 2010. Archived from the original on April 25, 2010 . Retrieved April 23, 2010 . Jump up ^ Fritz, Ben (April 25, 2010). \" ' Avatar' is already the bestselling Blu-ray ever\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on June 8, 2010 . Retrieved May 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ King, Mike (April 26, 2010). \"Movie Talk:James Cameron, King of DVD sales\" . Yahoo Movies. Archived from the original on May 5, 2010 . Retrieved May 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar breaks UK Blu-ray sales record\" . BBC News. April 28, 2010. Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved May 2, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \" Avatar Fastest Selling DVD After Three Weeks\" . ABC News . May 11, 2010. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010 . Retrieved May 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar – DVD Sales\" . The Numbers . Retrieved July 18, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"All-Time Best-Selling Blu-ray Titles in the United States\" . The Numbers. January 25, 2015 . Retrieved January 25, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Fleming, Ryan (October 7, 2010). \"Avatar three-disc extended collectors set due in November\" . Digital Trends . Retrieved October 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ Russell, Mike (August 26, 2010). \"Interview with James Cameron on 'Avatar' re-release, BP oil spill – and much more\" . The Oregonian . Archived from the original on August 29, 2010 . Retrieved August 29, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Update: Cameron Talks Avatar Blu-ray/DVD Releases and Sequel\" . Comingsoon.net. February 19, 2010 . Retrieved May 25, 2010 . Jump up ^ Trenholm, Rich (November 1, 2010). \"Avatar gets 3D Blu-ray release, comes with free Panasonic 3DTV\" . CNET UK. Archived from the original on November 4, 2010 . Retrieved November 12, 2010 . Jump up ^ Calonge, Juan (October 21, 2010). \"Cameron: Avatar CE Blu-ray Is Last Version – Save for 3D\" . Blu-ray.com. Archived from the original on October 26, 2010 . Retrieved November 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Digital TV  – Sky to give 'Avatar' 3D world premiere\" . Digital Spy . December 1, 2010 . Retrieved December 21, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 3DTV world premiere on Sky 3D – Pocket-lint\" . Pocket-link.com. December 1, 2010. Archived from the original on December 31, 2010 . Retrieved December 21, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Sky Secures Avatar 3D TV World Premier\" . IT Pro Portal. December 1, 2010 . Retrieved December 21, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar on Blu-ray 3D\" . YouTube. August 15, 2012 . Retrieved November 8, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 3D Blu-ray: Limited 3D Edition\" . Blu-ray.com . Retrieved November 8, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b Carroll, Larry (June 29, 2006). \" ' Titanic' Mastermind James Cameron's King-Size Comeback: Two Sci-Fi Trilogies\" . MTV . Retrieved October 18, 2006 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Adam (January 8, 2010). \" ' Avatar' Sequel Confirmed By James Cameron ... And Here's What We'd Like To See\" . MTV. Archived from the original on January 16, 2010 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"James Cameron Planning 'Avatar' Trilogy\" . Yahoo! . January 14, 2010. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010 . Retrieved January 17, 2010 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Adam (August 7, 2010). \"EXCLUSIVE: 'Avatar' Sequels Could Shoot Back-To-Back, Story Hints In Upcoming Novel\" . MTV. Archived from the original on August 14, 2010 . Retrieved August 7, 2010 . Jump up ^ Day, Patrick Kevin (April 20, 2010). \"James Cameron: The 'Avatar' sequel will dive into the oceans of Pandora\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on April 23, 2010 . Retrieved April 22, 2010 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ Harlow, John (September 12, 2010). \"James Cameron commissions deep sea sub to film footage for Avatar sequel\" . The Australian . Retrieved September 18, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Cameron: New 'Avatar 2' Details\" . ABC news . Retrieved January 1, 2012 . Jump up ^ Eric Ditzian (December 21, 2009). \"James Cameron Talks 'Avatar' Sequel Plans\" . MTV. Archived from the original on January 14, 2010 . Retrieved January 2, 2010 . Jump up ^ Eric Ditzian (February 18, 2010). \"James Cameron Says 'Everyone's Highly Motivated' For 'Avatar' Sequel\" . MTV . Retrieved February 21, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"BBC News – Sigourney Weaver Avatar 2 role confirmed\" . BBC News. September 18, 2011 . Retrieved September 18, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"James Cameron Has Found Avatar's Darth Vader: It's Stephen Lang\" . Deadline.com. October 22, 2013 . Retrieved November 8, 2013 . Jump up ^ Pamela McClintock (October 27, 2010). \"James Cameron sets 'Avatar' 2 & 3 as next films\" . Variety . Archived from the original on January 12, 2011 . Retrieved October 27, 2010 . Jump up ^ Carolyn Giardina (March 30, 2011). \"James Cameron 'Fully Intends' to Make 'Avatar 2 and 3' at Higher Frame Rates\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved April 4, 2010 . Jump up ^ Carolyn Giardina (March 30, 2011). \"James Cameron 'Fully Intends' to Make 'Avatar 2 and 3' at Higher Frame Rates\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved November 8, 2012 . Jump up ^ Brian Gallagher (May 7, 2012). \"James Cameron to Make Avatar 4 Instead of Battle Angel \" . MovieWeb . Retrieved May 7, 2012 . Jump up ^ Keegan, Rebecca (September 10, 2012). \"James Cameron: ‘Avatar’ sequels ‘a daunting writing task’\" . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ Fleming, Mike (August 1, 2013). \" ' Avatar' Sequels Upped To Three; Fox, James Cameron Set Trio of Writers to Spearhead\" . Deadline.com . Retrieved July 21, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Fox & James Cameron Announce ‘Avatar’ Novels Based On Movie & Upcoming Sequels\" . Deadline.com. August 22, 2013 . Retrieved September 12, 2013 . Jump up ^ Joyce, Steven ; Finlayson, Chris (December 16, 2013). \"Three Avatar films to be made in New Zealand\" . New Zealand Government . Retrieved December 23, 2013 . Jump up ^ Jared Larson (December 16, 2013). \"Trilogy of Avatar Sequels to Be Made in New Zealand\" . IGN . Retrieved December 16, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"James Cameron. AMA\" . reddit.com . Retrieved April 13, 2014 . Jump up ^ Lieberman, David (April 12, 2014). \"James Cameron on ‘Avatar’ Sequel Timetable Following Rupert Murdoch’s Comments\" . deadline.com . Retrieved April 13, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"James Cameron Talks Avatar Sequels\" . Empire . November 26, 2014. Jump up ^ \"James Cameron Opens Up About 'Avatar' Sequels\" . Inquisitr . November 28, 2014. Jump up ^ \"James Cameron Used ‘Dark Angel’ Experience to Write ‘Avatar’ Sequels\" . ScreenRant . June 2014 . Retrieved December 10, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2 Movie Spoilers, Release Date: Sigourney Weaver Alive, Will Play Crucial Role in New Trilogy\" . BreatheCast . September 16, 2014 . Retrieved October 4, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2 Will See Sigourney Weaver Play a Brand New Character\" . Jump up ^ Brent Lang (January 14, 2015). \"James Cameron Pushes Back ‘Avatar’ Sequels By a Year\" . Variety . Retrieved January 14, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"James Cameron Says 'Avatar' Sequel Delayed Until 2017\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Associated Press. January 14, 2015 . Retrieved January 14, 2015 . Jump up ^ Chestang, Raphael (June 24, 2015). \"How James Horner Created the Unforgettable Titanic Theme Song, 'My Heart Will Go On ' \" . ET Online . Retrieved June 24, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"James Cameron wants to prove Avatar success wasn’t 'some big fluke ' \" . Entertainment Weekly . December 11, 2015 . Retrieved December 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ Cunningham, Todd (January 21, 2016). \"James Cameron’s Avatar 2 Won’t Be Ready for Christmas 2017 (Exclusive)\" . The Wrap . Retrieved January 23, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2\" . My Entertainment World . Retrieved February 11, 2016 . (subscription required) Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (April 14, 2016). \"20th Century Fox CinemaCon: ‘Avatar’ Sequels, ‘Deadpool 2’, ‘Greatest Showman On Earth’ Updates, Vanilla Ice Raps, ‘Assassin’s Creed’, ‘Birth Of A Nation’ & More\" . Deadline. Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (April 14, 2016). \"James Cameron Expands ‘Avatar’ Sequels To Four, Slams Screening Room & Gets Cheers From Exhibs- CinemaCon\" . Deadline. Jump up ^ Nordine, Michael (October 30, 2016). \"James Cameron Pushing for 3D Advances and Higher Frame Rates for ‘Avatar’ Sequels\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on October 31, 2016 . Retrieved October 31, 2016 . Jump up ^ James Cameron on Terminator 2, Avatar and the future of cinema Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2 Production Start Date Revealed\" . Comicbook.com . February 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Avatar 2' Latest News: Sequel to Begin Filming in August\" . The Christian Post . February 28, 2017 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2: Sam Worthington confirms start date for James Cameron sequels\" . Stuff.co . February 20, 2017 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Avatar 2 production start date set for August\" . Den of Geek . February 28, 2017 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2 officially starts filming in August, James Cameron teams up with Ubisoft for Avatar game\" . The Independent . March 1, 2017 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' Avatar 2' Script News: James Cameron Feels Like He's Been Freed From Jail After Completing Script for All 5 Films\" . The Christian Post . February 11, 2018 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Avatar 2 Will Finally Begin Shooting in Late Summer\" . Movie Web . February 1, 2018 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Galuppo, Mia (March 10, 2017). \" ' Avatar 2' Won't Hit Theaters In 2018, James Cameron Says\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Tartaglione, Nancy (June 20, 2017). \"‘Avatar’ Sequels Update: Production \"Officially\" Begins In September On Saga’s Stand-Alones – CineEurope\" . Deadline . Retrieved August 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Dumaraog, Ana (June 20, 2017). \"Avatar Sequels Officially Begin Production in September\" . ScreenRant . Retrieved August 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"That's a wrap! Filming for the upcoming... - TORUK - The First Flight - Facebook\" . Jump up ^ Cody, Anthony (September 22, 2011). \"Disney to build Avatar attractions at its theme parks\" . The Telegraph . Retrieved September 23, 2011 . Jump up ^ Levy, Dani (February 7, 2017). \"Disney’s ‘Avatar’-Themed Land Opening Date Revealed, Star Wars Land Coming in 2019\" . Variety . Retrieved February 8, 2017 . Further reading Armstrong, Jeffrey (2010). Spiritual Teachings of the Avatar: Ancient Wisdom for a New World . New York: Atria Books. ISBN 978-1-58270-281-0 . A detailed analysis of the film's parallels with the teachings of the Vedas . Duncan, Jody; Fitzpatrick, Lisa (2010). The Making of Avatar . New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-9706-6 . OCLC 555654027 . Lawtoo, Nidesh (2015). \" Avatar Simulation in 3Ts: Techne, Trance, Transformation.\" Modern Fiction Studies 125 41.1 pp. 132–150. Mahoney, Kevin Patrick (2010). The Ultimate Fan's Guide to Avatar, James Cameron's Epic Movie (Unauthorized) . London: Punked Books. ISBN 978-0-9533172-5-7 . External links Find more about Avatar (2009 film) at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Official website Official shooting script Avatar on IMDb Avatar at AllMovie Avatar at Box Office Mojo Avatar at Metacritic Avatar at Rotten Tomatoes [ show ] v t e Avatar Media Soundtrack album \" I See You \" Video game Art book Toruk - The First Flight Universe Fictional universe Pandoran biosphere Na'vi language Na'vi grammar Related Pandora – The World of Avatar Avatar Flight of Passage Na'vi River Journey Awards and honors Box office records Themes Other Avatar Hallelujah Mountain \" Dances with Smurfs \" \" Treehouse of Horror XXII \" This Ain't Avatar XXX Book Category [ show ] Awards for Avatar [ show ] v t e Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Action Movie The Dark Knight (2008) Avatar (2009) Inception (2010) Drive (2011) Skyfall (2012) Lone Survivor (2013) Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) Mad Max: Fury Road (2015) Hacksaw Ridge (2016) [ show ] v t e Empire Award for Best Film Braveheart (1996) Se7en (1997) Men in Black (1998) Titanic (1999) The Matrix (2000) Gladiator (2001) The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2003) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2004) The Bourne Supremacy (2005) King Kong (2006) Casino Royale (2007) The Bourne Ultimatum (2008) The Dark Knight (2009) Avatar (2010) Inception (2011) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 (2012) Skyfall (2013) Gravity (2014) Interstellar (2015) The Revenant (2016) Rogue One (2017) [ show ] v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama A Place in the Sun (1951) The Greatest Show on Earth (1952) On the Waterfront (1954) East of Eden (1955) Around the World in 80 Days (1956) The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) The Defiant Ones (1958) Ben-Hur (1959) Spartacus (1960) The Guns of Navarone (1961) Lawrence of Arabia (1962) The Cardinal (1963) Becket (1964) Doctor Zhivago (1965) A Man for All Seasons (1966) In the Heat of the Night (1967) The Lion in Winter (1968) Anne of the Thousand Days (1969) Love Story (1970) The French Connection (1971) The Godfather (1972) The Exorcist (1973) Chinatown (1974) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) Rocky (1976) The Turning Point (1977) Midnight Express (1978) Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) Ordinary People (1980) On Golden Pond (1981) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) Terms of Endearment (1983) Amadeus (1984) Out of Africa (1985) Platoon (1986) The Last Emperor (1987) Rain Man (1988) Born on the Fourth of July (1989) Dances with Wolves (1990) Bugsy (1991) Scent of a Woman (1992) Schindler's List (1993) Forrest Gump (1994) Sense and Sensibility (1995) The English Patient (1996) Titanic (1997) Saving Private Ryan (1998) American Beauty (1999) Gladiator (2000) A Beautiful Mind (2001) The Hours (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) The Aviator (2004) Brokeback Mountain (2005) Babel (2006) Atonement (2007) Slumdog Millionaire (2008) Avatar (2009) The Social Network (2010) The Descendants (2011) Argo (2012) 12 Years a Slave (2013) Boyhood (2014) The Revenant (2015) Moonlight (2016) [ show ] v t e Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film Slaughterhouse-Five (1972) Soylent Green (1973) Rollerball (1974/1975) Logan's Run (1976) Star Wars (1977) Superman (1978) Alien (1979) The Empire Strikes Back (1980) Superman II (1981) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) Return of the Jedi (1983) The Terminator (1984) Back to the Future (1985) Aliens (1986) RoboCop (1987) Alien Nation (1988) Total Recall (1989/1990) Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1992) Jurassic Park (1993) Stargate (1994) 12 Monkeys (1995) Independence Day (1996) Men in Black (1997) Armageddon / Dark City (1998) The Matrix (1999) X-Men (2000) A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001) Minority Report (2002) X2: X-Men United (2003) Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005) Children of Men (2006) Cloverfield (2007) Iron Man (2008) Avatar (2009) Inception (2010) Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011) The Avengers (2012) Gravity (2013) Interstellar (2014) Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016) [ show ] v t e James Cameron Filmography Films directed Feature Piranha II: The Spawning (1981) The Terminator (1984) Aliens (1986) The Abyss (1989) Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) True Lies (1994) Titanic (1997) Avatar (2009) Short Xenogenesis (1978) T2 3-D: Battle Across Time (1996) Documentaries Expedition: Bismarck (2002) Ghosts of the Abyss (2003) Aliens of the Deep (2005) Written only Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985) Strange Days (1995) Produced only Strange Days (1995) Solaris (2002) Alita: Battle Angel (2018) Related articles Lightstorm Entertainment Dark Angel Deepsea Challenger Pristimantis jamescameroni Authority control GND : 7684937-5 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avatar_(2009_film)&oldid=800608961 \" Categories : 2009 films English-language films Avatar (2009 film) 2000s 3D films 2000s action films American adventure films Science fiction adventure films 2000s adventure films 20th Century Fox films 22nd century in fiction American epic films American films American science fiction action films Artificial uterus in fiction Best Film Empire Award winners Dune Entertainment films Environmental films Fictional-language films Film scores by James Horner Films about cloning Films about extraterrestrial life Films about paraplegics or quadriplegics Films about rebellions Films about technology Films about telepresence Films directed by James Cameron Films set in the 22nd century Films set on fictional moons Films shot in California Films shot in Hawaii Films shot in New Zealand Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films using computer-generated imagery Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award Holography in films IMAX films Lightstorm Entertainment films Military science fiction films Performance capture in film Planetary romances Rebellions in fiction Rotoscoped films Science fiction war films Screenplays by James Cameron Social science fiction films Space adventure films Transhumanism in film Films about consciousness transfer Epic science fiction films Action adventure films Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2010 CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja) Articles with French-language external links Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with dead external links from May 2017 Articles with dead external links from October 2011 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Use mdy dates from April 2017 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from August 2015 Articles with hAudio microformats Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Dorerin Naoero Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 September 2017, at 16:08. 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{ "text": "Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 - Wikipedia Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards . No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can. (April 2011) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 An Act to prevent money-laundering and to provide for confiscation of property derived from, or involved in, money-laundering and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. Citation Act No.15 of 2003 Enacted by Parliament of India Date enacted 17 January 2003 Date assented to 17 January 2003 Date commenced 1 July 2005 Amendments The Prevention of Money Laundering (Amendment) Act, 2005 , The Prevention of Money Laundering (Amendment) Act, 2009 Status: In force Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted by the NDA government to prevent money-laundering and to provide for confiscation of property derived from money-laundering. [1] [2] PMLA and the Rules notified there under came into force with effect from July 1, 2005. The Act and Rules notified there under impose obligation on banking companies, financial institutions and intermediaries to verify identity of clients, maintain records and furnish information in prescribed form to Financial Intelligence Unit - India (FIU-IND). [3] The act was amended in the year 2005, 2009 and 2012. [4] On 24 Nov 2017, In a ruling in favour of citizens' liberty, the Supreme Court has set aside a clause in the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, which made it virtually impossible for a person convicted to more than three years in jail to get bail if the public prosecutor opposed it. (Section 45 of the PMLA Act, 2002, provides that no person can be granted bail for any offence under the Act unless the public prosecutor, appointed by the government, gets a chance to oppose his bail. And should the public prosecutor choose to oppose bail, the court has to be convinced that the accused was not guilty of the crime and additionally that he/she was not likely to commit any offence while out on bail- a tall order by any count.) (It observed that the provision violates Articles 14 and 21 of the Indian Constitution) Contents [ hide ] 1 Objectives 2 Key definitions 3 Salient features 3.1 Punishment for money-laundering 3.2 Powers of attachment of tainted property 3.3 Adjudicating Authority 3.4 Presumption in inter-connected transactions 3.5 Burden of proof 3.6 Appellate Tribunal 3.7 Special Court 3.8 FIU-IND 4 Similar laws in other countries 4.1 Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 5 See also 6 References Objectives [ edit ] The PMLA seeks to combat money laundering in India and has three main objectives: To prevent and control money laundering To confiscate and seize the property obtained from the laundered money; and To deal with any other issue connected with money laundering in India. [5] Key definitions [ edit ] Attachment : Prohibition of transfer, conversion, disposition or movement of property by an appropriate legal order. [6] Proceeds of crime: Any property derived or obtained, directly or indirectly, by any person as a result of criminal activity relating to a scheduled offence. [7] Money-laundering: Whosoever directly or indirectly attempts to indulge or assist other person or actually involved in any activity connected with the proceeds of crime and projecting it as untainted property. [8] Payment System: A system that enables payment to be effected between a payer and a beneficiary, involving clearing, payment or settlement service or all of them. It includes the systems enabling credit card, debit card, smart card, money transfer or similar operations. [9] Salient features [ edit ] Punishment for money-laundering [ edit ] The act prescribes that any person found guilty of money-laundering shall be punishable with rigorous imprisonment from three years to seven years and where the proceeds of crime involved relate to any offence under paragraph 2 of Part A of the Schedule (Offences under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substance Act, 1985), the maximum punishment may extend to 10 years instead of 7 years. [10] Powers of attachment of tainted property [ edit ] Appropriate authorities, appointed by the Govt of India , can provisionally attach property believed to be \"proceeds of crime\" for 180 days. Such an order is required to be confirmed by an independent Adjudicating Authority . [11] Adjudicating Authority [ edit ] The Adjudicating Authority is the authority appointed by the central government through notification to exercise jurisdiction, powers and authority conferred under PMLA. It decides whether any of the property attached or seized is involved in money laundering. [12] The Adjudicating Authority shall not be bound by the procedure laid down by the Code of Civil Procedure,1908, but shall be guided by the principles of natural justice and subject to the other provisions of PMLA. The Adjudicating Authority shall have powers to regulate its own procedure. [13] Presumption in inter-connected transactions [ edit ] Where money laundering involves two or more inter-connected transactions and one or more such transactions is or are proved to be involved in money laundering, then for the purposes of adjudication or confiscation, it shall presumed that the remaining transactions form part of such inter-connected transactions. [14] Burden of proof [ edit ] A person, who is accused of having committed the offence of money laundering, has to prove that alleged proceeds of crime are in fact lawful property. [15] Appellate Tribunal [ edit ] An Appellate Tribunal is the body appointed by Govt of India . It is given the power to hear appeals against the orders of the Adjudicating Authority and any other authority under the Act. [16] Orders of the tribunal can be appealed in appropriate High Court (for that jurisdiction) and finally to the Supreme Court [17] Special Court [ edit ] Section 43 of Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) says that the Central Government, in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court, shall, for trial of offence punishable under Section 4, by notification, designate one or more Courts of Session as Special Court or Special Courts for such area or areas or for such case or class or group of cases as may be specified in the notification. FIU-IND [ edit ] Financial Intelligence Unit – India (FIU-IND) was set by the Government of India on 18 November 2004 as the central national agency responsible for receiving, processing, analyzing and disseminating information relating to suspect financial transactions. FIU-IND is also responsible for coordinating and strengthening efforts of national and international intelligence, investigation and enforcement agencies in pursuing the global efforts against money laundering and related crimes. FIU-IND is an independent body reporting directly to the Economic Intelligence Council (EIC) headed by the Finance Minister. [18] Similar laws in other countries [ edit ] Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 [ edit ] Main article: Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 This is an Act of the United States Congress that made money laundering a Federal crime. It criminalized money laundering for the first time in the United States. [19] Established money laundering as a federal crime Prohibited structuring transactions to evade CTR filings Introduced civil and criminal forfeiture for BSA violations Directed banks to establish and maintain procedures to ensure and monitor compliance with the reporting and record keeping requirements of the BSA [20] See also [ edit ] List of Acts of the Parliament of India References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1156901.cms Jump up ^ http://fiuindia.gov.in/pmla2002.htm Jump up ^ \"Section 12 of PMLA, 2002\" . Jump up ^ http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/022013.pdf Jump up ^ \"Department of Revenue\" . dor.gov.in . Retrieved 2015-10-29 . Jump up ^ \"Section 2(1)(d) in PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Section 2(1)(u) in PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Section 3 in PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Section 2(1)(rb) of PMLA 2002\" . Indian kanoon. Jump up ^ \"PMLA 2002 - Section 4 - Punishment for Money Laundering\" . fiuindia.gov.in . Retrieved 2015-10-29 . Jump up ^ \"Section 5 in PMLA, 2002\" . Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Section 6 of PMLA 2002\" . Indian Kanoon. Jump up ^ \"Sub-section 15 of Section 6 of PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon. Jump up ^ \"Section 23 of PMLA 2002\" . Indian kanoon. Jump up ^ \"Section 24 in PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Section 25 in PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Section 42 in PMLA, 2002\" . Indian Kanoon . Retrieved 10 October 2012 . Jump up ^ \"About FIU-IND - Overview\" . fiuindia.gov.in . Retrieved 2015-10-30 . Jump up ^ Cassella, Stephan (September 2007). \"Money Laundering Laws\" (PDF) . Retrieved 2 March 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Money Laundering control Act 1986\" . [ hide ] v t e Indian Legislation Constitution of India ( amendments ) Indian Penal Code CrPC Acts of Parliament In Force Consumer Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016 Consumer Protection Act, 1986 Essential Commodities Act Essential Services Maintenance Act Corruption Benami Transactions Black Money Corruption Lokpal Mines & Minerals Act 2015 Money Laundering Whistle Blowers Criminal Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007 Arms Act, 1959 Army Act Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 Indian Evidence Act Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 National Security Act (India) Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 Education National Institutes of Technology Act, 2007 Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act University Grants Commission Act, 1956 Environment Biological Diversity Act, 2002 Environment Protection Act, 1986 Indian Forest Act, 1927 National Green Tribunal Act Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 CAMPA bill Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Financial Aadhaar Act Banking Regulation Act, 1949 COFEPOSA Depositories Act Electricity Act Expenditure Tax Act, 1987 Factories Act,1948, India Finance Act (India) Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 Foreign Contribution Regulation Act Foreign Exchange Management Act Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 Government Securities Act, 2006 Indian Contract Act, 1872 Indian Stamp Act, 1899 Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code Insurance Act, 1938 Minimum Wages Act 1948 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 Securities Laws (Amendment) Act, 2014 Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial 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{ "text": "This Is Us (season 1) - Wikipedia This Is Us (season 1) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This Is Us (season 1) DVD cover Starring Milo Ventimiglia Mandy Moore Sterling K. Brown Chrissy Metz Justin Hartley Susan Kelechi Watson Chris Sullivan Ron Cephas Jones Country of origin United States No. of episodes 18 Release Original network NBC Original release September 20, 2016 ( 2016-09-20 ) – March 14, 2017 ( 2017-03-14 ) Season chronology Next → Season 2 List of This Is Us episodes The first season of the American television series This Is Us follows the family lives and connections of several people who all share the same birthday and the ways in which they are similar and different. The season is produced by Rhode Island Ave. Productions, Zaftig Films, and 20th Century Fox Television , with Fogelman and Don Todd serving as showrunners . The season stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia , Mandy Moore , Sterling K. Brown , Chrissy Metz , Justin Hartley , Susan Kelechi Watson , Chris Sullivan , and Ron Cephas Jones . The season, which premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016, and ran until March 14, 2017, over 18 episodes, received generally positive reviews from critics. It was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the top ten television programs of 2016 , and received ten nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Drama Series with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series , as well as receiving nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama and the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Drama Series . The series was renewed for a second and third season on January 18, 2017. [1] Contents 1 Cast and characters 1.1 Main 1.2 Recurring 1.3 Guest 2 Episodes 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Casting 4 Reception 4.1 Critical response 4.1.1 Critics' top ten lists 4.2 Ratings 4.3 Accolades 5 Broadcast 6 References Cast and characters [ edit ] Main article: List of This Is Us characters Main [ edit ] Milo Ventimiglia as Jack Pearson [2] Mandy Moore as Rebecca Pearson [2] Sterling K. Brown as Randall Pearson [2] Chrissy Metz as Kate Pearson [3] Justin Hartley as Kevin Pearson [2] Susan Kelechi Watson as Beth Pearson [4] Chris Sullivan as Toby Damon Ron Cephas Jones as William H. \"Shakespeare\" Hill [2] Recurring [ edit ] Niles Fitch as teenage Randall Pearson Lonnie Chavis as young Randall Pearson [5] Hannah Zeile as teenage Kate Pearson Mackenzie Hancsicsak as young Kate Pearson [5] Logan Shroyer as teenage Kevin Pearson Parker Bates as young Kevin Pearson [5] Eris Baker as Tess Pearson Faithe Herman as Annie Pearson Jon Huertas as Miguel Rivas [6] Gerald McRaney as Dr. Nathan Katowski (aka Dr. K) Jermel Nakia as young adult William H. \"Shakespeare\" Hill Janet Montgomery as Olivia Maine Milana Vayntrub as Sloane Sandburg Ryan Michelle Bathe as Yvette Denis O'Hare as Jessie Adam Bartley as Duke Alexandra Breckenridge as Sophie Amanda Leighton as teenage Sophie Sophia Coto as young Sophie Jill Johnson as Laurie Caitlin Thompson as Madison Guest [ edit ] Alan Thicke as himself Katie Couric as herself Brad Garrett as Wes Manning Katey Sagal as Lanie Schulz Jami Gertz as Marin Rosenthal Seth Meyers as himself Jimmi Simpson as Andy Fannan Elizabeth Perkins as Janet Malone Mario Lopez as himself Wynn Everett as Shelly Ron Howard as himself Susan Blakely as Anne Episodes [ edit ] No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod. code U.S. viewers (millions) 1 1 \"Pilot\" John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Dan Fogelman September 20, 2016 ( 2016-09-20 ) 1AZC01 10.07 [7] The intertitle references a Wikipedia -sourced statistic about how many people share the same birthdays . In 1980, Jack Pearson was celebrating his 36th birthday when his wife Rebecca went into labor with their triplets. In the present, personal assistant Kate celebrates her 36th birthday by recommitting to lose weight, and befriends Toby at a support group. Her brother Kevin is an actor famous for starring on the sitcom The Manny ; on his 36th birthday states his dissatisfaction with his role and abruptly quits in front of a live audience. Successful Black businessman Randall, on his 36th birthday, finds and confronts the father, William, who abandoned him at a fire station on the day he was born; Randall then invites William to his house. In 1980, Rebecca lost one of the triplets during birth. Kevin and Kate were the surviving pair; Randall – brought to the same hospital by a fireman – was their adopted brother. 2 2 \"The Big Three\" Ken Olin Dan Fogelman September 27, 2016 ( 2016-09-27 ) 1AZC02 8.75 [8] Rebecca and Jack (in flashbacks) are having marital issues. In the present, Randall's wife, Beth, has suspicions about his biological father's motives. Toby and Kate start getting closer. At a party, Kevin is told he is contractually obligated to stay on his sitcom two more years. Kate and Toby dance at the party, despite people's laughter. Kevin tries to turn to Randall for advice; they are shown to have had a strained relationship since childhood. Kevin decides to leave the sitcom anyway, and do theater in New York. Rebecca is remarried to Jack's best friend, Miguel. 3 3 \"Kyle\" John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Dan Fogelman October 11, 2016 ( 2016-10-11 ) 1AZC03 9.87 [9] In flashbacks, Randall's name was initially going to be Kyle. His biological father, William (nicknamed \" Shakespeare \"), met his birth mother on a bus ride where they bonded over poetry, but at some point they developed substance abuse problems. William is shown on the bus as he takes his newborn son to the fire station. Rebecca is not able to bond well with \"Kyle\", and Jack eventually admits he cannot either. Rebecca prevents William from seeing his son, but renames him Randall after William's favorite poet, Dudley Randall . In the present, Randall's daughters do not know who William really is. After Rebecca scolds him at Randall's home, he leaves – Randall then scolds him even harder. Kevin is serious about moving to New York and wants to bring Kate with him, and encourages her to showcase her singing abilities, about which she is uncomfortable. Toby makes grand gestures for Kate, but feels she gives precedence to Kevin. William's cancer is terminal. Kevin fires Kate out of love. Toby and Kate have sex. 4 4 \"The Pool\" John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Dan Fogelman & Donald Todd October 18, 2016 ( 2016-10-18 ) 1AZC04 9.71 [10] In flashbacks, the Pearsons go to the pool, but have setbacks: Kevin almost drowns while his parents attend to Randall and Kate; Kate is ostracized for being overweight by her classmates; and while Randall befriends other Black children, Rebecca takes it especially hard when one mother suggests some grooming tips for her Black son. In the present, while Kevin is determined to land a serious role on Broadway, even his nieces will not let him forget The Manny . William is wrongly accused of loitering in Randall's affluent neighborhood and is annoyed when Randall does not defend him. Toby runs into his ex-wife while on a date with Kate. Kevin does poorly in his audition, but Olivia, his Tony -nominated scene partner, begrudgingly tells him he got the role because of his fame from The Manny . In a flashback, Kevin is shown to have been insecure since childhood, which may have led him to acting. Kate gets a job from Toby's ex-wife, Josie, who Toby warns is not the angel she seems to be; in fact, her affairs led to his weight gain and caused him to contemplate suicide. Kevin temporarily moves in with Randall. 5 5 \"The Game Plan\" George Tillman Joe Lawson October 25, 2016 ( 2016-10-25 ) 1AZC05 8.68 [11] In flashbacks, the Pittsburgh Steelers are winning Super Bowl XIV , but Jack and Rebecca are fighting about not having children. Jack punches a guy who tells him to have his wife be quiet. Kevin and Kate are conceived that night. Miguel and his wife are present at the time. Beth Pearson believes she may be pregnant again, but it turns out she is not. In the present, William reveals to Kevin he is a big fan of The Manny , and helps Kevin realize he should stop doubting himself. Kevin believes he moved to New York out of fear and uses the play to teach a life lesson to his nieces; he also has a penchant for painting like Jackson Pollock . Kate acts weird about watching a Steelers game and has to tell Toby why football games are personal for her. It is then confirmed that Jack died at some point. 6 6 \"Career Days\" Craig Zisk Bekah Brunstetter November 1, 2016 ( 2016-11-01 ) 1AZC06 8.48 [12] Randall trades commodities for businesses based on weather futures , a job no one seems to understand, and he tries unsuccessfully to explain that on Career Day. Flashbacks reveal that Randall has been extraordinarily intelligent since he was a child, which got him transferred to an elite private school. Kate starts a new job as a personal assistant for Marin ( Jami Gertz ) and has to deal with Marin's bratty overweight teenage daughter, Jemma, who is sure her mother hired Kate over the other candidates as a way to get through to her. Kate reveals she no longer talks to her mom, Rebecca. Olivia has unorthodox methods of teaching Kevin how to deal with grief. Randall decides he wants to take piano lessons, but not from William. 7 7 \"The Best Washing Machine in the World\" Silas Howard K.J. Steinberg November 15, 2016 ( 2016-11-15 ) 1AZC07 9.50 [13] In flashbacks, teenage Kevin and Randall are bickering harder than ever. Kevin moves out of their room and into the basement and wants Randall to stay away. Tensions surface at a football game, where the two (on opposing teams) get in a fight. In the present, Kevin and Randall go out to dinner by themselves when Rebecca and Miguel have to cancel. It appears Kevin purposely sat them at a large table with other people so that they would not have to be alone, but he abruptly leaves when he finds out Randall has never actually seen The Manny . Randall and Kevin fight on the street, but Kevin tells onlookers they are brothers. Kate is trying hard to lose weight, but with disappointing results; meanwhile, Toby is hitting his weight-loss goals without trying and wants to abandon the diet altogether. Beth and William eat marijuana brownies together and he accidentally reveals to her that he has known Rebecca since Randall was a baby. Ironically, Beth moves Kevin's stuff to the basement. 8 8 \"Pilgrim Rick\" Sarah Pia Anderson Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger November 22, 2016 ( 2016-11-22 ) 1AZC08 9.00 [14] In the past, the Pearsons are going on a six-hour road trip to Rebecca's parents' house for Thanksgiving, but they get into a car accident and abandon the dinner completely, staying at a motel. Present-day Kate takes a break from Toby before Thanksgiving, saying she needs to get a handle on her weight and her life. Kevin invites Olivia to come celebrate Thanksgiving at Randall's house. Beth gives Rebecca an ultimatum, since she had already had 36 years to tell Randall the truth, but he finds out before Rebecca can tell him. William advises Olivia to be kinder to Kevin while she has the chance. Kevin allows Miguel to participate in a Pearson Thanksgiving tradition. A distraught Randall confronts his mother about her knowledge of his biological father at dinner. As he leaves, Kate announces a life-changing decision having experienced a disastrous flight. 9 9 \"The Trip\" Uta Briesewitz Vera Herbert November 29, 2016 ( 2016-11-29 ) 1AZC09 10.53 [15] Randall is unbearably devastated by his mother's lies and betrayal. He, Kate, and Kevin make a trip to their family cabin; Olivia tags along with two uninvited guests: Asher, her ex-boyfriend, and Sloane, her playwright. Olivia makes a rude comment to Kate, driving a wedge between the twins. In flashbacks, child Randall thinks he can find his birth parents by the genetic trait of tongue rolling . Rebecca never tells Jack that she knows about Randall's parents. Adult Randall inadvertently ingests a hallucinogen , and has a vision of Jack at the cabin. Though \"Vision Jack\" is shocked Rebecca lied, he tells Randall to understand his mother's point of view. Kate still wants to be friends with Toby, but he would rather not. Kevin does not like how Olivia and Asher are behaving and kicks them out, ending his relationship with her. He later ends up sleeping with Sloane. Randall tells his mother he will not speak to her again until Christmas. 10 10 \"Last Christmas\" Helen Hunt Donald Todd December 6, 2016 ( 2016-12-06 ) 1AZC10 10.95 [16] When young Kate develops appendicitis on Christmas Eve, the Pearsons take her to the hospital. There, they run into Dr. K and realize he needs their support after a potentially fatal car crash. In the present, after Olivia abandons the play, Kevin convinces Sloane to take her role. He also celebrates Hanukkah with Sloane's family, and she joins him at Randall's Christmas Eve party. Kate consults a doctor with her mother about the life-changing surgery she wants to have. Randall talks his co-worker out of a suicide attempt. William is revealed to be bisexual. Toby comes to Randall's house to surprise Kate and they get back together, but he later collapses and is sent to the OR. 11 11 \"The Right Thing to Do\" Timothy Busfield Aurin Squire January 10, 2017 ( 2017-01-10 ) 1AZC11 10.48 [17] The cause of Toby's collapse was diagnosed as cardiac arrhythmia, not a heart attack. Jack and Rebecca (in flashbacks) look for a house to fit their growing family, but do not expect to be having triplets. Randall feels William's time spent with Jesse is taking precious moments away from their family, but is assured it is only to spare everyone eventual pain. William decides to stop his chemotherapy treatments. Kevin and Sloane are doing well – until Olivia returns. Jack (in flashbacks) asks his estranged abusive father for money and buys a house. Kate and Toby discuss marriage. 12 12 \"The Big Day\" Ken Olin Dan Fogelman & Laura Kenar January 17, 2017 ( 2017-01-17 ) 1AZC12 9.59 [18] The episode takes place in the lead-up to the triplets' birth. Rebecca has a mental breakdown and forgets that it is Jack's birthday. Miguel tries to encourage Jack to celebrate one more birthday before he becomes a father by taking him golfing. Dr. K struggles to accept the death of his wife, who died over a year earlier, including refusing to dispose of her belongings and declining an offer for dinner at a widow's house. Fireman Joe is struggling with his marriage and he asks a priest for a miracle. William drops Randall off as a newborn at the firehouse. Joe decides to take it first to his wife, who refuses to look after him even though they could not conceive. Joe takes the baby to the hospital and Jack decides to adopt him following the death of one of the triplets. The next day, Dr. K decides to throw away his wife's belongings and eat dinner at his friend's house. 13 13 \"Three Sentences\" Chris Koch Joe Lawson & Bekah Brunstetter January 24, 2017 ( 2017-01-24 ) 1AZC13 9.63 [19] When the triplets' tenth birthday is approaching, instead of keeping the family tradition of celebrating the day as one, Kevin and Kate encourage their parents to throw them separate parties. At the birthday party, Randall only has a handful of classmates show up, while Kevin and Kate have full parties. When Kate's best friend Sophie arrives, she and Kate's entire party merge into Kevin's party, leaving Kate alone and Jack trying to comfort her. In the present day, Randall is trying to bid for a project in Calgary, but is interrupted by William, who recently stopped chemotherapy treatments and is now energetic. Kate's doctor encourages her to attend a camp instead of having weight loss surgery. After Kevin breaks up with Sloane and Toby drops Kate off at the camp, the two go to a bar together. Following Toby's advice to pursue the woman he really loves, Kevin tries to reconcile with Sophie, Kate's best friend from long ago and his childhood love and ex-wife. A mysterious worker at the camp tries to talk to Kate, who is now engaged to Toby, and tries to seduce her. 14 14 \"I Call Marriage\" George Tillman Jr. Kay Oyegun February 7, 2017 ( 2017-02-07 ) 1AZC14 9.57 [20] The time is shown when Miguel and Shelly get divorced and, fearing their marriage will have the same fate, Jack tries to bring excitement to his and Rebecca's relationship. In the present, Kevin tries to reconcile with his ex-wife Sophie. Toby surprises Kate at the camp she is attending and is met with unkindness. Stress mounts and Randall cannot cope. Randall misses a business meeting he planned, fully knowing his daughter's chess tournament was on the same night, when Beth insists that family come first. 15 15 \"Jack Pearson's Son\" Ken Olin Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger February 14, 2017 ( 2017-02-14 ) 1AZC15 9.03 [21] Kate gets kicked out of fat camp and apologizes to Toby. They begin asking questions about each others' lives to strengthen their relationship, though Kate cannot yet answer when asked about how her father died. In the past, Rebecca wants to go on tour with her band but, after finding out that she once dated a member of the band, Jack tells her he does not want her to go. They have a fight and Jack has his first drink in years. Present-day Kevin is about to open his play when Randall calls him and is distressed. Kevin has a flashback to when Randall used to have nervous breakdowns over self-inflicted pressure. Kevin leaves the theater to find and comfort him. 16 16 \"Memphis\" John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Dan Fogelman February 21, 2017 ( 2017-02-21 ) 1AZC16 9.35 [22] Randall drives William to Memphis, his hometown. Intermittently, William's relationship with his mother while growing up is shown, including when she leaves him as a young adult to take care of relatives in Pittsburgh. William is, at the time, playing in a cover band at his cousin's club. He learns his mother is sick and decides to move to Pittsburgh, where she dies. In the present day, William returns to his old home, then takes Randall to his cousin's club. Although his cousin is still angry at him for not returning to the band, he forgives him and lets him play. The next morning, William is barely conscious in his bed and transported to the hospital, where doctors tell Randall that he has hours to live. Randall calls William \"Dad\" for the first and last time, then uses Jack's calming technique to help ease William's fear of dying. William dies with Randall by his side. 17 17 \"What Now?\" Wendey Stanzler K.J. Steinberg & Vera Herbert March 7, 2017 ( 2017-03-07 ) 1AZC17 11.15 [23] In flashbacks, Rebecca leaves for her tour. Kate encourages Jack to attend Rebecca's first show; after rejecting a colleague's advances at a happy hour, he sets out driving to the show despite having been drinking. In the present, per William's wishes, Tess and Annie plan a celebration of his life, while Beth feels left out; Randall asks her to toast William and she receives a loving postcard William sent from Memphis. Rebecca admits that she kept William a secret because she feared losing Randall; Randall acknowledges that he and William had the time they needed, and he and Rebecca reaffirm their love. Kevin's play premieres and the family loves it, though an important critic fails to attend. Randall quits his job over his firm's apparent disrespect and lack of appreciation, admitting he doesn't have a plan. Kevin and Sophie consummate their relationship and Ron Howard offers Kevin a film role after having seen the play. Kate struggles to tell Toby about Jack's death, saying she is responsible for it. 18 18 \"Moonshadow\" Ken Olin Dan Fogelman & Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger March 14, 2017 ( 2017-03-14 ) 1AZC18 12.84 [24] In 1972, Jack and Rebecca are set up on blind dates. Jack and a friend take Jack's life savings to a poker match and win big on the first game, but are then robbed by the host's enforcers. Rebecca, fighting disillusionment over failed efforts to start a singing career, leaves her blind date early to sing at an open mic night. Jack skips his date, planning to rob the bar that hosted the poker match, but is distracted by Rebecca's singing. c.1997, Jack drives drunk to Cleveland to see Rebecca's show, where her ex-boyfriend Ben tries to kiss her. Jack finds out and punches him, prompting Rebecca to drive Jack home; they fight; Jack apologizes and decides to stay at Miguel's. In the present, Kate and Toby return to Los Angeles; she looks at a photo of Rebecca and decides to pursue singing. Sophie sees Kevin off for a meeting with Ron Howard. Randall looks through a photo album of his childhood and tells Beth that he wants to adopt a baby. Production [ edit ] This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . (September 2017) Development [ edit ] Dan Fogelman and Don Todd served as the season's showrunners . [25] Casting [ edit ] In 2015, Mandy Moore , Milo Ventimiglia , Justin Hartley , Sterling K. Brown , and Ron Cephas Jones were the first to be cast in Dan Fogelman’s pilot. [2] Chrissy Metz was later cast in the pilot, [3] followed by Susan Kelechi Watson . [4] Jon Huertas joined the cast in 2016. [6] Reception [ edit ] Critical response [ edit ] The first season of This Is Us received positive reviews, with critics praising cast performances and series plot. On Rotten Tomatoes , it has an approval rating of 89% based on 56 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Featuring full-tilt heartstring-tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air.\" [26] On Metacritic , the season has a normalized score of 76 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". [27] TVLine gave the series \"A-\" saying, \"With emotionally resonant dialogue and top-notch performances, This Is Us should fill that Braverman -sized hole in your heart.\" [28] TV Guide placed This Is Us at ninth among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016–2017 season and called it, \"a well-acted drama about love, life and family.\" [29] This Is Us (season 1): Critical reception by episode Season 1 (2016–17) : Percentage of positive reviews tracked by the website Rotten Tomatoes [26] Writing for The Star-Ledger , Vicki Hyman lauded the series and said, \" This Is Us (from Crazy, Stupid, Love screenwriter Dan Fogelman ) methodically weaves four seemingly disparate stories into a believable and emotional whole through tiny telling details, relateable moments, and conversations and confrontations that are funny, tender or painful, or all three at once.\" [30] Entertainment Weekly ' s Jeff Jensen wrote, \"A 21st century thirtysomething for a TV generation that likes a splash of high concept in their shows and isn't afraid of melodrama.\" [31] Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club also reviewed the series positively saying, \"The hour accomplishes what it set out to do. It creates characters so compelling that we compulsively want to tune back in to see them again.\" [32] In a review for The Boston Globe , Matthew Gilbert said, \"The pilot is beautifully shaped, the themes of building your own meaning in life are smart, and the actors already seem to know their characters.\" [33] The Washington Post critic Hank Stuever said, \"While I'd like to see another few episodes to make sure, there's something comfortably gooey right away about This Is Us , reminding us once more that amid all the high-functioning detectives, emergency-rescue personnel and secret-agent superheroes covered in cryptic tattoos, there are very few network dramas aimed at viewers who are simply interested in everyday people and how they feel.\" [34] Pittsburgh Post-Gazette ' s TV critic Rob Owen wrote, \"Created and written by Dan Fogelman, This is Us manages the tricky task of telling emotional stories without getting too saccharine. And in each story, the characters are quite relatable.\" [35] James Poniewozik of The New York Times also gave the series positive reviews and said, \"The first hour works its way efficiently through an economy-size box of tissues with cleverly turned dialogue and well-inhabited performances.\" [36] The series also received praise from critics at other publications such as USA Today , [37] The Atlantic , [38] The Hollywood Reporter , [39] and The Los Angeles Times . [40] Some were more critical towards the show, Daniel D'Addario of Time wrote, \"The show has promise, but its cynicism in terms of trying to evoke an emotional response is both what viewers will be tuning in for and its least accomplished aspect. If it could work to wring out a real response, not just an easy one, this might be a show worth watching each week. [41] Ben Travers, Chief TV critic of Indiewire , quipped, \"'It all works out' seems to be the main takeaway from the pilot, but where things specifically go from here is one whopping question mark. Perhaps if this was an episodic anthology series with new characters flooding in every week and new arcs every season, This Is Us could repeat the mysterious highs of its subjectively mediocre pilot (depending on how you like that ending).\" [42] In a moderate review for Variety , Sonia Saraiya said, \"It's deceptively difficult to build a surprising and complete story in just 40 minutes with so many characters. Yet This Is Us manages to both craft an intimate series of portraits and stitch them together. But at the same time, waves of cloying sentiment threaten to submerge everything.\" [43] Critics' top ten lists [ edit ] This Is Us was included on multiple Best/Top TV Shows of 2016 lists; these are listed below in order of rank. [44] No. 1 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette No. 1 TV Insider No. 2 Orlando Sentinel No. 2 Sioux City Journal No. 3 Lincoln Journal Star No. 3 PopSugar No. 3 San Francisco Chronicle No. 4 Newsday No. 4 NPR No. 4 People No. 5 Hidden Remote No. 5 St. Louis Post-Dispatch No. 5 Tulsa World No. 5 TVLine No. 6 The Salt Lake Tribune No. 8 St. Paul Pioneer Press No. 9 Maclean's No. 9 The Star-Ledger No. 10 TV Guide – American Film Institute – Associated Press – Cleveland Plain Dealer – CNN – The Huffington Post – New York Post – TheWrap – Yahoo! Ratings [ edit ] No. Title Air date Rating/share (18–49) Viewers (millions) DVR (18–49) DVR viewers (millions) Total (18–49) Total viewers (millions) 1 \" Pilot \" September 20, 2016 2.8/10 10.07 [7] 1.8 4.55 4.6 14.61 [45] 2 \" The Big Three \" September 27, 2016 2.6/9 8.75 [8] 1.9 5.12 4.5 13.87 [46] 3 \" Kyle \" October 11, 2016 2.8/9 9.87 [9] 1.9 4.95 4.7 14.82 [47] 4 \" The Pool \" October 18, 2016 2.6/9 9.71 [10] 2.0 4.86 4.6 14.57 [48] 5 \" The Game Plan \" October 25, 2016 2.4/8 8.68 [11] 2.1 5.11 4.5 13.83 [49] 6 \" Career Days \" November 1, 2016 2.3/7 8.48 [12] 2.1 5.09 4.4 13.57 [50] 7 \" The Best Washing Machine in the World \" November 15, 2016 2.6/9 9.50 [13] 2.1 5.20 4.7 14.70 [51] 8 \" Pilgrim Rick \" November 22, 2016 2.4/9 9.00 [14] 2.1 5.46 4.5 14.46 [52] 9 \" The Trip \" November 29, 2016 2.7/9 10.56 [15] 1.9 4.96 4.6 15.46 [53] 10 \" Last Christmas \" December 6, 2016 2.8/9 10.95 [16] 2.1 5.45 4.9 16.40 [54] 11 \" The Right Thing to Do \" January 10, 2017 3.0/11 10.48 [17] 2.0 5.33 5.0 15.81 [55] 12 \" The Big Day \" January 17, 2017 2.6/8 9.53 [18] 2.5 6.20 5.1 15.80 [56] 13 \" Three Sentences \" January 24, 2017 2.8/9 9.63 [19] 2.4 6.16 5.2 15.79 [57] 14 \" I Call Marriage \" February 7, 2017 2.6/8 9.57 [20] 2.4 6.23 5.0 15.80 [58] 15 \" Jack Pearson's Son \" February 14, 2017 2.4/8 9.03 [21] 2.4 6.14 4.8 15.17 [59] 16 \" Memphis \" February 21, 2017 2.5/8 9.35 [22] 2.5 6.35 5.0 15.70 [60] 17 \" What Now? \" March 7, 2017 3.0/10 11.15 [23] 2.3 6.04 5.3 17.18 [61] 18 \" Moonshadow \" March 14, 2017 3.4/12 12.84 [24] 1.9 4.94 5.3 17.77 [62] Accolades [ edit ] Year Award Category Nominee(s) Result Ref. 2016 American Film Institute Awards TV Program of the Year This Is Us Won [63] Critics' Choice Television Awards Most Exciting New Series This Is Us Won [64] Best Drama Series This Is Us Nominated African-American Critics Association Awards Top Ten TV Show This Is Us Won 2017 People's Choice Awards Favorite New TV Drama This Is Us Won [65] Favorite Actor in a New TV Series Milo Ventimiglia Nominated Favorite Actress in a New TV Series Mandy Moore Nominated Writers Guild of America Awards New Series This Is Us Nominated [66] [67] Episodic Drama Vera Herbert (for \"The Trip\") Won Golden Globe Awards Best Television Series – Drama This Is Us Nominated [68] Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film Chrissy Metz Nominated Mandy Moore Nominated Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Sterling K. Brown Nominated [69] NAACP Image Awards Outstanding Drama Series This Is Us Nominated [70] Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series Sterling K. Brown Won Outstanding Performance by a Youth Lonnie Chavis Nominated ACE Eddie Awards Best Edited One Hour Series for Commercial Television David L. Bertman (for \"Pilot\") Won [71] Broadcast [ edit ] This Is Us premiered on September 20, 2016, in the U.S. on NBC . [72] The series premiered on CTV in Canada on September 21, 2016, [73] [74] on TVNZ 2 in New Zealand on September 27, 2016, [75] and in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 on December 6, 2016. [76] The series premiered in Australia on Channel Ten on February 8, 2017. [77] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Roots, Kimberly (January 18, 2017). \" This Is Us Renewed for Seasons 2 and 3\" . TVLine . United States: Penske Media Corporation . Archived from the original on January 18, 2017 . Retrieved January 18, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Petski, Denise (November 12, 2015). \"Mandy Moore, Milo Ventimiglia Lead Cast Of Dan Fogelman NBC Pilot\" . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved December 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Petski, Denise (November 30, 2015). \"Chrissy Metz Joins Dan Fogelman NBC Pilot\" . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved December 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Petski, Denise (December 8, 2015). \" ' Grease Live' Casts Eve Plumb; Susan Kelechi Watson Joins Dan Fogelman Pilot\" . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved January 16, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Desantis, Rachel (December 9, 2016). \"This Is Us stars share family photo from set\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved December 21, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Petski, Denise (July 29, 2016). \" ' This Is Us': Jon Huertas Joins Dan Fogelman NBC Dramedy\" . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved January 16, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (September 21, 2016). \"Tuesday final ratings: 'NCIS,' 'Brooklyn Nine-Nine' adjust up, 'This Is Us' & 'Bull' steady\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (September 28, 2016). \"Tuesday final ratings: 'The Voice' adjusts up, 'Scream Queens' adjusts down\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 28, 2016 . Retrieved September 28, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 12, 2016). \" ' The Voice,' 'NCIS,' 'Flash' and ABC comedies adjust up, 'No Tomorrow' adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 13, 2016 . Retrieved October 12, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 19, 2016). \" ' American Housewife' and 'The Voice' adjust up, 'Chicago Fire,' 'SHIELD' and 'Real O'Neals' down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 19, 2016 . Retrieved October 19, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 26, 2016). \" ' American Housewife' adjusts up, final World Series numbers: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on April 13, 2017 . Retrieved October 26, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 2, 2016). \" ' The Flash,' 'Chicago Fire,' 'The Voice,' 'Fresh Off the Boat' adjust up: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 4, 2016 . Retrieved November 2, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 16, 2016). \" ' New Girl' adjusts up, all others hold: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 17, 2016 . Retrieved November 16, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 23, 2016). \" ' American Housewife' adjusts up, everything else holds: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 24, 2016 . Retrieved November 23, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 1, 2016). \" ' Fresh Off the Boat' & 'American Housewife' adjust up, 'No Tomorrow' adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 1, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 7, 2016). \" ' NCIS' adjusts up, 'Agents of SHIELD' adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 7, 2016 . Retrieved December 19, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 11, 2017). \" ' The Mick' and 'This Is Us' adjust up, 'Bones' adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on January 12, 2017 . Retrieved January 11, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 19, 2017). \" ' Fresh Off the Boat' adjusts up: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on January 20, 2017 . Retrieved January 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 25, 2017). \" ' Chicago Fire' adjusts up, 'Agents of SHIELD' adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on January 26, 2017 . Retrieved January 25, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 8, 2017). \" ' The Middle,' 'The Wall,' 'This Is Us,' FOX comedies all adjust up: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 8, 2017 . Retrieved February 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 15, 2017). \" ' American Housewife' adjusts up, 'Agents of SHIELD' and 'Tough Mudder' adjust down: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 16, 2017 . Retrieved February 15, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 23, 2017). \" ' The Flash,' 'NCIS,' all others unchanged: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 23, 2017 . Retrieved February 23, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (March 8, 2017). \" ' The Middle' and 'This Is Us' adjust up: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 9, 2017 . Retrieved March 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (March 16, 2017). \" ' This Is Us' finishes with season highs: Tuesday final ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 17, 2017 . Retrieved March 16, 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (March 6, 2017). \" ' This Is Us': Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger Named Co-Showrunners In New 20th TV Deal, 'HIMYM' Spinoff On Hold\" . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"THIS IS US: SEASON 1 (2016)\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Fandango . Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"This Is Us: Season 1\" . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Archived from the original on September 16, 2016 . Retrieved September 15, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"This Is Us Review: Yes, Parenthood Fans, It's Safe to Cry Again\" . TVLine . September 17, 2016. Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ \" \" Our 10 Most Anticipated New TV Shows of.\" Fall 2016 \" \" . TV Guide . September 16, 2016. Archived from the original on October 8, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Hyman, Vicki (September 16, 2016). \"TV review: The gentle genius of 'This is Us ' \" . The Star-Ledger . Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Jensen, Jeff (September 19, 2016). \"Fall TV reviews: This Is Us, Speechless, Designated Survivor, Pitch, and The Exorcist\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on September 22, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Ihnat, Gwen (September 20, 2016). \"This pilot sets a high bar for the rest of This Is Us\" . The A.V. Club . Archived from the original on September 21, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Gilbert, Matthew (September 20, 2016). \"This pilot sets a high bar for the rest of This Is Us\" . Boston Globe . Archived from the original on September 21, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Stuever, Hank (September 15, 2016). \"TV Fall TV Preview 2016\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on September 22, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Owen, Rob (September 20, 2016). \"Tuned In: Fall's best drama pilot: Pittsburgh-set 'This is Us ' \" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Archived from the original on September 21, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Poniewozik, James (September 19, 2016). \"Review: 'This Is Us' Is Skillful, Shameless Tear-Jerking\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on September 20, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Bianco, Robert (September 20, 2012). \"Review: 'This is Us' is heartfelt (if sweet-toothed) family drama\" . USA Today . Archived from the original on September 21, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Bianco, Robert (September 20, 2012). \"This Is Us Is Must-Weep TV\" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on September 20, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Fienberg, Daniel (September 20, 2012). \" ' This Is Us': TV Review\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on September 20, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ McNamara, Mary (September 20, 2016). \"Fall TV's hottest pilot hits 4 out of 5 of its marks. Will 'This Is Us' fill the 'Parenthood' gap\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on September 20, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ D'Addario, Daniel (September 20, 2016). \"This is Us Knows Exactly What It Is and Who It's For\" . Time . Archived from the original on September 20, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Travers, Ben (September 20, 2016). \" ' This Is Us' Review: Even After All Those Twists, We Don't Know What 'This' Is (Spoilers)\" . Indiewire . Archived from the original on September 22, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Saraiya, Sonia (September 20, 2016). \"TV Review: 'This Is Us ' \" . Variety . Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Dietz, Jason (January 6, 2017). \"Best of 2016: Television Critic Top Ten Lists\" . Metacritic . Archived from the original on January 20, 2017 . Retrieved January 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 4, 2016). \" ' Designated Survivor' is your premiere week DVR champion: Broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 4, 2016 . Retrieved October 4, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 11, 2016). \" ' Designated Survivor' posts more big DVR gains: Broadcast Live +7 ratings for Sept. 26 - Oct. 2\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 11, 2016 . Retrieved October 11, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 27, 2016). \" ' This Is Us', 'Big Bang', 'Designated Survivor', lead broadcast Live +7 ratings for Oct. 10–16\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 28, 2016 . Retrieved October 27, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 4, 2016). \" ' This Is Us' and 'Agents of SHIELD' score in broadcast Live +7 ratings for Oct. 17–23\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 28, 2016 . Retrieved November 4, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 10, 2016). \" ' This Is Us', 'Designated Survivor' stay on top in broadcast Live +7 ratings for Oct. 24–30\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved November 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 17, 2016). \"13 shows double, 'This Is Us' & 'Big Bang' lead broadcast Live +7 ratings for Oct. 31-Nov. 6\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 18, 2016 . Retrieved November 17, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick. \" ' This Is Us,' 'Big Bang', 'Designated Survivor' are the Big Three in week 9 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 1, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick. \" ' New Girl' and 'Quantico' double in week 10 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 8, 2016 . Retrieved December 7, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 21, 2016). \"6 shows double in week 11 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 23, 2016 . Retrieved December 23, 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 22, 2016). \" ' This Is Us' reaches season highs week 12 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 23, 2016 . Retrieved December 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (January 26, 2017). \" ' This Is Us' rides high in week 17 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on January 26, 2017 . Retrieved December 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (February 1, 2017). \" ' Agents of SHIELD' and 'This Is Us' make big gains in week 18 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 2, 2017 . Retrieved February 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick. \" ' This Is Us' and TGIT rise above the rest in week 19 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 11, 2017 . Retrieved February 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (February 23, 2017). \" ' This Is Us' and 'Timeless' lead the week 21 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 23, 2017 . Retrieved February 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 2, 2017). \" ' This Is Us' and 'Agents of SHIELD' on top again: Week 22 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 3, 2017 . Retrieved March 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 9, 2017). \" ' This Is Us' makes biggest gains again: Week 23 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 10, 2017 . Retrieved March 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 24, 2017). \" ' Sleepy Hollow' & 5 more shows double, 'This Is Us' has biggest total gain: Week 25 broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on May 17, 2017 . Retrieved March 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 30, 2017). \" ' This Is Us' finale, 'Designated Survivor' top week 26's broadcast Live +7 ratings\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on May 18, 2017 . Retrieved March 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"AFI Awards 2016 – Honorees\" . American Film Institute . December 2016 . Retrieved December 8, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Critics' Choice Television Awards: HBO Leads 22 Nominations\" . Indie Wire . November 14, 2016. Archived from the original on January 17, 2017 . Retrieved November 14, 2016 . Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (November 15, 2016). \"People's Choice Awards Nominees 2017 — Full List\" . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on May 27, 2017 . Retrieved November 15, 2016 . Jump up ^ Schwindt, Oriana (December 5, 2016). \"Writers Guild TV Nominations: 'Stranger Things,' 'Westworld', 'This Is Us', 'Atlanta' Break Through\" . Variety . Archived from the original on December 6, 2016 . Retrieved December 8, 2016 . Jump up ^ Aiello, McKenna (February 19, 2017). \"Writers Guild Awards 2017 Winners: The Complete List\" . E! News . Archived from the original on February 20, 2017 . Retrieved February 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Webb Mitovich, Matt (December 12, 2016). \"Golden Globes: People v. O.J., Night Manager, This Is Us, black-ish Lead Early TV Nominees\" . TV Line . Archived from the original on December 12, 2016 . Retrieved December 12, 2016 . Jump up ^ CNN, Lisa Respers France (December 14, 2016). \" ' Manchester by the Sea' leads film SAG Award nominations\" . Archived from the original on January 7, 2017. Jump up ^ Kinane, Ruth (December 13, 2016). \"Beyonce leads the pack of 2017 NAACP Image Award Nominees\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on December 16, 2016 . Retrieved December 18, 2016 . Jump up ^ Paul Sheehan (January 3, 2017). \"ACE Eddie Awards 2017: Full list of nominations includes Oscar frontrunner 'La La Land ' \" . Gold Derby . Archived from the original on January 4, 2017 . Retrieved January 3, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' This Is Us': Everything You Need To Know Before The Premiere\" . hollywoodlife . September 20, 2016. Archived from the original on September 21, 2016 . Retrieved September 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"CTV Unveils Fall Lineup\" . broadcastermagazine.com . August 30, 2016. Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved September 20, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Milo Ventimiglia talks 'This Is Us' at CTV upfront\" . Ottawa Sun . June 8, 2016 . Retrieved July 29, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"This Is Us is premiered Tuesday 27 September on TV2\" . TVNZ . September 20, 2016. Archived from the original on October 11, 2016 . Retrieved September 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ \" ' Channel 4 Sets UK Premiere Date For 'This Is Us \" . tvwise.co.uk . November 15, 2016. Archived from the original on November 23, 2016 . Retrieved November 23, 2016 . Jump up ^ Knox, David (January 19, 2017). \"Airdate: This is Us\" . TV Tonight . Archived from the original on February 20, 2017 . Retrieved January 19, 2017 . show v t e Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series 2010: Boardwalk Empire , season 1 Antonacci Buscemi Coleman Graham de la Huerta Laciura Macdonald Mol Palladino Piazza Pitt Shannon Sparks Stuhlbarg Weiner Whigham 2011: Boardwalk Empire , season 2 Buscemi Chianese Clohessy Coleman Cox J. Gallina L. Gallina Graham Huston Laciura Lind Macdonald D. McTigue R. McTigue Mol B. Noon C. Noon O'Rourke Palladino Pennewill Piazza Pitt Shannon Sparks Stuhlbarg Van Wagner Whigham Williams Yusef 2012: Downton Abbey , series 2 Bonneville Boyle Carmichael Carter Coyle Dockery Findlay Finneran Froggatt Glen Howes James-Collier Leech Logan McGovern McShera Nicol Nuttall Robb Smith Stevens Wilton 2013: Breaking Bad , season 5, part II Bowen Brandt Cranston Crawford Fletcher Fraser Gunn Metzler Mitte Norris Odenkirk Paul Plemons Quezada Rankin Sane 2014: Downton Abbey , series 4 Bonneville Carmichael Carter Coyle Dockery Doyle Froggatt James James-Collier Leech Logan McGovern McShera Milne Robb Smith Speleers Theobold Wilton 2015: Downton Abbey , series 5 Bonneville Carmichael Carter Cassidy Coyle Dockery Doyle Froggatt James James-Collier Leech Logan McGovern McShera Nicol Ovenden Smith Wilton 2016: Stranger Things , season 1 M. B. Brown Buono Chrest Dyer Harbour Heaton Keery Matarazzo McLaughlin Modine Morgan Reynolds Ryder Schnapp Steger Wolfhard 2017: This Is Us , season 1 / season 2 Baker Breckenridge S. K. Brown Chavis Hartley Herman Jones Metz Moore Sullivan Ventimiglia Watson Zeile Complete list (1994–1999) (2000–2009) (2010–present) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=This_Is_Us_(season_1)&oldid=853801223 \" Categories : 2016 American television seasons 2017 American television seasons This Is Us (TV series) Hidden categories: Pages using Timeline Use mdy dates from September 2017 Articles to be expanded from September 2017 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Português 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 August 2018, at 02:06 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights - Wikipedia Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides a right to respect for one's \"private and family life, his home and his correspondence \", subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) (formally the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms) is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. Contents [ hide ] 1 Right 1.1 Private life 1.2 Family life 1.3 Home 2 Case law 2.1 Cases involving LGBT rights 3 Violation of the convention by mass surveillance 4 See also 5 Notes 6 External links Right [ edit ] Article 8 – Right to respect for private and family life 1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. 2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. Article 8 is considered to be one of the Convention's most open-ended provisions. [1] Private life [ edit ] For better understanding of perception of \"private life\" case law should be analyzed. In Niemietz v. Germany , the Court held that it \"does not consider it possible or necessary to attempt an exhaustive definition of the notion of 'private life'. However, it would be too restrictive to limit the notion to an 'inner circle' in which the individual may live his own personal life as he choose and to exclude therefrom entirely the outside world not encompassed within that circle. Respect for private life must also compromise to a certain degree the right to establish and develop relationship and develop relationship with other human beings.\" Family life [ edit ] In X, Y, and Z v. UK , the Court recalls that \"the notion of 'family life' in Article 8 is not confined solely so the families based on marriage and may encompass other de facto relationship. When deciding whether a relationship can be said to amount to 'family life', a number of factors may be relevant, including whether the couples live together, the length of their relationship and whether they have demonstrated their commitment to each other by having children together or by any other means.\" Home [ edit ] In Niemietz v Germany case the Court gave broader meaning to the 'home' notion including professional/business premises such as a lawyer's office. [2] Case law [ edit ] Article 8 clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the Court has given the protection for \"private and family life\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of the right to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprises positive obligations : whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a State from interfering with rights, and thus not to do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the State to become active, and to do something (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced father to his child). Golder v. United Kingdom (1975) 1 EHRR 524 – A prisoner requested a lawyer because he said he wanted to sue a guard for defamation . Access was denied. This violated the right to a fair trial ( Article 6 ECHR ) and client confidentiality. Silver v. United Kingdom (1981) 3 EHRR 475 – Censorship of a prisoner's correspondence regarding conditions in prison breached Article 8. R v Brown [1994] 1 AC 212 – Article 8 was deemed not to \"[invalidate] a law which forbids violence which is intentionally harmful to body and mind\" (specifically, assault occasioning actual bodily harm as part of consensual sadomasochistic sex acts) by the UK House of Lords . [3] Rotaru v. Romania [2000] ECHR 192 – Public information that is systematically collected and stored in files held by a state or its agents falls within the scope of private life. [4] Pretty v. United Kingdom [2002] Article 8 extends to protect the right to die. Like with articles 9, 10 and 11, it can be interfered with provided there's valid justification, as there was in Pretty . Mosley v News Group Newspapers [2008] EWHC 1777 (QB) — Per Eady J, equitable breach of confidence is extended to protect Art. 8 rights. S and Marper v United Kingdom [2008] ECHR 1581 – Retention of DNA information in respect of persons arrested but not convicted of an offence was held to breach Article 8. A, B and C v Ireland [2010] ECHR 2032 – Article 8 does not confer a \"right to abortion\", but the Republic of Ireland breached it by making it difficult for a woman to establish whether she qualifies for a legal abortion. Gillan and Quinton v United Kingdom [2010] ECHR 28 – Stop and search powers granted to police under ss. 44–47 of the Terrorism Act 2000 were neither sufficiently circumscribed nor subject to adequate legal safeguards against abuse. As such, the Court found the powers not to be \"in accordance with the law\", in violation of Article 8. [5] Birmingham City Council v Clue (2010) EWCA Civ 460 29/4/2010 – A challenge to the decision to refuse to provide Ms Clue and her family with essential support pending the UK Border Agency's determination of her application for indefinite leave to remain in the UK. In a ground-breaking decision of the Court of Appeal, the judgment extends the scope of community care provision for families subject to immigration control who seek to remain in the UK on Article 8 ECHR grounds. Plantagenet Alliance v Ministry of Justice and others (2014) EWHC 1662 – Article 8 did not entitle modern-day descendants of the House of Plantagenet to be consulted on the place of re-interment of Richard III . Zakharov v. Russia (2015) – The Court examined Russian surveillance legislation in abstracto , finding unanimously that the existence of inadequate legislation and its application in practice themselves amounted to a violation of the applicant's rights under Article 8. [6] The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission's Application [2015] NIQB 96 – Northern Ireland's criminalization of abortion in cases of fatal foetal abnormality, rape or incest declared incompatible with Article 8 [7] The notion of private life in the Article 8 is also interpreted as including some duty of environmental protection. [8] Cases involving LGBT rights [ edit ] The following cases deal with the applicability of Article 8 to issues related to LGBT people including the recognition of same-sex marriage , laws prohibiting sodomy , and access to health services for transgender people. Modinos v. Cyprus (1993) – Ruling invalidating Section 171 of the Criminal Code of Cyprus under which male homosexual acts were banned, finding that there had been a breach under Article 8 of the applicant's right to respect for private life. Smith and Grady v United Kingdom (1999) 29 EHRR 493 – The investigation into and subsequent discharge of personnel from the Royal Navy on the basis of sexual orientation was a breach of the right to a private life under Article 8. Van Kück v. Germany [2003] ECHR 285 – Inadequate access to a fair hearing in a case involving reimbursement by a private medical insurer for costs of hormone replacement therapy and gender reassignment surgery by a transsexual woman, where undue burden had been placed upon her to prove the medical necessity of the treatment, was a violation under Article 8 and Article 6 § 1 . [9] Oliari and Others v Italy (2015) – Italy violated Article 8 by not providing legal recognition to same-sex couples. Violation of the convention by mass surveillance [ edit ] Mass surveillance , such as by the programs revealed in Edward Snowden's global surveillance disclosures , is often accused of violating the 8th article of the European Convention on Human Rights. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] A 2014 report to the UN General Assembly by the United Nations ' top official for counter-terrorism and human rights condemned mass electronic surveillance as a clear violation of core privacy rights guaranteed by multiple treaties and conventions and makes a distinction between \" targeted surveillance \" – which \"depend[s] upon the existence of prior suspicion of the targeted individual or organization\" – and \"mass surveillance\", by which \"states with high levels of Internet penetration can [] gain access to the telephone and e-mail content of an effectively unlimited number of users and maintain an overview of Internet activity associated with particular websites \". Only targeted interception of traffic and location data in order to combat serious crime, including terrorism , is justified, according to a decision by the European Court of Justice . [15] See also [ edit ] Article 10 ECHR Entick v Carrington Semayne's case Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wicks; Bernadette Rainey; Clare Ovey (12 June 2014). Jacobs, White and Ovey: the European Convention on Human Rights . Oxford University Press. p. 334. ISBN 978-0-19-965508-3 . Jump up ^ Mowbray, Alastair (2007). Cases and Materials on the European Convention on Human Rights . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920674-2 . Jump up ^ \"R v Brown [1993] UKHL 19(11 March 1993)\" . Retrieved 8 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Rotaru v. Romania (2000) ECHR 28341/95, paras. 43–44: \"Moreover, public information can fall within the scope of private life where it is systematically collected and stored in files held by the authorities. That is all the truer where such information concerns a person's distant past ... In the Court's opinion, such information, when systematically collected and stored in a file held by agents of the State, falls within the scope of 'private life' for the purposes of Article 8(1) of the Convention.\" Jump up ^ \"Gillan and Quinton v United Kingdom\" . Retrieved 9 February 2011 . Jump up ^ \"HUDOC Press Release: Arbitrary and abusive secret surveillance of mobile telephone communications in Russia\" . hudoc.echr.coe.int . 2015-12-04 . Retrieved 2016-04-15 . Jump up ^ The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission's Application [2015] NIHC 96 (QB) , [2015] NIQB 96 (30 November 2015), High Court (Northern Ireland) Jump up ^ Antoine Buyse (2009-04-08). \"Nuisance From Outside the Prison\" . Echrblog.blogspot.com . Retrieved 2013-09-01 . Jump up ^ \"Courts' refusal to order reimbursement of top-up costs of transsexual's gender re-assignment treatment\" . Archived from the original on 7 August 2011 . Retrieved 9 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Harding, Luke (26 January 2015). \"Mass surveillance is fundamental threat to human rights, says European report\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Greenwald, Glenn. \"UN Report Finds Mass Surveillance Violates International Treaties and Privacy Rights\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . Jump up ^ McCarthy, Kieren. \"European human rights court rules mass surveillance illegal\" . The Register. Jump up ^ \"UN Says Mass Surveillance Violates Human Rights\" . Techdirt . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Does government spying violate human rights law? - Right Now\" . Right Now. 11 March 2014 . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Asthana, Anushka (25 December 2016). \"Revealed: British councils used Ripa to secretly spy on public\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . External links [ edit ] A guide to the implementation of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights ( PDF ) hide v t e Articles of the European Convention on Human Rights Article 1 Article 2 Article 3 Article 4 Article 5 Article 6 Article 7 Article 8 Article 9 Article 10 Article 11 Article 12 Article 13 Article 14 Article 15 Article 16 Article 17 Article 18 Protocols Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Article_8_of_the_European_Convention_on_Human_Rights&oldid=844850054 \" Categories : Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights Articles of the European Convention on Human Rights Privacy law Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2018, at 16:00. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Article_8_of_the_European_Convention_on_Human_Rights&amp;oldid=844850054" }

{ "text": "Tucker bag - Wikipedia Tucker bag From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the current revision of this page, as edited by 80.187.105.180 ( talk ) at 09:16, 9 May 2017 (Yes) . The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version. Revision as of 09:16, 9 May 2017 by 80.187.105.180 ( talk ) (Yes) ( diff ) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) Jump to: navigation , search A tucker bag is a traditional food or dinner storage bag used in the Australian outback . Typically a tucker bag was carried by a swagman or bushman . In its basic design a tucker bag is a pouch or bag with a single entry typically closed with a hoden. Tucker bags can come in a variety of sizes and in its larger form can be used for carrying other utensils and sleeping gear other than food. In this way the tucker bag can be regarded as an early form of backpack . Common materials used to make tucker bags were leather or oilskin . The term tucker bag appears in a number of traditional Australian songs and poems, including the lyrics in Waltzing Matilda \"Whose is that jumbuck you've got in your tucker bag?\", reflecting the tucker bag's place in Australian culture and history. The title of the song itself derives from the way a tucker bag swayed to-and-fro on a swagman's back as he walked along, who was said to be out \"waltzing Matilda\", i.e., the tucker bag. In more modern times, tucker bags have become associated with reusable grocery bags used when shopping or traveling. Modern bags are typically made from polyester and come in a variety of styles and designs. See also [ edit ] Bush tucker [ hide ] v t e Bags and flexible containers Carried Bayong Bindle Briefcase Dillybag Dromedary bag Grocery bag Handbag Haversack Laundry bag Medical bag Money bag Plastic shopping bag Reusable shopping bag Shell purse Shopping bag String bag Swag Tote bag Tucker bag Worn Backpack Bandolier bag Bivouac sack Book bag Fanny pack Golf bag Lightweight Rucksack Medicine bag Messenger bag Randoseru Sabretache Satchel Sporran Luggage Battle bag Carpet bag Diaper bag Diplomatic bag / pouch Dopp bag Duffel bag Gig bag Gladstone bag Hobo bag Holdall Nomadic bag Norfolk case Portmanteau Saddlebag Suitcase Travel pack Trunk Postal Catcher pouch Mail bag Mail pouch Mail sack Mail satchel Padded mailer Mochila Portmanteau Containers Antistatic bag Bag-in-box Bin bag Bota bag Flexible intermediate bulk container Boil-in-Bag Mashk Milk bag Packet (container) Paper bag Parfleche Pipe bag Plastic bag Reusable shopping bag Sachet Security bag Shopping bag Thermal bag Tobacco pouch Trash bag Zipper storage bag Purses/Handbags Bayong Birkin bag Coin purse Evening bag Handbag It Bag Kelly bag Messenger bag Minaudière Money bag Tote bag Wallet Wristlet Other Body bag Burn bag Doggy bag Dry bag Duluth pack Feedbag Flour sack Gamow bag Gunny sack Sandbag Schultüte Sickness bag Sleeping bag Stuff sack Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tucker_bag&oldid=779507260 \" Categories : Australian slang Bags Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 9 May 2017, at 09:16. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Tucker bag", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Tucker_bag&amp;oldid=779507260" }

{ "text": "Adrianna Tate-Duncan - Wikipedia Adrianna Tate-Duncan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Adrianna Tate-Duncan Jessica Lowndes as Adrianna Tate-Duncan in Season 3 Episode 8 90210 character Portrayed by Jessica Lowndes Duration 2008–13 First appearance September 2, 2008 (episode 1.01; \" We're Not in Kansas Anymore \") Last appearance May 13, 2013 (episode 5.22; \"We All Fall Down\") Created by Rob Thomas Profile Occupation Actress Singer show Family Parents Constance Tate-Duncan (mother) Children Maisy (daughter, with Ty; given up for adoption) Adrianna \"Ade\" Tate-Duncan is a fictional character on The CW television series 90210 , the fourth series in the Beverly Hills, 90210 franchise . Portrayed by Jessica Lowndes , the character was originally only scripted as a guest spot in the series' pilot, but was added to the main cast in the fourteenth episode of the first season, replacing Jessica Walter . Contents 1 Storylines 1.1 Season 1 1.2 Season 2 1.3 Season 3 1.4 Season 4 1.5 Season 5 2 Development 3 Reception 4 References Storylines [ edit ] Season 1 [ edit ] At the opening of the series, Adrianna is an aspiring actress and Naomi Clark 's best friend. She suffers from a serious drug addiction and is pressured by her mother, Constance, to support the family financially with her acting career. In order to afford her drug addiction, Adrianna steals money from her affluent best friend, Naomi. She develops a friendly rivalry with Annie due to her equal singing and acting talents, but falls apart when Annie takes over her role in the school play on opening night. When the school undergoes a drug search, Naomi attempts to protect Adrianna by flushing her drugs down the toilet, but is caught and arrested. Even though she promises she will turn herself in to clear Naomi of the charges, Adrianna overdoses before she can. Her Mother checks her into a drug rehabilitation clinic, paid for by classmate Navid Shirazi . As a result, Navid and Adrianna grow closer. During one of his visits to the clinic, Navid helps her reconnect with Naomi by driving to the Homecoming dance, where the two friends reconcile. As a result of his kindness, Adrianna discovers that he has been in love with her since they were children and they begin a relationship. After discovering one of her ex-boyfriends, Hank, has relapsed after finding out he was HIV positive, Adrianna takes an HIV-test. While she is negative for HIV, the results do reveal she is pregnant but the paternity is still unknown. Adrianna is unsure of the paternity, as her memories of recent sexual experiences have been clouded by her drug addiction. She does, however, know that the child is not Navid's, as they have not yet had sex. She and Navid break up as she reveals that she is pregnant because he doesn't believe that he can deal with her being pregnant with someone else's child. Eventually it is revealed that the baby's father is not Hank (whom she had slept with a few times when she was on drugs), but Ty Collins, her co-star in the school production of Spring Awakening . Naomi’s opinion is that she should get an abortion, while Kelly Taylor thinks she should raise it or give it up for adoption. She drives all night and ends up at a clinic, where they tell her she's too far along to get an abortion. Naomi convinces Adrianna to tell Ty, and he tells his parents. Ty's parents tell Adrianna that they will pay for the doctor and anything else she needs. They also say that when she starts to show, they will send her to a retreat in New Mexico, so that nobody finds out, to which she readily agrees. Bolstered by the Collins' support, Adrianna becomes more confident in her ability to deal with her situation. Later, Ty gives Adrianna a contract which states that Adrianna must keep the whole pregnancy a secret and she realizes that their support hides the reality that they are ashamed of her and her unborn child. Adrianna is unwilling to tell her mother about her pregnancy, as she thinks that Constance will throw her out. Naomi convinces Adrianna to call Ty, she thinks that the contract is unfair. Adrianna does so, and Ty's mother comes over to Adrianna's house to discuss the baby with Adrianna's mother. Ty's mother and Adrianna sit down to talk and Constance, Adrianna's mother, finds out about the pregnancy. Ty's mother gets kicked out of the house due to her arrogance and Constance talks to Adrianna and apologizes for putting so much pressure on her and they reconcile. Adrianna goes to school and decides to tell everyone her 'secret', so she gets help from Navid to announce through the school's video system that she is pregnant and that there is no father. Abandoning his date at the Valentine's Day dance, Navid shows up at Adrianna's house and asks her to be his Valentine and she accepts. A short while later, Navid proposes and she says yes. After Navid's mother approaches Adrianna and tells her that she thinks she should give the baby up, Adrianna takes prescription drugs to combat the stress. After this, she tells Navid that she knows she has to give the baby away. Later, at the prom, Navid and Ty scuffle when Navid becomes irate about Ty ignoring Adrianna and Adrianna subsequently goes into labor. She has a daughter whom she gives up for adoption and the adoptive parents name her Maisy. Season 2 [ edit ] It is revealed that childhood friends Adrianna and Erin Silver have grown close once again during the summer through their mutual friendships with Naomi. Naomi and Silver have been in summer school due to Annie Wilson busting Naomi's post-Prom party. Navid and Adrianna's relationship has been progressing slowly, and while he is ready to take it to the next level, even going as far as to rent a cabana, she isn't, and still wants to wait. Meanwhile, Adrianna runs into her childhood boyfriend, Teddy Montgomery , causing jealousy in Navid, due to their close relationship and Naomi, who has taken a liking to Teddy. The end of the first episode shows Adrianna and Naomi comforting Silver over her issues with Dixon and beginning their first day back at school, with Naomi proclaiming that this was going to be \"their\" year. Adrianna and Teddy kiss on his father's yacht. Adrianna felt bad and went back and slept with Navid. They later kiss again. Adrianna tells him that he shouldn't have done that and walks away. Adrianna receives her 6-month chip for sobriety at a meeting, and has also been in contact with Silver's mom. In \"Wild Alaskan Salmon\" she breaks up with Navid for Teddy and she said to Teddy she liked their relationship but he says he didn't want a relationship and she walks away confused. Then she goes to Navid telling him she wanted to reunite but he says no and he says he knew about her and Teddy and then he says it was not Silver that told him but that it was Teddy who told him. Later in \"Unmasked\" she begins to avoid Teddy because of what he did to her. In \"Women's Intuition\" Adrianna fails at winning Navid back, and thus, begins another downward spiral when she witnesses Navid flirting with other girls, and Teddy flirting with Silver. She purchases drugs from Jasper, the boyfriend of her old friend Annie. Navid later sees Adrianna buying drugs from Jasper at school. He confronts her about it but she angrily denies it. Naomi later finds her drugs at her house and leaves angry at her for lying. When Adrianna finds out about the death of Silver's mother and Navid's injury, she decides to make a change for the better. She gets rid of all her drugs and tells Navid that she plans on working on herself, because she realized that even though during the previous year when she was off drugs she had been acting like an addict, as in, extremely dependent on him. Then, at the Winter Wonderland dance, she sees Jasper with Annie. During an intervention for Annie, Adrianna comes clean and tells her that she purchased the drugs from him and that she's willing to come forward if she has too. Navid tells her that she shouldn't because she'll get expelled. Adrianna's strength and selflessness helps her begin to mend friendships with Silver and Naomi. The three also befriend Annie once they learn the truth about Jen. Adrianna also finds companionship in Gia, fellow West Bev Blazer and former addict. They become close, helping each other out during troubled times. Adrianna helps Gia move on from her ex. Gia convinces Ade to audition to be in an all-girl band, and when Gia confesses to Adrianna that she has feelings for her, Adrianna herself begins to question if their friendship could turn into something more. After a heart-to-heart with Gia, Adrianna comes to the realisation that she reciprocates Gia's feelings and the two then embark on a relationship. During the early stages of the relationship, Adrianna is reluctant to be public with their relationship much to Gia's dismay but after Adrianna performs live with 'The Glorious Steinems' she walks up to Gia to kiss her in front of the audience, after realising that it shouldn't matter what others think. Adrianna is then approached by Ivy's mother, Laurel, who hopes to sign her as a solo singer. Put in the awkward situation of having to choose between staying in the band or going solo she talks to Navid and comes to the conclusion that she should go with the latter. Adrianna then has a heated argument with Gia due to the fact that Adrianna chose to speak with Navid about her doubts rather than Gia and causes Gia to walk out. While at a party, Adrianna and Laurel have a talk and Laurel tells Adrianna to follow her heart and leave the party to find Gia . Adrianna takes this advice and arrives at Gia's place only to walk in on Gia with her ex, causing Adrianna to leave. As Adrianna's music career begins to take off, Laurel has her write a song which turns into a duet between her and famous singer Javier. The two feel an instant connection and things heat up fast while Navid realizes that he still has feelings for her and decides that he's going to do what he can to win her back. Adrianna gives up on Navid because she thinks he doesn't like her anymore. Navid leaves a bracelet for Adrianna and a note saying \"Meet me on the Roof.\" After Adrianna performs, she is offered a trip to New York to sing with Javier, before she can see the bracelet. Navid sees them leave and thinks that Adrianna chose Javier. Then Javier pretends the bracelet is from him. However, when shooting a live segment for The Blaze, Navid sees the bracelet and asks to speak with Adrianna alone. They fight about the bracelet and Adrianna realizes that it was from Navid because all her favourite things are on there, including the date they first kissed. Adrianna and Navid reunited but Javier offers Adrianna a chance open for Javier's tour, which is all year long. Season 3 [ edit ] Adrianna and Javier are involved in a car crash, which kills Javier. Before the crash happened, Javier revealed to Adrianna that her music career is over, because Javier is jealous of Adrianna and Navid's relationship. Adrianna receives a bag with her belongings and a book full of original songs by Javier, which she keeps to use as her own material. She sings one of Javier's songs at the memorial, which is attended by Javier's uncle and when he realizes the song was Javier's he threatens to ruin her career. However, they make a deal that if he (Victor) becomes her manager, he won't tell her secret. She agrees and decides to record the rest of Javier's songs. Soon, Adrianna finds herself becoming one of the most famous upcoming starlets in Hollywood and it begins to get to her head. She becomes vapid and vain and oblivious to her friends and starts bossing Victor around. Eventually Victor becomes fed up and reveals Adrianna's secret to the world just as her career really begins to take off, and just as Navid starts to fall in love with Silver, her best friend, unbeknownst to her. While Navid and Silver begin an affair behind her back, Adrianna scrambles to regain her fame and is now in debt. Out of desperation, she agrees to sell a story to a tabloid regarding the baby she gave up for adoption. Navid, upset how Adrianna used the baby to make money, breaks up with her. Adrianna attempts to reunite with Navid, and finds an earring in his bedroom after he rejects her. She leans on Silver for support, believing that the real reason why Navid had broken up with her is because he had been cheating on her. Soon, reality producers begin following her and her friends around while trying to shoot a pilot. Adrianna and Navid get into an argument and he finally admits to having cheated on her. Once again, Adrianna runs to Silver for support, claiming that she wants to find out who the girl he cheated with is so that she can destroy her. Unbeknownst to her, it's Silver, who clearly begins to subtly crack under the pressure of her guilty conscience. While filming more scenes for the show, Adrianna makes a startling discovery. After much investigation, she realizes that it was Silver who Navid had been cheating with. Heartbroken, Adrianna cries to herself, but later masks her hurt with a plot for revenge. Instead of confronting them, she decides to mess with Silver's guilty conscience by acting oblivious. She plays on Silver's conscience by telling her and Naomi that she believes that Lila, Navid's ex-girlfriend, was the girl Navid had been cheating with and that she plans to send a naked picture of Lila to the entire school for her revenge. Knowing that she has to stop Adrianna, Silver decides to come clean and admit that she was the one who Navid had cheated on her with. Adrianna admits that she knew it was her all along and ultimately sends a naked picture of Silver to the entire school. The group takes a trip to Mexico for the spring break, where Adrianna and Silver's feud continues. Upon their return home, Adrianna asks Silver to put it behind them and she eagerly and happily agrees. However, the next scene shows that Adrianna's willingness to make up is insincere as she exchanges Silver's bipolar medication for unknown pills. The effect of this is enormous on Silver who goes through a lengthy manic episode followed by a sudden depressive state. Adrianna's vengeful prank causes Silver to lose any chance of attending her dream school, NYU, and lands Silver in the psychiatric ward at the local hospital. Adrianna visits the hospital, pretending to be a caring friend, and takes Navid home, giving him alcohol and falling asleep next to him on a bed. When she realizes he was drunk and forgot what happened last night, she claims they kissed. Being rejected later, she goes to Silver and tells her Navid kissed her. At a party for Ivy and Raj, Silver's stolen medicine falls out of her purse and all her friends turn their backs on her, which makes her think about committing suicide. She decides not to and resolves to become a better person. Season 4 [ edit ] Adrianna comes back from Africa and visits Silver at her apartment to try to reconcile but is rejected. She then shows up at Naomi's party to apologize again, but Silver again rejects her saying she doesn't think she can ever trust Adrianna again. Dixon Wilson then walks over and comforts her. While Dixon is standing on the balcony of his new condo, Ade walks out in just a T-shirt and tells him she came over to see him because she needed someone to talk to, but she ran into Austin, his new roommate and it is hinted that they might have slept together, but Austin later tells Dixon they just made out a little bit and nothing else. Adrianna starts hanging around Dixon's apartment and the boys seem a little annoyed by her presence, especially Austin. After it is decided that Dixon tell her to leave, she tells him that she is going home, and that the only reason why she came to see him and been hanging around is because Dixon has been nice and sweet and is the only one who doesn't see her as pure evil. Dixon then helps her get a job as a waitress at Liam Court 's new bar. Adrianna continues to try and regain the trust of her friends, though she soon succeeds her goal in Liam and Dixon, the other members of their group still refuse to trust her. Adrianna then soon suspects that Dixon has a drug problem. She is later proven right when in Vegas she follows the gang there to ensure Dixon does not succumb to his newfound drug addiction or previous gambling addiction. Ade comes across him as he prepares to snort some drugs, and after an emotional confrontation the two kiss and have real sex. When Annie discovers them, she accuses Adrianna of seducing Dixon and bringing the drugs. Fed up with everyone treating her terribly, Adrianna lashes out at Annie, and declares she is there to help Dixon who also comes to her defense. Dixon attempts to start a relationship with Adrianna but she denies him, fearful that he might become dependent on her only so that he can avoid dealing with his own problems. Once Dixon goes through rehab Adrianna decides to give him a chance and they begin a relationship. She becomes worried when he quickly reenters the music industry that he might begin using drugs. Dixon decides to use a song Adrianna sang at a benefit for Raj, their friend Ivy Sullivan 's husband, and remix it to include his own lyrics. When he shows her his version of the song and tells her that he's going to submit it to a record company, she becomes outraged, believing that he's using her song to just to get ahead in the music industry. When Dixon decides not to perform the song at an event and instead sings a song about how he is sorry, she forgives him. Adrianna later reveals to Dixon that the song is actually about Maisie, the daughter she gave away in order to pursue a career in the entertainment business as an actress/singer. This sets up the storyline for the latter half of the second season which will begin in 2012 where Adrianna will deal with the repressed repercussions of giving the baby up for adoption as she attempts to reconnect with her child. Adrianna also reveals to Dixon that she wants to collaborate with him musically as they both share a strong passion for music as an art form of expression. Adrianna learns from Navid that Silver is dating the adoptive father of her child Maisie and that they're planning on moving to New York City. Upset at the possibility that Silver might raise her daughter, Adrianna pays a surprise visit to Maisie picking her up from daycare pretending to be Greg's girlfriend. Silver soon finds Adrianna and Maisie and the two have an emotional reunion but Silver's relationship with Greg comes to an end when he learns that Adrianna has met Maisie under the impression that Silver introduced the two of them to each other. Dixon and Adrianna continue to collaborate musically and he asks her to move in with him once they tell each other that they're in love with one another and soon after land a meeting with a major movie producer to discuss music on his next film, but are sabotaged by Vanessa, Liam's girlfriend, who is trying to work behind the scenes to make Liam a movie star. Eventually Adrianna and Dixon land a spot in a musical festival alongside the band Train. Dixon is offered a recording contract by a record executive, but not Adrianna. Adrianna tells Liam about her suspicions that Vanessa may have staged the near-drowning incident which brought him spotlight fame. But Vanessa soon learns about Adrianna's suspicions and she successfully frames Adrianna for assaulting her. However, Dixon believes Adrianna while Liam believes that Vanessa was attacked by Adrianna. To help get over the ordeal with Vanessa, Dixon and Adrianna continue to work on music. Dixon collapses while arguing in the recording studio with Adrianna, and he is taken to the hospital for observation where he and Ade learn that he has a congential heart condition and he only has 5 years left to live. Adrianna decides to quit making music with him as she feels guilty for putting too much pressure on him when in reality Dixon is dealing with his own guilt about lying to Adrianna as he secretly signed a solo recording contract behind her back. Navid arrives back in town for a visit where Dixon confesses to him the truth but admits he did not tell Adrianna because the label didn't want to sign her. Dixon also accepts a gig to go on tour to play backup for Haley Reinhart, but doesn't tell Adrianna, but she later finds out anyway and forces him to choose either her or his career. He chooses his career over her. Soon after Austin returns to Los Angeles and offers to be Adrianna's new manager, suggesting she start singing country music as a change of tune to her career after Dixon leaves town without saying goodbye. Austin enlists his father, Judd Ridge, to help launch Adrianna’s new country-western career as a side act. Adrianna deals with Dixon leaving her by writing songs, two of which she sings live at different events. Eventually Dixon decides returns from touring with his band where he calls Adrianna to give their relationship a second chance. Adrianna agrees, but soon regrets it when Dixon fails to show up at their meeting spot and she thinks he bailed on her again, but in reality he gets into a fatal car accident with his bandmates. During the final moment of the season, Adrianna leaves town with Austin to go on tour as the latest country-western star and him as her manager. Season 5 [ edit ] Adrianna continues her country music tour, unaware that Dixon has gotten into a life-threatening car accident and is in a coma in a hospital back in Los Angeles. 'Ade' then has an unforgettable evening after another show in Las Vegas when she hooks up with a handsome stranger named Taylor. Annie finally manages to contact Ade in Vegas and gets her to return to Los Angeles to be with an unconscious Dixon, and the two girls decide to move into the beach apartment together. Adrianna soon learns that Taylor has become Liam and Navid's business partner and she fails at attempting to avoid him after she becomes confused about her feelings toward him after he kisses her. Dixon, unaware of what has happened between Ade and Taylor, encourages Ade to hire Taylor to create her new music video concept. After Taylor dares Adrianna to show him how sexy she can be, she realizes that she has feeling for him. As Dixon continues to recuperate, Adrianna confides in Annie that she and Dixon are having intimacy issues. After her relationship with Dixon is over, Ade decides to pay much more attention to her friends and mainly with Silver. The two make a show in a truck where they can interview people about their clients. However, when Naomi and Annie's stepbrother Mark comes in between the two, they promise not to have a date with him and put their friendship over this. After Naomi's party night, Silver hooks up with Mark and later confides it to Ade, leaving Ade confused and worried about their friendship. The series ends with Adrianna and Navid back together. Development [ edit ] The character of Adrianna was originally scripted as a guest spot in the series' pilot. When Lowndes was cast, she only knew that her character was a singer in the school musical, and as a singer herself, she was excited to sing on television. However, Lowndes was surprised when \"they chopped my hair off, and wrote this amazing material for me in which I had a drug addiction and I was dying. I honestly didn't know where it was going.\" The day after she filmed the drug overdose scene, Lowndes was offered series regular status. [1] Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported that the character was upgraded because she created more storyline. [2] When Lowndes realized her character was a drug addict, she did a lot of research and talked to real recovering addicts in Vancouver and over the phone. She did not \"want to make light of it since I didn't have those experiences myself\". Upon revelation of Adrianna's pregnancy in the series, Lowndes said that the fate of the baby was still undecided. The actress also explained that Ty and Adrianna had been together before that night at the hotel, as shown in episode \"Wide Awake and Dreaming\". [1] To create Adrianna's \"rough\" look during her drug addiction, Lowndes had to sit through \"an hour of intense white makeup on my face and red and gray under my eyes to create broken capillaries\". For her character's pregnancy, Lowndes said she couldn't wait to wear a heavy pregnancy belly. The actress said that \"by the end of the day my back and feet are killing, so I feel like a real pregnant lady\". [1] Speaking about Adrianna's lesbian relationship with Gia, Lowndes said that it was important that the characters act like any other couple on the series. Lowndes said that \"there has been a response from people who have come up to me who have been affected by it. This is truly going on in high school and people are confused and I love that we're showing somebody like my character, who is confused.\" [3] Lowndes was pleased with the direction of Adrianna's storyline when her character began a music career. Lowndes, who is herself a singer, was able to sing in most the latter episodes of the season. The actress said, \"it's so exciting, and all different musical styles, as well. It's awesome that we got a third-season pickup and there's going to be a lot more music in the third season as well. That's what I'm doing when I'm not working on 90210 , I'm working on my album. So I love it, it's a dream come true.\" [4] Reception [ edit ] Actress Lowndes acknowledged that initial response to her character was \"a little negative — people loved to hate me, and my haircut\". However, she felt that reception became more positive afterward, and recovering addicts told her that she depicted it in a real way. Lowndes thought that people could relate to what she was going through, and that people are \"going to like her even more as we go on\". Lowndes defended the character's earlier behavior, saying, \"I never know what they're going to write, but I think drugs made her who you saw at the beginning. I think she's a good person who has a good heart.\" [1] After Adrianna's overdose in the seventh episode, \"Hollywood Forever\", several critics believed that she had died. [5] Tanya Lane of Poptimal was displeased with the writing of the storyline, citing inconsistencies as the reason. Lane felt that the writers did not address the situation well, and did not like that the storyline picked up with Adrianna \"enjoying a luxurious stay at a star-studded rehab\", whereas the previous episode had ended with her overdosing. Lane was also critical of Adrianna's relationship with Navid, \"apparently Navid has always been in love with her, though I can't recall the two of them having a single conversation in any of the previous episodes [...] Her character is very messy, so I find it rather odd that the writers are tying the loose ends up with a neat little bow.\" [6] M.L. House of TV.com praised the writers for slowly building the lesbian romance between Adrianna and Gia. House said, \"while most shows are clearly going for a ratings stunt any time girls make out, these two are truly falling for each other. It even seems natural, given Adrianna's shady past with men [...] Bravo!\" [7] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d O'Connor, Mickey (February 10, 2009). \" 90210 ' s Adrianna Teases Her Baby's Fate\" . TV Guide . Archived from the original on 25 May 2009 . Retrieved 1 July 2009 . Jump up ^ EW Jessica Walter [ permanent dead link ] Retrieved: 2010-08-06. Jump up ^ Jessica Lowndes same sex storyline on 90210 is important Retrieved: 2010-08-06. Jump up ^ Toronto Sun Entertainment Retrieved: 2010-08-06. Jump up ^ There's No Place Like Homecoming preview Retrieved: 2010-08-06. Jump up ^ 90210 There's no Place Like Homecoming Retrieved: 2010-08-06. Jump up ^ 90210 review Sweaty Palms and Weak Knees [ permanent dead link ] Retrieved: 2010-08-06. show v t e Beverly Hills, 90210 Beverly Hills, 90210 (1990–2000) Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Characters Donna Martin Dylan McKay Kelly Taylor Brandon Walsh Brenda Walsh Andrea Zuckerman Misc Home video releases Soundtrack The Unauthorized Beverly Hills, 90210 Story Melrose Place (1992–99) Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Characters Jane Mancini Michael Mancini Matt Fielding Jake Hanson Jo Reynolds Amanda Woodward Sydney Andrews Kimberly Shaw Lexi Sterling Misc The Unauthorized Melrose Place Story 90210 (2008–2013) Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 Characters Naomi Clark Erin Silver Adrianna Tate-Duncan Teddy Montgomery Misc Soundtrack Other series Models Inc. (1994–1995) Melrose Place (2009–2010) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrianna_Tate-Duncan&oldid=865286341 \" Categories : 90210 (TV series) characters Fictional actors Fictional bisexual females Fictional drug addicts Fictional singers Fictional characters introduced in 2008 Fictional teenage parents Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 22 October 2018, at 23:21 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "The Man in the High Castle - Wikipedia The Man in the High Castle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the novel. For the 2015 TV adaptation, see The Man in the High Castle (TV series) . The Man in the High Castle Cover of first edition (hardcover) Author Philip K. Dick Country United States Language English Genre Alternative history Publisher Putnam Publication date October 1962 Media type Print ( Hardcover & Paperback ) Pages 239 OCLC 145507009 Dewey Decimal 813.54 The Man in the High Castle (1962) is an alternative history novel by American writer Philip K. Dick . Set in 1962, fifteen years after an alternative ending to World War II , the novel concerns intrigues between the victorious Axis Powers —primarily, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany —as they rule over the former United States, as well as daily life under the resulting totalitarian rule. The Man in the High Castle won the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1963. Beginning in 2015, the book was adapted as a multi-season TV series , with his daughter, Isa Dick Hackett, serving as one of the shows producers. Reported inspirations include Ward Moore 's alternative Civil War history, Bring the Jubilee (1953), various classic World War II histories, and the I Ching (referred to in the novel). The novel features a \"novel within the novel\" comprising an alternative history within this alternative history wherein the Allies defeat the Axis (though in a manner distinct from the actual historical outcome). Contents [ hide ] 1 Synopsis 1.1 Background 1.2 Plot summary 2 The Grasshopper Lies Heavy 3 Inspirations 4 Reception 5 Adaptations 5.1 Audiobook 5.2 Television 6 Incomplete sequel 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Synopsis [ edit ] Fictional map of the world after the Axis victory Briefly, The Man in the High Castle is a \"fictional picture of a world divided by Germany and Japan, victors of the second World War\". [1] Background [ edit ] In the novel's parallel history , U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt was assassinated by Giuseppe Zangara in 1934 leading to the continuation of the Great Depression and U.S. isolationism during the opening of World War II . Adolf Hitler led Nazi Germany to conquer most of Europe and the Soviet Union, murdering Jews , Roma , Slavs , and other groups. Meanwhile, Imperial Japan occupied China , before taking control of India and Oceania . The Nazis then helped Italy conquer most of Africa . As Japan invaded the U.S. West Coast , Germany invaded the U.S. East Coast and most of South America . By 1947, the U.S. and the remaining Allies surrendered to the Axis, ending the war. By the 1960s, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany are the world's competing superpowers , with Japan establishing the \"Pacific States of America\" (P.S.A.) from the former Western United States , with the remaining Rocky Mountain States now a neutral buffer zone between the P.S.A. and the Nazi-occupied former Eastern United States . For unknown reasons, Canada remains independent. Historically, Hitler had expressed respect and reverence for Canadian soldiers, even ordering that the Vimy Ridge Memorial site not be bombed. [2] However, it is never revealed if this was the reason, or one of the reasons, for Canada's continued independence. Hitler, though still alive, is incapacitated from advanced syphilis , and Martin Bormann has become Chancellor of Germany , with Goebbels , Heydrich , Göring , Seyss-Inquart (who oversees the extermination of the peoples of Africa ), and other Nazi leaders soon vying to take his place. The Nazis have drained the Mediterranean to make room for farmland, developed and used the hydrogen bomb , and designed rockets for extremely fast travel across the world as well as space, having colonized the Moon , Venus , and Mars . The novel is set mostly in San Francisco in the P.S.A.; here, Chinese residents first appear in the novel as second-class citizens and black people as slaves. Plot summary [ edit ] In 1962, fifteen years after Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany have won World War II, Robert \"Bob\" Childan owns an Americana antiques shop in San Francisco, California (located in the Japanese-occupied Pacific States of America), which is most commonly frequented by the Japanese, who make a fetish of romanticized American cultural artifacts. Childan is contacted by Nobusuke Tagomi, a high-ranking Japanese trade official, who is seeking a gift to impress a visiting Swedish industrialist named Baynes. Childan's store is stocked in part with antiques from the Wyndam-Matson Corporation, a metalworking company. Frank Frink ( formerly Fink), a secretly Jewish-American veteran of World War II , has just been fired from the Wyndam-Matson factory, when he agrees to join a former coworker to begin a handcrafted jewellery business. Meanwhile, Frink's ex-wife, Juliana, works as a judo instructor in Canon City, Colorado (in the neutral Mountain States buffer zone ), where she begins a sexual relationship with an Italian truck driver and ex-soldier, Joe Cinnadella. Throughout the book, many of these characters frequently make important decisions using prophetic messages they interpret from the I Ching . Many characters are also reading a widely banned yet extremely popular new novel, The Grasshopper Lies Heavy , which depicts an alternative history in which the Allies won World War II, a concept that amazes and intrigues its readers. Frink reveals that the Wyndam-Matson Corporation has been supplying Childan with counterfeit antiques, which effectively works to blackmail Wyndam-Matson for money to finance Frink's new jewelry venture. Tagomi and Baynes meet, but Baynes repeatedly delays any real business as they await an expected third party from Japan. Suddenly, the public receives news of the death of the recently ill Chancellor of Germany , Martin Bormann . Childan tentatively, on consignment , takes some of Frink's \"authentic\" new metalwork and attempts to curry favor with a Japanese client, who surprisingly considers Frink's jewellery immensely spiritually alive . Juliana and Joe take a road trip to Denver, Colorado , and Joe impulsively decides they should go on a side-trip to meet the mysterious Hawthorne Abendsen, author of The Grasshopper Lies Heavy , who supposedly lives in a guarded fortress-like estate called the \"High Castle\" in Cheyenne, Wyoming . Soon, Joseph Goebbels is announced as the new German Chancellor. Baynes and Tagomi finally meet their Japanese contact as two agents of the Nazi secret police, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), close in to arrest Baynes, who is actually revealed to be a Nazi defector named Rudolf Wegener. Wegener warns his contact, a famed Japanese general, of Operation Dandelion, an upcoming Goebbels-approved plan for the Nazis to surprise-attack the Japanese Home Islands , in order to obliterate them in one swift stroke. As Frink is elsewhere exposed as a Jew and arrested, Wegener and Tagomi are confronted by the SD agents, both of whom Tagomi shoots dead with an antique American pistol. Back in Colorado, Joe abruptly changes his appearance and mannerisms before the trip to the High Castle, leading Juliana to deduce that he intends to actually murder Abendsen. Joe confirms this, revealing himself to be an undercover Swiss Nazi assassin. Juliana mortally wounds Joe and drives off to warn Abendsen of the threat to his life. Wegener flies back to Germany, while Tagomi remains shaken by the shootout and goes to Childan to sell back the gun he used in the fight; however, instead, sensing the energy from one of Frink's jewelery items, Tagomi impulsively buys it from Childan, before undergoing a spiritually intense ambiguous moment where he momentarily perceives an alternative-history version of San Francisco. Later, Tagomi on a whim forces the German authorities to release Frink, whom Tagomi has never personally met and does not know is the maker of the jewelery. Juliana soon has her own spiritual experience when she arrives in Cheyenne. There, she discovers that Abendsen now lives in a normal house with his family, having left behind the High Castle due to a change of outlook; he no longer preoccupies himself with thoughts that he might soon be assassinated. After dodging many of Juliana's questions about his inspiration for his novel, Abendsen finally confesses that he in fact used the I Ching to guide his writing of The Grasshopper Lies Heavy . Before leaving, Juliana infers then that \"Truth\" itself wrote the book in order to reveal the \"Inner Truth\" that Japan and Germany really lost World War II. The Grasshopper Lies Heavy [ edit ] Several characters in The Man in the High Castle read the popular novel The Grasshopper Lies Heavy , by Hawthorne Abendsen, whose title is assumed or supposed to have come from the Bible [3] :70 verse \"The grasshopper shall be a burden\" ( Ecclesiastes 12:5 ). Thus, The Grasshopper Lies Heavy constitutes a novel within a novel , wherein Abendsen writes of an alternative universe, where the Axis Powers lost World War II (1939–47). For this reason, the Germans have banned the novel in the occupied U.S.; [3] :91 but it is widely read in the Pacific, and its publication is legal in the neutral countries. The Grasshopper Lies Heavy postulates that President Roosevelt survives an assassination attempt but forgoes re-election in 1940 , honoring George Washington 's two-term limit . The next president, Rexford Tugwell , removes the Pacific Fleet from Pearl Harbor , Hawaii, saving it from Japanese attack, which ensures that the U.S. enters the conflict a well-equipped naval power. [3] :70 The United Kingdom retains most of its military-industrial strength, contributing more to the Allied war effort, leading to Rommel 's defeat in North Africa ; the British advance through the Caucasus to fight alongside the Soviets to victory in the Battle of Stalingrad ; Italy reneges on its membership in the Axis Powers and betrays them; British tanks and the Red Army jointly conquer Berlin; at the end of the war, the Nazi leaders—including Adolf Hitler—are tried for their war crimes, wherein the Führer's last words are Deutsche, hier steh' ich (\"Germans, here I stand\"), [3] :131 in imitation of Martin Luther . After the war, Winston Churchill remains the British Prime Minister , and, because of its military-industrial might, the British Empire does not collapse. [3] :169 The Soviet Union, crippled by war losses, collapses. The U.S. establishes strong business relations with Chiang Kai-shek 's right-wing regime in China after vanquishing the Communist Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War . [3] :166 The British Empire becomes more racist and expansionist post-war, while the U.S. outlaws Jim Crow laws , resolving its racism by the 1950s. Both changes provoke racial-cultural tensions between the U.S. and the U.K., leading them to a Cold War for global hegemony between their two vaguely liberal, democratic, capitalist societies. Although the end of the novel is never depicted in the text, one character claims the book ends with the British Empire eventually defeating the U.S., becoming the sole world superpower. Inspirations [ edit ] Dick said he conceived The Man in the High Castle when reading Bring the Jubilee (1953), by Ward Moore , which occurs in an alternative nineteenth-century U.S. wherein the Confederate States of America won the American Civil War . In the acknowledgments to the book, he mentions other influences: The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960), by William L. Shirer ; Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1962), by Alan Bullock ; The Goebbels Diaries (1948), Louis P. Lochner , translator; Foxes of the Desert (1960), by Paul Carrell ; and the 1950 translation of the I Ching by Richard Wilhelm . [4] [3] The acknowledgments have three references to traditional Japanese and Tibetan poetic forms; (i) volume one of the Anthology of Japanese Literature (1955), edited by Donald Keene , from which is cited the haiku on page 48; (ii) from Zen and Japanese Culture (1955), by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki , from which is cited a waka on page 135; and (iii) the Tibetan Book of the Dead (1960), edited by W. Y. Evans-Wentz . Nathanael West 's Miss Lonelyhearts (1933) [5] is also mentioned in the text, [3] :118 written before the Roosevelt assassination divergence point that separates the world of The Man in the High Castle from ours. In this novella, \"Miss Lonelyhearts\" is a male newspaper journalist who writes anonymous advice as an agony aunt to forlorn readers during the height of the Great Depression; hence, \"Miss Lonelyhearts\" tries to find consolation in religion, casual sex, rural vacations, and work, none of which provide him with the sense of authenticity and engagement with the outside world that he needs. West's book is about the elusive quality of interpersonal relationships and quest for personal meaning at a time of political turmoil within the United States. Philip Dick used the I Ching to make decisions crucial to the plot of The Man in the High Castle just as characters within the novel use the I Ching to guide decisions. [4] Reception [ edit ] This section needs expansion with: further, broader statements aimed at encyclopedic, balanced views. You can help by adding to it . (February 2014) In The Religion of Science Fiction , Frederick A. Kreuziger explores the theory of history implied by Dick's creation of the two alternative realities: Neither of the two worlds, however, the revised version of the outcome of WWII nor the fictional account of our present world, is anywhere near similar to the world we are familiar with. But they could be! This is what the book is about. The book argues that this world, described twice, although differently each time, is exactly the world we know and are familiar with. Indeed, it is the only world we know: the world of chance, luck, fate. [6] Avram Davidson praised the novel as a \"superior work of fiction\", citing Dick's use of the I Ching as \"fascinating\". Davidson concluded that \"It's all here—extrapolation, suspense, action, art, philosophy, plot, [and] character.\" [7] The Man in the High Castle secured for Dick the 1963 Hugo Award for Best Novel . [8] [9] [10] A new paperback edition of the novel was published in 1992 by Vintage Books . [11] Adaptations [ edit ] Audiobook [ edit ] An unabridged The Man in the High Castle audiobook, read by George Guidall and running approximately 9.5 hours over 7 audio cassettes , was released in 1997. [12] Another unabridged audiobook version was released in 2008 by Blackstone Audio , read by Tom Weiner and running approximately 8.5 hours over 7 CDs . [13] [14] A third unabridged audiobook recording was released in 2014 by Brilliance Audio , read by Jeff Cummings with a running time of 9:58. [15] Television [ edit ] Main article: The Man in the High Castle (TV series) After a number of attempts to adapt the book to the screen, Amazon 's film production unit began in October 2014 filming the pilot episode of The Man in the High Castle in Roslyn, Washington , [16] for a new television drama to air on the Amazon Prime web video streaming service. [17] The pilot episode was released by Amazon Studios on January 15, 2015, [18] [19] and was Amazon's \"most watched pilot ever\" according to Amazon Studios' vice president, Roy Price. [20] On February 18, 2015, Amazon green-lit the series. [21] The show became available for streaming on November 20, 2015. [22] The television series diverges from the novel in many significant respects. Both the Pacific States of America and the Eastern American puppet state appear to be mere provinces of the Japanese and German empires without any apparent autonomous (even quisling ) government institutions whatsoever. The Rocky Mountain States become an anarchic Neutral Zone. World War II appears to have ended following the destruction of Washington, D.C. with an A-bomb, rather than a land invasion as in the book. As for Hitler himself, while elderly, he is apparently mostly hale in his Season 1 finale appearance, though other characters elsewhere in the season do reference his supposed physical infirmity. In the novel, the Italian Empire is a minor power which controls North Africa and the Middle East; in the series, however, it is shown through maps that these territories are part of the Nazi Empire, suggesting that either the Italian Empire was annexed after the war or is self-governing within the Reich. Characters from the book that do appear are in most cases far more fleshed out with deeper and sometimes rather different backstories than their novel originals. For instance Wegener is a Standartenführer in the SS rather than a naval captain (and oddly there are no German military or naval – as opposed to SS – personnel depicted anywhere in the first season). Rather than being a member of an organized internal resistance (and despite his relatively low rank) Wegener is a close personal confidante of Hitler himself and his disillusionment with the regime appears to be largely personal. Juliana and Frank are unmarried but living together rather than divorced and separated. Frank has a sister, nephew and niece, although they are killed early in the series, and this propels him into a more active role in relation to the resistance. Juliana also has a sister whose murder by the Kempeitai early in the season instigates her search for the mysterious Man in the High Castle, as well as her having a mother and stepfather who are significant supporting characters. Joe Cinnadella is renamed Joe Blake and as he becomes closer to Juliana appears to have growing doubts about his role as a Nazi agent. Robert Childan is however a more minor character (at least in Season 1) than the original, while Ed McCarthy has a rather more prominent and active role. There are several major additional characters introduced by the television series and numerous narrative details and the plotline differ radically from the source novel. For example, the planned Nazi pre-emptive nuclear strike on Japan, \"Operation Dandelion,\" is apparently being prevented only by Hitler's personal refusal to authorise it, leading Heydrich and the faction demanding pre-emptive war to plot the Führer's assassination. In addition, Hawthorne Abendsen does not appear in the first season of the television version and The Grasshopper Lies Heavy is a series of newsreel films depicting multiple alternative realities rather than a novel (although this idea may actually be borrowed from Dick's later novel Valis which features a mysterious film depicting yet another dystopian alternative history of the USA). As of the Season 1 finale, these films are being tracked down by SS agents like Blake for dispatch to Hitler himself for an as-yet-unknown purpose. In season two we see a map on John Smith's wall of the world. From this map we can see that Japan controls the entirety of the Pacific Ocean and most of the Asian continent, including China, India and half of Russia. Japan is also shown to control Australia, New Zealand, western Canada, Alaska and, all pacific states in the USA. We also see that that the Japanese Empire controls the Yucatán Peninsula and South American countries like Chile. In contrast, Nazi Germany is shown as controlling all of Europe, Africa and the Middle East. The German Empire also controls all of the United States and Canada up to the Rockies in the west and South American countries like Brazil. Germany also controls the western parts of former USSR such as the Ukraine. There are also buffer zones between the empires. Neither empire seems to have invaded Mexico and this neutral zone continues up through the Rockies and through Canada. A similar neutral zone is seen dividing Russia in half. Season two also shows two very different lifestyles in the Japanese controlled Pacific states and the German controlled east. The Germans have colonized the eastern states and are assimilating its inhabitants into Nazi beliefs. The Japanese Empire is occupying the pacific states versus colonizing them. There is enforced segregation between Japanese and Americans citizens. It is implied that Native Americans and Pacific Islanders were exterminated by the Germans. Incomplete sequel [ edit ] In a 1976 interview, Dick said he planned to write a sequel novel to The Man in the High Castle : \"And so there's no real ending on it. I like to regard it as an open ending. It will segue into a sequel sometime.\" [23] Dick said that he had \"started several times to write a sequel\", [24] but progressed little, because he was too disturbed by his original research for The Man in the High Castle and could not mentally bear \"to go back and read about Nazis again.\" [24] He suggested that the sequel would be a collaboration with another author: \"Somebody would have to come in and help me do a sequel to it. Someone who had the stomach for the stamina to think along those lines, to get into the head; if you're going to start writing about Reinhard Heydrich , for instance, you have to get into his face. Can you imagine getting into Reinhard Heydrich's face?\" [24] Two chapters of the proposed sequel were published in The Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick , [25] a collection of his essays and other writings. Dick's novel Radio Free Albemuth is rumored to have started as a sequel to The Man in the High Castle . [26] Dick described the plot of this early version of Radio Free Albemuth —then titled VALISystem A —writing: \"... a divine and loving ETI [extraterrestrial intelligence] ... help[s] Hawthorne Abendsen, the protagonist-author in [ The Man in the High Castle ], continue on in his difficult life after the Nazi secret police finally got to him... VALISystem A, located in deep space, sees to it that nothing, absolutely nothing, can prevent Abendsen from finishing his novel.\" [26] The novel eventually evolved into a new story unrelated to The Man in the High Castle. [26] Dick ultimately abandoned the Albemuth book, unpublished during his lifetime, though portions were salvaged and used for 1981's VALIS . [26] The full book was published in 1985, three years after Dick's death. [27] See also [ edit ] Novels portal Hypothetical Axis victory in World War II Simulated reality in fiction The Iron Dream Fatherland References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Staff (December 15, 1962). \"New Fiction\" . Library Corner. Dixon Evening Telegraph . Dixon, Illinois . Retrieved October 25, 2015 – via Newspapers.com . Jump up ^ \"The Canadian Unknown Soldier\". After the Battle. Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. (109). ISSN 0306-154X. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Dick, Philip K. (2011). The Man in the High Castle (1st Mariner Books ed.). Boston: Mariner Books. p. ix-x. ISBN 9780547601205 . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Cover, Arthur Byron (February 1974). \"Interview with Philip K. Dick\" . Vertex . 1 (6) . Retrieved July 23, 2014 . Jump up ^ West, Nathanael (1933) Miss Lonelyhearts , New York, N.Y.: Liveright Publ. Jump up ^ Kreuziger, Frederick A. \"In The Religion of Science Fiction\" . Retrieved July 27, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Books\", F&SF , June 1963, p.61 Jump up ^ \"Philip K. Dick, Won Awards For Science-Fiction Works\" . The New York Times . March 3, 1982 . Retrieved March 30, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"1963 Award Winners & Nominees\" . Worlds Without End . Retrieved September 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ Wyatt, Fred (November 7, 1963). \"A Brisk Bathrobe Canter At Cry Of 'Fire!' Stirs Blood\" . I-J Reporter's Notebook. Daily Independent Journal . San Rafael, California . Retrieved October 25, 2015 – via Newspapers.com . Belatedly I learned that Philip K. Dick of Point Reyes Station won the Hugo, the 21st World Science Fiction Convention Annual Achievement Award for the best novel of 1962. Jump up ^ Staff (July 26, 1992). \"New in Paperback\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 25, 2015 – via HighBeam Research . Jump up ^ Willis, Jesse (May 29, 2003). \"Review of The Man In The High Castle by Philip K. Dick\" . SFFaudio . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\" . BlackstoneAudio.com. Archived from the original on August 9, 2010 . Retrieved January 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ L.B. \"Audiobook review: THE MAN IN THE HIGH CASTLE By Philip K. Dick, Read by Tom Weiner\" . audiofilemagazine.com . Retrieved January 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\" . Audible Inc. Jump up ^ Muir, Pat (October 5, 2014). \"Roslyn hopes new TV show brings 15 more minutes of fame\" . Yakima Herald . Retrieved March 28, 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (July 24, 2014). \"Amazon Studios Adds Drama ‘The Man In The High Castle’, Comedy ‘Just Add Magic’ To Pilot Slate\" . Deadline . Retrieved January 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle: Season 1, Episode 1\" . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 17, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\" . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 18, 2015 . Jump up ^ Lewis, Hilary (February 18, 2015). \"Amazon Orders 5 New Series Including 'Man in the High Castle ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . Jump up ^ Robertson, Adi (February 18, 2015). \"Amazon green-lights The Man in the High Castle TV series\" . The Verge . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . Jump up ^ Moylan, Brian. \"Does The Man in the High Castle prove that the best TV is now streamed?\" . The Guardian . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Hour 25: A Talk With Philip K. Dick « Philip K. Dick Fan Site\" . Philipkdickfans.com. June 26, 1976 . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c RC, Lord (2006). Pink Beam: A Philip K. Dick Companion (1st ed.). Ward, Colorado: Ganymedean Slime Mold Pubs. p. 106. ISBN 9781430324379 . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . [ self-published source ] Jump up ^ Dick, Philip K. (1995). \"Part 3. Works Related to 'The Man in the High Castle' and its Proposed Sequel\". In Sutin, Lawrence . The Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick: Selected Literary and Philosophical Writings . New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-74787-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Pfarrer, Tony. \"A Possible Man in the High Castle Sequel?\" . Willis E. Howard, III Home Page . Archived from the original on August 19, 2008 . Retrieved July 22, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"LC Online Catalog - Item Information (Full Record)\" . Catalog.loc.gov . Retrieved December 10, 2015 . Further reading [ edit ] Brown, William Lansing 2006. \"alternative Histories: Power, Politics, and Paranoia in Philip Roth's The Plot against America and Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle \", The Image of Power in Literature, Media, and Society: Selected Papers , 2006 Conference, Society for the Interdisciplinary Study of Social Imagery. Wright, Will; Kaplan, Steven (eds.); Pueblo, CO: Society for the Interdisciplinary Study of Social Imagery, Colorado State University-Pueblo; pp. 107–11. Campbell, Laura E. 1992. \"Dickian Time in The Man in the High Castle \", Extrapolation , 33: 3, pp. 190–201. Carter, Cassie 1995. \"The Metacolonization of Dick's The Man in the High Castle : Mimicry, Parasitism and Americanism in the PSA\", Science-Fiction Studies #67, 22:3, pp. 333–342. DiTommaso, Lorenzo, 1999. \"Redemption in Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle \", Science-Fiction Studies # 77, 26:, pp. 91–119. Fofi, Goffredo 1997. \"Postfazione\", Philip K. Dick, La Svastica sul Sole , Roma, Fanucci, pp. 391–5. Hayles, N. Katherine 1983. \"Metaphysics and Metafiction in The Man in the High Castle \", Philip K. Dick . Greenberg, M.H.; Olander, J.D. (eds.); New York: Taplinger, 1983, pp. 53–71. Malmgren, Carl D. 1980. \"Philip Dick's The Man in the High Castle and the Nature of Science Fictional Worlds\", Bridges to Science Fiction . Slusser, George E.; Guffey, George R.; Rose, Mark (eds.); Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, pp. 120–30. Mountfort, Paul 2016. \"The I Ching and Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle \", Science-Fiction Studies # 129, 43:, pp. 287–309. Pagetti, Carlo, 2001a. \"La svastica americana\" [Introduction], Philip K. Dick, L'uomo nell'alto castello , Roma: Fanucci, pp. 7–26. Proietti, Salvatore, 1989. \" The Man in The High Castle : politica e metaromanzo\", Il sogno dei simulacri . Pagetti, Carlo; Viviani, Gianfranco (eds.); Milano: Nord, 1989 pp. 34–41. Rieder, John 1988. \"The Metafictive World of The Man in the High Castle : Hermeneutics, Ethics, and Political Ideology\", Science-Fiction Studies # 45, 15.2: 214-25. Rossi, Umberto, 2000. \"All Around the High Castle: Narrative Voices and Fictional Visions in Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle \", Telling the Stories of America - History, Literature and the Arts - Proceedings of the 14th AISNA Biennial conference (Pescara, 1997) , Clericuzio, A.; Goldoni, Annalisa; Mariani, Andrea (eds.); Roma: Nuova Arnica, pp. 474–83. Simons, John L. 1985. \"The Power of Small Things in Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle \". The Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature , 39:4, pp. 261–75. Warrick, Patricia, 1992. \"The Encounter of Taoism and Fascism in The Man in the High Castle \", On Philip K. Dick , Mullen et al. (eds.); Terre Haute and Greencastle: SF-TH Inc. 1992, pp. 27–52. External links [ edit ] The Man in the High Castle cover art gallery The Man in the High Castle at the Internet Book List The Man in the High Castle at Worlds Without End [ show ] v t e Works by Philip K. Dick Novels Gather Yourselves Together (1950) Voices from the Street (1952) Solar Lottery (1954) Mary and the Giant (1954) The World Jones Made (1954) Eye in the Sky (1955) The Man Who Japed (1955) A Time for George Stavros (1956) Pilgrim on the Hill (1956) The Broken Bubble (1956) The Cosmic Puppets (1957) Puttering About in a Small Land (1957) Nicholas and the Higs (1958) Time Out of Joint (1958) In Milton Lumky Territory (1958) Confessions of a Crap Artist (1959) The Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike (1960) Humpty Dumpty in Oakland (1960) Vulcan's Hammer (1960) Dr. Futurity (1960) The Man in the High Castle (1961) We Can Build You (1962) Martian Time-Slip (1962) Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1963) The Game-Players of Titan (1963) The Simulacra (1963) The Crack in Space (1963) Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964) The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1964) The Zap Gun (1964) The Penultimate Truth (1964) The Unteleported Man (1964) The Ganymede Takeover (1965) Counter-Clock World (1965) Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1966) Nick and the Glimmung (1966) Now Wait for Last Year (1966) Ubik (1966) Galactic Pot-Healer (1968) A Maze of Death (1968) Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1969) Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974) Deus Irae (1976) Radio Free Albemuth (1976; published 1985) A Scanner Darkly (1977) VALIS (1981) The Divine Invasion (1981) The Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982) The Owl in Daylight (unfinished) Collections A Handful of Darkness (1955) The Variable Man (1956) The Preserving Machine (1969) The Book of Philip K. Dick (1973) The Best of Philip K. Dick (1977) The Golden Man (1980) Robots, Androids, and Mechanical Oddities (1984) I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon (1985) The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick (1987) Beyond Lies the Wub (1988) The Dark Haired Girl (1989) The Father-Thing (1989) Second Variety (1989) The Days of Perky Pat (1990) The Little Black Box (1990) The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford (1990) We Can Remember It for You Wholesale (1990) The Minority Report (1991) Second Variety (1991) The Eye of the Sibyl (1992) The Philip K. Dick Reader (1997) Minority Report (2002) Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick (2002) Paycheck (2004) Vintage PKD (2006) Short stories \" Beyond Lies the Wub \" (1952) \" The Gun \" (1952) \" The Skull \" (1952) \" The Little Movement \" (1952) \" The Defenders \" (1953) \" Mr. Spaceship \" (1953) \" Piper in the Woods \" (1953) \" Roog \" (1953) \" The Infinites \" (1953) \" Second Variety \" (1953) \" Colony \" (1953) \" The Cookie Lady \" (1953) \" Impostor \" (1953) \" Paycheck \" (1953) \" The Preserving Machine \" (1953) \" Expendable \" (1953) \" The Indefatigable Frog \" (1953) \" The Commuter \" (1953) \" Out in the Garden \" (1953) \" The Great C \" (1953) \" The King of the Elves \" (1953) \" The Trouble with Bubbles \" (1953) \" The Variable Man \" (1953) \" Planet for Transients \" (1953) \" The Builder \" (1953) \" Tony and the Beetles \" (1953) \" Prize Ship \" (1954) \" Beyond the Door \" (1954) \" The Crystal Crypt \" (1954) \" The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford \" (1954) \" The Golden Man \" (1954) \" Sales Pitch \" (1954) \" Breakfast at Twilight \" (1954) \" The Crawlers \" (1954) \" Exhibit Piece \" (1954) \" Adjustment Team \" (1954) \" Shell Game \" (1954) \" Meddler \" (1954) \" A World of Talent \" (1954) \" The Last of the Masters \" (1954) \" Upon the Dull Earth \" (1954) \" The Father-thing \" (1954) \" Strange Eden \" (1954) \" The Turning Wheel \" (1954) \" Foster, You're Dead! \" (1955) \" Human Is \" (1955) \" War Veteran \" (1955) \" Captive Market \" (1955) \" Nanny \" (1955) \" The Chromium Fence \" (1955) \" Service Call \" (1955) \" The Mold of Yancy \" (1955) \" Autofac \" (1955) \" Psi-man Heal My Child! \" (1955) \" The Minority Report \" (1956) \" Pay for the Printer \" (1956) \" A Glass of Darkness \" (1956) \" The Unreconstructed M \" (1957) \" Null-O \" (1958) \" Explorers We \" (1959) \" Recall Mechanism \" (1959) \" Fair Game \" (1959) \" War Game \" (1959) \" All We Marsmen \" (1963) \" What'll We Do with Ragland Park? \" (1963) \" The Days of Perky Pat \" (1963) \" If There Were No Benny Cemoli \" (1963) \" Waterspider \" (1964) \" Novelty Act \" (1964) \" Oh, to Be a Blobel! \" (1964) \" The War with the Fnools \" (1964) \" What the Dead Men Say \" (1964) \" Orpheus with Clay Feet \" (1964) \" Cantata 140 \" (1964) \" The Unteleported Man \" (1964) \" Retreat Syndrome \" (1965) \" Project Plowshare \" (1965) \" We Can Remember It for You Wholesale \" (1966) \" Faith of Our Fathers \" (1967) \" Not by Its Cover \" (1968) \" The Electric Ant \" (1969) \" A. Lincoln, Simulacrum \" (1969) \" The Pre-persons \" (1974) \" A Little Something for Us Tempunauts \" (1974) \" The Exit Door Leads In \" (1979) \" Rautavaara's Case \" (1980) \" I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon \" (1980) \" The Eye of the Sibyl \" (1987) \" Stability \" (1987) Adaptations Films Blade Runner (1982) Total Recall (1990) Confessions d'un Barjo (1992) Screamers (1995) Impostor (2002) Minority Report (2002) Paycheck (2003) A Scanner Darkly (2006) Next (2007) Screamers: The Hunting (2009) Radio Free Albemuth (2010) The Adjustment Bureau (2011) Total Recall (2012) 2036: Nexus Dawn (2017) 2048: Nowhere to Run (2017) Blade Runner Black Out 2022 (2017) Blade Runner 2049 (2017) TV series Total Recall 2070 (1999) The Man in the High Castle (2015–present) Minority Report (2015) Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams (2017) [ show ] v t e Hugo Award for Best Novel Retro The Sword in the Stone by T. H. White (1939) Slan by A. E. van Vogt (1941) The Mule by Isaac Asimov (1946) Farmer in the Sky by Robert A. Heinlein (1951) Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury (1954) 1953–1975 The Demolished Man by Alfred Bester (1953) They'd Rather Be Right (aka: The Forever Machine) by Mark Clifton and Frank Riley (1955) Double Star by Robert A. Heinlein (1956) The Big Time by Fritz Leiber (1958) A Case of Conscience by James Blish (1959) Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein (1960) A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller, Jr. (1961) Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein (1962) The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick (1963) Here Gather the Stars (aka: Way Station ) by Clifford D. Simak (1964) The Wanderer by Fritz Leiber (1965) Dune by Frank Herbert (1966, tie) ...And Call Me Conrad (aka: This Immortal ) by Roger Zelazny (1966, tie) The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress by Robert A. Heinlein (1967) Lord of Light by Roger Zelazny (1968) Stand on Zanzibar by John Brunner (1969) The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin (1970) Ringworld by Larry Niven (1971) To Your Scattered Bodies Go by Philip José Farmer (1972) The Gods Themselves by Isaac Asimov (1973) Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke (1974) The Dispossessed by Ursula K. Le Guin (1975) 1976–2000 The Forever War by Joe Haldeman (1976) Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang by Kate Wilhelm (1977) Gateway by Frederik Pohl (1978) Dreamsnake by Vonda N. McIntyre (1979) The Fountains of Paradise by Arthur C. Clarke (1980) The Snow Queen by Joan D. Vinge (1981) Downbelow Station by C. J. Cherryh (1982) Foundation's Edge by Isaac Asimov (1983) Startide Rising by David Brin (1984) Neuromancer by William Gibson (1985) Ender's Game by Orson Scott Card (1986) Speaker for the Dead by Orson Scott Card (1987) The Uplift War by David Brin (1988) Cyteen by C. J. Cherryh (1989) Hyperion by Dan Simmons (1990) The Vor Game by Lois McMaster Bujold (1991) Barrayar by Lois McMaster Bujold (1992) A Fire Upon the Deep by Vernor Vinge / Doomsday Book by Connie Willis (1993) Green Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson (1994) Mirror Dance by Lois McMaster Bujold (1995) The Diamond Age by Neal Stephenson (1996) Blue Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson (1997) Forever Peace by Joe Haldeman (1998) To Say Nothing of the Dog by Connie Willis (1999) A Deepness in the Sky by Vernor Vinge (2000) 2001–present Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire by J. K. Rowling (2001) American Gods by Neil Gaiman (2002) Hominids by Robert J. Sawyer (2003) Paladin of Souls by Lois McMaster Bujold (2004) Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell by Susanna Clarke (2005) Spin by Robert Charles Wilson (2006) Rainbows End by Vernor Vinge (2007) The Yiddish Policemen's Union by Michael Chabon (2008) The Graveyard Book by Neil Gaiman (2009) The Windup Girl by Paolo Bacigalupi / The City & the City by China Miéville (2010) Blackout/All Clear by Connie Willis (2011) Among Others by Jo Walton (2012) Redshirts by John Scalzi (2013) Ancillary Justice by Ann Leckie (2014) The Three-Body Problem by Cixin Liu (2015) The Fifth Season by N. K. Jemisin (2016) The Obelisk Gate by N. K. Jemisin (2017) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Man_in_the_High_Castle&oldid=808245534 \" Categories : 1960s science fiction novels 1962 American novels American alternate history novels Dystopian novels Hugo Award for Best Novel-winning works Metafictional novels Postmodern novels Novels by Philip K. Dick Novels set in California Novels set in San Francisco World War II alternate histories G. P. Putnam's Sons books Fictional states of the United States Novels adapted into television programs Hidden categories: Accuracy disputes from August 2015 Use mdy dates from January 2017 Pages to import images to Wikidata Articles to be expanded from February 2014 All articles to be expanded Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 November 2017, at 19:07. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Man in the High Castle", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Man_in_the_High_Castle&amp;oldid=808245534" }

{ "text": "Hurricane Irma - Wikipedia Hurricane Irma From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Atlantic hurricane of 2017. For other storms of the same name, see Tropical Storm Irma . Hurricane Irma Category 5 major hurricane (SSHWS/NWS) Hurricane Irma at peak intensity approaching the Leeward Islands on September 5 Formed August 30, 2017 Dissipated September 13, 2017 ( Remnant low after September 12 ) Highest winds 1-minute sustained : 180 mph (285 km/h) Lowest pressure 914 mbar ( hPa ); 26.99 inHg Fatalities 52 direct, 82 indirect Damage $64.76 billion (2017 USD ) ( Fifth-costliest tropical cyclone on record) Areas affected Cape Verde , Leeward Islands (especially Barbuda , Saint Barthelemy , Anguilla , Saint Martin and the Virgin Islands ) , Greater Antilles ( Cuba and Puerto Rico ) , Turks and Caicos Islands , The Bahamas , Eastern United States (especially Florida ) Part of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season History Meteorological history Effects Caribbean Islands Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas British Virgin Islands Cuba United States Florida Other wikis Commons: Irma images Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful and catastrophic Cape Verde hurricane , the strongest observed in the Atlantic in terms of maximum sustained winds since Wilma , and the strongest storm on record to exist in the open Atlantic region. Irma was the first Category 5 hurricane to strike the Leeward Islands on record, followed by Hurricane Maria two weeks later, and is the second-costliest Caribbean hurricane on record, after Maria. [1] The ninth named storm , fourth hurricane , second major hurricane , [nb 1] and first Category 5 hurricane of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season , Irma caused widespread and catastrophic damage throughout its long lifetime, particularly in the northeastern Caribbean and the Florida Keys . It was also the most intense hurricane to strike the continental United States since Katrina in 2005 , the first major hurricane to make landfall in Florida since Wilma in the same year, and the first Category 4 hurricane to strike the state since Charley in 2004 . Irma developed from a tropical wave near Cape Verde on August 30. Favorable conditions allowed Irma to rapidly intensify into a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson wind scale by late on August 31. However, the storm's intensity fluctuated between Categories 2 and 3 for the next several days, due to a series of eyewall replacement cycles . On September 4, Irma resumed intensifying, becoming a Category 5 hurricane by early on the next day, and acquiring annular characteristics . On September 6, Irma peaked with 180 mph (285 km/h) winds and a minimum pressure of 914 hPa (27.0 inHg), making it the second most intense tropical cyclone worldwide in 2017, behind only Hurricane Maria , and the strongest worldwide in 2017, in terms of wind speed. Another eyewall replacement cycle caused Irma to weaken back to a Category 4 hurricane, but the storm re-attained Category 5 status before making landfall in Cuba . Although land interaction weakened Irma to a Category 2 storm, the system re-intensified to Category 4 status as it crossed the warm waters of the Straits of Florida , before making landfall on Cudjoe Key with winds at 130 mph, (215 km/h) on September 10. Irma weakened to Category 3 status, prior to another landfall in Florida on Marco Island later that day. The system degraded into a remnant low over Alabama and ultimately dissipated on September 13 over Missouri . The storm caused catastrophic damage in Barbuda , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , Anguilla , and the Virgin Islands as a Category 5 hurricane. The hurricane caused at least 134 deaths: one in Anguilla ; one in Barbados ; three in Barbuda ; four in the British Virgin Islands ; 10 in Cuba ; 11 in the French West Indies ; one in Haiti ; three in Puerto Rico ; four on the Dutch side of Sint Maarten ; 92 in the contiguous United States , and four in the U.S. Virgin Islands . Hurricane Irma was the top Google searched term in the US and globally in 2017. [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Meteorological history 2 Preparations 2.1 Caribbean 2.2 Mainland United States 2.2.1 Florida 2.2.2 Elsewhere 2.2.3 Sports 2.2.4 FEMA funding 3 Impact 3.1 Antigua and Barbuda 3.2 Saint Martin 3.3 Saint Barthélemy 3.4 Anguilla 3.5 Rest of the Lesser Antilles 3.6 British Virgin Islands 3.7 U.S. Virgin Islands 3.8 Puerto Rico 3.9 Hispaniola 3.10 Turks and Caicos Islands 3.11 The Bahamas 3.12 Cuba 3.13 Mainland United States 3.13.1 Florida 3.13.2 Other states 4 Aftermath 4.1 Antigua and Barbuda 4.2 British Overseas Territories 4.3 The Bahamas 4.4 Cuba 4.5 Hispaniola 4.6 Puerto Rico 4.7 Saint Martin 4.8 French Overseas Departments 4.9 Florida 4.10 U.S. Virgin Islands 5 Records 6 Retirement 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Meteorological history Main article: Meteorological history of Hurricane Irma Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale The National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a tropical wave over western Africa on August 26. [4] The tropical wave moved off the coast of the continent late on August 27. Throughout the next two days, showers and thunderstorms associated with the wave became better organized and gradually coalesced into a low pressure area , as the system passed just south of and then through the Cape Verde Islands on August 29, [5] with the NHC stating that any significant organization of the disturbance would result in the classification of a tropical depression. [6] Further organization over the next 24 hours or so led to classification of the disturbance as Tropical Storm Irma, at 06:00 UTC on August 30, based on scatterometer data and satellite estimates . With warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear, strengthening was anticipated, with the only hindrance being slightly cooler waters and drier air. [7] Sea surface temperatures in Hurricane Irma's path. The nascent storm began developing upper-level poleward outflow , as an anticyclone became established over the system, with banding features becoming increasingly evident in satellite images. [8] Early on August 31, shortly after the development of a central dense overcast (CDO) and an eye feature , [9] Irma underwent rapid intensification , becoming a Category 2 hurricane at 18:00 UTC and then a Category 3 hurricane, becoming a major hurricane – around 00:00 UTC on September 1. In a 48-hour period, the hurricane's intensity had increased by 65 mph (105 km/h). [7] On September 2, a ship passed 60 mi (97 km) to the west of the center of Irma, recording maximum winds of 45 mph (72 km/h), which indicated that the eye of Irma remained compact. [10] [11] A strong high pressure system to the north of Irma caused the storm to move west-southwestward between September 2 and September 4. [7] The first aircraft reconnaissance mission departed from Barbados on the afternoon of September 3, discovering an eye 29 mi (47 km) in diameter and surface winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). [12] [13] On September 4, after moving into more favorable conditions, Irma strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane. As it continued approaching the Leeward Islands, Irma underwent a second and more robust period of rapid intensification, becoming a Category 5 hurricane by 12:00 UTC on the following day, with winds of 175 mph (280 km/h). [7] As it began to take on annular characteristics , the extremely powerful hurricane continued to intensify, [14] with maximum sustained winds peaking at 180 mph (285 km/h) near 18:00 UTC on September 5 – although it was operationally assessed at 185 mph (295 km/h). [7] [15] Eight hours later, Irma made landfall along the northern coast of Barbuda near peak strength. Later that day, around 18:00 UTC, the storm's pressure bottomed out at 914 mbar (27.0 inHg) – this was the lowest in the Atlantic since Dean in 2007. While maintaining its intensity, Irma made successive landfalls on September 6, at 11:15 UTC on Sint Maarten , and at 16:30 UTC on Virgin Gorda , in the British Virgin Islands , all while it was at peak intensity. [7] Three simultaneously active hurricanes on September 7. From left to right: Katia , Irma, and Jose , the first occurrence since 2010 . As the hurricane moved away from the Virgin Islands late on September 6, observations from reconnaissance flights as well as Doppler radar in San Juan, Puerto Rico , indicated an elliptical eye and double eyewalls. [7] [16] Late on September 6, the cyclone passed about 60 mi (97 km) north of Puerto Rico . Moving west-northwestward, Irma closely paralleled the north coast of Hispaniola throughout the day on September 7. After beginning an eyewall replacement cycle, Irma weakened to a Category 4 hurricane as it passed south of the Turks and Caicos Islands early on September 8. This subsequently ended the 60-hour contiguous period of Irma maintaining Category 5 intensity, the second longest any Atlantic storm had maintained winds above 156 mph (251 km/h) – behind only the 1932 Cuba hurricane . At 05:00 UTC on September 8, Irma made landfall on the island of Little Inagua in the Bahamas with sustained winds of 155 mph (250 km/h). The hurricane then began tracking more to the west due to the intensification of a subtropical ridge to its north. Once the eyewall replacement cycle was complete, Irma began to re-intensify, and it re-attained Category 5 intensity at 18:00 UTC that day east of Cuba as deep convection became more pronounced and organized. The hurricane then made landfall in Cayo Romano, Cuba , at 03:00 UTC on September 9 with winds of 165 mph (270 km/h). This made Irma only the second Category 5 hurricane to strike Cuba in recorded history, after the 1924 Cuba hurricane . As the eye of Irma moved along the northern coast of Cuba, gradual weakening ensued due to land interaction, with the eye becoming cloud-filled and the intensity falling to a high-end Category 2 later on September 9. [7] Combined satellite image of Hurricane Andrew and Irma, showing the size comparison of the storm After slowing down late on September 9, the hurricane turned northwestward towards Florida around the southwestern edge of the subtropical high to its northeast and a low-pressure system that was located over the continental United States . Moving over the warm waters of the Straits of Florida, Irma quickly restrengthened to a Category 4 at 06:00 UTC on September 10, as deep convection improved and the eye becoming better defined. [7] In addition, Irma's wind field continued to increase in size, with hurricane-force winds spanning out a region of 80 mi (130 km) and gale-force winds spanning 220 mi (350 km) in diameter. [17] The cyclone made landfall in Cudjoe Key, Florida , at 13:00 UTC on September 10 at Category 4 intensity, with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h). Increasing wind shear and land interaction caused the satellite appearance of the storm to become ragged later that day, and Irma weakened to Category 3 intensity before making its seventh and final landfall at 19:30 UTC in Marco Island, Florida , with sustained winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). [7] Once Irma had moved inland, it began to accelerate to the north-northwest, while rapid weakening began to occur due to the increasing wind shear, land interaction, and dry air, with the storm falling below Category 3 intensity hours after landfall. [7] [18] Passing east of Tampa as a weakening Category 1 hurricane around 06:00 UTC on September 11, Irma continued to weaken as most of the deep convection became more spread out towards the northern semi-circle of the circulation – though it retained a large wind field, with most of Florida experiencing gale-force winds. [7] The system finally weakened to a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC that day as it entered southern Georgia , while acquiring some extratropical characteristics. [19] At 06:00 UTC on September 12, Irma degenerated to a remnant low just as it entered Alabama , as most of the deep convection had diminished. The remnants persisted for another day or so before dissipating over Missouri on September 13. [7] Preparations Caribbean Infrared satellite loop of Irma approaching the northern Leeward Islands on September 5, around the time of its upgrade to a Category 5 hurricane Given that Irma's forecast track was along much of the Caribbean island chain, hurricane warnings were issued for the northern Leeward Islands, Puerto Rico, and parts of Hispaniola on September 5. [7] On September 4, Puerto Rico declared a state of emergency. [20] By September 6, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency had deployed response teams in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands . Supplies, including food rations, medical supplies, and blankets, were pre-staged in strategic locations on the islands for distribution. [21] In Antigua and Barbuda , residents safeguarded their homes and cleaned up their properties in anticipation of strong winds. Emergency crews were put on standby at public shelters and hospitals by September 5 to assist with any evacuations. [22] Expecting a direct hit, more than half of the residents on Barbuda took shelter, [23] and relief supplies were preemptively mobilized. [24] In Guadeloupe, low-lying and cliff-edge homes were evacuated at the threat of flooding and erosion. Schools and public businesses closed on September 5 and 6. Hospitals stocked up on three days' worth of supplies and checked the functionality of their generators. [25] [26] Of the island's 32 municipalities, 22 activated their emergency plans; 1,500 people were urged to take shelter. [27] The island sustained relatively minor damage and became the base for relief efforts on St. Martin ( Collectivity of Saint Martin ) and St. Barts ( Saint Barthélemy ). [28] Though the core of the hurricane was expected to remain north of the island, a yellow alert was issued for Martinique due to the likelihood of rough seas. [29] The island dispatched relief supplies and military reinforcements to its neighboring islands of Guadeloupe , Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy , which faced a greater risk of a direct impact. [30] The National Emergency Management Organization on Saint Lucia urged small craft operators and swimmers to be mindful of forecasts for high surf. [31] Small Craft Warnings and High Surf Advisories were hoisted for Dominica , where residents were urged to remain vigilant of the potential for high waves, landslides, and flooding. [32] In the Turks and Caicos , evacuation orders were issued for low-lying areas starting September 5. Schools were closed, government buildings were boarded up, and shelters were opened. [33] Officials spread warnings to residents in English, Creole, and Spanish via social media, radio, SMS text, and WhatsApp . [34] On September 5, the Dominican Republic activated the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters , thus providing for humanitarian satellite coverage; [35] the United States and Haiti followed suit two days later. [36] [37] According to officials, 11,200 people were evacuated from vulnerable areas prior to the storm's arrival. [38] 7,400 tourists were moved to Santo Domingo , away from beach resorts. [39] In Haiti , government officials and aid organizations struggled with early preparation and evacuation efforts. While some officials blamed reluctance and indifference on the part of the population, others \"admitted they were not prepared for the onslaught and no mandatory evacuation orders were in place ahead of Irma's approach,\" per The Guardian . [39] [40] Local officials contended that they had not received promised funds, supplies, or equipment from the national government. The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti prepared its 1,000 peacekeepers and engineers to assist. [41] In The Bahamas , the government began preparations the week prior to the hurricane's arrival, including securing national sports facilities to use as shelters. [42] By September 7, the government had evacuated 1,609 people by air from the southern islands, including 365 from Bimini . [43] Controlled cutting of the power supply to southern and central Bahamian islands was conducted in advance of the storm. [44] Shelters were made available, though usage was low due to most evacuees staying with family on other islands. [45] Of the 2,679 foreign tourists still in The Bahamas on September 7, about 1,200 were being housed at Atlantis Paradise Island , one of the most hurricane-ready structures in the country. [46] In Cuba , meteorologists did not initially predict a direct hit. [47] Fuel conservation was enacted in Camagüey Province to ensure that enough would be available during post-storm power outages. [48] The Civil Defense evacuated nearly one million people from low-lying areas, including thousands of Canadian and European tourists in the Jardines del Rey . [49] [47] Dolphins at a Cayo Guillermo resort were evacuated by helicopter. [47] Mainland United States The NHC issued several watches and warnings for the Southeastern United States . The first watches and warnings were issued at 15:00 UTC on September 7, which was a hurricane watch from the Jupiter Inlet to Bonita Beach , including the Florida Keys and Lake Okeechobee . The watches and warnings were extended into Georgia and South Carolina on September 9. At 21:00 UTC on that day, the advisories reached their maximum extent, with a hurricane warning covering the entire east coast of the state, the west coast from Indian Pass southward, and the Florida Keys; a hurricane watch was in place from the Florida–Georgia state line to Edisto Beach, South Carolina ; and there were two tropical storm warnings, one in Florida from Indian Pass to the Okaloosa – Walton county line and the other from the Florida–Georgia state line to the South Santee River in South Carolina. Watches and warnings were gradually discontinued as Irma moved inland and weakened, with all of them canceled by early on September 12. [7] Florida Main article: Effects of Hurricane Irma in Florida § Preparations Play media 'Florida Governor Rick Scott on Evacuations' video from Voice of America On September 4, Florida Governor Rick Scott declared a state of emergency. Governor Scott placed 100 members of the Florida National Guard on duty to assist in preparations. All 7,000 troops were ordered to be on duty by September 8. [50] Officials advised residents to stock their hurricane kits. [51] The state coordinated with electrical companies in order for power outages to be restored as quickly as possible, extending resources such as equipment, fuel, and lodging for the approximately 24,000 restoration personnel who had been activated. Governor Scott suspended tolls on all toll roads in Florida, including the turnpike . All state offices in Florida were closed from September 8 to September 11, while public schools, state colleges, and state universities in all 67 counties were closed during the same period. The Florida Department of Education coordinated with school districts as the need for transportation by school buses and opening shelters arose. By September 9, more than 150 state parks were closed. [52] Throughout the state, almost 700 emergency shelters were opened. The shelters collectively housed about 191,764 people, [50] with more than 40% of them staying in a shelter in South Florida, including 31,092 in Miami-Dade County, 17,263 in Palm Beach County, 17,040 in Collier County, and 17,000 in Broward County. [53] Additionally, more than 60 special needs shelters were opened, which housed more than 5,000 people by September 9. [52] Residents in Doral installing hurricane shutters in advance of the storm Many airports across the state, particularly in Central and South Florida , were closed. [52] Nearly 9,000 flights intending to arrive in or depart from Florida were canceled. [54] Along Florida's coasts, the seaports of Canaveral , Key West , Manatee , Miami , Palm Beach , and Port Everglades , and St. Petersburg were closed, while the ports at Fernandina , Jacksonville , Panama City , and Pensacola were opened, but with restricted access. [52] For the fifth time in its 45-year history, the Walt Disney World Resort was completely closed due to the storm. Its theme parks, water parks, and Disney Springs were all closed by 9:00 p.m. on September 9 and remained closed until September 12. Other Orlando -area theme parks, including Universal Orlando Resort and SeaWorld Orlando , were also closed. [55] The Kennedy Space Center was closed from September 8 to September 15. [56] An estimated 6.5 million Floridians were ordered to evacuate, mostly those living on barrier islands or in coastal areas; in mobile or sub-standard homes; and in low-lying or flood prone areas. Mandatory evacuations were ordered for portions of Brevard , Broward , Citrus , Collier , Dixie , Duval , Flagler, Glades , Hendry , Hernando , Indian River , Lee , Martin , Miami-Dade , Orange , Palm Beach , Pasco , Pinellas , Sarasota , Seminole , St. Lucie , Sumter , and Volusia counties. All of Monroe County , where the Florida Keys are located, was placed under a mandatory evacuation. [52] Residents in communities near the southern half of Lake Okeechobee were also ordered to leave. Additionally, voluntary evacuation notices were issued for all or parts of Alachua , Baker , Bay , Bradford , Charlotte , Columbia , Desoto , Hardee , Highlands , Hillsborough , Lake , Manatee , Okeechobee , Osceola , and Polk counties. [52] A record 6.5 million Floridians evacuated, making it the largest evacuation in the state's history. Evacuees caused significant traffic congestion on northbound Interstate 95 , Interstate 75 , and Florida's Turnpike, exacerbated by the fact that the entire Florida peninsula was within the cone of uncertainty in the NHC's forecast path in the days before the storm, so evacuees from both coasts headed north, as evacuees would not be safer by fleeing to the opposite coast. [50] Fuel was in short supply throughout peninsular Florida during the week before Irma's arrival, especially along evacuation routes, leading to hours-long lines at fuel stations and even escorts of fuel trucks by the Florida Highway Patrol . [57] Use of the left shoulder as a lane for moving traffic was allowed on northbound Interstate 75 from Wildwood to the Georgia state line beginning September 8 and on eastbound Interstate 4 from Tampa to State Road 429 near Celebration for a few hours on September 9. It was the first time that the shoulder-use plan, which was introduced at the start of the 2017 hurricane season, was implemented by the state for hurricane evacuations. [50] The shoulder-use plan was implemented in place of labor- and resource-intensive contraflow lane reversal , in which both sides of an interstate highway are used for one direction of traffic. [58] [59] Officials from the Environmental Protection Agency , which had been criticized for its response to Hurricane Harvey , took special measures to inspect and secure hazardous materials, especially at Superfund sites. [60] Elsewhere Eastbound Interstate 4 lanes on the afternoon of September 9 are filled with evacuating traffic from the Gulf Coast (note the emergency shoulder use by moving traffic), while westbound lanes are almost empty at 5 PM on a Saturday afternoon Georgia Governor Nathan Deal declared a state of emergency initially for all six coastal counties on September 6; however, the state of emergency was expanded to cover 30 counties in southeast and east central Georgia, and Governor Deal ordered mandatory evacuations for all areas east of Interstate 95 on September 7. Contraflow lane reversal for Interstate 16 took effect on September 9 at 8:00 a.m. from Savannah to Dublin, Georgia . [61] On September 8, Governor Deal further expanded the state of emergency to cover 94 counties south of the Atlanta metropolitan area , with mandatory evacuations expanded to include the entirety of Chatham County as well as low-lying areas west of I-95. [62] In total, 540,000 people on the Georgia coast were ordered to leave. [63] On September 10, the state of emergency for Georgia was extended to cover the entire state, while Atlanta was placed under its first-ever tropical storm warning. [64] [65] All Georgia state parks were open for free to evacuees, as was the 800-acre camping area at Atlanta Motor Speedway . [66] Reversible HOT lanes on Interstate 75 in Georgia through south metro Atlanta were open 24 hours northbound with no tolls. [67] Play media Video by mayor of Fayetteville, North Carolina Nat Robertson North Carolina Governor Roy Cooper declared a state of emergency on September 6, [68] with South Carolina Governor Henry McMaster following suit the same day. [69] Governor of Virginia Terry McAuliffe declared a state of emergency on September 8 in order to protect Virginia residents and to mobilize resources in support of neighboring states. [70] Officials in New Orleans stated that there would not be much time for preparations if Irma failed to make the projected northward turn, but that South Texas or Florida would not be a good evacuation destination. [71] Talladega Superspeedway near Talladega, Alabama , opened their campgrounds to evacuees free of charge. [66] On September 10, 2017 Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam issued an executive order allowing medical professionals in other states to practice in Tennessee to aid Hurricane Irma evacuees. This order also allowed pharmacies to give out 14-day supplies of medicine, and gave women and children from outside the state the ability to participate in the Tennessee Department of Health programs. [72] Sports In professional sports, the Miami Dolphins – Tampa Bay Buccaneers game scheduled for September 10 at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami was postponed to November 19 due to the storm's threat. The Dolphins left early for their road game against the Los Angeles Chargers . [73] Although their schedule was not effected by Irma, the Jacksonville Jaguars remained in Houston until September 12, two days after their game against the Texans . [74] The Tampa Bay Rays and New York Yankees had their September 11–13 series moved from Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg to Citi Field , in Queens . [73] Minor League Baseball 's Florida State League , Carolina League , and Southern League called off their championship finals and as a result, named their division series winners league co-champions. [75] [76] [77] The Miami FC versus San Francisco Deltas match on September 10 was cancelled so the players and staff could prepare for the storm with their families. [78] The Orlando Pride of the National Women's Soccer League rescheduled their September 9 match to September 7. [79] Orlando City SC of Major League Soccer did not have any scheduled home games in September, but was unable to return to training facilities in Orlando due to Hurricane Irma. [80] In college football , the UCF Knights - Memphis Tigers game set to take place at 20:00 EDT on September 9 was moved to September 30, replacing UCF's game against Maine and Memphis game against Georgia State . UCF also cancelled their game against Georgia Tech originally scheduled for September 16, as UCF's stadium hosted the National Guard. [81] The USF Bulls - Connecticut Huskies football game was also cancelled. The Miami Hurricanes – Arkansas State Redwolves game scheduled for September 9 at Centennial Bank Stadium in Arkansas was canceled due to travel concerns for the University of Miami. The Florida Gators - Northern Colorado Bears match in Gainesville, originally scheduled for September 9 was cancelled. The Florida State Seminoles contest against the Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks was canceled on September 8. [82] The Seminoles' rivalry game with the Hurricanes in Tallahassee, originally scheduled for the following Saturday, September 16, was postponed three weeks later to October 7. The FIU Panthers game against the Alcorn State Braves was moved up a day and relocated to Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama . [83] The Georgia Southern Eagles game against the New Hampshire Wildcats on September 9 was also moved to Legion Field for that day. [84] FEMA funding As of September 5, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) funding was running dangerously low, due to its response to Hurricane Harvey in Texas the previous week, prompting the Trump administration to request an immediate $8 billion in additional funding as Irma approached Florida. [85] Given the rate that current funds are being consumed and the catastrophic damage, the United States Senate almost doubled the requested amount to $15.3 billion, with the understanding that this would only be about 10% of what will be required for responding to Harvey. [86] Impact Hurricane Irma's path was such that its impact was both far-reaching and devastating, with landfalls in Antigua and Barbuda , Saint Martin , the Bahamas , Cuba , and the United States, all at major hurricane intensity. Furthermore, the size of the storm system meant that destruction was prevalent even in territories well removed from landfall occurrences. Deaths and damage by territory [7] [87] Territory Fatalities Damage (2017 USD) Ref Anguilla (UK) 1 7008290000000000000♠ $290 million [7] [87] Bahamas 0 7008135000000000000♠ $135 million [88] Barbados 1 N/A [7] Barbuda ( AG ) 3 7008150000000000000♠ $150 million [7] British Virgin Islands (UK) 4 7009346900000000000♠ $3.47 billion [7] [89] Cuba 10 7008513300000000000♠ $513 million [90] [91] Haiti 1 N/A [92] Puerto Rico (US) 3 7009100000000000000♠ $1 billion [7] [93] Saint Kitts and Nevis 0 7007197000000000000♠ $19.7 million [94] Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy ( FR ) 11 7009407000000000000♠ $4.07 billion [95] Sint Maarten ( NL ) 4 7009250000000000000♠ $2.5 billion [96] Turks and Caicos Islands (UK) 0 7008500000000000000♠ $500 million [7] United States 92 7010500000000000000♠ $50 billion [7] [97] U.S. Virgin Islands 4 7009240000000000000♠ $2.4 billion [98] Totals: 134 7010647587000000000♠ $64.8 billion Antigua and Barbuda The eyewall of the hurricane moved over Barbuda near its record peak intensity early on September 6; a weather station observed a wind gust of 160 mph (257 km/h). [7] Although reports of structural damage such as blown off roofs surfaced shortly after, [99] the exact state of the island remained unclear for hours after Irma's passage, as downed phone lines ceased all communication with nearby islands. [23] Later that afternoon, Prime Minister Gaston Browne surveyed the territory by helicopter, revealing an effectively uninhabitable island. Irma damaged or destroyed 95% of the structures on Barbuda, including its hospital, schools, and both of its hotels; [100] it completely flattened some residential blocks while submerging others. [101] [102] The destruction rendered the island's sole airport and much of its infrastructure inoperative—including water and telecommunication services—which further hampered relief efforts. Property damage on Barbuda ranged from $150 million to $300 million. A total of three storm-related deaths have been reported on the island. [7] In addition to the catastrophic impact on Barbuda's human residents, concern turned to the storm's effects on the island's wildlife. The island's only endemic bird, the near-threatened Barbuda warbler , numbered less than 2,000 individuals prior to the hurricane. It is unknown if the warbler survived the hurricane or its aftermath. Barbuda's Codrington Lagoon , home to the largest colony of magnificent frigatebirds in the Caribbean, with an estimated 2,500 nesting pairs, was also inundated by the storm surge. [103] Remaining just outside of Irma's strongest windfield, Antigua sustained less severe damage, in the form of leveled roofs and fences, downed power poles and lines, and uprooted trees. Some street flooding also took place in low-lying areas. [104] Three people were treated for minor storm-related injuries. [105] Forensic disaster analysts from the Center for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology (CEDIM), a Germany-based risk management agency, estimate that economic losses for Antigua and Barbuda will exceed $120 million. [87] Saint Martin Play media Aerial video of the damage on Saint Martin, September 7, 2017 Damaged buildings in Sint Maarten on September 7, 2017 On the morning of September 6, Irma's center crossed the island of Saint Martin while the storm was at peak intensity, sweeping away entire structures, submerging roads and cars, and triggering an island-wide blackout. [106] Irma's extreme winds ripped trees out of the ground and sent vehicles and debris from damaged structures scattered across the territory. On the French side of Saint-Martin , entire marinas around Marigot were left in ruins, littered with the stranded remnants of boats that had smashed into each other. [107] A hotel caught on fire, but dangerous conditions and impassable roads prevented firefighters from putting out the blaze. Another hotel lost nearly all of its ground floor. [108] Media images depicted devastated room interiors with furniture hurled around after the winds had shattered their windows. [107] Irma killed four people on the French side of the island and injured 50 others, one of whom was in critical condition. As many as 95% of the buildings there were damaged to some degree; 60% of those were totally uninhabitable. [109] Estimates from CEDIM indicate a minimum of $950 million worth of economic losses. [87] Total loses exceeded €3.5 billion ($4.07 billion USD). [95] A similar situation unfolded in Sint Maarten , Saint Martin's Dutch half, as intense winds ripped through buildings and lifted vehicles aloft \"as if they were matches\". [110] The hurricane wreaked havoc on Princess Juliana International Airport , with \"huge chunks of the building [strewn] across the runway and a jet bridge snapped in half.\" [111] It demolished or severely damaged about 70% of Sint Maarten's houses, forcing thousands of residents into public shelters. [112] There were 4 deaths and 23 injuries, [7] 11 of which were serious, in the Dutch territory. [113] Irma is considered the worst natural disaster to hit Sint Maarten; the extent of its damage far exceeded that of any previous hurricane. [110] Prime Minister William Marlin estimates that at least €1 billion ($1.2 billion) will be necessary to restore the destruction, [114] while disaster analysts from CEDIM predict losses will exceed $1.5 billion. [115] Saint Barthélemy Irma left widespread destruction and disastrous flooding along its path over the French island of Saint Barthélemy , southeast of Saint Martin. Describing the extent of the destruction, one local compared it to \"a bomb that burned all vegetation,\" while another said that it were as if the hurricane had effectively \"erased the island from the map\". [116] Violent seas swept away entire coastal establishments, with one hotel being stripped of all but its foundation. [117] Streets in the capital of Gustavia were turned into rushing rivers, which carried away vehicles and pieces of furniture. The island's fire station was inundated with up to 6.4 ft (2.0 m) of flood waters. [117] [118] With scores of homes and much of the infrastructure destroyed, the majority of the island's population was left stranded and without water, electricity or phone service. [116] The associated economic losses could exceed $480 million according to CEDIM's analysts. [87] Preliminary assessments from the French government indicate that Hurricane Irma caused a combined €1.2 billion ($1.44 billion) in insured losses across the French territories of Saint-Martin and Saint Barts. This total covered private property such as homes, vehicles and businesses (including lost revenue); the extent of the damage to infrastructural and public facilities remains undetermined. Nonetheless, this made Irma one of the costliest natural disasters to hit the French Republic in 50 years. [119] On January 30, 2018, roughly five months after Irma, an analysis was published indicating that an anemometer on the island recorded an unofficial gust to 199 mph (320 km/h) before failing. [120] Play media NOAA aircraft flying through the eye of Hurricane Irma on September 5, 2017 Anguilla The British Overseas Territory of Anguilla saw the eyewall of the storm pass over it on September 6. Many homes and schools were destroyed, and the island's only hospital was badly damaged. [121] The devastation was particularly severe in East End , where the winds uprooted scores of trees and power poles and demolished a number of houses. In The Valley , the island's capital, the hurricane blew out the windows of government buildings. Rough seas inflicted heavy damage upon several bays and harbors, and a seaside restaurant was completely eradicated. [122] About 90% of roads were left impassable. [109] The island's air traffic control tower was damaged, exacerbating the already poor communication with the island. [123] One death was reported on the island. [121] According to CEDIM, Anguilla's economy could suffer at least $190 million in losses from the hurricane. [87] Rest of the Lesser Antilles Large swells ahead of Irma washed ashore debris and sea life in Castries , Saint Lucia, blocking some roads. Seaside roads were inundated with water. [124] One surfer was killed amid rough surf in Barbados after hitting a reef and breaking his neck. Trees were also destroyed. [125] The hurricane's effects, such as violent seas and rattling trees, were intense enough to be detected by seismographs in Guadeloupe . Several houses were damaged. [126] Around 8,000 households and a water supply network on that island lost power during the storm, leaving several communes in the dark without running water. Overall damage was limited to external parts of houses and trees that were blown onto roads and three unmanned ships wrecked by rough seas. [27] Saint Kitts and Nevis endured similar conditions to other islands. Blustery rainstorms triggered scattered power outages and disabled the island's water system, but per the International Red Cross , the islands were spared the level of destruction seen elsewhere. [127] Still, Prime Minister Timothy Harris stated that property and infrastructure had sustained \"significant damage.\" [40] The Dutch territories of Saba and Sint Eustatius were also struck by the hurricane's winds, resulting in infrastructural damage, water shortages and telecommunication outages. [122] [128] Several houses were left uninhabitable. On Saba, the hurricane also defoliated trees and injured a few people. [122] [128] CEDIM's analysts expect economic losses of $20–65 million for the two islands. [87] British Virgin Islands Main article: Effects of Hurricane Irma in the British Virgin Islands Operational Land Imager imagery by Landsat 8 of the Virgin Islands from before Hurricane Irma's impact on August 25, 2017, and after on September 10, 2017, depicting a \"browning\" of the landscape and vegetation. [129] Damage in the British Virgin Islands was extensive. Numerous buildings and roads were destroyed on the island of Tortola , which bore the brunt of the hurricane's core. [130] Four people were confirmed dead. [131] Along Cane Garden Bay, the storm surge submerged several seaside bars and a gas station. Satellite images revealed many of the island's residential zones had been left in ruins. [122] The hurricane passed over Necker Island , also causing severe damage and destroying the mansion of Richard Branson . [132] Most homes and businesses were destroyed on the island of Jost Van Dyke , the smallest of the B.V.I.'s four main islands. [133] The Governor , Gus Jaspert , who had only been sworn into office 13 days previously, declared a state of emergency - the first time this has ever happened in the Territory. [134] After the storm, authorities estimated that it would take 6 months to restore public electricity to the entire country; [135] an estimate which proved largely accurate. [136] U.S. Virgin Islands Play media U.S. Navy video of damage assessments in the U.S. Virgin Islands Irma's effects in the U.S. Virgin Islands were most profound on Saint Thomas , where at least 12 inches (305 mm) of rain fell, and on Saint John . Saint Thomas island suffered widespread structural damage, including to its police station and airport. Patients from the fourth and third floors of Charlotte Amalie 's hospital had to be relocated to lower floors due to flooding from roof leaks. Three deaths were attributed to Irma on the island. On nearby Saint Croix , there were communication issues and some damage to the infrastructure. [122] Saint John lost access to ferry and cargo services, along with access to the local airport. Due to its normal reliance on electricity from Saint Thomas, the island was left without power. [137] [138] [139] [140] Puerto Rico Waves in Puerto Rico reached 30 feet (9.1 m) in height; [40] a 111 miles (179 km) per hour gust was measured on Culebra . [141] Two people died due to rainstorms ahead of the hurricane: one man died in Orocovis after falling off his ladder while repairing his roof; another man on the coast in Capitanejo died after being struck by lightning. Three nearby fishermen were burned by the same lightning strike, but survived. Two other people died during the hurricane: a woman died while being evacuated from her house in a wheelchair and fell from the same hitting her head; another person died in a car accident in Canóvanas . [142] In rural Loíza , 79 homes were destroyed. [143] More than a million residents lost power due to damages caused by the storm, according to former Puerto Rican Governor Alejandro García Padilla . [144] Governor Ricardo Rosselló declared the islands of Culebra and Vieques to be disaster areas. [40] Hispaniola People stand in a flooded street that usually serves as a farmers market, in Ouanaminthe , northeast Haiti , September 8, 2017. Although spared a direct hit, both the Dominican Republic and Haiti were affected by high winds and heavy rains. A bridge over the Dajabón River connecting the two countries was broken. [145] In the Dominican Republic, the fishing community of Nagua sustained damage from waves that destroyed homes. 55,000 soldiers were deployed to affected areas to help with the clean-up efforts. [38] By the evening of September 7, the government had counted 2,721 damaged homes. [39] In Haiti, flooding one meter deep sat in residential neighborhoods in places like Cap-Haïtien , Ouanaminthe , and Gonaives . [145] Mudslides, destroyed homes, flooded crops, and infrastructure damage were reported in the northern part of the country. [39] The total expanse of the flooding stretched from Môle-Saint-Nicolas in the west to the eastern border with the Dominican Republic. [146] Turks and Caicos Islands On the evening of September 7, at 7:30 pm AST ( 23:30 UTC ), Hurricane Irma reached the Turks and Caicos Islands . While the eye passed just south of the main islands, crossing over South Caicos and the Ambergris Cays , the most powerful winds on the northern side of the eye swept all of the islands for more than two hours. Communications infrastructure was destroyed. [147] [148] [149] On September 8, Minister of Infrastructure Goldray Ewing confirmed that damage to Providenciales was extensive, with the northwestern neighborhood of Blue Hill being \"gone\". [150] The hospital in the capital, Cockburn Town , was damaged, but no deaths or injuries have been reported as of yet. [151] On South Caicos, 75% of roofs were lost. [149] Total damage is unknown, but believed to exceed the $231 million toll of Hurricane Ike in 2008. [152] The Bahamas In the Bahamas , the eye of the storm passed over Duncan Town, the major settlement of the Ragged Islands chain , on September 8. It also passed \"almost directly over\" Inagua and South Acklins , according to the Bahamas Department of Meteorology. [153] Damages were largely confined to the southern islands starting the morning of September 8. On Mayaguana and Great Inagua , downed power lines knocked out communications. [154] On Great Inagua, 70% of homes sustained roof damage, and the island's school lost its roof entirely. The Morton Salt Company 's signature production facility, one of the major employers in the country, experienced millions of dollars in damages. [155] The Acklins settlement of Salina Point was cut off from the rest of the island by flooding, while Crooked Island had widespread roof damage. [47] In the northern Bahamas, the worst property damage came on September 10 as the outer bands of the system produced tornadic activity on Grand Bahama and Bimini . [156] [157] Damage and losses across The Bahamas amounted to $135 million. [88] While Irma was making landfall in Florida, the ocean surrounding the Bahamas was drawn away by Irma. [158] Cuba Patrol boat Admiral Didiez Burgos of the Dominican Navy delivering disaster supplies in Havana Harbor after Hurricane Irma. [159] Early on September 9, Irma made landfall on the Camagüey Archipelago off the northern coast of Cuba , with sustained winds of 165 mph (270 km/h). [7] Throughout the country, the hurricane inflicted 13.6 billion pesos (US$513.3 million) in damage and killed 10 people. More than 158,000 homes suffered damage, of which 14,657 were destroyed; approximately 1.9 million people experienced the direct effects of Irma. [90] [91] The weather station at Esmeralda, Camagüey was damaged, with the wind gauge destroyed. [63] According to The New York Times , northern Cuba experienced \"waves more than 16 feet high, and damage to hospitals, factories and warehouses.\" [47] By the afternoon of September 9, Irma had weakened to Category 2 due to the Cuban topography but continued to cause significant damage. The tourist areas of Cayo Coco , Cayo Guillermo and Cayo Santa María and the nearby town of Caibarién received the brunt of the storm, with waves rolling through town and the characteristic one-story homes completely flooded. Flooding worsened as the hurricane moved west, pushing the storm surge along to the regions around Havana . [160] By the afternoon, limited flooding was occurring in Havana, including around the Malecón . Widespread destruction of housing was reported in the provinces of Ciego de Ávila and Villa Clara . [47] In the city of Santa Clara , 39 buildings collapsed. [161] Hurricane Irma directly impacted a major colony of American flamingos on Cuba's northern Cayo Coco . [103] Early reports from Diario de Cuba indicated that several hundred flamingos had been killed by the storm, though other estimates ranged as high as several thousand birds. [103] [162] Mainland United States Costliest U.S. Atlantic hurricanes Cost refers to total estimated property damage Rank Hurricane Season Damage 1 Katrina 2005 7011125000000000000♠ $125 billion Harvey 2017 3 Maria 2017 7010900000000000000♠ $90 billion 4 Sandy 2012 7010650000000000000♠ $65 billion 5 Irma 2017 7010534000000000000♠ $53.4 billion 6 Ike 2008 7010300000000000000♠ $30 billion 7 Andrew 1992 7010270000000000000♠ $27 billion 8 Ivan 2004 7010205000000000000♠ $20.5 billion 9 Wilma 2005 7010190000000000000♠ $19 billion 10 Rita 2005 7010185000000000000♠ $18.5 billion Source: National Hurricane Center [163] [nb 2] True-color images before and after the passage of Irma, in which light blue indicates sediment suspended in the water, kicked up by the intensity of the storm [164] Hurricane Irma affected multiple states in the South, especially Florida. Except the Florida Keys, the total damage Irma caused was not as great as government officials and forecasters had warned. Hurricane Irma weakened after making landfall in Cuba, but strengthened back into a Category 4 prior to hitting the Keys. The Florida Keys suffered the worst of the damage in the United States. After surveying the aftermath of Irma, Florida governor Rick Scott said \"I thought we would see more damage\" [on the mainland] but said \"he witnessed devastation in the Keys\". [165] President Donald Trump commented on Twitter that the devastation in some places was \"far greater than anyone thought\". [166] Damage in the United States was estimated at a minimum of $50 billion. At the time, Irma was the fourth costliest tropical cyclone in the United States, behind hurricanes Sandy in 2012, Harvey earlier that year, and Katrina in 2005. However, later in September 2017, Hurricane Maria became the third costliest United States tropical cyclone, causing Irma to be ranked fall to the fifth costliest. [167] [168] At least 92 people died throughout the United States in relation to Hurricane Irma: 84 in Florida, 3 in Georgia, 3 in South Carolina, and 2 in North Carolina. [7] The hurricane left more than 9.2 million power outages. Florida Main article: Effects of Hurricane Irma in Florida Light pole with lamp torn away and landing about 50 ft (15 m) away - Miami Beach The storm's large wind field resulted in strong winds across much of Florida, except for the western Panhandle. The highest reported sustained wind speed was 112 mph (180 km/h) on Marco Island , while the strongest observed wind gust was 142 mph (229 km/h), recorded near Naples , [169] though wind gusts of 150 to 160 mph (240 to 260 km/h) likely occurred in the Middle Florida Keys . [170] More than 7.7 million homes and businesses in Florida were left without electricity at some point – approximately 73.33% of state. [171] [172] Generally heavy amounts of rainfall were recorded to the east of the Irma's path, including a peak total of 21.66 in (550 mm) in Fort Pierce . [173] Heavy precipitation – and storm surge, in some instances – overflowed at least 32 rivers and creeks, causing in significant flooding, particularly along the St. Johns River and its tributaries. [50] Many homes and businesses suffered damage or destruction, with more than 65,000 structures damaged to some degree in West Central and Southwest Florida alone. [53] Agriculture experienced about $2.5 billion in damage. [50] It was estimated that the cyclone caused at least $50 billion in damage, making Irma the costliest hurricane in Florida history, surpassing Hurricane Andrew . [167] Throughout Florida, at least 84 people died in storm-related incidents. [7] About half of the deaths occurred from drowning, trauma, and carbon monoxide poisoning. [174] The first Irma-related death in Florida occurred on September 8, when a man fell off a ladder while installing hurricane shutters in Davie . [175] Broward County had 21 fatalities, the most of any county in Florida. Among those deaths were 12 people at The Rehabilitation Center at Hollywood Hills , a Hollywood nursing home. The patients died from sweltering heat worsened by the lack of air conditioning. [174] The hurricane also left at least 14 deaths in Monroe County (location of the Florida Keys ); [176] 6 deaths in Orange County ; 5 deaths each in Duval , Miami-Dade , and Palm Beach counties; 4 deaths in both Highlands and Hillsborough counties; 3 deaths in both Marion and Polk counties; [174] 2 deaths each in Collier , Hardee , Leon , Pinellas , St. Lucie , and Taylor counties; [174] [177] [178] and 1 death in Hendry , Lake , Lee , Liberty , Manatee , Nassau , Okeechobee , Pasco , Seminole , St. Johns , and Volusia counties. [174] Boats washed up on U.S. Route 1 in the Florida Keys With Irma making landfall in Monroe County as a Category 4 hurricane, the Florida Keys were hardest hit area in the state. [170] Strong winds and storm surge flooding caused major damage to buildings, trailer parks , boats, roads, the electricity supply, mobile phone coverage, internet access, sanitation, the water supply and the fuel supply throughout the island chain. [179] [170] An estimated 10 ft (3 m) storm surge occurred at Cudjoe Key , where Irma made landfall. [180] Throughout the island, 625 homes sustained minor damage, 52 sustained major damage, and 81 were demolished. On Big Pine Key , one of the most devastated islands, 633 homes received minor impact, 299 homes received major impact, and 473 homes were completely destroyed. Overall in Monroe County, 27,649 homes experienced some degree of damage, including 1,179 homes being destroyed, 2,977 homes receiving major damage, and 5,361 suffering minor damage. [181] Hurricane Irma on September 10, right before landfall on Florida. Hurricane Jose can be seen to the lower right. After devastating the Keys, the storm then struck Collier County as a Category 3 hurricane. Several communities in the county suffered extensive damage, especially along the coast. [169] Throughout the unincorporated areas of the county, 65 homes, including 44 mobile homes, were demolished, while 1,008 homes received major damage. Property damages in unincorporated areas alone reach about $320 million. [182] Lee County was lashed by strong winds and heavy rainfall, which caused prolonged flooding in some areas. [183] [184] More than 24,000 homes suffered some degree of damage, with almost 3,000 homes receiving major damage and 89 homes being destroyed. [185] Damage in the county totaled about $857 million. [186] [53] Impact in much of the Miami metropolitan area was generally limited to extensive tree and fence damage, as well as widespread power outages. However, in Miami-Dade County , about 1,000 homes received major damage and about 50% of crops were lost. Storm surge caused coastal flooding from Homestead to Downtown Miami , as well as in portions of Miami Beach . [169] Parts of the Florida Heartland were devastated by high winds and flooding, particularly Hendry and Highlands counties. [169] [53] Both counties experienced a near-total loss of electricity. [169] [187] In the former, which has most citrus trees of any county in Florida, about 60% of orange crops were lost. [188] Throughout Hendry County, a total of 451 homes had minor damage, 131 homes suffered major damage, and 42 others were destroyed. [169] In Highlands County, 13,138 businesses and homes were damaged to some degree, with 144 being destroyed, 963 sustaining major damage, and 2,408 receiving minor damage. Strong winds and heavy rainfall in Central Florida left some wind damage and extensive flooding, especially in parts of Lake, Orange, [53] Seminole, [189] and Volusia counties, [190] necessitating evacuations and rescues, including more than 200 people in Orlo Vista after hundreds of homes were flooded. [53] A total of 2,999 business or homes were damaged in Lake County, [191] 7,430 in Seminole County, and 3,457 in Volusia County. Additionally, eight tornadoes touched down in Brevard County , all of which caused damage. [192] Play media Overflight of Jacksonville after Hurricane Irma Along much of the Gulf Coast of Florida, to the north of where Irma made landfall, negative storm surges were observed, with water retracting rather than pushing inland, causing little coastal flooding. [53] However, on the opposite coast, extensive erosion and storm surge flooding occurred in the First Coast , especially in Duval and St. Johns counties. In Duval County, the St. Johns River crested at heights that exceeded records set during Hurricane Dora in 1964. Portions of Jacksonville experienced flooding, particularly the downtown area and the Riverside and San Marco neighborhoods, with about 350 people rescued in those sections of the city. Water reached about 5 ft (1.5 m) high in some homes. [193] The city of Jacksonville suffered about $85 million in damage. [194] In St. Johns County, storm surge left extensive damage to oceanfront properties in Ponte Vedra Beach and Vilano Beach , with several becoming uninhabitable. [195] [196] Additionally, some riverfront businesses in St. Augustine 's historic district were flooded due to storm surge from the Matanzas River . [197] In nearby Clay County , rainfall and storm surge combined to cause extensive flooding along portions of the Black Creek and the St. Johns River, with record high crests at several locations along the former. [193] About 350 people and 75 animals were rescued from floodwaters throughout the county. A total of 275 homes were destroyed, 175 were inflicted major damage, and 124 received minor damage. [198] Other states Three deaths were reported in Georgia due to falling trees and debris, along with widespread wind damage and power outages throughout the state primarily due to fallen trees. [199] On Tybee Island , the storm surge caused extensive flooding. [200] In Charleston, South Carolina , the third highest storm surge on record was recorded, reaching a height of approximately 10 ft (3 m). [201] By of September 12, almost 100,000 had lost power in Upstate South Carolina. [202] Five people died in storm-related incidents across South Carolina, all from indirect incidents. [203] Light damage occurred in other areas, including Tennessee . [204] About 75,000 customers in North Carolina lost power due to Irma. [205] Aftermath In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Irma's path through the West Indies and Caribbean, the devastation to roads, harbors and airports significantly impeded the transportation and distribution of relief supplies. Foreign countries moved to provide much of the initial aid. The British, Dutch, French, and United States governments sent warships and planes with supplies and manpower to the region. [38] [206] International leaders, including Dutch King Willem-Alexander and French President Emmanuel Macron , quickly moved to visit affected territories. [207] [208] Some of the affected countries and territories also offered assistance to each other. Cuba, which sustained extensive damage from the storm, sent 750 health workers to Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, The Bahamas, Dominica, and Haiti. [209] Government officials and members of the public in Puerto Rico delivered assistance and evacuated people stranded on other islands. The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services granted special 30-day humanitarian visas for British Virgin Islanders to stay in Puerto Rico. [210] Hundreds of people stranded on Saint Martin were flown to the Dominican Republic on humanitarian grounds. [211] Antigua and Barbuda A house that was badly damaged by the hurricane In response to Hurricane Jose's approach, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda issued a mandatory evacuation on September 9 for any remaining residents on Barbuda. A Miami cargo plane landed on Antigua later that day, carrying over 60 tons (120,000 lbs) of relief supplies for the displaced storm victims—including bottled water, canned food and power generators. [212] British Overseas Territories A UK Royal Logistics Corp landing raft delivers emergency relief to Anguilla Former British Secretary of State for International Development Priti Patel being briefed by her staff on the hurricane RFA Mounts Bay stationed itself near Anguilla and provided support and relief work to the island with its helicopters and 40 marines and army engineers. [121] The ship delivered 6 tonnes of emergency aid to Anguilla and army engineers repaired a fuel leak at Anguilla's main petrol dump, restored power to the island's hospital and provided shelters for those left homeless by the hurricane. [213] [214] The ship arrived in the British Virgin Islands on September 8, 2017 to provide emergency relief to the islands, including providing shelters, food and water. [213] HMS Ocean was diverted from the Mediterranean to provide relief from Gibraltar to the affected British Overseas Territories of Anguilla, British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos on September 7, 2017, [215] and aid is also being supplied by the Department for International Development from their disaster response centre at Kemble Airfield . As part of a £32 million operation named Operation Ruman, nearly 500 UK military personnel with emergency relief were dispatched from RAF Brize Norton . [216] This included the first deployment of No. 38 Expeditionary Air Wing with 3 RAF aircraft; 2 Airbus A400M Atlas and 1 C130J hercules to support relief efforts. RAF A400M ATLAS delivers UK AID on OP RUMAN The British government also drafted 2 members of the UK police calibre into the region on September 10, 2017 and 53 police officers were drafted from RAF Brize Norton to the affected British Overseas Territories on September 15, 2017 to help maintain order. [217] [218] UK politicians, including the chairs of the foreign affairs and development select committees, criticized both the government's preparations for the storm and its response as inadequate. [219] [220] Royal Marines delivering aid and providing support to the islanders of Jost Van Dyke , British Virgin Islands By September 12, 2017, the Department for International Development had delivered more than 40 tonnes of aid into the region, including into Turks and Caicos, and 1,000 UK military troops were deployed in the region as part of relief efforts. [214] The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Theresa May , pledged an additional £25 million worth of funding as part of relief efforts in the region on September 13, 2017 and the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs , Boris Johnson , said that a further 250 UK military personnel would be deployed into the area within the next few days. [221] Anguilla's Chief Minister, Victor Banks , praised the British government's response to the storm and said that Boris Johnson's visit to the island \"sends a very positive signal to Anguillans that the British are serious about their response to this very severe hurricane\", but went on to say that the current financial commitment from the UK was not substantial enough. [221] [222] By September 15, 2017, the United Kingdom had over 70 military personnel and 4 police officers in Anguilla and had delivered 15 tonnes of aid to the island. [223] In the British Virgin Islands, Royal Marines had cleared the airfield so that it was operational for the delivery of aid into the islands, with more than 200 British military personnel and 54 UK police officers on the ground and 8 tonnes of aid delivered to the islands. [223] 120 British military personnel were on the ground in Turks and Caicos, and over 150 shelter kits and 720 liters of water were delivered to the islands on September 15. [223] Amendments to international aid rules by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (or OECD) allowed for the UK government to provide access to £13 billion worth of aid to the affected British Overseas Territories, through the UK's Official Development Assistance (ODA) by November 2017. [224] The Bahamas By the afternoon of September 9, Bahamas Power and Light Company had dispatched crews across the archipelago to repair infrastructure damage. The southernmost islands, which were most severely affected by Irma's eye, remained largely inaccessible for days. [225] Assessments showed that 15% of the national telecommunications network had been affected, with at least one tower destroyed. [226] Bahamasair resumed a limited domestic schedule on September 10, with international flights still cancelled due to existing and anticipated destruction at other destinations. [227] The worst devastation occurred on Ragged Island , over which Irma's eye had directly passed. After days of the National Emergency Management Agency not being able to physically reach the island, officials were finally able to inspect it; they promptly declared it uninhabitable. [228] [229] Prime Minister Hubert Minnis said that it was the worst disaster area he or his officials had ever seen, and that all remaining residents would need to leave, potentially permanently. [228] [230] Business leaders and other officials called for a new long-term development model to shift the population away from such sparsely-settled islands. [231] On Grand Bahama and Bimini , where tornadoes associated with Irma touched down on September 10, more than 100 people were left displaced. Infrastructure damage included docks, parks, and the power system. [157] Aside from tangible asset losses, Irma brought significant economic damages. International freight shipping was projected to be offline for a week, and costs for rebuilding supplies were inflated due to demand in the U.S. [232] Cuba Swollen rivers contributed to worsening flooding in the days after the storm system left, resulting in additional evacuations. Officials resorted to using inflatable rafts to access affected areas. The national electrical infrastructure was said to be extensively damaged. [161] Hispaniola In the Dominican Republic, flooding worsened following Irma's departure, leading the number of displaced persons to increase to more than 24,000 by September 8. President Danilo Medina ordered further evacuations due to at-risk dams, while the government banned swimming in rivers and ordered boats kept in port. [233] More than 422,000 people were left without water due to 28 aqueducts being damaged. [234] In Haiti, officials stated that losses were greater than they could have been since people largely did not heed early preparation and evacuation warnings. [39] At least 5,000 homes were flooded. One man died trying to cross a flooded river; another went missing and 17 were injured. [235] The trash- and waste-contaminated floodwaters in places like Cap-Haïtien , Ouanaminthe , and Gonaives led to fears of cholera outbreaks. [145] Flooding continued to worsen days after the storm, as runoff from the mountains swelled rivers in low-lying farming communities. United Nations peacekeepers from Brazil were able to gain access to the flooded northwest region to provide urgent aid, but non-governmental organizations and Haitian economists warned that the estimated 30,000 victims would need longer-term assistance as well. Prime Minister Jack Guy Lafontant appointed a government commission to address Irma's effects, with Action Against Hunger in charge of humanitarian coordination. [146] Puerto Rico By September 9, more than one million Puerto Ricans were still without power, tens of thousands were without water, and several thousand were still in shelters. Hospitals were operating on generator power. The government was struggling to establish contact with the islands of Culebra and Vieques . [40] By September 10, the main island had recovered enough to serve as a refuge for people stranded on other islands, including 1,200 tourists from Saint Martin and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Airlifts had brought more than 50 patients to Puerto Rico. [210] Saint Martin Damage to Sint Maarten's harbour and to Princess Juliana International Airport left the Dutch part of Saint Martin unreachable, although the smaller Grand Case-Espérance Airport on the French side could be reopened by September 7 for supply aid by helicopter and airplane. [236] The French armed forces based in Guadeloupe and French Guiana flew equipment and troops on board a CASA/IPTN CN-235 aircraft. The following day, the Dutch military was able to airlift dialysis patients off the island while also dropping leaflets to warn islanders about the rapidly approaching Hurricane Jose . [63] Although the airport was closed, 435 students and faculty of the American University of the Caribbean were evacuated by the U.S. military. [237] On September 10, Dutch King Willem-Alexander departed for the region, with intentions to visit Sint Maarten and other affected Dutch territories and commonwealth members. [207] French President Emmanuel Macron followed this announcement by stating his intentions to visit the French part of the island on September 12 in order to bring aid supplies. In response to criticism of the French handling of the disaster, 1,000 troops, police, and other emergency workers were sent to Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy. [208] On both sides of Saint Martin, desperate conditions combined with food and water shortages in Irma's aftermath led to reports of violence, scavenging, and theft. In response, the French government increased its troop deployment to 2,200 and the Dutch government sent more than 600 military and police personnel. [219] [238] French Overseas Departments The day after the hurricane hit Saint Barthelemy the French armed forces based in Guadeloupe and French Guiana flew equipment and troops into the reopened Grand Case-Espérance Airport . On September 7 and 9, equipment and personnel were flown from France to Guadeloupe and Martinique . [239] Florida Most intense landfalling hurricanes in the Contiguous United States Intensity is measured solely by central pressure Rank Hurricane Season Landfall pressure 1 \"Labor Day\" 1935 892 mbar ( hPa ) 2 Camille 1969 900 mbar (hPa) 3 Katrina 2005 920 mbar (hPa) 4 Andrew 1992 922 mbar (hPa) 5 \"Indianola\" 1886 925 mbar (hPa) 6 \"Florida Keys\" 1919 927 mbar (hPa) 7 \"Okeechobee\" 1928 929 mbar (hPa) 8 \"Great Miami\" 1926 930 mbar (hPa) Donna 1960 10 Carla 1961 931 mbar (hPa) Irma 2017 Source: HURDAT, [240] Hurricane Research Division [241] There were sporadic reports of looting and burglaries at several Miami Metro area businesses with the theft of non-essential items such as sports apparel and athletic shoes during the height of the storm. [242] [243] On September 11, Florida Governor Rick Scott conducted an aerial tour to survey the damage to the Keys. The Overseas Highway remained closed while authorities assessed the integrity of the 42 bridges along the route. [244] Residents returning to the Keys were faced with a police roadblock, to the south of Florida City . [245] USS Iwo Jima , USS New York and aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln were sent to the Keys area to aid with the recovery. [246] On September 12, some residents were allowed to return into the Keys as far as Islamorada . Although road damage blocked entry any further than Islamorada, bridges had been inspected and found safe to Sugarloaf Key . [247] By late on September 12, the Overseas Highway had been repaired and the bridges inspected as safe for first responders to travel to Key West. [248] On September 16, residents were free to return to Marathon. [249] Residents were allowed to return to Key West the following day, although the Keys remained closed to tourists and a checkpoint remained in place in Florida City. [250] Nighttime satellite images of Florida before ( left ) and the night after ( right ) Hurricane Irma, highlighting the extensive loss of grid (mains) electricity By September 12, almost 4.4 million homes and businesses in Florida were without power, according to state officials. [168] Due mainly to the widespread loss of power, cell phone service was also significantly impacted after battery backup power for cell phone towers ran out and backup generators ran out of fuel. [251] [252] [253] In an impact report by the FCC , as of 11 AM EDT on September 12, 89 of 108 (82%) cell phone towers were non-functioning in Monroe County (Florida Keys), 154 of 212 (73%) were non-functioning in Collier County (Naples), 36 of 46 (78%) were non-functioning in Hendry County , and an additional six counties had 41-60% of cell phone towers not functioning, including Lee County (Ft. Myers) and Miami-Dade County. [254] From September 12, NOAA released map-format aerial reconnaissance image data along the length of the Keys, and the coast around Naples and Fort Myers . [255] [256] [257] In the days after the hurricane, due to the heavy rainfall, numerous rivers had flooded their surrounding land, including residential areas. [258] Public health risks, such as diarrheal infections and mosquito-borne illnesses, remain from the flooding that resulted in the aftermath of the hurricane. A large concern from flooding is contamination because people become exposed to dirty floodwaters and the potential for contaminated water to get into the local water supply is significant. One example of an illness that can get into the water supply is leptospirosis , which is caused by rat urine being in the floodwaters. If people are exposed to leptospirosis and do not get treatment, it can cause kidney damage, meningitis , and liver failure. Noroviruses and other infections are also a risk. [259] Following Irma's passage, a 15 ft (4.6 m) hand-carved wooden canoe was discovered on the banks of the Indian River and could be several hundred years old. The state has removed the canoe for examination and safe keeping. [260] Due to Irma's and Hurricane Harvey 's impact in Florida and Texas, the U.S. employment declined in September for the first time since September 2010. The leisure and hospitality industries were especially hard hit, losing 111,000 jobs in the month of September. [261] U.S. Virgin Islands In the U.S. Virgin Islands, residents and tourists alike were described as being in a state of traumatic shock. [161] By September 7, the USS Wasp amphibious assault ship had arrived in the U.S. Virgin Islands to provide supplies, damage assessment, and evacuation assistance. Four additional warships, some of which had already been on their way to Texas to assist with Hurricane Harvey relief, were redirected to the region. [206] The National Guard was delayed in reaching Saint John due to the number of overturned boats left in the harbor. [262] At a September 10 news conference, Governor Kenneth Mapp described Irma as a \"horrific disaster\" for which \"[t]here will be no restorations or solutions in days or weeks.\" The Federal Emergency Management Agency airlifted in goods for residents, who were subjected to a curfew. Norwegian Cruise Lines and Royal Caribbean Cruise Line agreed to transport tourists to Florida, contingent upon port availability following the state's own experience with Irma. [263] On Saint John, which was described by The Washington Post as \"perhaps the site of Irma's worst devastation on American soil,\" it took six days for an active-theater disaster zone to be established, leading to criticism of the U.S. government response. The National Guard was brought in to maintain order, while the Coast Guard brought evacuees to cruise ships bound for San Juan and Miami. [264] There was still no electricity on St. John in the middle of October 2017. [265] Records Irma set multiple records for intensity, especially at easterly longitudes, time spent at such an intensity, and its intensity at landfall. When Irma reached Category 5 intensity with winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) at 11:45 UTC on September 5 at 57.7°W, [266] it became the easternmost Atlantic hurricane of this strength on record, surpassing Hurricane David of 1979 . [267] By 00:15 UTC on September 6, Irma reached peak intensity with 180 mph (285 km/h) winds and a minimum pressure of 914 mbar (914 hPa; 27.0 inHg). This ties it with Hurricane Mitch of 1998 and Hurricane Rita of 2005 as the fifth-strongest Atlantic hurricane by wind speed. Only four other Atlantic hurricanes have been recorded with wind speeds higher than Irma: Hurricane Allen of 1980 , which had maximum sustained winds of 190 mph (305 km/h), and the 1935 Labor Day hurricane , Hurricane Gilbert of 1988 , and Hurricane Wilma of 2005 , all of which had peak winds of 185 mph (295 km/h). [268] Upon reaching peak intensity, Irma also became the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic Ocean outside the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico , [269] as well as the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Wilma in terms of maximum sustained winds , and the most intense in terms of pressure since Dean in 2007 . [270] In addition, Irma achieved one of the longest durations of Category 5 strength winds , [271] and the third-highest accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index for a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin, with a value of 64.9 units. Only the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane and Hurricane Ivan in 2004 achieved higher values. [272] [273] On September 6, Irma made landfall on the islands of Barbuda , Saint Martin and Virgin Gorda at peak strength. This ties Irma with cyclones Monica of 2006 and Winston of 2016 , and typhoons Zeb of 1998 and Megi of 2010 as the fifth-strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall globally – in terms of sustained winds – trailing only Typhoon Haiyan of 2013 and Typhoon Meranti of 2016 , which bore winds of 190 mph (305 km/h) at landfall, and the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Typhoon Joan of 1959 , which bore winds of 185 mph (295 km/h) at landfall. [274] Irma is second to the 1935 Labor Day hurricane as the strongest landfalling cyclone on record in the Atlantic basin, and is the first hurricane to make landfall anywhere in the Atlantic at Category 5 status since Felix in 2007. [275] Irma is also the first recorded Category 5 hurricane to affect the northern Leeward Islands , and was one of the worst storms to hit the region on record, along with Hurricane Donna in 1960 and Hurricane Luis in 1995 . In addition, Irma was only the second hurricane on record to make landfall in Cuba at Category 5 intensity, with the other being a hurricane in 1924 . [270] Irma made landfall in the Florida Keys with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h) and a pressure of 931 mbar (hPa; 27.49 inHg), making it the strongest hurricane to strike Florida in terms of wind speed since Charley in 2004 , and the most intense to strike the state in terms of barometric pressure since Andrew in 1992 . In the span of two weeks, two Category 4 hurricanes— Harvey and Irma—struck the continental United States, the first time on record two Atlantic tropical cyclones of such strength made landfall on the country in the same hurricane season. [276] [277] This also marked only the third occurrence of two consecutive Atlantic storms making landfall in the United States as major hurricanes. The other two instances were the Great Charleston / Cheniere Caminada hurricanes in 1893 , and hurricanes Ivan / Jeanne in 2004. [272] Retirement See also: List of retired Atlantic hurricane names On April 11, 2018, at the 40th session of the RA IV hurricane committee, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Irma from its rotating naming lists, due to the extensive amount of damage and loss of life it caused in the northeastern Caribbean and the United States, particularly in Florida, and it will never again be used for another Atlantic hurricane . It will be replaced with Idalia for the 2023 Atlantic hurricane season. [278] See also Tropical cyclones portal Disasters portal United States portal Florida portal 2010s portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hurricane Irma (2017) . List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes Hurricane Maria (2017) – attained Category 5 status less than 2 weeks after Irma reached the same intensity, and impacted areas previously affected by Hurricanes Irma and Jose. Hurricane Matthew (2016) – caused damage and deaths in Haiti, before moving to The Bahamas and then skimming the coastline of Florida, before moving up the coast. Hurricane Hugo (1989) – also formed east of the Lesser Antilles, the easternmost known Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin. Hurricane Andrew (1992) – the last Category 5 hurricane to strike Florida. \"Labor Day\" (1935) – most intense hurricane to make landfall in the United States. \"Okeechobee\" (1928) – a hurricane that hit similar areas, for comparing tracking methods and after-effects with those of Hurricane Irma. Hurricane Jose (2017) – a Category 4 hurricane, which formed right behind Irma and also tracked into the Caribbean region. Hurricane Harvey (2017) – a Category 4 hurricane (and the first major one to make landfall in the U.S. in 12 years) which devastated Texas two weeks prior to Irma. Hurricane Luis (1995) – very damaging and powerful hurricane that caused severe impacts in the northern Lesser Antilles. Hurricane Marilyn (1995) – caused destruction as a rapidly intensifying hurricane in the northern Leeward Islands, which had been affected by Luis shortly beforehand. Hurricane Donna (1960) – brushed the Lesser Antilles, before hitting the Florida Keys in early September at Category 4 intensity and travelling up the East Coast of the United States . Hurricane King (1950) – took a similar path up the Florida peninsula after hitting Miami as a Category 4 hurricane. Operation RUMAN – UK military-civil disaster relief response to Hurricane Irma. Notes Jump up ^ A major hurricane is a storm that ranks as Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale . [2] Jump up ^ All damage figures in this table are in the USD amounts of their respective year. References Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: Florida assesses damage as storm weakens\" . BBC. September 11, 2017 . Retrieved November 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Christopher W. Landsea; Neal M. Dorst (ed.) (June 2, 2011). \"A: Basic Definitions\" . Hurricane Research Division: Frequently Asked Questions . Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. A3) What is a super-typhoon? What is a major hurricane ? What is an intense hurricane ? . Archived from the original on June 15, 2006 . Retrieved May 4, 2013 . CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Amy Gesenhues (December 13, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma was the No. 1 top trending Google search in the US & globally for 2017\" . Search Engine Land . Retrieved March 25, 2018 . Jump up ^ Eric S. Blake (August 26, 2017). \"Graphical· Tropical Weather Outlook\" . Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center . Retrieved August 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Eric S. Blake (August 29, 2017). \"Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook\" . Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Eric S. Blake (August 29, 2017). \"Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook\" . Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac John P. Cangialosi; Andrew S. Latto; Robbie J. Berg (March 9, 2018). Hurricane Irma (AL112017) (PDF) (Report). Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center . Retrieved March 12, 2018 . Jump up ^ Christopher Landsea (August 30, 2017). Tropical Storm Irma Discussion Number 2 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Eric S. Blake (August 31, 2017). Hurricane Irma Public Advisory Number 6 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center . Retrieved August 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ John P. Cangialosi (September 2, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Discussion Number 12\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Ship Status Report: callsign BATFR17\" . sailwx.info . Mobile Geographics LLC. September 5, 2017. Archived from the original on September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Daniel P. Brown (September 3, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Discussion Number 17\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Richard J. Pasch (September 3, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Discussion Number 19\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Daniel P. Brown (September 5, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Advisory Number 26\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Daniel P. Brown (September 5, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Advisory Number 26A\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Robbie J. Berg (September 7, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Discussion Number 36\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved March 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ Jack L. Beven II (September 9, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Advisory Number 45\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved March 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ Richard J. Pasch (September 10, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Discussion Number 47\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved March 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ Richard J. Pasch (September 11, 2017). \"Tropical Storm Irma Discussion Number 50\" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved March 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ Rebecca Savaransky (September 4, 2017). \"Florida governor declares state of emergency over Hurricane Irma\" . The Hill . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Michael Biesecker and Andrew Taylor (September 6, 2017). \"FEMA still focused on responding to Harvey with dwindling cash as Irma looms\" . The Chicago Tribune . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Disaster Coordinator: Barbuda ready and prepared for the passage of Hurricane Irma\" . The Daily Observer . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Hurricane Irma: Storm Leaves Major Damage on Some Islands\" . The New York Times . September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"PM says relief efforts are already underway for A&B\" . The Daily Observer . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Comment la Guadeloupe, Saint-Barth et Saint-Martin se préparent à l'ouragan Irma\" [How Guadeloupe, Saint-Barth and Saint-Martin prepare for Hurricane Irma] (in French). 20 minutes. Agence France-Presse . September 4, 2017 . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Irma. Un ouragan aussi fort qu'Harvey attendu dans les Caraïbes\" [Irma. Hurricane as strong as Harvey expected in the Caribbean]. Ouest France (in French). Agence France-Presse. September 4, 2017 . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Préfet de Guadeloupe [@Prefet971] (September 6, 2017). \"Passage de l'ouragan IRMA en #Guadeloupe. Point de situation, ce mercredi 6 sept. à 5h\" (Tweet) – via Twitter . Jump up ^ \"The Latest: Hurricane upends Delaware couple's celebration\" . National Post . September 13, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Le dangereux Ouragan Irma se rapproche des Antilles\" [The dangerous Hurricane Irma gets closer to the West Indies] (in French). franceinfo. September 4, 2017 . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Peggy Pinel-Fereol (September 5, 2017). \"La Martinique envoie des renforts en Guadeloupe, Saint-Barthélemy et Saint-Martin\" [Martinique sends reinforcements to Guadeloupe, Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin] (in French). France Télévisions . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma approaches Northern Leeward Islands\" . St. Lucia Times . September 4, 2017 . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Tropical Storm Watch remains in effect for Dominica\" . Dominica News Online . September 4, 2017 . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Turks and Caicos Islands residents told not to take Hurricane Irma lightly\" . The Turks and Caicos Sun . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma doesn't have to be a disaster says TCI's Disaster Management director\" . The Turks and Caicos Sun . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma in the Dominican Republic\" . International Charter Space & Major Disasters . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma in the United States\" . International Charter Space & Major Disasters . September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Irma in Haiti\" . International Charter Space & Major Disasters . September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Jamaica trying to determine severity of Irma's impact on Caribbean neighbours\" . The Jamaica Observer . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Hurricane Irma wreaks apocalyptic damage in the Caribbean\" . The New Orleans Times-Picayune . September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Irma's destruction: island by island\" . The Guardian . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Jacqueline Charles (September 8, 2017). \"Vulnerable Haiti escapes worst of Hurricane Irma but flooding risks continue\" . The Miami Herald . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Randy Smith (September 8, 2017). \"National sporting facilities prepared for Irma\" . The Nassau Guardian . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"PM Warns: Stay Indoors And Heed All Warnings\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Sloan Smith (September 8, 2017). \"Power, water supply on NP to remain on 'as long as possible ' \" . The Nassau Guardian . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Prepare Kit To Bring To Shelters\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Atlantis Open To 1,200 Guests During Irma\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Hurricane Irma Live Updates: 'The Storm Is Here,' Florida Governor Says\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Taken in Camagüey for protection of fuels\" . Radio Cadena Agramonte . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Cuba prepares for destructive power of Hurricane Irma\" . CBS News. September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Select Committee on Hurricane Response and Preparedness Final Report (PDF) (Report). Florida House of Representatives. January 16, 2018. pp. 1–5 . Retrieved January 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ Lance Dixon; David J. Neal; Jane Woolridge (September 4, 2017). \"How South Florida is gearing up for the storm\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Gov. Scott Issues Updates on Hurricane Irma Preparedness\" . Office of Governor Rick Scott . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved January 12, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena\" . Storm Data . Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center . 59 (9). September 2017. ISSN 0039-1972 . Archived from the original (PDF) on March 5, 2018 . Retrieved March 5, 2018 . Jump up ^ Ben Mutzabaugh (September 11, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: Flight cancellations top 12,500; even more expected\" . USA Today . Retrieved January 12, 2018 . Jump up ^ Dewayne Bevil (September 8, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma forces Disney, Universal, SeaWorld closings in Orlando\" . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Anna Heiney (September 25, 2017). \"Kennedy Space Center Safely Weathers Hurricane Irma\" . National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Retrieved January 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Gov. Scott Issues Updates on Hurricane Irma Preparedness\" . Office of Governor Rick Scott . September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Wayne Roustan (May 26, 2017). \"State introducing new hurricane evacuation plan this year\" . Sun-Sentinel . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Wayne Roustan (September 9, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: I-4 shoulder opened to Tampa evacuees\" . Sun-Sentinel . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Michael Biesecker; Jason Dearen (September 9, 2017). \"Flooding threatens toxic waste sites as Hurricane Irma nears\" . The Hartford Courant . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Lauren Foreman; Ellen Eldridge. \"Hurricane Irma: 30 Georgia counties under state of emergency\" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kristina Torres. \"Hurricane Irma: Georgia Gov. Nathan Deal extends state of emergency to 64 more counties\" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Cuba lashed by category five winds as storm heads to US – as it happened\" . The Guardian . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Meris Lutz. \"Hurricane Irma: Gov. Deal expands state of emergency to all Georgia\" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Scott Unger; Patricia Sullivan; David A. Fahrenthold (September 10, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma packs a double punch\" . The Hartford Courant . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Talladega Superspeedway, Atlanta Motor Speedway offer free campground space for Irma evacuees\" . WHNT News 19 . September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Tolls to be suspended on I-75 express lanes south of Atlanta\" . CBS46 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Josh Shaffer; Abbie Bennett (September 6, 2017). \"NC governor declares state of emergency ahead of 'powerful' Hurricane Irma: 'Get ready ' \" . The News & Observer . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Townsend (September 6, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: SC Governor McMaster declares state of emergency\" . The Sun News . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Scott Wise (September 8, 2017). \"Virginia Governor declares state of emergency ahead of Hurricane Irma\" . Richmond, Virginia : WTVR-TV . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Paul Murphy (September 5, 2017). \"Louisiana planning for possible impacts from Hurricane Irma\" . WWL-TV . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"TN Gov. Bill Haslam issues executive order for Irma evacuees\" . News 9 ABC News. September 10, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Kevin Spain. \"How Hurricane Irma is affecting sports this weekend\" . USA Today . Retrieved January 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ John Reid (September 13, 2017). \"Jaguars dealing with aftermath of Hurricane Irma while preparing for Titans\" . Florida Times-Union . Retrieved January 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ Marc Lancaster (September 5, 2017). \"Florida State League cancels championship series as Hurricane Irma looms\" . Sporting News . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Carolina League cancels Mills Cup Finals\" . Carolina League. Jump up ^ \"Southern League Championship Series canceled\" . Minor League Baseball. Jump up ^ \"The Miami FC vs. San Francisco Deltas Match Postponed\" . Miami FC. September 6, 2017 . Retrieved January 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ Iliana Limón Romero (September 6, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma moves Orlando Pride, Seattle Reign match to Thursday\" . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Alicia DelGallo (September 7, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma could strand Orlando City in Washington D.C.\" Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mike Lowe (September 14, 2017). \"UMaine football game vs. Central Florida canceled\" . Portland Press Herald . Retrieved January 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ Chip Patterson; Ton Fornelli (September 8, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: Florida, Florida State, Miami among teams to cancel games\" . CBS Sports . Retrieved January 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ Kevin Kelley (September 6, 2017). \"Alcorn State at FIU football game moved to Birmingham's Legion Field\" . FBSchedules.com . Retrieved January 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Game Alert: Georgia Southern/New Hampshire Football Game Moved to Birmingham\" . Georgia Southern Athletics. September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Erik Wasson; Christopher Flavelle (September 5, 2017). \"FEMA Is Almost Out of Money and Hurricane Irma Is Approaching\" . Bloomberg News . Retrieved September 5, 2017 – via www.bloomberg.com. Jump up ^ Thomas Kaplan (September 7, 2017). \"Senate Votes to Raise Debt Limit and Approves $15 Billion in Hurricane Relief\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g James Daniell; Bernhard Mühr; Antonios Pomonis; Andreas Schäfer; Susanna Mohr. Hurricane Irma: Report No. 1, Focus on Caribbean up until 8th September 2017 (PDF) (Report). Center for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology. ^ Jump up to: a b Neil Hartnell (January 19, 2018). \"Bahamas Facing $500m Storm Bill Over Next Decade\" . Tribune 242 . Retrieved February 13, 2018 . Jump up ^ Samuel Oakford (November 24, 2017). \"Recovery pledges for hurricane-ravaged Caribbean are a drop in the ocean\" . IRIN . Retrieved November 29, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b (now), Alan Yuhas; Weait, Matthew; Farrer, Martin; (earlier), and Martin Pengelly (September 11, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: 10 dead in Cuba as record flooding hits northern Florida – latest updates\" . The Guardian . ^ Jump up to: a b Cuba: Hurricane Irma - Three Month Report (PDF) (Report). ReliefWeb. United Nations. December 15, 2017 . Retrieved January 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Latest: Irma weakens into a tropical depression\" . ABC News. Associated Press . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Michelle Kaske and Alexander Lopez (September 19, 2017). \"Puerto Rico Faces Hurricane Maria After Irma's $1 Billion Damage\" . Bloomberg . Retrieved September 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Angela H. Cutrer (September 15, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma leaves St. Kitts and Nevis with initial $53.2 million in damages\" . St. Kitts & Nevis Observer . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"IRMA, des dégâts évalués à 3,5 milliards\" . Jump up ^ \"BREAKING: Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte says the death toll on St. Maarten has risen to four after Hurricane Irma\" . Associated Press. September 10, 2017 – via Twitter. Jump up ^ Rebecca Harrington (September 12, 2017). \"Florida and the Caribbean dig out of Hurricane Irma's devastation and begin a slow and costly recovery\" . The Guardian . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Claire Phipps; Alan Yuhas; Matthew Weaver. \"Hurricane Irma: Florida braces for epic storm as Caribbean death toll hits 23 – latest updates\" . The Guardian . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"PM says relief efforts are already underway for A&B\" . The Daily Observer . Hurricane Irma Updates. September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Ann M. Simmons (September 7, 2017). \"Once there was an island known as Barbuda. After Hurricane Irma, much of it is gone\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kirk Semple; Carl Joseph (September 6, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: 'We Will Have Victims to Lament ' \" . The New York Times . Barbuda is devastated, but Antigua is spared. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Blair Shiff (September 6, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma destroys 90 percent of structures, vehicles on Barbuda\" . ABC News . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Lewis, Emma; Sutton, Ann. \"After the Storm\" . BirdsCaribbean . 2017-09-11 . Retrieved 2017-09-18 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma – In Pictures [Antigua]\" . Antigua Observer . September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Antigua spared the worst during passage of Hurricane Irma\" . Dominica News Online . September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Abigail O'Leary (September 6, 2017). \"Trail of devastation as Hurricane Irma destroys whole Caribbean island of Saint Martin\" . Mirror . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Joe Barnes (September 7, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma damage update: Shocking extent of St Martin damage\" . Daily Express . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' C'est un cauchemar' raconte notre journaliste à Saint-Martin\" ['It's a nightmare' says our reporter in Saint-Martin]. France Télévisions (in French). September 6, 2017. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Irma sème 'l'apocalypse' à Saint-Barth et Saint-Martin, au moins 4 morts\" [Irma sows 'apocalypse' in Saint-Barth and Saint-Martin, at least 4 dead]. La Croix (in French). Agence France-Presse. September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Dode en plunderingen op Nederlandse deel Sint Maarten na orkaan Irma\" [Dead and looting on Dutch part of Sint Maarten after Hurricane Irma] (in Dutch). Nu. September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Rachel Bishop (September 6, 2017). \"World famous Princess Juliana St Maarten Airport where planes fly just above tourists' heads devastated by Hurricane Irma\" . Mirror . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Latest: States sending 7K National Guardsmen to Florida\" . ABC News. Associated Press. September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Dit is wat we nu weten over de gevolgen van orkaan Irma\" . Het Parool (in Dutch). September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Premier Sint-Maarten: 'We hebben zeker een miljard nodig ' \" [Prime Minister of St. Maarten: \"We definitely need a billion\"] (in Dutch). NOS. September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Dutch government: 4 Irma deaths on St. Maarten\" . WJLA. Associated Press . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ouragan Irma : 'A Saint-Barthélemy, on a été rayés de la carte ' \" [Hurricane Irma: 'In Saint-Barthélemy, we were wiped off the map']. Le Monde (in French). September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Irma : à Saint-Barthélémy, \"l'île est vraiment anéantie\", témoigne une habitante\" . Le Parisien . September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Laura Smith-Spark; Marilia Brocchetto (September 6, 2017). \"Deaths reported as Hurricane Irma batters northern Caribbean islands\" . CNN . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Ouragan Irma : CCR évalue à environ 1,2 milliard d'euros le coût des dommages assurés pour les îles de Saint-Martin et Saint-Barthélemy\" [Hurricane Irma: CCR estimates the cost of insured losses for the islands of Saint-Martin and Saint-Barthélemy at around 1.2 billion euros] (Press release) (in French). France: Caisse Centrale de Réassurance. September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Jeff Masters (January 30, 2018). \"A 199 mph Wind Gust in Irma: a Personal Weather Station Record\" . Weather Underground . Retrieved January 30, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Kate Proctor; Fiona Simpson (September 7, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: Queen sends message of support to Caribbean as Navy rush to aid of those caught up in deadly storm\" . Evening Standard . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hurricane Irma: Situation Report 2 (PDF) (Report). Humanity Road. September 7, 2017. TC-2017-000125-DOM . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Eastern Caribbean: Humanitarian Situation Report #1 (PDF) . ReliefWeb (Report). UNICEF. September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Sea swells dump debris at Castries Waterfront\" . St. Lucia Times . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Young surfer's death comes as a shock\" . Barbados Today . September 5, 2017 . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Alexandra Wilts (September 6, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma has become so strong it's showing up on seismometers used to measure earthquakes\" . Independent . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Americas: Hurricane Irma (PDF) (Information Bulletin). International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. September 6, 2017. pp. 2–3 . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Saba Government on Facebook: no deaths have been reported on Saba\" . Saba-News . September 6, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kathryn Hansen (September 11, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Turns Caribbean Islands Brown\" . NASA Earth Observatory . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Scale of destruction on Tortola in British Virgin Islands revealed\" . Daily Mail . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"All 4 casualties of Hurricane Irma now identified\" . BVI News. 9 October 2017 . Retrieved 9 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Ciara Linnane. \"President Trump's and Richard Branson's Caribbean homes destroyed by Hurricane Irma\" . MarketWatch . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Ferre-Sadurn, Luis (2017-09-16). \"CBritish Virgin Islands: 'Knocked Down, but Not Knocked Out' by Irma\" . New York Times . Retrieved 2017-09-19 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: UK territory declares state of emergency\" . BBC News. 8 September 2017 . Retrieved 4 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Full electricity restoration could take 6 months\" . BVI News. 12 September 2017 . Retrieved 4 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"98% of electricity now restored in BVI\" . BVI News. 21 February 2018 . Retrieved 12 April 2018 . Jump up ^ \"News of St. John\" . Facebook. Jump up ^ \"Former Nashville family says St. John residents desperate after Irma, pleads for help\" . Fox17. Jump up ^ \"St. John resident says there were 'houses flying away' when Irma hit\" . Boston Globe . September 8, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Red Cross Establishes Helpline For Family Reunification; Ferry Service Between St. Thomas And St. John To Resume Soon\" . The Virgin Islands Consortium. Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma Spreading Damaging Winds into Georgia; Surge and Rainfall Flooding from Florida to South Carolina\" . The Weather Channel. September 11, 2017. Archived from the original on September 11, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Leysa Caro González. \"Reportan cuatro muertes que podrían asociarse a Irma\" [They report four deaths that could be associated with Irma]. Primera Hora (in Spanish) . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ Luis Ferré-Sadurní (September 10, 2017). \"Irma Grazes Puerto Rico but Lays Bare an Infrastructure Problem\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Berkeley Lovelace Jr. (September 7, 2017). \"Former Puerto Rico Gov. Alejandro Garcia Padilla says more than 1 million without power\" . CNBC . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Hurricane Irma: Haiti and Dominican Republic facing \"the day after\" cleaning up and rebuilding\" . Oxfam. September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Irma mostly spared Haiti. But for struggling farmers, the damages are devastating\" . The Miami Herald . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Turks and Caicos Islands hit by Hurricane Irma\" . The Guardian . September 8, 2017. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Extreme Hurricane Irma closing in on Florida, posing dire threat; west coast most at risk\" . The Washington Post . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Bahamians in TCI recall Irma nightmare\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Extensive flooding, damage in Turks and Caicos\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 8, 2017. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . [ dead link ] Jump up ^ \"Storm Churning Through Caribbean, Hits Turks and Caicos\" . The New York Times . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Todeline Defralien (December 11, 2017). \"Hurricane Bill to Exceed $231 Million\" . Turks and Caicos Sun . Retrieved February 13, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Bahamas escapes worst of Irma\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"BPL Gives Update on Southern Islands\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Reports of Hurricane Damage To Morton Salt Compound\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Tornadic Activity Damages Homes in Grand Bahama\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 10, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"More than 100 people displaced by tornadoes\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Calfas, Jennifer (September 10, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma Is So Powerful it Sucked Ocean Water Away in the Bahamas\" . TIME . Retrieved January 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ Staff, Writer (2017-09-19). \"Dominican Navy ship arrives in Cuba with aid for victims of Hurricane Irma\" . RadioCiudad . ACN/imop . Retrieved 2017-09-26 . Jump up ^ Laura Smith-Spark and Patrick Oppmann. \"Cuba blasted as Hurricane Irma tears through the Caribbean\" . CNN . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Anthony Faiola (September 10, 2017). \" ' People are roaming like zombies.' Virgin Islands stagger after storm passes\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Linthicum, Kate. \"Cuba took a direct hit from Hurricane Irma — and may have spared Florida from worse damage\" . Los Angeles Times . 2017-09-11 . Retrieved 2017-09-18 . Jump up ^ Costliest U.S. tropical cyclones tables update (PDF) (Report). United States National Hurricane Center. January 12, 2018. Archived from the original on January 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 12, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Sand Disturbed by the Passing of Hurricane Irma\" . NOAA. 13 September 2017 . Retrieved 23 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Andres Viglucci; Carli Teproff; Daniel Chang (September 11, 2017). \"Irma could have been a lot worse for South Florida, but it's still not a pretty picture\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Donald J. Trump (September 12, 2017). \"The devastation left by Hurricane Irma was far greater, at least in certain locations,than anyone thought – but amazing people working hard!\" . Retrieved September 14, 2017 – via Twitter. ^ Jump up to: a b Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Table of Events (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. January 8, 2018 . Retrieved January 8, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Hurricane Irma: Death toll rises to 72 in Florida, 112 in Caribbean\" . First Post . World AFP . Retrieved 27 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Hurricane Irma Hits South Florida\". Tropical Winds Newsletter (Report). National Weather Service Miami, Florida. Fall 2017 . Retrieved January 9, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Jon Rizzo; Matt Moreland (September 23, 2017). Post Tropical Cyclone Report...Hurricane Irma...Updated (PDF) (Report). National Weather Service Key West, Florida . Retrieved November 23, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hurricane Irma – Power Outage Data (PDF) (Report). Florida Division of Emergency Management. September 11, 2017 . Retrieved January 9, 2018 . Jump up ^ Bernie Woodall. \"With 7.4 million without power, utility workers get respect\" . Reuters . Retrieved January 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ Roth, David M. (October 18, 2017). \"Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima\" . Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Data . United States Weather Prediction Center . Retrieved November 26, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Irma death toll up to 69 in Florida\" . WJXT . News Service of Florida. October 6, 2017 . Retrieved January 4, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma's death toll rises; First storm-related Florida death reported\" . WJLA . Associated Press. September 8, 2017 . Retrieved January 25, 2018 . Jump up ^ Gwen Filosa (September 21, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma-related deaths rise to 14 in Florida Keys\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved November 24, 2017 . Jump up ^ Brett Murphy; Joseph Canney (September 17, 2017). \"After a death in Everglades City, rising concerns of a public health crisis\" . Naples Daily News . Retrieved December 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ Event Details: Tropical Storm (Report). National Climatic Data Center. 2017 . Retrieved December 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ Max Jaeger (September 11, 2017). \"Florida Keys in crisis as state cleans up after Irma\" . New York Post . Retrieved September 14, 2017 . Jump up ^ Jason Samenow; Greg Porter. \"Hurricane Irma battering Florida Peninsula, with 'catastrophic' storm surge feared\" . Washington Post . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Approximate Damage Assessment Results (Report). Monroe County, Florida, Government. November 26, 2017 . Retrieved January 8, 2018 . Jump up ^ Greg Stanley (September 26, 2017). \"Collier County tallies $320M of estimated damage from Hurricane Irma\" . Naples Daily News . Retrieved December 2, 2017 . Jump up ^ Chad Gillis (September 11, 2017). \"Top forecaster: 'Nothing' about Irma was expected\" . USA Today . Retrieved December 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Quincy J. Walters (September 28, 2017). \"Bonita Springs Still Contending With Flooding Weeks After Irma\" . WGCU . Retrieved December 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Bill Smith (September 29, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma damage toll in Lee County: $742 million and rising\" . The News-Press . Retrieved December 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Pamela McCabe (October 6, 2017). \"Lee County schools estimates Hurricane Irma damage at $21 million\" . The News-Press . Retrieved December 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Highlands Co: 98 percent without power, roads blocked\" . WFLA . September 11, 2017 . Retrieved December 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Gabrielle Ware (September 12, 2017). \"Irma Leaves Behind Major Crop Damage For Florida Farmers\" . WMAR-TV . Retrieved September 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ Martin E. Comas (September 29, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma flooding woes continue in Seminole and Astor three weeks after massive storm\" . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved February 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Event Details: Flood (Report). National Climatic Data Center. 2017 . Retrieved January 10, 2018 . Jump up ^ Jerry Fallstrom (December 26, 2017). \"Damage tally for Astor tops $438K, property appraiser says\" . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved January 11, 2018 . Jump up ^ Hurricane Irma: September 10-11, 2017, Post Storm Summary (PDF) (Report). National Weather Service Melbourne, Florida. September 29, 2017 . Retrieved December 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Post Tropical Cyclone Report...Hurricane Irma (Report). National Weather Service Jacksonville, Florida. September 23, 2017 . Retrieved February 8, 2018 . Jump up ^ David Bauerlein (December 16, 2017). \"City expects $85 million tab for Irma-related costs\" . The Florida Times-Union . Archived from the original on December 16, 2017 . Retrieved January 5, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Photos: Ponte Vedra oceanfront homes hit hard by Irma\" . The Florida Times Union . September 11, 2017. Archived from the original on September 14, 2017 . Retrieved December 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ Shelby Danielsen (September 13, 2017). \"Vilano Beach homes torn apart by Irma, worsened by severe erosion\" . WJXX . Retrieved December 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ Ryan Benk (September 15, 2017). \"Some Downtown St. Augustine Businesses Forced To Start Over After Irma\" . WJCT . Retrieved December 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ Teresa Stepzinski (September 26, 2017). \"Storm surge damage from Hurricane Irma forces Orange Park condo owners from homes\" . The Florida Times Union . Archived from the original on January 25, 2018 . Retrieved January 2, 2018 . Jump up ^ Jonathan Landrum Jr.; Russ Bynum (September 11, 2017). \"Irma whips Southeast: 3 dead in Georgia, 1 in South Carolina\" . ABC News . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Tropical Storm Irma kills at least 2 in Georgia\" . CBS News. September 11, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Irma causes severe flooding, power outages in South Carolina\" . CBS News. September 11, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Outage update: About 33,500 still without power in Upstate\" . Greenville News . September 13, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"S.C.'s Irma death total climbs to 5, as man hurt in wreck succumbs to injuries\" . ABC News 4. Associated Press. September 28, 2017 . Retrieved October 3, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Irma remnants bringing rain, windy conditions to Nashville area\" . The Tennessean . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"About 45,000 without power after Irma blows through parts of NC\" . WRAL . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"US warships begin Hurricane Irma relief operations\" . CNN. September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Dutch King heads to Caribbean to support post-hurricane efforts\" . The Jamaica Observer . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Latest: French leader to go to hurricane-hit St. Martin\" . Fox News Channel. September 10, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Irma: Cuba sends hundreds of doctors to Caribbean islands devastated by hurricane\" . The Independent . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Luis Ferré-Sadurní (September 10, 2017). \"Spared Irma's Worst, Puerto Ricans Sail to Virgin Islanders' Aid\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"PAWA Dominicana flight will bring storm victims from Saint Maarten\" . Dominican Today . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Government's Hurricane relief for Barbuda begin arriving on Antigua Friday\" . Antigua Observer . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"RFA Mounts Bay delivers vital aid to Caribbean islands\" . Government of the United Kingdom . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Hurricane Irma update: UK continues to urgently deliver vital aid to the victims of Hurricane Irma\" . Government of the United Kingdom . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: UK increases relief fund to £32m\" . BBC. September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: Millions told to evacuate in Florida as storm batters Cuba\" . ITV . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: UK Royal Marines take aid to victims\" . BBC. September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: UK government actions update, 10 September 2017\" . Government of the United Kingdom . September 10, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Azam Ahmed; Kirk Semple (September 10, 2017). \"Violence Erupts on Desperate Caribbean Islands: 'All the Food Is Gone ' \" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Jamie Doward; Toby Helm (September 9, 2017). \"Britain 'not doing enough' to help its Caribbean territories\" . The Guardian . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Hurricane Irma: Boris Johnson sees impact on Caribbean\" . BBC. September 13, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Press Association in Anguilla (September 13, 2017). \"Boris Johnson arrives in Anguilla after 'absolutely hellish' Hurricane Irma\" . The Guardian . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Hurricane Irma: UK government response in numbers, 15 September 2017\" . Government of the United Kingdom. September 15, 2017 . Retrieved September 16, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"TCI to benefit from UK's £13 billion relief fund\" . November 6, 2017 . Retrieved November 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"BPL working to restore electricity supply\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"BTC: 15% of network gets Irma impact\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma: All Clear For New Providence, Abaco, Berry Islands, Eleuthera; Hurricane Warnings Remain For Andros, Bimini, Grand Bahama\" . The Nassau Tribune . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Significant damage on Ragged Island\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 9, 2017 . Retrieved September 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Unlivable; Ragged Is. residents to be moved\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Ragged Islanders tell of Irma's fury\" . The Nassau Guardian . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Small Family Islands Model 'Unsustainable ' \" . The Nassau Tribune . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Businesses Face 'Major Supply Chain Disruption ' \" . The Nassau Tribune . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Thousands in shelters; towns cut off as downpours, flooding continue\" . Dominican Today . September 8, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"28 aqueducts damaged, over 422,000 people without piped water\" . Dominican Today . September 11, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Dominican, Haitian authorities scramble to help hurricane victims\" . Dominican Today . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma leaves Dutch St. Martin 'unreachable ' \" . PRI. Agence France-Presse. September 7, 2017 . Retrieved September 7, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Weather Alert – Hurricane Irma\" . American University of the Caribbean Medical School. Jump up ^ Alastair Jamieson; Daniella Silva (September 10, 2017). \"Over 1,200 Americans Evacuated From St. Maarten Amid Reports of Violence\" . NBC News . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Irma, l'Armée de l'Air mobilisée\" [Irma, the Air Force mobilized] (in French). French Air Force . September 13, 2017 . Retrieved September 15, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)\" . Hurricane Research Division (Database). National Hurricane Center. May 1, 2018 . Retrieved June 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ National Hurricane Center; Hurricane Research Division; Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (February 2015). \"Continental United States Hurricanes (Detailed Description)\" . aoml.noaa.gov . Miami, Florida: United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office of Oceanic & Atmospheric Research . Retrieved June 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ David Smiley (September 10, 2017). \"Miami police investigate looting during Hurricane Irma\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Staff (September 10, 2017). \"More than 2 dozen arrested for Irma looting in Fort Lauderdale and Miami, deputy shoots alleged teen burglar\" . NBC Miami . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Jane O'Brien (September 11, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: Florida launches huge relief operation\" . BBC News . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Ian Margol (September 11, 2017). \"Florida Keys residents unable to get home after evacuating for Hurricane Irma\" . Local10 . Retrieved September 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Florida faces Irma's devastation: Aircraft carrier rushes to the Keys; 13M are without power\" . New York Post . September 11, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Upper Keys Residents Allowed to Return Tuesday; Majority of Islands Remain Blocked\" . NBC Miami . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Gwen Filosa (September 13, 2017). \"Keys bridges declared safe for travel. But other obstacles remain for a return\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Janine Stanwood; Ian Margol; Andrea Torres (September 16, 2017). \"Monroe County reopens Marathon after Hurricane Irma\" . Local 10 ABC News . Retrieved September 17, 2017 . Jump up ^ David Goodhue (September 16, 2017). \"Middle Keys residents can return Saturday, but Lower Keys will have to wait one more day\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 17, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mower, Lawrence (September 12, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma: Don't have Internet, cable or cell service? Here's why\" . Palm Beach Post . Retrieved 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Weaver, Jay (September 12, 2017). \"Can you hear me now? Post-Irma cell coverage spotty\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Hurtibise, Ron (September 15, 2017). \"Hurricane Irma's assault on cellphone towers trigger discounts, freebies\" . Sun-Sentinel . Retrieved 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Communications Status Report for Areas Impacted by Hurricane Irma\" (PDF) . Federal Communications Commission. September 12, 2017. pp. 3–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 13, 2017 . Retrieved 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ George Richards (September 13, 2017). \"Worried about your home in the Florida Keys? Here's a way to check it out\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Assessing Irma's destruction from the air: First aerial images now available\" . NOAA. September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma Imagery\" . NOAA . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Mary Ellen Klas (September 13, 2017). \"Irma leaves behind new threat. Rising flood water disrupts North and Central Florida\" . Miami Herald . Retrieved September 14, 2017 . Jump up ^ Kovaleski, Dave (2017-09-11). \"Flooding from hurricanes in Texas and Florida bring public health risks\" . Homeland Preparedness News . Retrieved 2017-09-18 . Jump up ^ Murphy, Eliza (September 15, 2017). \"Canoe unearthed by Hurricane Irma could be hundreds of years old\" . ABC News . Retrieved 19 September 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricanes Harvey, Irma sink U.S. payrolls in September\" . Reuters. October 6, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Hurricane Irma turned this tiny island into a wasteland\" . The New York Post . September 13, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ \" ' This Is A Horrific Disaster': U.S. Virgin Islands Face Massive Recovery Effort After Hurricane Irma\" . CBS New York. September 10, 2017 . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"After Irma, a once-lush gem in the U.S. Virgin Islands reduced to battered wasteland\" . The Washington Post . September 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Erdman, Jonathan (October 20, 2017). \"Why Hurricane Maria Was Such a Catastrophe in Puerto Rico\" . weather.com . Retrieved January 25, 2018 . Jump up ^ Daniel Brown; Chris Landsea (September 5, 2017). Hurricane Irma Tropical Cyclone Update (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Philip Klotzbach [@philklotzbach] (September 5, 2017). \"#Irma is the furthest east in Atlantic that we've had a 175 mph hurricane on record (57.7°W). Previous record: David-1979 (66.2°W)\" (Tweet) . Retrieved September 5, 2017 – via Twitter . Jump up ^ Philip Klotzbach [@philklotzbach] (September 5, 2017). \"#Irma now has winds of 185 mph – tied w/ FL Keys (1935), Gilbert & Wilma for 2nd strongest Atlantic winds on record. Allen is #1 at 190 mph\" (Tweet) . Retrieved September 5, 2017 – via Twitter . Jump up ^ Alessandra Potenza. \"Irma is now one of the strongest hurricanes ever recorded in the Atlantic\" . The Verge . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Hurricane Irma Meteorological Records/Notable Facts Recap\" (PDF) . Colorado State University . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ Samuel Osborne. \"Irma: First hurricane on record to keep Category 5 intensity for so long\" . The Independent . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Staff Reports. \"Record-breaking Irma remains on track to spare Pee Dee\" . SC Now Morning News . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Real-Time North Atlantic Ocean Statistics by Storm for 2017\" . Colorado State University - ACE Calculations . Retrieved September 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Masters, Jeff. \"Winston's 180 mph Winds in Fiji: Southern Hemisphere's Strongest Storm on Record\" . Weather Underground . Retrieved 8 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Bob Henson (September 6, 2017). \"Category 5 Irma Hits Leeward Islands at Peak Strength\" . Weather Underground . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Brandon Miller (September 10, 2017). \"All the records Irma has already broken – and other jaw-dropping stats\" . CNN . Retrieved September 6, 2017 . Jump up ^ Sy Mukherjee (September 10, 2017). \"This Is the First Time Two Category 4 Hurricanes Have Made U.S. Landfall in a Single Season\" . Fortune . Retrieved September 10, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hurricane names Harvey, Irma, Maria and Nate being retired\" . Associated Press . Washington Post. April 12, 2018 . Retrieved April 12, 2018 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hurricane Irma . The National Hurricane Center's advisory archive on Hurricane Irma Hurricane Irma Viewed From the International Space Station on YouTube Ready.gov 's advice on Hurricanes Track and wind speed history from The Weather Channel The $100 billion hurricane? from Pacific Daily News KML file ( edit • help ) Display on Google Maps Template:Attached KML/Hurricane Irma KML is not from Wikidata show v t e Retired Atlantic hurricane names 1950s Carol Edna Hazel Connie Diane Ione Janet Audrey 1960s Donna Carla Hattie Flora Cleo Dora Hilda Betsy Inez Beulah Camille 1970s Celia Agnes Carmen Fifi Eloise Anita Greta David Frederic 1980s Allen Alicia Elena Gloria Gilbert Joan Hugo 1990s Diana Klaus Bob Andrew Luis Marilyn Opal Roxanne Cesar Fran Hortense Georges Mitch Floyd Lenny 2000s Keith Allison (TS) Iris Michelle Isidore Lili Fabian Isabel Juan Charley Frances Ivan Jeanne Dennis Katrina Rita Stan Wilma Dean Felix Noel Gustav Ike Paloma 2010s Igor Tomas Irene Sandy Ingrid Erika (TS) Joaquin Matthew Otto Harvey Irma Maria Nate Book Category Portal WikiProject Commons show v t e Tropical cyclones of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season Timeline TS Arlene TS Bret TS Cindy TD Four TS Don TS Emily 1 Franklin 2 Gert 4 Harvey ( history ) PT Ten 5 Irma ( history ) 4 Jose 2 Katia 3 Lee 5 Maria ( history ) 1 Nate 3 Ophelia TS Philippe TS Rina Book Category Portal WikiProject Commons show v t e Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes 1920s \"Cuba (1924)\" \"Okeechobee\" (1928) 1930s \"Bahamas\" (1932) \"Cuba (1932)\" \"Cuba–Brownsville\" (1933) \"Tampico\" (1933) \"Labor Day\" (1935) \"New England\" (1938) 1950s Carol (1953) Janet (1955) 1960s Carla (1961) Hattie (1961) Beulah (1967) Camille (1969) 1970s Edith (1971) Anita (1977) David (1979) 1980s Allen (1980) Gilbert (1988) Hugo (1989) 1990s Andrew (1992) Mitch (1998) 2000s Isabel (2003) Ivan (2004) Emily (2005) Katrina (2005) Rita (2005) Wilma (2005) Dean (2007) Felix (2007) 2010s Matthew (2016) Irma (2017) Maria (2017) Book Category Tropical cyclones portal Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hurricane_Irma&oldid=846074941 \" Categories : 2010s in Miami 2017 Atlantic hurricane season 2017 in Anguilla 2017 in Antigua and Barbuda 2017 in Barbados 2017 in Cuba 2017 in Florida 2017 in Georgia (U.S. state) 2017 in Guadeloupe 2017 in Montserrat 2017 in Puerto Rico 2017 in Saint Barthélemy 2017 in Sint Maarten 2017 in Saint Martin 2017 in Saba 2017 in Sint Eustatius 2017 in South Carolina 2017 in the Bahamas 2017 in the British Virgin Islands 2017 in the Caribbean 2017 in the Turks and Caicos Islands 2017 in the United States Virgin Islands 2017 natural disasters in the United States Cape Verde hurricanes Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes History of the Collectivity of Saint Martin Hurricanes in Anguilla Hurricanes in Antigua and Barbuda Hurricanes in Cuba Hurricanes in Florida Hurricanes in Georgia (U.S. state) Hurricanes in Montserrat Hurricanes in Puerto Rico Hurricanes in Saba Hurricanes in Saint Barthélemy Hurricanes in Saint Kitts and Nevis Hurricanes in Saint Martin Hurricanes in Sint Eustatius Hurricanes in Sint Maarten Hurricanes in South Carolina Hurricanes in the Bahamas Hurricanes in the British Virgin Islands Hurricanes in the Caribbean Hurricanes in the Leeward Islands Hurricanes in the Turks and Caicos Islands Hurricanes in the United States Virgin Islands Natural disasters in the Leeward Islands Natural disasters in Anguilla Natural disasters in Antigua and Barbuda Natural disasters in Saint Barthélemy Natural disasters in Saint Martin Natural disasters in Sint Maarten Natural disasters in Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands Natural disasters in the British Virgin Islands Natural disasters in the United States Virgin Islands Retired Atlantic hurricanes September 2017 events in North America September 2017 events in the United States Hurricane Irma 2017 natural disasters Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from February 2018 Wikipedia semi-protected pages Use American English from March 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from September 2017 Articles using KML not from Wikidata Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা भोजपुरी Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Kurdî Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English سنڌي Српски / srpski Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 31 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 June 2018, at 03:53. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Hurricane Irma", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Hurricane_Irma&amp;oldid=846074941" }

{ "text": "Sperm motility - Wikipedia Sperm motility From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Sperm motility describes the ability of sperm to move properly through the female reproductive tract ( internal fertilization ) or through water ( external fertilization ) to reach the egg . Sperm motility can also be thought of as the quality , which is a factor in successful conception ; sperm that do not \"swim\" properly will not reach the egg in order to fertilize it. Sperm motility in mammals also facilitates the passage of the sperm through the cumulus oophorus (a layer of cells) and the zona pellucida (a layer of extracellular matrix ), which surround the mammalian oocyte . In the wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus , sperms aggregate in 'trains' that are better able to fertilize eggs because they are more capable of navigating the viscous environment of the female reproductive tract. The trains move in a sinusoidal motion. Sperm motility is also affected by certain factors released by eggs. [1] Sperm movement is activated by changes in intracellular ion concentration. [2] The changes in ion concentration that provoke motility are different among species. In marine invertebrates and sea urchins , the rise in pH to about 7.2–7.6 activates ATPase which leads to a decrease in intracellular potassium, and thus induces membrane hyperpolarization . As a result, sperm movement is activated. [3] The change in cell volume which alters intracellular ion concentration can also contribute to the activation of sperm motility. In some mammals , sperm motility is activated by increase in pH, calcium ion and cAMP , yet it is suppressed by low pH in the epididymis . The tail of the sperm - the flagellum - confers motility upon the sperm, and has three principal components: a central skeleton constructed of 11 microtubules collectively termed the axoneme and similar to the equivalent structure found in cilia a thin cell membrane covering the axoneme mitochondria arranged spirally around it the axoneme, Back and forth movement of the tail results from a rhythmical longitudinal sliding motion between the anterior and posterior tubules that make up the axoneme. The energy for this process is supplied by ATP produced by mitochondria. The velocity of a sperm in fluid medium is usually 1–4 mm/min. This allows the sperm to move towards an ovum in order to fertilize it. In mammals, spermatozoa mature functionally through a process which is known as capacitation . When spermatozoa reach the isthmic oviduct , their motility has been reported to be reduced as they attach to epithelium. Near the time of ovulation, hyperactivation occurs. During this process, the flagella move with high curvature and long wavelength. [4] Hyperactivation is initiated by extracellular calcium; however, the factors that regulate calcium level is unknown. [5] Without technological intervention, a non-motile or abnormally-motile sperm is not going to fertilize. Therefore, the fraction of a sperm population that is motile is widely used as a measure of semen quality . Insufficient sperm motility is a common cause of subfertility or infertility . Several measures are available to improve sperm quality. Contents [ hide ] 1 Sperm DNA damage 2 Classifications of motility 3 References 4 External links Sperm DNA damage [ edit ] Sperm DNA damage is common in infertile men . [6] About 31% of men with sperm motility defects have high levels of sperm DNA fragmentation . [7] Classifications of motility [ edit ] Straight moving, Zig-zag moving, Vibrating, Non-motile References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Quill, A. T., Garbers, L. D. (2002). \"Sperm Motility Activation and Chemoattraction\". In Daniel M. Hardy. Fertilization . Carlifornia: Academic press. p. 29. ISBN 0-12-311629-5 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Blomberg Jensen M: Vitamin D and male reproduction. Nature Reviews Endocrinology 10, 175–186 (2014) doi : 10.1038/nrendo.2013.262 Jump up ^ Darszon, A., labarca, P., Nishigaki, T., and Espinosa, F. (1999). Ion channels in sperm physiology. Physiol. Rev 79 , 481-510 Jump up ^ Mortimer, D., Aitken, R. J., Mortimer, S. T., and Pacey, A. A.(1995). Workshop report: Clinical CASA-the quest for consensus. Reprod. Fertil. Dev 7 , 951–959 Jump up ^ Yanagimachi, R. (1994). Mammalian fertilization. In \"The Physiology of Reproduction\" (E.Knobil and J. D. Neill, eds.), pp. 189–317. Raven Press, New York Jump up ^ Simon L, Lutton D, McManus J, Lewis SE (2011). \"Sperm DNA damage measured by the alkaline Comet assay as an independent predictor of male infertility and in vitro fertilization success\". Fertil. Steril . 95 (2): 652–7. PMID 20864101 . doi : 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.08.019 . Jump up ^ Belloc S, Benkhalifa M, Cohen-Bacrie M, Dalleac A, Chahine H, Amar E, Zini A (2014). \"Which isolated sperm abnormality is most related to sperm DNA damage in men presenting for infertility evaluation\" . J. Assist. Reprod. Genet . 31 (5): 527–32. PMC 4016368 . PMID 24566945 . doi : 10.1007/s10815-014-0194-3 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sperm motility . Sperm motility, Colorado State University Semen analysis - how to interpret a semen analysis report, Malpani Infertility Clinic Sperm count analysis Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sperm_motility&oldid=793978230 \" Categories : Andrology Fertility Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Add links This page was last edited on 5 August 2017, at 02:02. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Sperm motility", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sperm_motility&amp;oldid=793978230" }

{ "text": "M&M's - Wikipedia M&M's From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the candy. For other uses, see M&M . M&M's Owner Mars, Incorporated Country United States Introduced February 28, 1941 ; 77 years ago ( 1941-02-28 ) Related brands Minstrels , Revels , Treets Markets Worldwide (over 100 countries) [1] Website www .mms .com M&M's are \"colorful button-shaped chocolates\", each of which has the letter \"m\" printed in lower case on one side, surrounds a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M's. The original candy had a milk chocolate filling which, upon introducing other variations, was branded as the \"plain\" variety. \" Peanut \" M&M's, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties (such as \" peanut butter \", \" almond \", \" pretzel \", \" crispy \", \" dark chocolate \", and \" caramel \") while others are limited in duration or geographic availability. M&M's is the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated . The candy originated in the United States in 1941, [2] and are sold in over 100 countries, since 2003. [1] More than 400 million individual M&M's are produced every day in the United States. [3] [4] They are produced in different colors, some of which have changed over the years . The candy-coated chocolate concept was inspired by a method used to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in warm climates without having it melt. The company's longest-lasting slogan reflects this: \"Melts in your mouth, not in your hand.\" A traditional milk chocolate M&M weighs about 0.91 grams / 0.032 ounces [5] and has about 4.7 kilocalories (kcal) of food energy (1.7 kcal from fat). [6] Contents [ hide ] 1 History 1.1 1930-70s 1.2 1980s 1.3 1990s 1.4 2000s 1.5 2010s 2 Varieties 3 Marketing 3.1 E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial 3.2 Marketing campaigns 3.3 Joint marketing campaigns 3.4 Related brands 4 M&M's characters 5 Color changes in chocolate M&M's 6 Health concerns 7 See also 8 References 9 External links History [ edit ] 1930-70s [ edit ] Plain/Milk Chocolate M&M's were introduced in 1941. Forrest Mars, Sr. , son of the Mars Company founder, Frank C. Mars, copied the idea for the candy in the 1930s during the Spanish Civil War when he saw soldiers eating British-made Smarties , chocolate pellets with a colored shell of what confectioners call hard panning (essentially hardened sugar syrup) surrounding the outside, preventing the candies from melting. Mars received a patent for his own process on March 3, 1941. [7] Production began in 1941 in a factory located at 285 Badger Avenue in Clinton Hill, Newark, New Jersey . When the company was founded it was M&M Limited. [8] The two \"Ms\" represent the names of Forrest E. Mars Sr., the founder of Newark Company, and Bruce Murrie, son of Hershey Chocolate's president William F. R. Murrie, who had a 20 percent share in the product. [9] The arrangement allowed the candies to be made with Hershey chocolate, as Hershey had control of the rationed chocolate at the time. [10] M&M's chocolate candy in cross-section with millimeter ruler for scale. Shows layers of hard panned coating. The company's first big customer was the U.S. army, which saw the invention as a way to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in tropical climates without it melting. During World War II , the candies were exclusively sold to the military. [11] The resulting demand for the candies caused an increase in production and the company moved its factory to bigger quarters at 200 North 12th Street in Newark, New Jersey , where it remained until 1958 when it moved to a bigger factory at Hackettstown . Peanut M&M's were introduced in 1954. In 1949, the brand released the tagline \"Melts in your mouth, not in your hand.\" [12] Peanut butter M&M's. (Not to be confused with Peanut M&Ms) In 1950, a black \"M\" was imprinted on the candies giving them a unique trademark. It was changed to white in 1954. [8] In the early 1950s, the Midwest Research Institute (now MRIGlobal ) in Kansas City, Missouri , worked on behalf of M&M's to perfect a process whereby 3,300 pounds (1,500 kg) of chocolate centers could be coated every hour. [13] Peanut M&M's were introduced in 1954 but first appeared [14] only in the color tan. In 1960, M&M's added the yellow, red, and green colors. [ citation needed ] In 1976, the color orange was added to the mix to replace red, which was discontinued in response to the \"red dye scare\" over Red Dyes #2 and #4 having been evaluated to be carcinogenic in nature. Although M&M's were made with the less controversial Red Dye #40, the public was wary of any food being dyed red. Red M&M's were re-introduced in 1987. [ citation needed ] 1980s [ edit ] In the 1980s, M&M's were introduced internationally to Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom. [15] Although they were marketed and then withdrawn in the 1960s, almond-centered M&M's were available again in 1988 in limited release, with appearances only during Christmas and Easter times; they became a standard part of the product line in 1992. Also in 1986, M&M's launched Holidays Chocolate Candies for Easter and Christmas, with the Easter candies having bunny, chick, and egg symbols on pastel-colored shells, and the Christmas candies having pine tree, bell, and candle symbols on red and green shells; with the latter also having a special mint flavor. By 1993, the holiday symbols were replaced with the standard trademark \"M\". 1990s [ edit ] In 1991, Peanut Butter M&M's were released. These candies have peanut butter inside the chocolate center and the same color scheme as the other varieties. As of at least 2013, the size of the peanut butter M&M has become slightly smaller. In 1995, tan M&Ms were discontinued to be replaced by blue. [16] In 1996, Mars introduced \"M&M's Minis\", smaller candies usually sold in plastic tubes instead of bags. [17] In 1999, Crispy M&M's were released. They were slightly larger than the milk chocolate variety and also featured a crispy wafer center. They were discontinued in the United States in 2005 and remained available in Europe, and Southeast Asia. In January 2015, they returned to production in the United States. 2000s [ edit ] In July 2001, Dulce de Leche M&M's were introduced in five markets with large Hispanic populations: Los Angeles, California ; San Diego, California ; Miami, Florida ; Mcallen - Brownsville, Texas ; and San Antonio, Texas . [18] The flavor never became popular with the Hispanic community, who preferred existing M&M's flavors, and it was discontinued in most areas by early 2003. [19] 2010s [ edit ] In 2010, Pretzel M&M's were released. They contain a crunchy, salty pretzel center inside of the chocolate coating and are about the same size as the Peanut M&M's, but their shape tends to be more spherical. [ citation needed ] In 2013, the M&M's chocolate bar was re-released. It was originally released in 2004 and named M-Azing . [ citation needed ] In 2014, Mega M&M's were re-introduced. Before then, the 'Mega M&M's' had been released in 2007 promoting the Shrek Movies, being dubbed \"Ogre-Sized M&M's\". [ citation needed ] In 2015, Crispy M&M's were re-introduced in the United States. They had remained available continuously in Europe and Australia. [ citation needed ] In 2016, the M&M cookie was re-introduced in the United States. [ citation needed ] Also in 2016, the M&M's flavor vote was created in which the fans could vote for either honey, coffee, or chili nut M&M's to go with peanut M&M's. Coffee Nuts was announced as the winner by VEEP 's Tony Hale [20] In April 2017, M&M's chocolate blocks went on sale in Australia. Six varieties (milk chocolate, strawberry, crispy, hazelnut, crispy mint and almond) are available. [ citation needed ] Also in 2017, Caramel M&M's were released in the United States. [21] Varieties [ edit ] M&M's varieties have included the following sizes and fillings. Note that some have only been made available for a limited time, such as white cheesecake for Easter, pumpkin spice or white candy corn for Halloween, and White Strawberry Shortcake for Valentine's Day. sizes: regular (in the following flavors), minis, mega (×3 the chocolate) and the \"chocolate bar\". chocolate: milk chocolate , dark chocolate , white chocolate nut: peanuts , almonds , hazelnuts , peanut butter , dark chocolate peanut, strawberried peanut butter, strawberry nut spice and herb: mint chocolate , cinnamon , pumpkin spice , white chocolate peppermint , holiday mint, gingerbread , mint crisp, pumpkin spice latte, mocha, coffee nut, honey nut, and chili nut. [22] fruit: orange chocolate , cherry , raspberry , cherry cordial , pineapple , coconut , candy apple dessert: pretzel , birthday cake , white chocolate candy corn , red velvet , dulce de leche , white chocolate carrot cake , vanilla shake , crispy , three milks ( tres leches ), pecan pie , and caramel . colors: Easter regularly sees pastel -colored candies and Christmas bags have green and red only Marketing [ edit ] Over the years, marketing has helped build and expand the M&M's brand. Computer-animated graphics, personification of the candies as characters with cartoon-like storytelling, and various merchandising techniques including the introduction of new flavors, colors and customizable merchandise have helped to increase the brand's recognition as a candy icon. E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial [ edit ] In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M's in the new Steven Spielberg movie E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial . Competitor Hershey , on the other hand, took a chance with their Reese's Pieces , which is similar to M&M's but contains a peanut butter filling, and with the blockbuster success, its candy sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300%. [23] Marketing campaigns [ edit ] In the early 1980s, its slogan was \"All the World Loves M&M's,\" accompanied by a TV jingle of the same name. Actor Joel Higgins , then co-starring in the NBC-TV sitcom Silver Spoons , co-wrote the song. [24] In 1990, M&M's exhibited at New York's Erie County Fair a life-size fiberglass cow covered with 66,000 M&M candies—each adhered by hand with the \"m\" logo on each candy facing outward. According to a website run by the cow's designer, Michael Adams, the stunt earned M&M Mars $1 million in free publicity because it was reported on by Newsweek magazine, as well as the New York Post , UPI and WABC-TV , and Live with Regis . [25] In 1995, the company ran the M&M's Color Campaign, a contest in which participants were given the choice of selecting purple, blue, or pink as the color of a new variety of M&M's. The announcement of the winning color (blue) was carried on most of the television networks' news programs as well as the talk shows of David Letterman and Jay Leno . [26] As part of the contest results, the company had the Empire State Building lighted in blue. [26] Although the financial details of these deals were not disclosed and neither was the campaign's effect on sales, one marketing book estimated that the company \"collected millions\" in free publicity and that the campaign \"certainly\" resulted in an increasing of the brand's awareness. [26] In 1998, M&M's were styled as \"The Official Candy of the New Millennium,\" as MM is the Roman numeral for 2000. This date was also the release of the rainbow M&M's, which are multi-colored and filled with a variety of different fillings. In 2000, \"Plain\" M&M's (a name created in 1954 when \"Peanut\" M&M's were introduced) were renamed \"Milk Chocolate\" M&M's, and pictures of the candy pieces were added to the traditional brown and white packaging. [27] In 2004, M&M's adopted the 1967 Petula Clark song Colour My World for its TV ads, albeit using newly recorded versions with other singers. [28] Joint marketing campaigns [ edit ] In 1990, Mars Snackfood US signed up to be a sponsor for NASCAR in the Sprint Cup Series . Drivers for the M&M's-sponsored car through the years have included Ernie Irvan (1999), Ken Schrader (2000–02), Eliott Sadler (2003–06), Ricky Rudd (2007), David Gilliland (2006–07), Kyle Busch (2008-current, won 2015 Sprint Cup Series Championship), and Michael McDowell . The introduction of the blue M&M to Australia was promoted by the Australian Football League 's Carlton Football Club , which wore sky-blue colored guernseys in one of its matches in 1997 instead of its traditional navy blue – a color which the successful and fiercely traditional club had worn since the 1870s. [29] In 2010, Mars Snackfood Australia described it as the most successful promotional campaign it had ever engaged in. [30] In April 2005, M&M's ran the \"mPire\" promotion to tie in with the Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith movie release. M&M's were offered in dark chocolate varieties (Regular and Peanut) for the first time after a string of Addams Family M&M's commercials. M&M's World London In May 2004, M&M's ran a Shrek 2 promotion to tie in with the movie's release. M&M's were offered \"ogre-sized\" (65% larger) in swamp/ogre colors. They were sold at many stores displayed in huge cardboard-cutout ogre displays. In the summer of 2005, Mars added \"Mega M&M's\" to the lineup. [31] These candies, at 55% larger than the traditional M&M's, were a little smaller than the ogre-sized version. They were available in milk chocolate and peanut varieties. The colors for Mega M&M's were changed to less-bright colors, ostensibly to appeal to older consumers: teal (replacing green), beige (replacing orange), maroon (replacing red), gold (replacing yellow), blue-gray (replacing blue), and brown. Outside of M&M's World in Times Square , New York City In July 2006, Dark Chocolate M&M's reappeared in a purple package, followed in 2007 by Dark Chocolate Peanut M&M's. Also in 2006, the company piloted White Chocolate M&M's as a tie-in with their \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" promotion. The company also offered eight new flavors of M&M's via online sales, as well as at M&M's World locations: \"All That Razz\"; \"Eat, Drink, & Be Cherry\"; \"A Day at the Peach\"; \"Orange-U-Glad\"; \"Mint Condition\"; \"AlmonDeeLicious\"; \"Nut What You Think\"; and \"Cookie Monster\". Mars also released a \"Crispy Mint\" variety in Australia that year. The M&M's sponsored NASCAR stock car driven by Kyle Busch Also in 2006, M&M's became the official chocolate of NASCAR . In 2007, M&M's introduced a limited-edition raspberry flavor called \"M&M's Razzberry Chocolate Candies\". Also in 2007, M&M's produced a 50-foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories. In 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – \"Wildly Cherry\" M&M's, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , \"Mint Crisp\" M&M's. M&M's also introduced another new product called \"M&M's Premiums\" in 2008. They come in five flavors – chocolate almond, mint chocolate, mocha, raspberry almond, and triple chocolate (milk, dark, and white chocolate), which are sold in small upright cartons with a plastic bag inside. M&M's Premiums do not have a candy shell but are coated with carnauba wax and color. Dark Chocolate was added in 2009, replacing Mocha. During the summer of 2008, My M&M's launched 'Faces,' which allows consumers to print the faces of loved ones on M&M's chocolate candies at mymms.com. In February 2009, M&M's launched the \"M&M's Colour Break-Up\" promotion in Australia where M&M's were sold in separate packs (one for each color): the packs included a code to win prizes. [32] In Summer 2009, M&M's launched a limited-edition \"Strawberried Peanut Butter\" variant to tie in with the release of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen . In addition, M&M's launched a limited edition \"Coconut M&M's,\" which became a permanent item in 2010. M&M's World on the Las Vegas Strip In early 2010, M&M's Bare All were released as part of a competition in Australia and New Zealand. [33] M&M's Bare All winning packs were ordinary M&M's, but without colored shells. An official website was launched, along with television advertisements. [ citation needed ] In April 2010, M&M's launched a new pretzel variety. [34] In November 2011, Mars released M&M's Cinnamon Milk Chocolate for Christmas. About the time pretzel M&M's came out, the M&M's wrapper designs in the U.S. were redone, from the old design, used from 2004-early 2010. In 2012, M&M's released two new Dark Chocolate flavors: Raspberry and Mint. Also that year, M&M's released a White Chocolate flavor for the Easter season. From May 30, 2012, onwards, M&M's will be launched in Macau . Its Macanese launch language is Portuguese . In 2012, Peanut M&M's were produced in the UK in a limited edition \"Red, White and Blues only\" pack, in connection with the country's Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics . The 'M' remains white on the white candies. The commercial advertising this promotional package had Yellow donning various outfits of British stereotypes to try to get into the limited edition pack. Similarly, to promote the 2014 FIFA World Cup , Peanut M&M's were produced in a pack that contained only green, yellow, and blue candies, dubbed \"Brazilian M&M's\" in reference to the colors of the flag of Brazil. \"Brazilian M&M's\" were re-released in 2016 to promote the 2016 Summer Olympics , but are now available in both Chocolate and Peanut. In 2013, M&M's launched the \"Better with M\" campaign, which included cause-related marketing. The campaign worked with Habitat for Humanity and encouraged fans to use a Facebook app to volunteer at the various sites where the homes were being built. [35] The advertising campaign was one of the largest that Mars had ever executed. [35] The 2013 \"America Better With M\" initiative sough to provide money directly to Habitat for Humanity through offering limited versions of M&Ms in red, white and blue. Related brands [ edit ] Related candy brands from Mars include Minstrels , Revels , Skittles , and Treets . M&M's World specialty shops have been established in some locations, including Las Vegas, Orlando, New York, London, and Shanghai. Several M&Ms-themed video games have been created. The first was M&M's: The Lost Formulas , released on September 28, 2000. M&M's characters [ edit ] The six \"spokescandies\" for M&M's since 2012 Early black-and-white adverts for the candy in 1954 featured two talking, anthropomorphic M&M characters—one plain and one peanut—diving into a swimming pool full of chocolate. [36] The first incarnation of the characters in CGI was a 1994 celebrity campaign which had the characters interacting with celebrities on which M&Ms candy color is their favorite. This campaign was created by Blue Sky Studios . Concurrent with 1995's blue M&M campaign, M&M's introduced second computer-animated \"spokescandies\" in their television commercials . The depiction and campaign of the M&M's were made by Will Vinton in 1995. Vinton previously created the clay-animation California Raisins in 1986. Around the time he worked on CGI projects, he made the depiction of the M&M's as more mature than most food mascots. These include the team of the cynical and sardonic Red (originally voiced by Jon Lovitz , thereafter Billy West [37] ) who is the mascot for milk chocolate , peanut butter , and crispy M&M's, and the happy and gullible , M&M's, Yellow (originally voiced by John Goodman , thereafter J.K. Simmons ), who is the mascot for peanut M&M's (he was originally known as \"Peanut\" when first introduced). Other mascots include the \"cool one\", Blue (voiced by Phil Hartman until his death in 1998, thereafter Robb Pruitt) who is the mascot for almond M&M's; the seductive Green (voiced by Cree Summer ), who is the mascot for both dark chocolate mint and peanut butter M&M's, and the slightly neurotic Orange (voiced by Eric Kirchberger), who was introduced when Crispy M&M's were first released and returned when Pretzel M&M's debuted in 2010. Orange, upon his return, was joined by the second non-M&M mascot, Pretzel Guy (voiced by Maurice LaMarche ), who \"supports\" him and offers helpful advice as he hates the idea of having a pretzel put inside his body. Other mascots that were introduced, but no longer used, are Almond, the original green guy; Orange, a female peanut character, Chocolate Bar; the first non-M&M character that always gets foiled or outdone by Red and Yellow by being melted when M&M's can't, and the Swarmees for M&M's Minis candies, which are portrayed as destructive yet crafty troublemakers who Red and Yellow are always trying unsuccessfully to contain. Female M&M's mascots were introduced in 1995. Green was the milk chocolate mascot and Tan was the peanut. Marketing discontinued Tan when they introduced the then-new Blue mascot. Green was the only female M&M's mascot from her introduction in 1995 until 2012 when M&M's unveiled a new additional spokescandy, the businesslike Ms. Brown (voiced by Miss America 1984 Vanessa Williams ), the \"Chief Chocolate Officer.\" [38] She made her debut in a Super Bowl XLVI advertisement, where several people at a party assume she is naked because her shell is the same color as her insides, which causes Red to remove his outer shell thinking \"it's that kind of party\", and start dancing to the LMFAO song \" Sexy And I Know It .\" During a Super Bowl LII advertisement, Red was transformed into a human after finding a lucky penny and wishing he was inedible. As a human, he is portrayed by Danny DeVito . [39] Color Character Type Voice actor Red Red Milk Chocolate, Dark Chocolate, Peanut Butter, and Crispy Jon Lovitz (1995–96) Billy West (1996–present) Danny DeVito (2018-live human actor) Yellow Yellow Peanut, and Dark Chocolate Peanut John Goodman (1995–96) J. K. Simmons (1996–present) Blue Blue Almond, Raspberry, and Dark Chocolate Phil Hartman (1995–98) Robb Pruitt (1998–present) Green Green Dark Chocolate, Dark Chocolate Mint, and Peanut Butter Cree Summer Orange Orange Crispy and Pretzel Eric Kirchberger Brown Ms. Brown Dark Chocolate and Milk Chocolate Vanessa Williams Orange Caramel (cube) Caramel David Cross Brown Pretzel Guy (symmetrical) Pretzel Maurice LaMarche Color changes in chocolate M&M's [ edit ] Transparent chutes hold M&Ms of various colors. The original colors of M&M's candies were red , yellow , violet , green and orange . [12] In 1976, the Food and Drug Administration released a study that linked red dye 2 in food coloring to cancer. Though Mars did not use this dye, they decided to pull the red M&M's from the market to avoid possible misunderstandings. The red candy were reintroduced to the market ten years later. [12] In early 1995, Mars ran a promotion in which consumers were invited to vote on which of blue , pink , or purple would replace the tan M&M's. Blue was the winner with 54% of the votes. [40] It replaced tan in late 1995. Consumers could vote by calling 1-800-FUN-COLOR. Ads for the new blue colors featured a plain and an almond blue M&M character as Red and Yellow take notice of trying to do takes in the commercial by painting themselves blue where they appear on stage with B.B. King singing the blues, but the filmmakers had to cut the scene as they were not the real blue M&M's; another featured Red and Yellow holding their breath to look like the new blue M&M's, where Steven Weber sees the three M&M's, Red, Yellow, and Blue; and one more featuring Weber talking to the blue M&M if he had dived into the chocolate pool, but did not. In 2002, Mars solicited votes in their first ever \"M&M's Global Color Vote\" to add a new color from three choices: aqua ( turquoise ), pink , and purple . Purple won and was featured for a limited time. To help the colors get votes, Ken Schrader and his MB2 Motorsports team, who was sponsored by M&M's at the time, ran four paint schemes during the 2002 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season representing the promotion (one for aqua, one for pink, one for purple, and another one with all three colors on the car.) Specially marked packages of M&M's were released in Japan. Finding a bag of all purple M&M's entitled the customer to a prize of 100 million yen (equivalent to approximately USD $852,000). On January 1, 2004, at the stroke of midnight, Mars removed all of the colors of M&M's and made them black-and-white on both their candies and the packaging. It coincided with a commercial parodying The Wizard of Oz where Dorothy is home in bed and looks out of the window and sees what the colors of the four M&M's were. The goal was to help the M&M's find their colors in black-and-white packages of M&M's, in this order: brown, orange, red, green, yellow, and blue. After all of the colors have been found, the colored packaging returned, and began carrying the theme \"Chocolate is better in color\". Since 2004, M&M's have been available online in 17 colors, with personalized phrases on each candy on the opposite side from the \"m\". [41] Released around Christmas, these custom-printed M&M's were originally intended for holiday greetings , but are now available all year round. For the 2008 Valentine's Day season, Mars introduced all-green bags of M&M's. This was due to common urban folklore that says green M&M's are an aphrodisiac . [42] They were brought back for 2009 alongside the \"Ms. Green Heats Up Valentine's Day\" contest. In October 2011, Mars released M&M's White Chocolate Candy Corn exclusively in the United States for Halloween . These candies come in three candy corn inspired colors: white, bright yellow, and bright orange. The following is a summary of the changes to the colors of the flagship ( milk chocolate ) flavor of M&M's, the only filling manufactured continuously since the beginning of the brand. From 1941 until 1969, each package contained M&M's in five different colors; when red M&M's were reintroduced in 1987, they were added as a sixth color instead of replacing any of the existing colors. 1940‒present Health concerns [ edit ] Red candies were eliminated in 1976 [43] because of health concerns over the dye amaranth ( FD&C Red #2), which was a suspected carcinogen , and were replaced with orange-colored candies. This was done despite the fact that M&M's did not contain the dye; the action was purely to satisfy worried consumers. Red candies were reintroduced ten years later, but they also kept the orange colored M&M's. Paul Hethmon, then a student at University of Tennessee , started the campaign to bring back red M&M's as a joke that would eventually become a worldwide phenomenon. [44] In Europe, red M&M's contain the red dye carmine (E120). [45] Carmine, also known as cochineal, has had some campaigns launched against its use in food, because it is made from crushed insects. Notably, Starbucks in the UK had a campaign launched against it for using carmine. [46] See also [ edit ] United States portal Similar candies from other companies: Smarties Cadbury Gems Reese's Pieces Sixlets Presidential M&M's References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b M&M's candy fades to black and white , a December Reuters article via USA Today Jump up ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2002). Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea . University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252025532 . Jump up ^ \"The Mars Family Net Worth\" . TheRichest . 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Such was the case when Mars, Inc. passed on the chance for its flagship product, M&Ms, to be the candy used in 1982 film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Its turn-down cleared the way for Hershey Foods Corporation to make a remarkable splash for its Reese's Pieces.\" Jump up ^ \"BMI Repertoire Search\" . BMI.com . Retrieved 21 February 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Events - M&M Candy Cow\" . Behindthescenesmarketing.com . Retrieved January 15, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c William M. Luther (2001). The Marketing Plan: How to Prepare and Implement it (3rd ed.). AMACOM . p. 192. ISBN 978-0-8144-2615-9 . Jump up ^ Kane, Courtney (June 29, 2000). \"THE MEDIA BUSINESS: ADVERTISING; M&M/Mars concludes, after 46 years, that 'Plain' does not do justice to the original M&M's candy\" . \" The New York Times \" . Retrieved July 27, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Renée Cologne: Rock 'n' Roll Housewife\" . reneecologne.com . Retrieved 21 February 2018 . Jump up ^ \"The Candy Man comes to Carlton\" . Carlton Football Club. 25 August 2009 . Retrieved 21 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Anderson, Jon (9 February 2010). \"Mars backs Carlton Blues\" . Herald Sun . Retrieved 10 March 2012 . Jump up ^ \"M&M's get mega-sized\" . CNNMoney.com . Time Warner . August 4, 2005 . Retrieved June 14, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"M&M'S Color Break Up\" . Mars. February 18, 2009 . Retrieved February 18, 2009 . Jump up ^ [1] m-msbareall.com. Archived January 27, 2010, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"About M&MS®: Products: Pretzel\" . Retrieved March 16, 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"M&M'S Launching 'Better With M' Marketing Campaign\" . Retrieved March 22, 2016 . Jump up ^ Schultz, E J (9 May 2013). \"Rewind: 1954 Ad Shows M&Ms Characters Go for a Chocolatey Swim\" . Ad Age . Retrieved 18 November 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Behind The Voice Actors - M&M's - Voice of Red\" . Behind the Voice Actors . Retrieved April 26, 2012 . Jump up ^ Owen, Rob (2012-02-17). \"TV Q&A: 'The Good Wife,' awards shows and 'The Little Couple ' \" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved 2012-02-17 . Jump up ^ Wagstaff, Niala. \"Watch: M&M's Super Bowl LII commercial with Danny DeVito\" . The Enquirer . The Enquirer . Retrieved 5 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Carr, David (2003). Candymaking in Canada: The History and Business of Canada's Confectionery Industry . Dundurn. ISBN 9781550023954 . Jump up ^ \"Custom Printed MY M&M'S\" . mms.com . Mars, Incorporated . Retrieved February 6, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"M&M'S Chocolate Candies go green just in time for Valentine's Day\" . PRNewswire. January 16, 2008 . Retrieved August 14, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"The Story of M&M'S Brand\" . mms.com . Mars, Incorporated . Archived from the original on April 9, 2008 . Retrieved June 14, 2008 . Jump up ^ \"The man who brought Red M&M's back to life\" . WBIR . 2014-10-31 . Retrieved 2014-11-01 . Jump up ^ M&Ms Peanut Pouch Red M&Ms Tesco Jump up ^ Starbucks red dye campaign What is carmine and why is Starbucks taking it out of its products? External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to M&M's . Official website The History of M&M's Chocolates from us.mms.com [ hide ] v t e Mars, Incorporated Mars family Franklin Clarence Mars Ethel V. Mars Forrest Mars Sr. Forrest Mars Jr. John Franklyn Mars Jacqueline Mars Victoria B. Mars Brands Chocolate 3 Musketeers A. Korkunov Balisto Bounty Celebrations Dove Ethel M Fling Flyte Kudos M-Azing M&M's Maltesers Mars Milky Way Revels Snickers Topic Tracker Treets Twix Galaxy Galaxy Milk Chocolate Galaxy Caramel Galaxy Counters Galaxy Crispy Galaxy Hazelnut Galaxy Fruit & Nut Galaxy Minstrels Galaxy Ripple Galaxy Senzi Galaxy Amicelli Galaxy Bubbles Galaxy Jewels Galaxy Promises Galaxy Honeycomb Crisp Galaxy Cookie Crumble Galaxy Orange & Shortcake Other foods Combos Dolmio Masterfoods Munch Promite Seeds of Change Uncle Ben's Drink CocoaVia FLAVIA Klix Wrigley gum and confections Chewing gum With sugar Alert Big Red Doublemint Juicy Fruit Wrigley's Spearmint Winterfresh Sugarfree 5 Airwaves Eclipse Ice Excel Extra Freedent Orbit Surpass Bubblegum With sugar Alpine Big League Chew Bubble Tape Hubba Bubba Sugarfree Ouch! Mint and candy Altoids Eclipse Life Savers Lockets Skittles Starburst Tunes Pet care Products ADVANCE Aquarium Pharmaceuticals Buckeye Nutrition Cesar Chappie Eukanuba Exelpet Greenies Iams James Wellbeloved Medi-Cal My Dog Natura Nutro Pedigree Pill Pockets Royal Canin Schmackos Seramis Sheba Spillers Teasers Techni-Cal Whiskas Winergy Wisdom Panel MX Mixed Breed DNA Test Services Banfield Pet Hospital VCA Animal Hospitals (pending) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%26M%27s&oldid=838875321 \" Categories : Mars confectionery brands Candy Brand name chocolate Products introduced in 1941 Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from April 2011 Pages using deprecated image syntax All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Ślůnski Suomi Svenska Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 28 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 April 2018, at 21:06. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "M&M's", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=M%26M%27s&amp;oldid=838875321" }

{ "text": "The One with the Prom Video - Wikipedia The One with the Prom Video From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \" The One with the Prom Video \" Friends episode Episode no. Season 2 Episode 14 Directed by James Burrows Written by Alexa Junge Production code 457310 Original air date February 1, 1996 Guest appearance(s) Elliott Gould as Jack Geller Christina Pickles as Judy Geller Patrick Kerr as The Restaurant Manager Episode chronology ← Previous \" The One After the Superbowl \" Next → \" The One Where Ross and Rachel...You Know \" Friends (season 2) List of Friends episodes \" The One with the Prom Video \" is the fourteenth episode of the second season , and the 38th episode overall, of the American television situation comedy Friends , which first aired on NBC on February 1, 1996. [1] The episode focuses on the main characters watching Monica ( Courteney Cox ) and Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) getting ready for their high school prom in the titular video. A subplot sees Joey , now earning more income, ( Matt LeBlanc ) buying roommate Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) an unusual gift. The episode was directed by James Burrows , written by Alexa Junge and guest-stars Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles as Jack and Judy Geller , Michael Ray Bower as Monica's date and Patrick Kerr as the restaurant manager. [1] Contents 1 Plot 2 Production 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Plot [ edit ] Joey, now earning money, gives Chandler a gaudy gold bracelet as thanks for paying for head shots and food. Chandler mocks it when it costs him a date, upsetting Joey when he overhears. Chandler promises to never take it off again but immediately realizes he can't find it. He buys a replacement, but the original is found shortly afterwards. He gives one to Joey, repairing their friendship. Ross ( David Schwimmer ) continues to seek forgiveness from Rachel after insulting her in a previous episode , but she tells him that they as a couple will never happen. Monica's parents bring boxes of her possessions to her apartment, and she finds a video of her and Rachel getting ready for their senior prom. The friends decide to watch the video, although Ross objects to everyone seeing the tape. On the video, Rachel's date, Chip Matthews, has not arrived, and Monica refuses to go to the prom without her. Mrs. Geller convinces Ross to wear his father's tuxedo and take Rachel to the prom himself. Ross reluctantly agrees, but by the time he is dressed and ready to go, Chip has arrived and the girls leave. The video ends with Ross looking disappointed and dejected. Rachel, touched by Ross's gesture, gets up and passionately kisses Ross, forgiving him for what happened between them. Monica later watches the video alone which features her and her father, Jack, dancing. The video then shows Monica and Ross's parents in bed, which disgusts her. [1] Production [ edit ] Aniston, Cox and Schwimmer wore additional costumes and make-up for the prom video scenes. The producers had kept Ross and Rachel from being together throughout the first season, eventually bringing them together in the second-season episode \" The One Where Ross Finds Out \", only to split them up in the following episode . [2] Writer Alexa Junge incorporated many of her own experiences into the script, in particular Phoebe's line about Ross and Rachel being \"lobsters\", something Junge's husband once said. [2] Aniston wore a false nose for the scenes in the video while Cox wore a \" fat suit \". While a previous episode had already established Monica as being overweight as a child, [3] this was the first on-screen appearance of \"Fat Monica\" (the fat suit made frequent return appearances). [4] [5] [6] Rachel's large nose was added because Junge believed that the characters \"were so good-looking, you wanted to feel they had some realness in their past\". [2] At first, Schwimmer did not want to wear the afro wig and mustache because he thought he would look like Gabe Kaplan in Welcome Back, Kotter (a similarity referenced in the episode). He relented because it enabled him to \"tap into a part of himself that was very vulnerable and shy\" and incorporate it into his performance. [7] An early script draft featured a scene in the prom video in which an episode of All My Children is on in the background. The scene was intended to feature the character \"Bryce\", played by Gunther (as revealed in \" The One Where Eddie Won't Go \"). [8] Reception [ edit ] In 1997, TV Guide ranked this episode #100 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Episodes of All Time\". [9] Entertainment Weekly rates the episode \"A\", welcoming the return of Burrows as director and calling the prom video \"witty character development disguised as a standard flashback.\" [10] The authors of Friends like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends write that it is \"a watershed in the history of the show\" and \"It's the sign of a good show that they can switch so effortlessly from comedy to pathos to romance in one short scene.\" Robert Bianco wrote in USA Today in 2004, \"If any one outing can take credit for moving Friends from good to great, it's Prom Video \" and describes the resolution as an \"ingenious, unexpected twist.\" [11] The episode is popular among fans of the series. [2] It appeared on one of the first region 1 \"best of\" DVD releases [12] and is one of the two episodes to feature an audio commentary on the region 1 DVD release of the complete second season. [13] In a poll conducted shortly before the series finale , \"The One with the Prom Video\" was voted the best episode of Friends , with 1.6 million people polling on the Internet. [14] The episode is the favorite of Schwimmer, who liked the comedic and emotional origins of the Ross/Rachel relationship, as well as the exchange between Monica and Chandler as she defends her weight on the video. [7] In 2014, Gawker published a list of every episode of Friends ranked from #236 through #1. \"The One With The Prom Video\" was ranked as the #1 best episode on the list. [15] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c Sangster, Jim; David Bailey (2000). Friends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends (2nd ed.). London : Virgin Publishing Ltd. pp. 103–106. ISBN 0-7535-0439-1 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Garner, Joe (2004). Made You Laugh!: The Funniest Moments in Radio, Television, Stand-up, and Movie Comedy . Kansas City, Missouri : Andrews McMeel Publishing. pp. 58–59. ISBN 0-7407-4695-2 . Jump up ^ Kauffman, Marta; Crane, David (writers); Burrows, James (director) (1994-11-10). \" The One Where Nana Dies Twice \". Friends . Season 1. Episode 8. NBC . Jump up ^ Malins, Gregory S. (writer); Bright, Kevin S. (director) (1998-11-19). \" The One with All the Thanksgivings \". Friends . Season 5. Episode 8. NBC . Jump up ^ Malins, Gregory S.; Chase, Adam; Kauffman, Marta; Crane, David (writers); Lembeck, Michael (director) (2000-02-17). \" The One that Could Have Been \". Friends . Season 6. Episode 15/16. NBC . Jump up ^ Kauffman, Marta; Crane, David (writers); Bright, Kevin S. (director) (2004-02-05). \" The One Where the Stripper Cries \". Friends . Season 10. Episode 11. NBC . ^ Jump up to: a b Snierson, Dan (2004-02-24). \"Friends Forever: David Schwimmer\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2007-08-18 . Jump up ^ Lee, Allyssa (2004-03-05). \"And Now A Word From The Supporting Players' Club...\" Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2007-01-07 . Jump up ^ \"Special Collector's Issue: 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time\". TV Guide (June 28-July 4). 1997. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) Jump up ^ Staff writer (2001-09-15). \"Review: Season 2 (1995–1996)\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2007-08-18 . Jump up ^ Bianco, Robert (2004-01-28). \"Like lobsters that fall in love, 'Prom Video' got its claws in us\" . USA Today . Retrieved 2007-08-18 . Jump up ^ \"Warner Home Video Brings the Emmy-Winning TV Show FRIENDS To DVD and VHS for the First Time on December 19\" (Press release). Time Warner . 2000-11-14 . Retrieved 2007-08-18 . Jump up ^ \"Friends - The Complete 2nd Season\" . TVShowsonDVD.com . Archived from the original on 2007-12-06 . Retrieved 2007-10-08 . Jump up ^ Bianco, Robert (2004-04-07). \"What to watch Thursday\" . USA Today . Retrieved 2007-08-18 . Jump up ^ . Gawker . 2014-09-03 https://web.archive.org/web/20140903202143/http://rankings.gawker.com/every-episode-of-friends-ranked-1629809447 . Archived from the original on 2014-09-03 . Retrieved 2014-09-03 . Missing or empty |title= ( help ) External links [ edit ] \"The One with the Prom Video\" on IMDb \"The One with the Prom Video\" at TV.com hide v t e Friends Characters Chandler Bing Phoebe Buffay Monica Geller Ross Geller Rachel Green Joey Tribbiani Episodes Season 1 \" The Pilot \" (1.01) \" The One with the Sonogram at the End \" (1.02) Season 2 \" The One with the Lesbian Wedding \" (2.11) \" The One After the Superbowl \" (2.12–2.13) \" The One with the Prom Video \" (2.14) \" The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies \" (2.18) Season 3 \" The One with the Princess Leia Fantasy \" (3.01) \" The One Where No One's Ready \" (3.02) Season 4 \" The One with the Embryos \" (4.12) \" The One with Ross's Wedding \" (4.23–4.24) Season 5 \" The One After Ross Says Rachel \" (5.01) \" The One Hundredth \" (5.03) \" The One with All the Thanksgivings \" (5.08) \" The One with the Girl Who Hits Joey \" (5.15) \" The One Where Rachel Smokes \" (5.18) \" The One Where Ross Can't Flirt \" (5.19) \" The One with the Ride-Along \" (5.20) Season 6 \" The One After Vegas \" (6.01) \" The One with the Apothecary Table \" (6.11) \" The One with the Proposal \" (6.24–6.25) Season 7 \" The One with Monica and Chandler's Wedding \" (7.23–7.24) Season 8 \" The One with Rachel's Date \" (8.05) \" The One with the Rumor \" (8.09) Season 9 – Season 10 \" The Last One \" (10.17–10.18) Related articles Music \" I'll Be There for You \" Joey Mad About You Awards and nominations Friends ... 'Til the End Hello Friends Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_One_with_the_Prom_Video&oldid=846998697 \" Categories : 1996 American television episodes Friends (season 2) episodes Television episodes about proms Hidden categories: Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs TV.com template using numeric id Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Gaeilge Português Русский Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 22 June 2018, at 06:01 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The One with the Prom Video", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_One_with_the_Prom_Video&amp;oldid=846998697" }

{ "text": "Vikings - Wikipedia Vikings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Viking (disambiguation) . It has been suggested that Viking childhood be merged into this article. ( Discuss ) Proposed since July 2018. This article is part of a series on Scandinavia Geography Mountains Peninsula Viking Age Old Norse Vikings Viking art Mythology Political entities Denmark Norway Sweden Former political entities Denmark–Norway Sweden–Finland Sweden-Norway Kalmar Union History Denmark Norway Sweden Other topics Languages Scandinavism Nordic Council Monetary Union Defence Union Scandinavian Airlines v t e Exploration and expansion routes Vikings ( Old English : wicing —\"pirate\", [1] Danish and Bokmål : vikinger ; Swedish and Nynorsk : vikingar ; Icelandic : víkingar , from Old Norse ) were Norse seafarers, mainly speaking the Old Norse language , who raided and traded from their Northern European homelands across wide areas of northern, central, eastern and western Europe, during the late 8th to late 11th centuries. [2] [3] The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age . This period of Nordic military, mercantile and demographic expansion constitutes an important element in the early medieval history of Scandinavia , Estonia , the British Isles , France , Kievan Rus' and Sicily . [4] Facilitated by advanced sailing and navigational skills, and characterised by the longship , Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral , North Africa , the Middle East and Central Asia . Following extended phases of (primarily sea- or river-borne) exploration, expansion and settlement, Viking (Norse) communities and polities were established in diverse areas of north-western Europe, Belarus [5] , Ukraine [6] and European Russia , the North Atlantic islands and as far as the north-eastern coast of North America . This period of expansion witnessed the wider dissemination of Norse culture, while simultaneously introducing strong foreign cultural influences into Scandinavia itself, with profound developmental implications in both directions. Popular, modern conceptions of the Vikings—the term frequently applied casually to their modern descendants and the inhabitants of modern Scandinavia—often strongly differ from the complex picture that emerges from archaeology and historical sources. A romanticised picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century; this developed and became widely propagated during the 19th-century Viking revival . [7] [8] Perceived views of the Vikings as alternatively violent, piratical heathens or as intrepid adventurers owe much to conflicting varieties of the modern Viking myth that had taken shape by the early 20th century. Current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. These representations are not always accurate – for example, there is no evidence that they wore horned helmets. Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 1.1 Other names 2 History 2.1 Viking Age 2.2 Expansion 2.2.1 Motives 2.3 End of the Viking Age 3 Culture 3.1 Literature and language 3.1.1 Runestones 3.2 Burial sites 3.3 Ships 3.4 Everyday life 3.4.1 Social structure 3.4.2 Appearances 3.4.3 Farming and cuisine 3.4.4 Sports 3.4.5 Games and entertainment 3.4.6 Experimental archaeology 4 Weapons and warfare 5 Trade 5.1 Goods 6 Legacy 6.1 Medieval perceptions 6.2 Post-medieval perceptions 6.2.1 In 20th-century politics 6.2.2 In modern popular culture 6.3 Common misconceptions 6.3.1 Horned helmets 6.3.2 Barbarity 6.3.3 Use of skulls as drinking vessels 7 Genetic legacy 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Etymology A Norwegian fjord One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík , meaning \"creek, inlet, small bay\". [9] Various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken (or Víkin in Old Norse ), meaning \"a person from Viken \". According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, and it is only in the last few centuries that it has taken on the broader sense of early medieval Scandinavians in general. However, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called 'Viking' in Old Norse manuscripts, but are referred to as víkverir (Modern Norwegian: vikvær ), ' Vík dwellers'. In addition, that explanation could explain only the masculine ( Old Scandinavian víkingr ) and ignore the feminine (Old Norse víking ), which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. [10] [11] [12] The form also occurs as a personal name on some Swedish runestones . The stone of Tóki víking (Sm 10) was raised in memory of a local man named Tóki who got the name Tóki víking (Toki the viking), presumably because of his activites as a viking. [13] The Gårdstånga Stone (DR 330) uses the phrase \" ÞeR drængaR waRu wiða unesiR i wikingu \" ( These men where well known i viking ), [14] referring to the stone's dedicatees as vikings. The Västra Strö 1 Runestone has an inscription in memory of a Björn, who was killed when \" i viking \". [15] In Sweden there is a locality known since the middle ages as Vikingstad . The Bro Stone (U 617) was risen in memory of Assur who is said to have protected the land from vikings ( SaR vaR vikinga vorðr með Gæiti ). [16] [17] There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age. Another etymology, that gained support in the early twenty-first century, derives Viking from the same root as Old Norse vika , f. 'sea mile', originally 'the distance between two shifts of rowers', from the root *weik or *wîk, as in the Proto-Germanic verb *wîkan, 'to recede'. [18] [19] [20] [21] This is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, 'to turn', similar to Old Icelandic víkja ( ýkva , víkva ) 'to move, to turn', with well-attested nautical usages. [22] Linguistically, this theory is better attested, [22] and the term most likely predates the use of the sail by the Germanic peoples of North-Western Europe, because the Old Frisian spelling shows that the word was pronounced with a palatal k and thus in all probability existed in North-Western Germanic before that palatalisation happened, that is, in the 5th century or before (in the western branch). [23] [24] In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the tired rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. The Old Norse feminine víking (as in the phrase fara í víking ) may originally have been a sea journey characterised by the shifting of rowers, i.e. a long-distance sea journey, because in the pre-sail era, the shifting of rowers would distinguish long-distance sea journeys. A víkingr (the masculine) would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterised by the shifting of rowers. In that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. [25] In Old English , the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith , which probably dates from the 9th century. In Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general. The word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. One theory made by the Icelander Örnolfur Kristjansson is that the key to the origins of the word is \" wicinga cynn \" in Widsith, referring to the people or the race living in Jórvík (York, in the ninth century under control by Norsemen), Jór-Wicings . The word Viking was introduced into Modern English during the 18th-century Viking revival, at which point it acquired romanticised heroic overtones of \" barbarian warrior\" or noble savage. During the 20th century, the meaning of the term was expanded to refer to not only seaborne raiders from Scandinavia and other places settled by them (like Iceland and the Faroe Islands ), but also any member of the culture that produced said raiders during the period from the late 8th to the mid-11th centuries, or more loosely from about 700 to as late as about 1100. As an adjective, the word is used to refer to ideas, phenomena, or artefacts connected with those people and their cultural life, producing expressions like Viking age , Viking culture , Viking art , Viking religion , Viking ship and so on. [26] Other names Europe in 814. Roslagen is located along the coast of the northern tip of the pink area marked \"Swedes and Goths\" . The Vikings were known as Ascomanni (\"ashmen\") by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, [27] Dubgail and Finngail ( \"dark and fair foreigners\") by the Irish, [28] Lochlannach (\"lake person\") by the Gaels [29] and Dene ( Dane ) by the Anglo-Saxons. [30] The Slavs , the Arabs and the Byzantines knew them as the Rus' or Rhōs , [31] probably derived from various uses of rōþs- , \"related to rowing\", or derived from the area of Roslagen in east-central Sweden , where most of the Vikings who visited the Slavic lands came from. Some archaeologists and historians of today believe that these Scandinavian settlements in the Slavic lands played a significant role in the formation of the Kievan Rus' federation, and hence the names and early states of Russia and Belarus . [32] [33] [34] The modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs- , Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians ( Russian : варяги , from Old Norse Væringjar , meaning 'sworn men', from vàr- \"confidence, vow of fealty\", related to Old English wær \"agreement, treaty, promise\", Old High German wara \"faithfulness\" [31] ). Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard . The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were generally known as Danes or heathen and the Irish knew them as pagans or gentiles. [35] Anglo-Scandinavian is an academic term referring to the people, and archaeological and historical periods during the 8th to 13th centuries in which there was migration to—and occupation of—the British Isles by Scandinavian peoples generally known in English as Vikings. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon . Similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland . History Viking Age Main article: Viking Age Sea-faring Danes depicted invading England. Illuminated illustration from the 12th century Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund ( Pierpont Morgan Library ) The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history. [36] Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy —in the 10th century. In that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe. Likewise, King Harold Godwinson , the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, had Danish ancestors. Two Vikings even ascended to the throne of England, with Sweyn Forkbeard claiming the English throne in 1013–1014 and his son Cnut the Great becoming king of England 1016–1035. [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] Geographically, a Viking Age may be assigned to not only Scandinavian lands (modern Denmark, Norway and Sweden), but also territories under North Germanic dominance, mainly the Danelaw , including Scandinavian York , the administrative centre of the remains of the Kingdom of Northumbria , [42] parts of Mercia , and East Anglia . [43] Viking navigators opened the road to new lands to the north, west and east, resulting in the foundation of independent settlements in the Shetland , Orkney , and Faroe Islands ; Iceland ; Greenland ; [44] and L'Anse aux Meadows , a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland , circa 1000. [45] The Greenland settlement was established around 980, during the Medieval Warm Period , and its demise by the mid-15th century may have been partly due to climate change . [46] The Viking Rurik dynasty took control of territories in Slavic and Finno-Ugric -dominated areas of Eastern Europe; they annexed Kiev in 882 to serve as the capital of the Kievan Rus' . [47] As early as 839, when Swedish emissaries are first known to have visited Byzantium, Scandinavians served as mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine Empire. [48] In the late 10th century, a new unit of the imperial bodyguard formed. Traditionally containing large numbers of Scandinavians, it was known as the Varangian Guard. The word Varangian may have originated in Old Norse, but in Slavic and Greek it could refer either to Scandinavians or Franks. The most eminent Scandinavian to serve in the Varangian Guard was Harald Hardrada , who subsequently established himself as king of Norway (1047–1066). There is archaeological evidence that Vikings reached Baghdad , the centre of the Islamic Empire . [49] The Norse regularly plied the Volga with their trade goods: furs, tusks, seal fat for boat sealant, and slaves . Important trading ports during the period include Birka , Hedeby , Kaupang , Jorvik , Staraya Ladoga , Novgorod , and Kiev . Generally speaking, the Norwegians expanded to the north and west to places such as Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, and Greenland; the Danes to England and France, settling in the Danelaw (northern/eastern England) and Normandy ; and the Swedes to the east, founding Kievan Rus'. Among the Swedish runestones mentioning expeditions overseas, almost half tell of raids and travels to western Europe. According to the Icelandic sagas, many Norwegian Vikings also went to eastern Europe. In the Viking Age, the present day nations of Norway, Sweden and Denmark did not exist, but were largely homogeneous and similar in culture and language, although somewhat distinct geographically. The names of Scandinavian kings are reliably known only for the later part of the Viking Age. After the end of the Viking Age the separate kingdoms gradually acquired distinct identities as nations, which went hand-in-hand with their Christianisation . Thus the end of the Viking Age for the Scandinavians also marks the start of their relatively brief Middle Ages. Expansion Main article: Viking expansion Travels of the Vikings Colonization of Iceland by Norwegian Vikings began in the ninth century. The first source that Iceland and Greenland appear in is a papal letter of 1053. Twenty years later, they are then seen in the Gesta of Adam of Bremen. It was not until after 1130, when the islands had become Christianized, that accounts of the history of the islands were written from the point of view of the inhabitants in sagas and chronicles. [50] The Vikings explored the northern islands and coasts of the North Atlantic, ventured south to North Africa and east to Russia, Constantinople, and the Middle East. [33] [34] [51] They raided and pillaged, traded, acted as mercenaries and settled wide-ranging colonies. [52] Early Vikings probably returned home after their raids. Later in their history, they began to settle in other lands. [53] Vikings under Leif Ericson , heir to Erik the Red , reached North America and set up short-lived settlements in present-day L'Anse aux Meadows , Newfoundland, Canada. This expansion occurred during the Medieval Warm Period . [54] Viking expansion into continental Europe was limited. Their realm was bordered by powerful cultures to the south. Early on, it was the Saxons , who occupied Old Saxony , located in what is now Northern Germany. The Saxons were a fierce and powerful people and were often in conflict with the Vikings. To counter the Saxon aggression and solidify their own presence, the Danes constructed the huge defence fortification of Danevirke in and around Hedeby . [55] The Vikings soon witnessed the violent subduing of the Saxons by Charlemagne , in the thirty-year Saxon Wars in 772–804. The Saxon defeat resulted in their forced christening and the absorption of Old Saxony into the Carolingian Empire . Fear of the Franks led the Vikings to further expand Danevirke, and the defence constructions remained in use throughout the Viking Age and even up until 1864. [56] The south coast of the Baltic Sea was ruled by the Obotrites , a federation of Slavic tribes loyal to the Carolingians and later the Frankish empire . The Vikings—led by King Gudfred —destroyed the Obotrite city of Reric on the southern Baltic coast in 808 AD and transferred the merchants and traders to Hedeby. [57] This secured their supremacy in the Baltic Sea, which remained throughout the Viking Age. Motives The motives driving the Viking expansion are a topic of much debate in Nordic history. One common theory posits that Charlemagne \"used force and terror to Christianise all pagans\", leading to baptism, conversion or execution, and as a result, Vikings and other pagans resisted and wanted revenge. [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] Professor Rudolf Simek states that \"it is not a coincidence if the early Viking activity occurred during the reign of Charlemagne\". [58] [63] The penetration of Christianity into Scandinavia led to serious conflict dividing Norway for almost a century. [64] Viking settlements and voyages Another explanation is that the Vikings exploited a moment of weakness in the surrounding regions. England suffered from internal divisions and was relatively easy prey given the proximity of many towns to the sea or to navigable rivers. Lack of organised naval opposition throughout Western Europe allowed Viking ships to travel freely, raiding or trading as opportunity permitted. The decline in the profitability of old trade routes could also have played a role. Trade between western Europe and the rest of Eurasia suffered a severe blow when the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century. [65] The expansion of Islam in the 7th century had also affected trade with western Europe. [66] Raids in Europe, including raids and settlements from Scandinavia, were not unprecedented and had occurred long before the Vikings arrived. The Jutes invaded the British Isles three centuries earlier, pouring out from Jutland during the Age of Migrations , before the Danes settled there. The Saxons and the Angles did the same, embarking from mainland Europe. The Viking raids were, however, the first to be documented in writing by eyewitnesses, and they were much larger in scale and frequency than in previous times. [67] Vikings themselves were expanding; although their motives are unclear, historians believe that scarce resources were a factor. [68] Vikings wanted to loot the wealthy and become the dominant class. While doing so, they enslaved many and solved them across the sea. [ clarification needed ] [69] The \"Highway of Slaves\" was a term used to describe a route that the Vikings found to have a direct pathway from Scandinavia to Constantinople and Baghdad while traveling on the Baltic Sea. With the advancements of their ships during the ninth century, the Vikings were able to sail to Russia and some northern parts of Europe. [70] End of the Viking Age During the Viking Age, Scandinavian men and women travelled to many parts of Europe and beyond, in a cultural diaspora that left its traces from Newfoundland to Byzantium . This period of energetic activity also had a pronounced effect in the Scandinavian homelands, which were subject to a variety of new influences. [71] In the 300 years from the late 8th century, when contemporary chroniclers first commented on the appearance of Viking raiders, to the end of the 11th century, Scandinavia underwent profound cultural changes. Blar a' Bhuailte , the site of the Vikings' last stand in Skye By the late 11th century, royal dynasties legitimised by the Catholic Church (which had had little influence in Scandinavia 300 years earlier) were asserting their power with increasing authority and ambition, and the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden had taken shape. Towns appeared that functioned as secular and ecclesiastical administrative centres and market sites, and monetary economies began to emerge based on English and German models. [72] By this time the influx of Islamic silver from the East had been absent for more than a century, and the flow of English silver had come to an end in the mid-11th century. [73] Christianity had taken root in Denmark and Norway with the establishment of dioceses during the 11th century, and the new religion was beginning to organise and assert itself more effectively in Sweden. Foreign churchmen and native elites were energetic in furthering the interests of Christianity, which was now no longer operating only on a missionary footing, and old ideologies and lifestyles were transforming. By 1103, the first archbishopric was founded in Scandinavia, at Lund , Scania, then part of Denmark. The assimilation of the nascent Scandinavian kingdoms into the cultural mainstream of European Christendom altered the aspirations of Scandinavian rulers and of Scandinavians able to travel overseas, and changed their relations with their neighbours. One of the primary sources of profit for the Vikings had been slave-taking. The medieval Church held that Christians should not own fellow Christians as slaves, so chattel slavery diminished as a practice throughout northern Europe. This took much of the economic incentive out of raiding, though sporadic slaving activity continued into the 11th century. Scandinavian predation in Christian lands around the North and Irish Seas diminished markedly. The kings of Norway continued to assert power in parts of northern Britain and Ireland, and raids continued into the 12th century, but the military ambitions of Scandinavian rulers were now directed toward new paths. In 1107, Sigurd I of Norway sailed for the eastern Mediterranean with Norwegian crusaders to fight for the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem , and Danes and Swedes participated energetically in the Baltic Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries. [74] Culture A variety of sources illuminate the culture, activities, and beliefs of the Vikings. Although they were generally a non-literate culture that produced no literary legacy, they had an alphabet and described themselves and their world on runestones . Most contemporary literary and written sources on the Vikings come from other cultures that were in contact with them. [75] Since the mid-20th century, archaeological findings have built a more complete and balanced picture of the lives of the Vikings. [76] [77] The archaeological record is particularly rich and varied, providing knowledge of their rural and urban settlement, crafts and production, ships and military equipment, trading networks, as well as their pagan and Christian religious artefacts and practices. Literature and language See also: Old Norse and The Norse Sagas One of the few surviving manuscript leaves from the Heimskringla Sagas , written by Snorri Sturluson c. 1260. The leaf tells of King Ólafur . The most important primary sources on the Vikings are contemporary texts from Scandinavia and regions where the Vikings were active. [78] Writing in Latin letters was introduced to Scandinavia with Christianity, so there are few native documentary sources from Scandinavia before the late 11th and early 12th centuries. [79] The Scandinavians did write inscriptions in runes , but these are usually very short and formulaic. Most contemporary documentary sources consist of texts written in Christian and Islamic communities outside Scandinavia, often by authors who had been negatively affected by Viking activity. Later writings on the Vikings and the Viking Age can also be important for understanding them and their culture, although they need to be treated cautiously. After the consolidation of the church and the assimilation of Scandinavia and its colonies into the mainstream of medieval Christian culture in the 11th and 12th centuries, native written sources begin to appear, in Latin and Old Norse. In the Viking colony of Iceland, an extraordinary vernacular literature blossomed in the 12th through 14th centuries, and many traditions connected with the Viking Age were written down for the first time in the Icelandic sagas . A literal interpretation of these medieval prose narratives about the Vikings and the Scandinavian past is doubtful, but many specific elements remain worthy of consideration, such as the great quantity of skaldic poetry attributed to court poets of the 10th and 11th centuries, the exposed family trees, the self images, the ethical values, all included in these literary writings. Indirectly, the Vikings have also left a window open to their language, culture and activities, through many Old Norse place names and words, found in their former sphere of influence. Some of these place names and words are still in direct use today, almost unchanged, and sheds light on where they settled and what specific places meant to them, as seen in place names like Egilsay (from Eigils Ø meaning Eigil's Island), Ormskirk (from Ormr kirkja meaning Orms Church or Church of the Worm), Meols (from merl meaning Sand Dunes), Snaefell (Snow Fell), Ravenscar (Ravens Rock), Vinland (Land of Wine or Land of Winberry ), Kaupanger (Market Harbour), Tórshavn (Thor's Harbour), and the religious centre of Odense , meaning a place where Odin was worshipped. Viking influence is also evident in concepts like the present-day parliamentary body of the Tynwald on the Isle of Man . Common words in everyday English language, like some of the weekdays ( Thursday means Thor's day), axle , crook , raft , knife , plough , leather , window , berserk , bylaw , thorp , skerry , husband , heathen , Hell , Norman and ransack stem from the Old Norse of the Vikings and give us an opportunity to understand their interactions with the people and cultures of the British Isles. [80] In the Northern Isles of Shetland and Orkney, Old Norse completely replaced the local languages and over time evolved into the now extinct Norn language . Some modern words and names only emerge and contribute to our understanding after a more intense research of linguistic sources from medieval or later records, such as York (Horse Bay), Swansea ( Sveinn 's Isle) or some of the place names in Northern France like Tocqueville (Toki's farm). [81] Linguistic and etymological studies continue to provide a vital source of information on the Viking culture, their social structure and history and how they interacted with the people and cultures they met, traded, attacked or lived with in overseas settlements. [82] [83] It has been speculated that several place names on the west coast of southern France might also stem from Viking activities. [84] Place names like Taillebourg ( Trelleborg , meaning City of Thralls or Castle of Thralls) exist as far south as the Charente River . [85] Gascony and vicinity [86] is an active area of Viking archaeology at present. [87] A lot of Old Norse connections are evident in the modern-day languages of Swedish , Norwegian , Danish , Faroese and Icelandic . [88] Old Norse did not exert any great influence on the Slavic languages in the Viking settlements of Eastern Europe. It has been speculated that the reason was the great differences between the two languages, combined with the Rus' Vikings more peaceful businesses in these areas and the fact that they were outnumbered. The Norse named some of the rapids on the Dnieper , but this can hardly be seen from the modern names. [89] [90] A consequence of the available written sources, which may have coloured how the Viking age is perceived as a historical period, is that much more is known of the Vikings' activities in western Europe than in the East. One reason is that the cultures of north-eastern Europe at the time were non-literate, and did not produce a legacy of literature. Another is that the vast majority of written sources on Scandinavia in the Viking Age come from Iceland, a nation originally settled by Norwegian colonists. As a result, there is much more material from the Viking Age about Norway than Sweden, which apart from many runic inscriptions, has almost no written sources from the early Middle Ages. Runestones Main article: Runestone The Lingsberg Runestone in Sweden Runic inscriptions of the larger of the Jelling Stones in Denmark Two types of Norse runestones from the Viking Age The Norse of the Viking Age could read and write and used a non-standardised alphabet, called runor , built upon sound values. While there are few remains of runic writing on paper from the Viking era, thousands of stones with runic inscriptions have been found where Vikings lived. They are usually in memory of the dead, though not necessarily placed at graves. The use of runor survived into the 15th century, used in parallel with the Latin alphabet. The majority of runic inscriptions from the Viking period are found in Sweden and date from the 11th century. The oldest stone with runic inscriptions was found in Norway and dates to the 4th century, suggesting that runic inscriptions pre-date the Viking period. Many runestones in Scandinavia record the names of participants in Viking expeditions, such as the Kjula runestone that tells of extensive warfare in Western Europe and the Turinge Runestone , which tells of a war band in Eastern Europe. Other runestones mention men who died on Viking expeditions. Among them are around 25 Ingvar runestones in the Mälardalen district of Sweden, erected to commemorate members of a disastrous expedition into present-day Russia in the early 11th century. Runestones are important sources in the study of Norse society and early medieval Scandinavia, not only of the Viking segment of the population. [91] [ citation needed ] The Jelling stones date from between 960 and 985. The older, smaller stone was raised by King Gorm the Old , the last pagan king of Denmark, as a memorial honouring Queen Thyre . [92] The larger stone was raised by his son, Harald Bluetooth , to celebrate the conquest of Denmark and Norway and the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. It has three sides: one with an animal image, one with an image of the crucified Jesus Christ, and a third bearing the following inscription: King Haraldr ordered this monument made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Thyrvé, his mother; that Haraldr who won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian. [93] Runestones attest to voyages to locations such as Bath , [94] Greece, [95] Khwaresm , [96] Jerusalem , [97] Italy (as Langobardland), [98] Serkland (i.e. the Muslim world), [99] England [100] (including London [101] ), and various places in Eastern Europe. Viking Age inscriptions have also been discovered on the Manx runestones on the Isle of Man. Burial sites See also: Norse funeral and Ship burial Burial mounds at Gamla Uppsala Funerary stone setting Viking burial mounds and stone set graves, known as tumuli Prow of the Oseberg ship , at Oslo Museum Head post from the Oseberg ship There are numerous burial sites associated with Vikings throughout Europe and their sphere of influence—in Scandinavia, the British Isles, Ireland, Greenland, Iceland, Faeroe Islands, Germany, The Baltic, Russia, etc. The burial practices of the Vikings were quite varied, from dug graves in the ground, to tumuli , sometimes including so-called ship burials. According to written sources, most of the funerals took place at sea. The funerals involved either burial or cremation , depending on local customs. In the area that is now Sweden, cremations were predominant; in Denmark burial was more common; and in Norway both were common. [102] Viking barrows are one of the primary source of evidence for circumstances in the Viking Age. [103] The items buried with the dead give some indication as to what was considered important to possess in the afterlife. [104] It is unknown what mortuary services were given to dead children by the Vikings. [105] Some of the burial sites that are most important for understanding the Vikings include: Norway: Oseberg ; Gokstad ; Borrehaugene . Sweden: Gettlinge gravfält; the cemeteries of Birka , a World Heritage Site; [106] Valsgärde ; Gamla Uppsala ; Hulterstad gravfält, near Alby ; Hulterstad, Öland . Denmark: Jelling , a World Heritage Site ; Lindholm Høje ; Ladby ship ; Mammen chamber tomb and hoard. Estonia: Salme ships – The largest ship burial ground ever uncovered. Scotland: Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial ; Scar boat burial , Orkney. Faroe Islands: Hov . Iceland: Mosfellsbær in Capital Region ; [107] [108] the boat burial in Vatnsdalur, Austur-Húnavatnssýsla . [102] [109] [110] Greenland: Brattahlíð . [111] Germany: Hedeby . Latvia: Grobiņa . Ukraine: the Black Grave . Russia: Gnezdovo . Ships Main article: Viking ships There have been several archaeological finds of Viking ships of all sizes, providing knowledge of the craftsmanship that went into building them. There were many types of Viking ships, built for various uses; the best-known type is probably the longship . [112] Longships were intended for warfare and exploration, designed for speed and agility, and were equipped with oars to complement the sail, making navigation possible independently of the wind. The longship had a long, narrow hull and shallow draught to facilitate landings and troop deployments in shallow water. Longships were used extensively by the Leidang , the Scandinavian defence fleets. The longship allowed the Norse to go Viking , which might explain why this type of ship has become almost synonymous with the concept of Vikings. [113] [114] A reconstructed longship A model of the knarr ship type The longship facilitated far-reaching expeditions, but the Vikings also constructed several other types of ships. The Vikings built many unique types of watercraft, often used for more peaceful tasks. The knarr was a dedicated merchant vessel designed to carry cargo in bulk. It had a broader hull, deeper draught, and a small number of oars (used primarily to manoeuvre in harbours and similar situations). One Viking innovation was the ' beitass ', a spar mounted to the sail that allowed their ships to sail effectively against the wind. [115] It was common for seafaring Viking ships to tow or carry a smaller boat to transfer crews and cargo from the ship to shore. Ships were an integral part of the Viking culture. They facilitated everyday transportation across seas and waterways, exploration of new lands, raids, conquests, and trade with neighbouring cultures. They also held a major religious importance. People with high status were sometimes buried in a ship along with animal sacrifices, weapons, provisions and other items, as evidenced by the buried vessels at Gokstad and Oseberg in Norway [116] and the excavated ship burial at Ladby in Denmark. Ship burials were also practised by Vikings abroad, as evidenced by the excavations of the Salme ships on the Estonian island of Saaremaa . [117] Well-preserved remains of five Viking ships were excavated from Roskilde Fjord in the late 1960s, representing both the longship and the knarr . The ships were scuttled there in the 11th century to block a navigation channel and thus protect Roskilde , then the Danish capital, from seaborne assault. The remains of these ships are on display at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde . Everyday life Social structure A reconstructed Viking house in Iceland A reconstructed Viking Age longhouse at Fyrkat , Denmark A large reconstructed chieftains longhouse at Lofotr Viking Museum , Norway Reconstructed town houses from Haithabu (now in Germany) The Viking society was divided into the three socio-economic classes: Thralls, Karls and Jarls. This is described vividly in the Eddic poem of Rígsþula , which also explains that it was the God Ríg – father of mankind also known as Heimdallr – who created the three classes. Archaeology has confirmed this social structure. [118] Thralls were the lowest ranking class and were slaves. Slavery was of vital importance to Viking society, for everyday chores and large scale construction and also to trade and the economy. Thralls were servants and workers in the farms and larger households of the Karls and Jarls, and they were used for constructing fortifications, ramps, canals, mounds, roads and similar hard work projects. According to the Rigsthula, Thralls were despised and looked down upon. New thralls were supplied by either the sons and daughters of thralls or they were captured abroad. The Vikings often deliberately captured many people on their raids in Europe, to enslave them as thralls. The thralls were then brought back home to Scandinavia by boat, used on location or in newer settlements to build needed structures, or sold, often to the Arabs in exchange for silver. Other names for thrall were 'træl' and 'ty'. Karls were free peasants. They owned farms, land and cattle and engaged in daily chores like ploughing the fields, milking the cattle, building houses and wagons, but used thralls to make ends meet. Other names for Karls were 'bonde' or simply free men. The Jarls were the aristocracy of the Viking society. They were wealthy and owned large estates with huge longhouses, horses and many thralls. The thralls did most of the daily chores, while the Jarls did administration, politics, hunting, sports, visited other Jarls or were abroad on expeditions. When a Jarl died and was buried, his household thralls were sometimes sacrificially killed and buried next to him, as many excavations have revealed. [119] In daily life, there were many intermediate positions in the overall social structure and it is believed that there must have been some social mobility. These details are unclear, but titles and positions like hauldr , thegn , landmand , show mobility between the Karls and the Jarls. Other social structures included the communities of félag in both the civil and the military spheres, to which its members (called félagi ) were obliged. A félag could be centred around certain trades, a common ownership of a sea vessel or a military obligation under a specific leader. Members of the latter were referred to as drenge , one of the words for warrior. There were also official communities within towns and villages, the overall defence, religion, the legal system and the Things . Women had a relatively free status in the Nordic countries of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, illustrated in the Icelandic Grágás and the Norwegian Frostating laws and Gulating laws. [120] The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to as odalkvinna , all had the right to inherit property from a deceased man. [120] In the absence of male relatives, an unmarried woman with no son could inherit not only property but also the position as head of the family from a deceased father or brother. Such a woman was referred to as Baugrygr , and she exercised all the rights afforded to the head of a family clan – such as the right to demand and receive fines for the slaughter of a family member – until she married, by which her rights were transferred to her new husband. [120] After the age of 20, an unmarried woman, referred to as maer and mey , reached legal majority and had the right to decide her place of residence and was regarded as her own person before the law. [120] An exception to her independence was the right to choose a marriage partner, as marriages were normally arranged by the family. [121] Widows enjoyed the same independent status as unmarried women. A married woman could divorce her husband and remarry. [122] It was also socially acceptable for a free woman to cohabit with a man and have children with him without marrying him, even if that man was married; a woman in such a position was called frilla . [122] There was no distinction made between children born inside or outside marriage: both had the right to inherit property after their parents, and there was no \"legitimate\" or \"illegitimate\" children. [122] Women had religious authority and were active as priestesses ( gydja ) and oracles ( sejdkvinna ). [123] They were active within art as poets ( skalder ) [123] and rune masters , and as merchants and medicine women. [123] They may also have been active within military office: the stories about shieldmaidens is unconfirmed, but some archaeological finds such as the Birka female Viking warrior may indicate that at least some women in military authority existed. These liberties gradually disappeared after the introduction of Christianity, and from the late 13th-century, they are no longer mentioned. [120] Appearances Typical jewellery worn by women of the Karls and Jarls: ornamented silver brooches, coloured glass-beads and amulets The three classes were easily recognisable by their appearances. Men and women of the Jarls were well groomed with neat hairstyles and expressed their wealth and status by wearing expensive clothes (often silk) and well crafted jewellery like brooches , belt buckles, necklaces and arm rings. Almost all of the jewellery was crafted in specific designs unique to the Norse (see Viking art ). Finger rings were seldom used and earrings were not used at all, as they were seen as a Slavic phenomenon. Most Karls expressed similar tastes and hygiene, but in a more relaxed and inexpensive way. [118] [124] Farming and cuisine The sagas tell about the diet and cuisine of the Vikings, [125] but first hand evidence, like cesspits , kitchen middens and garbage dumps have proved to be of great value and importance. Undigested remains of plants from cesspits at Coppergate in York have provided much information in this respect. Overall, archaeo-botanical investigations have been undertaken increasingly in recent decades, as a collaboration between archaeologists and palaeoethno-botanists. This new approach sheds light on the agricultural and horticultural practices of the Vikings and their cuisine. [126] The combined information from various sources suggests a diverse cuisine and ingredients. Meat products of all kinds, such as cured , smoked and whey -preserved meat, [127] sausages, and boiled or fried fresh meat cuts, were prepared and consumed. [128] There were plenty of seafood, bread, porridges, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, berries and nuts. Alcoholic drinks like beer , mead , bjórr (a strong fruit wine) and, for the rich, imported wine , were served. [129] [130] Certain livestock were typical and unique to the Vikings, including the Icelandic horse , Icelandic cattle , a plethora of sheep breeds, [131] the Danish hen and the Danish goose . [132] [133] The Vikings in York mostly ate beef, mutton , and pork with small amounts of horse meat. Most of the beef and horse leg bones were found split lengthways, to extract the marrow. The mutton and swine were cut into leg and shoulder joints and chops. The frequent remains of pig skull and foot bones found on house floors indicate that brawn and trotters were also popular. Hens were kept for both their meat and eggs, and the bones of game birds such as black grouse , golden plover , wild ducks, and geese have also been found. [134] Seafood was important, in some places even more so than meat. Whales and walrus were hunted for food in Norway and the north-western parts of the North Atlantic region, and seals were hunted nearly everywhere. Oysters , mussels and shrimps were eaten in large quantities and cod and salmon were popular fish. In the southern regions, herring was also important. [135] [136] [137] Milk and buttermilk were popular, both as cooking ingredients and drinks, but were not always available, even at farms. [138] Milk came from cows, goats and sheep, with priorities varying from location to location, [139] and fermented milk products like skyr or surmjölk were produced as well as butter and cheese. [140] Food was often salted and enhanced with spices, some of which were imported like black pepper , while others were cultivated in herb gardens or harvested in the wild. Home grown spices included caraway , mustard and horseradish as evidenced from the Oseberg ship burial [129] or dill , coriander , and wild celery , as found in cesspits at Coppergate in York. Thyme , juniper berry , sweet gale , yarrow , rue and peppercress were also used and cultivated in herb gardens. [126] [141] Everyday life in the Viking Age Vikings collected and ate fruits, berries and nuts. Apple (wild crab apples ), plums and cherries were part of the diet, [142] as were rose hips and raspberry , wild strawberry , blackberry , elderberry , rowan , hawthorn and various wild berries, specific to the locations. [141] Hazelnuts were an important part of the diet in general and large amounts of walnut shells have been found in cities like Hedeby. The shells were used for dyeing, and it is assumed that the nuts were consumed. [126] [138] The invention and introduction of the mouldboard plough revolutionised agriculture in Scandinavia in the early Viking Age and made it possible to farm even poor soils. In Ribe , grains of rye , barley , oat and wheat dated to the 8th century have been found and examined, and are believed to have been cultivated locally. [143] Grains and flour were used for making porridges, some cooked with milk, some cooked with fruit and sweetened with honey, and also various forms of bread. Remains of bread from primarily Birka in Sweden were made of barley and wheat. It is unclear if the Norse leavened their breads, but their ovens and baking utensils suggest that they did. [144] Flax was a very important crop for the Vikings: it was used for oil extraction, food consumption and most importantly the production of linen . More than 40% of all known textile recoveries from the Viking Age can be traced as linen. This suggests a much higher actual percentage, as linen is poorly preserved compared to wool for example. [145] The quality of food for common people was not always particularly high. The research at Coppergate shows that the Vikings in York made bread from whole meal flour — probably both wheat and rye – but with the seeds of cornfield weeds included. Corncockle ( Agrostemma ), would have made the bread dark-coloured, but the seeds are poisonous, and people who ate the bread might have become ill. Seeds of carrots, parsnip , and brassicas were also discovered, but they were poor specimens and tend to come from white carrots and bitter tasting cabbages. [142] The rotary querns often used in the Viking Age left tiny stone fragments (often from basalt rock) in the flour, which when eaten wore down the teeth. The effects of this can be seen on skeletal remains of that period. [144] Sports Sports were widely practised and encouraged by the Vikings. [146] [147] Sports that involved weapons training and developing combat skills were popular. This included spear and stone throwing, building and testing physical strength through wrestling (see glima ), fist fighting , and stone lifting. In areas with mountains, mountain climbing was practised as a sport. Agility and balance were built and tested by running and jumping for sport, and there is mention of a sport that involved jumping from oar to oar on the outside of a ship's railing as it was being rowed. Swimming was a popular sport and Snorri Sturluson describes three types: diving, long-distance swimming and a contest in which two swimmers try to duck one another. Children often participated in some of the sport disciplines and women have also been mentioned as swimmers, although it is unclear if they took part in competition. King Olaf Tryggvason was hailed as a master of both mountain climbing and oar-jumping, and was said to have excelled in the art of knife juggling as well. Skiing and ice skating were the primary winter sports of the Vikings, although skiing was also used as everyday means of transport in winter and in the colder regions of the north. Horse fighting was practised for sport, although the rules are unclear. It appears to have involved two stallions pitted against each other, within smell and sight of fenced-off mares. Whatever the rules were, the fights often resulted in the death of one of the stallions. Icelandic sources refer to the sport of knattleik . A ball game akin to hockey , knattleik involved a bat and a small hard ball and was usually played on a smooth field of ice. The rules are unclear, but it was popular with both adults and children, even though it often led to injuries. Knattleik appears to have been played only in Iceland, where it attracted many spectators, as did horse fighting. Hunting, as a sport, was limited to Denmark, where it was not regarded as an important occupation. Birds, deer , hares and foxes were hunted with bow and spear, and later with crossbows. The techniques were stalking, snare and traps and par force hunting with dog packs. Games and entertainment Rook, Lewis chessmen , at the British Museum in London Both archaeological finds and written sources testify to the fact that the Vikings set aside time for social and festive gatherings. [146] [147] [148] Board games and dice games were played as a popular pastime at all levels of society. Preserved gaming pieces and boards show game boards made of easily available materials like wood, with game pieces manufactured from stone, wood or bone, while other finds include elaborately carved boards and game pieces of glass, amber , antler or walrus tusk, together with materials of foreign origin, such as ivory . The Vikings played several types of tafl games; hnefatafl , nitavl ( Nine Men's Morris ) and the less common kvatrutafl . Chess also appeared at the end of the Viking Age. Hnefatafl is a war game, in which the object is to capture the king piece—a large hostile army threatens and the king's men have to protect the king. It was played on a board with squares using black and white pieces, with moves made according to dice rolls. The Ockelbo Runestone shows two men engaged in Hnefatafl, and the sagas suggest that money or valuables could have been involved in some dice games. [146] [148] On festive occasions storytelling , skaldic poetry , music and alcoholic drinks, like beer and mead , contributed to the atmosphere. [148] Music was considered an art form and music proficiency as fitting for a cultivated man. The Vikings are known to have played instruments including harps , fiddles , lyres and lutes . [146] Experimental archaeology Experimental archaeology of the Viking Age is a flourishing branch and several places have been dedicated to this technique, such as Jorvik Viking Centre in the United Kingdom, Sagnlandet Lejre and Ribe Viking Center ( da ) in Denmark, Foteviken Museum in Sweden or Lofotr Viking Museum in Norway. Viking-age reenactors have undertaken experimental activities such as iron smelting and forging using Norse techniques at Norstead in Newfoundland for example. [149] On 1 July 2007, the reconstructed Viking ship Skuldelev 2 , renamed Sea Stallion , [150] began a journey from Roskilde to Dublin. The remains of that ship and four others were discovered during a 1962 excavation in the Roskilde Fjord. Tree-ring analysis has shown the ship was built of oak in the vicinity of Dublin in about 1042. Seventy multi-national crew members sailed the ship back to its home, and Sea Stallion arrived outside Dublin's Custom House on 14 August 2007. The purpose of the voyage was to test and document the seaworthiness, speed, and manoeuvrability of the ship on the rough open sea and in coastal waters with treacherous currents. The crew tested how the long, narrow, flexible hull withstood the tough ocean waves. The expedition also provided valuable new information on Viking longships and society. The ship was built using Viking tools, materials, and much the same methods as the original ship. Other vessels, often replicas of the Gokstad ship (full- or half-scale) or Skuldelev I have been built and tested as well. The Snorri (a Skuldelev I Knarr ), was sailed from Greenland to Newfoundland in 1998. [151] Weapons and warfare Main article: Viking Age arms and armour Viking swords Knowledge about the arms and armour of the Viking age is based on archaeological finds, pictorial representation, and to some extent on the accounts in the Norse sagas and Norse laws recorded in the 13th century. According to custom, all free Norse men were required to own weapons and were permitted to carry them at all times. These arms were indicative of a Viking's social status: a wealthy Viking had a complete ensemble of a helmet , shield , mail shirt, and sword. However, swords were rarely used in battle, probably not sturdy enough for combat and most likely only used as symbolic or decorative items. [152] [153] A typical bóndi (freeman) was more likely to fight with a spear and shield, and most also carried a seax as a utility knife and side-arm. Bows were used in the opening stages of land battles and at sea, but they tended to be considered less \"honourable\" than melee weapons. Vikings were relatively unusual for the time in their use of axes as a main battle weapon. The Húscarls , the elite guard of King Cnut (and later of King Harold II ) were armed with two-handed axes that could split shields or metal helmets with ease. The warfare and violence of the Vikings were often motivated and fuelled by their beliefs in Norse religion , focusing on Thor and Odin , the gods of war and death. [154] [155] In combat, it is believed that the Vikings sometimes engaged in a disordered style of frenetic, furious fighting known as berserkergang , leading them to be termed berserkers . Such tactics may have been deployed intentionally by shock troops , and the berserk-state may have been induced through ingestion of materials with psychoactive properties, such as the hallucinogenic mushrooms, Amanita muscaria , [156] or large amounts of alcohol. [157] Trade See also: Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks and Volga trade route The scales and weights of a Viking trader, used for measuring silver and sometimes gold. (From the Sigtuna box ) The Vikings established and engaged in extensive trading networks throughout the known world and had a profound influence on the economic development of Europe and Scandinavia not the least. [158] [159] Except for the major trading centres of Ribe , Hedeby and the like, the Viking world was unfamiliar with the use of coinage and was based on so called bullion economy. Silver was the most common metal in the economy, although gold was also used to some extent. Silver circulated in the form of bars, or ingots , as well as in the form of jewellery and ornaments. A large number of silver hoards from the Viking Age have been uncovered, both in Scandinavia and the lands they settled. [160] [ better source needed ] Traders carried small scales, enabling them to measure weight very accurately, so it was possible to have a very precise system of trade and exchange, even without a regular coinage. [158] Goods Organized trade covered everything from ordinary items in bulk to exotic luxury products. The Viking ship designs, like that of the knarr , were an important factor in their success as merchants. [161] Imported goods from other cultures included: [162] Spices were obtained from Chinese and Persian traders, who met with the Viking traders in Russia. Vikings used homegrown spices and herbs like caraway , thyme , horseradish and mustard , [163] but imported cinnamon . Glass was much prized by the Norse. The imported glass was often made into beads for decoration and these have been found in their thousands. Åhus in Scania and the old market town of Ribe had major production of glass beads. [164] [165] [166] Silk was a very important commodity obtained from Byzantium (modern day Istanbul ) and China. It was valued by many European cultures of the time, and the Vikings used it to illustrate status such as wealth and nobility. Many of the archaeological finds in Scandinavia include silk. [167] [168] [169] Wine was imported from France and Germany as a drink of the wealthy, to vary the regular mead and beer . To counter these valuable imports, the Vikings exported a large variety of goods. These goods included: [162] Amber – the fossilised resin of the pine tree – was frequently found on the North Sea and Baltic coastline. It was worked into beads and ornamental objects, before being traded. (See also the Amber Road ). Fur was also exported as it provided warmth. This included the furs of pine martens , foxes , bears , otters and beavers . Cloth and wool . The Vikings were skilled spinners and weavers and exported woollen cloth of a high quality. Down was collected and exported. The Norwegian west coast supplied eiderdowns and sometimes feathers were bought from the Samis . Down was used for bedding and quilted clothing. Fowling on the steep slopes and cliffs was dangerous work and was often lethal. [170] Slaves , known as thralls in Old Norse. On their raids, the Vikings captured many people, among them monks and clergymen. They were sometimes sold as slaves to Arab merchants in exchange for silver. Other exports included weapons, walrus ivory , wax , salt and cod . As one of the more exotic exports, hunting birds were sometimes provided from Norway to the European aristocracy, from the 10th century. [170] Many of these goods were also traded within the Viking world itself, as well as goods such as soapstone and whetstone . Soapstone was traded with the Norse on Iceland and in Jutland , who used it for pottery. Whetstones were traded and used for sharpening weapons, tools and knives. [162] There are indications from Ribe and surrounding areas, that the extensive medieval trade with oxen and cattle from Jutland (see Ox Road ), reach as far back as c. 720 AD. This trade satisfied the Vikings' need for leather and meat to some extent, and perhaps hides for parchment production on the European mainland. Wool was also very important as a domestic product for the Vikings, to produce warm clothing for the cold Scandinavian and Nordic climate, and for sails. Sails for Viking ships required large amounts of wool, as evidenced by experimental archaeology. There are archaeological signs of organised textile productions in Scandinavia, reaching as far back as the early Iron Ages . Artisans and craftsmen in the larger towns were supplied with antlers from organised hunting with large-scale reindeer traps in the far north. They were used as raw material for making everyday utensils like combs. [170] Legacy Medieval perceptions In England the Viking Age began dramatically on 8 June 793 when Norsemen destroyed the abbey on the island of Lindisfarne . The devastation of Northumbria 's Holy Island shocked and alerted the royal courts of Europe to the Viking presence. \"Never before has such an atrocity been seen,\" declared the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York . [171] Medieval Christians in Europe were totally unprepared for the Viking incursions and could find no explanation for their arrival and the accompanying suffering they experienced at their hands save the \"Wrath of God\". [172] More than any other single event, the attack on Lindisfarne demonised perception of the Vikings for the next twelve centuries. Not until the 1890s did scholars outside Scandinavia begin to seriously reassess the achievements of the Vikings, recognizing their artistry, technological skills, and seamanship. [173] Norse Mythology , sagas, and literature tell of Scandinavian culture and religion through tales of heroic and mythological heroes. Early transmission of this information was primarily oral, and later texts were reliant upon the writings and transcriptions of Christian scholars, including the Icelanders Snorri Sturluson and Sæmundur fróði . Many of these sagas were written in Iceland, and most of them, even if they had no Icelandic provenance, were preserved there after the Middle Ages due to the continued interest of Icelanders in Norse literature and law codes. The 200-year Viking influence on European history is filled with tales of plunder and colonisation, and the majority of these chronicles came from western witnesses and their descendants. Less common, though equally relevant, are the Viking chronicles that originated in the east, including the Nestor chronicles, Novgorod chronicles, Ibn Fadlan chronicles, Ibn Rusta chronicles, and brief mentions by Photius , patriarch of Constantinople, regarding their first attack on the Byzantine Empire . Other chroniclers of Viking history include Adam of Bremen , who wrote, in the fourth volume of his Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum , \"[t]here is much gold here (in Zealand ), accumulated by piracy. These pirates, which are called wichingi by their own people, and Ascomanni by our own people, pay tribute to the Danish king.\" In 991, the Battle of Maldon between Viking raiders and the inhabitants of Maldon in Essex was commemorated with a poem of the same name. Post-medieval perceptions A modern reenactment of a Viking battle Early modern publications, dealing with what is now called Viking culture, appeared in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (Olaus Magnus, 1555), and the first edition of the 13th-century Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus in 1514. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665). In Scandinavia, the 17th-century Danish scholars Thomas Bartholin and Ole Worm and the Swede Olaus Rudbeck used runic inscriptions and Icelandic sagas as historical sources. An important early British contributor to the study of the Vikings was George Hicke, who published his Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus in 1703–05. During the 18th century, British interest and enthusiasm for Iceland and early Scandinavian culture grew dramatically, expressed in English translations of Old Norse texts and in original poems that extolled the supposed Viking virtues. The word \"viking\" was first popularised at the beginning of the 19th century by Erik Gustaf Geijer in his poem, The Viking . Geijer's poem did much to propagate the new romanticised ideal of the Viking, which had little basis in historical fact. The renewed interest of Romanticism in the Old North had contemporary political implications. The Geatish Society , of which Geijer was a member, popularised this myth to a great extent. Another Swedish author who had great influence on the perception of the Vikings was Esaias Tegnér , member of the Geatish Society, who wrote a modern version of Friðþjófs saga hins frœkna , which became widely popular in the Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, and Germany. Viking long ships besieging Paris in 845, 19th century portrayal Fascination with the Vikings reached a peak during the so-called Viking revival in the late 18th and 19th centuries as a branch of Romantic nationalism . In Britain this was called Septentrionalism, in Germany \" Wagnerian \" pathos, and in the Scandinavian countries Scandinavism . Pioneering 19th-century scholarly editions of the Viking Age began to reach a small readership in Britain, archaeologists began to dig up Britain's Viking past, and linguistic enthusiasts started to identify the Viking-Age origins of rural idioms and proverbs. The new dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled the Victorians to grapple with the primary Icelandic sagas. [174] Until recently, the history of the Viking Age was largely based on Icelandic sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian Primary Chronicle , and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib . Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources, as historians now rely more on archaeology and numismatics , disciplines that have made valuable contributions toward understanding the period. [175] [ citation needed ] In 20th-century politics The romanticised idea of the Vikings constructed in scholarly and popular circles in northwestern Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries was a potent one, and the figure of the Viking became a familiar and malleable symbol in different contexts in the politics and political ideologies of 20th-century Europe. [176] In Normandy, which had been settled by Vikings, the Viking ship became an uncontroversial regional symbol. In Germany, awareness of Viking history in the 19th century had been stimulated by the border dispute with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein and the use of Scandinavian mythology by Richard Wagner . The idealised view of the Vikings appealed to Germanic supremacists who transformed the figure of the Viking in accordance with the ideology of the Germanic master race. [177] Building on the linguistic and cultural connections between Norse-speaking Scandinavians and other Germanic groups in the distant past, Scandinavian Vikings were portrayed in Nazi Germany as a pure Germanic type. The cultural phenomenon of Viking expansion was re-interpreted for use as propaganda to support the extreme militant nationalism of the Third Reich, and ideologically informed interpretations of Viking paganism and the Scandinavian use of runes were employed in the construction of Nazi mysticism . Other political organisations of the same ilk, such as the former Norwegian fascist party Nasjonal Samling , similarly appropriated elements of the modern Viking cultural myth in their symbolism and propaganda. In communist Russia, the ideology of Slavic racial purity led to the complete denial that Scandinavians had played a part in the emergence of the principalities of the Rus', which were supposed to have been founded by Slavs. Evidence to the contrary was suppressed until the 1990s. Novgorod now enthusiastically acknowledges its Viking history and has included a Viking ship in its logo. [178] In modern popular culture Play media Viking reenactment training (Jomsvikings group) Tim Kirk 's cover painting for Robert E. Howard 's Tigers of the Sea fits precisely the popular, instantly recognisable image of a Viking ship. Led by the operas of German composer Richard Wagner , such as Der Ring des Nibelungen , Vikings and the Romanticist Viking Revival have inspired many creative works. These have included novels directly based on historical events, such as Frans Gunnar Bengtsson 's The Long Ships (which was also released as a 1963 film ), and historical fantasies such as the film The Vikings , Michael Crichton 's Eaters of the Dead (movie version called The 13th Warrior ), and the comedy film Erik the Viking . The vampire Eric Northman , in the HBO TV series True Blood , was a Viking prince before being turned into a vampire. Vikings appear in several books by the Danish American writer Poul Anderson , while British explorer, historian, and writer Tim Severin authored a trilogy of novels in 2005 about a young Viking adventurer Thorgils Leifsson, who travels around the world. In 1962, American comic book writer Stan Lee and his brother Larry Lieber , together with Jack Kirby , created the Marvel Comics superhero Thor , which they based on the Norse god of the same name. The character is featured in the 2011 Marvel Studios film Thor and its sequels Thor: The Dark World and Thor: Ragnarok . The character also appears in the 2012 film The Avengers and its associated animated series . Since the 1960s, there has been rising enthusiasm for historical reenactment . While the earliest groups had little claim for historical accuracy, the seriousness and accuracy of reenactors has increased. The largest such groups include The Vikings and Regia Anglorum , though many smaller groups exist in Europe, North America, New Zealand, and Australia. Many reenactor groups participate in live-steel combat, and a few have Viking-style ships or boats. The Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League are so-named owing to the large Scandinavian population in the US state of Minnesota . During the banking boom of the first decade of the twenty-first century, Icelandic financiers came to be styled as útrásarvíkingar (roughly 'raiding vikings'). [179] [180] [181] Modern reconstructions of Viking mythology have shown a persistent influence in late 20th- and early 21st-century popular culture in some countries, inspiring comics, role-playing games, computer games, and music, including Viking metal , a subgenre of heavy metal music . Common misconceptions Horned helmets Main article: Horned helmet Magnus Barelegs Viking Festival Apart from two or three representations of (ritual) helmets—with protrusions that may be either stylised ravens, snakes, or horns—no depiction of the helmets of Viking warriors, and no preserved helmet, has horns. The formal, close-quarters style of Viking combat (either in shield walls or aboard \"ship islands\") would have made horned helmets cumbersome and hazardous to the warrior's own side. Historians therefore believe that Viking warriors did not wear horned helmets; whether such helmets were used in Scandinavian culture for other, ritual purposes, remains unproven. The general misconception that Viking warriors wore horned helmets was partly promulgated by the 19th-century enthusiasts of Götiska Förbundet , founded in 1811 in Stockholm . [182] They promoted the use of Norse mythology as the subject of high art and other ethnological and moral aims. The Vikings were often depicted with winged helmets and in other clothing taken from Classical antiquity , especially in depictions of Norse gods. This was done to legitimise the Vikings and their mythology by associating it with the Classical world, which had long been idealised in European culture. The latter-day mythos created by national romantic ideas blended the Viking Age with aspects of the Nordic Bronze Age some 2,000 years earlier. Horned helmets from the Bronze Age were shown in petroglyphs and appeared in archaeological finds (see Bohuslän and Vikso helmets). They were probably used for ceremonial purposes. [183] Viking helmets Cartoons like Hägar the Horrible and Vicky the Viking , and sports kits such as those of the Minnesota Vikings and Canberra Raiders have perpetuated the myth of the horned helmet. [184] Viking helmets were conical, made from hard leather with wood and metallic reinforcement for regular troops. The iron helmet with mask and mail was for the chieftains, based on the previous Vendel -age helmets from central Sweden. The only original Viking helmet discovered is the Gjermundbu helmet , found in Norway. This helmet is made of iron and has been dated to the 10th century. [185] Barbarity Diorama with Vikings The image of wild-haired, dirty savages sometimes associated with the Vikings in popular culture is a distorted picture of reality. [3] Viking tendencies were often misreported, and the work of Adam of Bremen, among others, told largely disputable tales of Viking savagery and uncleanliness. [186] Use of skulls as drinking vessels There is no evidence that Vikings drank out of the skulls of vanquished enemies. This was a misconception based on a passage in the skaldic poem Krákumál speaking of heroes drinking from ór bjúgviðum hausa (branches of skulls). This was a reference to drinking horns , but was mistranslated in the 17th century [187] as referring to the skulls of the slain. [188] Genetic legacy Studies of genetic diversity provide indication of the origin and expansion of the Viking population. Haplogroup I-M253 (defined by specific genetic markers on the Y chromosome ) mutation occurs with the greatest frequency among Scandinavian males: 35% in Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, and peaking at 40% in south-western Finland. [189] It is also common near the southern Baltic and North Sea coasts, and successively decreases further to the south geographically. Female descent studies show evidence of Norse descent in areas closest to Scandinavia, such as the Shetland and Orkney islands. [190] Inhabitants of lands farther away show most Norse descent in the male Y-chromosome lines. [191] A specialised genetic and surname study in Liverpool showed marked Norse heritage: up to 50% of males of families that lived there before the years of industrialisation and population expansion. [192] High percentages of Norse inheritance—tracked through the R-M420 haplotype—were also found among males in the Wirral and West Lancashire . [193] This was similar to the percentage of Norse inheritance found among males in the Orkney Islands. [194] Recent research suggests that the Celtic warrior Somerled , who drove the Vikings out of western Scotland and was the progenitor of Clan Donald , may have been of Viking descent , a member of haplogroup R-M420. [195] See also Faroese people Geats Gotlander Gutasaga Proto-Norse language Scandinavian prehistory Swedes (Germanic tribe) Viking raid warfare and tactics Ushkuiniks – Novgorod 's privateers inherited Vikings' warfare Norway portal Sweden portal Denmark portal Iceland portal Russia portal Germany portal Belarus portal Ukraine portal Italy portal Latvia portal Ireland portal United Kingdom portal Normandy portal Finland portal Estonia portal Notes Jump up ^ Whitelock, Dorothy. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader , OUP 1967, p. 392 Jump up ^ Viking (people) , Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Jump up to: a b Roesdahl, pp. 9–22. Jump up ^ Brink 2008 Jump up ^ Archaeologists find evidence of Vikings’ presence in Belarus . Lepel Regional Executive Committee. Jump up ^ ANCIENT UKRAINE: Did Swedish Vikings really found Kyiv Rus? Business Ukraine. Jump up ^ Wawn 2000 Jump up ^ Johnni Langer, \"The origins of the imaginary viking\", Viking Heritage Magazine, Gotland University/Centre for Baltic Studies. Visby (Sweden), n. 4, 2002. Jump up ^ The Syntax of Old Norse by Jan Terje Faarlund ; p 25 ISBN 0-19-927110-0 ; The Principles of English Etymology By Walter W. Skeat , published in 1892, defined Viking : better Wiking, Icel. Viking-r, O. Icel. *Viking-r, a creek-dweller; from Icel. vik, O. Icel. *wik, a creek, bay, with suffix -uig-r, belonging to Principles of English Etymology By Walter W. Skeat; Clarendon press; p. 479 Jump up ^ Eldar Heide (2005). \" Víking – 'rower shifting'? An etymological contribution\" (PDF) . Arkiv för nordisk filologi . 120 : 41–54 . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Walter W. Skeat: Principles of English Etymology Clarendon press, p. 479 Jump up ^ Kvilhaug, Maria. \"The Tribe that Gave Vikings Their Name?\" . Freya . Retrieved 17 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Samnordisk runtextdatabas: Sm 10 (2008) Jump up ^ Enoksen, Lars-Magnar, Skånska runstenar (Lund 1999) s.89 f. Jump up ^ Jesch, Judith (2001). 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Jump up ^ The Fate of Greenland's Vikings , by Dale Mackenzie Brown, Archaeological Institute of America , 28 February 2000 Jump up ^ Langmoen IA (4 April 2012). \"The Norse discovery of America\". Neurosurgery . 57 (6): 1076–87; discussion 1076–1087. doi : 10.1227/01.neu.0000144825.92264.c4 . PMID 16331154 . Jump up ^ Ross, Valerie (31 May 2011). \"Climate change froze Vikings out of Greenland\" . Discover . Kalmback Publishing . Retrieved 6 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Rurik Dynasty (medieval Russian rulers) Britannica Online Encyclopedia Jump up ^ Hall, p. 98 Jump up ^ \"Vikings' Barbaric Bad Rap Beginning to Fade\" . News.nationalgeographic.com. 28 October 2010 . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Sawyer, History of the Vikings , pp. 110, 114 Jump up ^ \"Los vikingos en Al-Andalus (abstract available in English)\" (PDF) . Jesús Riosalido. 1997. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2011 . Retrieved 11 May 2010 . Jump up ^ John Haywood: Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings , Penguin (1996). Detailed maps of Viking settlements in Scotland, Ireland, England, Iceland and Normandy. Jump up ^ Sawyer, P. H. (2013-04-15). Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe AD 700–1100 . Routledge. ISBN 9781134947775 . Jump up ^ Haine, Thomas (2008-03-01). \"What did the Viking discoverers of America know of the North Atlantic Environment?\" . Weather . 63 (3): 60–65. Bibcode : 2008Wthr...63...60H . doi : 10.1002/wea.150 . ISSN 1477-8696 . Jump up ^ Matthias Schulz (27 August 2010). \" ' Sensational' Discovery: Archeologists Find Gateway to the Viking Empire\" . Spiegel Online International . Retrieved 27 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Lotte Flugt Kold (3 November 2014). \"Dannevirke\" . danmarkshistorien.dk (in Danish). Aarhus University . Retrieved 20 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Näsman, Ulf (2000-11-01). \"Raids, Migrations, and Kingdoms\" . Acta Archaeologica . 71 (1): 1–7. doi : 10.1034/j.1600-0390.2000.d01-1.x . ISSN 1600-0390 . ^ Jump up to: a b Rudolf Simek, \"the emergence of the viking age: circumstances and conditions\", \"The vikings first Europeans VIII–XI century—the new discoveries of archaeology\", other, 2005, pp. 24–25 Jump up ^ Bruno Dumézil, master of Conference at Paris X-Nanterre, Normalien, aggregated history, author of conversion and freedom in the barbarian kingdoms. 5th–8th centuries (Fayard, 2005) Jump up ^ \"Franques Royal Annals\" cited in Sawyer, History of the Vikings , p. 20 Jump up ^ Dictionnaire d'histoire de France, Perrin, Alain Decaux and André Castelot, 1981, pp. 184–85. ISBN 2-7242-3080-9 . Jump up ^ \"the Vikings\" R. Boyer history, myths, dictionary, Robert Laffont several 2008, p96 ISBN 978-2-221-10631-0 Jump up ^ François-Xavier Dillmann , \"Viking civilisation and culture. A bibliography of French-language\", Caen, Centre for research on the countries of the North and Northwest, University of Caen, 1975, p. 19, and \"Les Vikings: the Scandinavian and European 800–1200\", 22nd exhibition of art from the Council of Europe, 1992, p. 26 Jump up ^ \"History of the Kings of Norway\" by Snorri Sturlusson translated by Professor of History François-Xavier Dillmann, Gallimard ISBN 2-07-073211-8 pp. 15–16, 18, 24, 33–34, 38 Jump up ^ Macauley Richardson, Lloyd. \"Books: Eurasian Exploration\" . Policy Review . Hoover Institution. Archived from the original on 2009-12-16. Jump up ^ Crone, Patricia. Meccan trade and the rise of Islam . First Georgias Press. 2004. Jump up ^ \"Viking expeditions and raids\" . National Museum of Denmark . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Richards, J.D. (2005). The Vikings : a very short introduction . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 50. Jump up ^ Tignor, Adelman, Brown, Elman, Liu, Pittman, Shaw. Worlds Together Worlds Apart . London: Norton. p. 352. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Worlds Together Worlds Apart Volume One: Beginnings Through the 15th Century- Fourth Edition Tignor, Adelman, Brown, Elman, Liu, Pittman, Shaw. Worlds Together Worlds Apart . London: Norton. p. 352. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Roesdahl, pp. 295–97 Jump up ^ Gareth Williams, \"Kingship, Christianity and coinage: monetary and political perspectives on silver economy in the Viking Age\", in Silver Economy in the Viking Age , ed. James Graham-Campbell and Gareth Williams, pp. 177–214; ISBN 978-1-59874-222-0 Jump up ^ Roesdahl, p. 296 Jump up ^ The Northern Crusades: Second Edition by Eric Christiansen; ISBN 0-14-026653-4 Jump up ^ \"Written sources shed light on Viking travels\" . National Museum of Denmark . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Hall, 2010, pp. 8 passim . Jump up ^ Roesdahl, pp. 16–22. Jump up ^ Hall, pp. 8–11 Jump up ^ Lindqvist, pp. 160–61 Jump up ^ See List of English words of Old Norse origin for further explanations on specific words. Jump up ^ See Norman toponymy . Jump up ^ Henriksen, Louise Kæmpe: Nordic place names in Europe Viking Ship Museum Roskilde Jump up ^ Viking Words The British Library Jump up ^ Joel Supéry. \"Germanic Toponomy\" . Vikings in Aquitaine . Archived from the original on 2 March 2014 . Retrieved 1 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Joel Supéry. \"A colony in Gascony?\" . Vikings in Aquitaine . Archived from the original on 4 March 2014 . Retrieved 1 March 2014 . Jump up ^ The French Regions of Poitou-Charentes and Aquitaine to be precise. Jump up ^ Annie Dumont (2007). \"Méthodes d'étude d'un site fluvial du haut Moyen Age: Taillebourg – Port d'Envaux, (Charente-Maritime)\" (PDF) . Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of Medieval and Modern Archaeology (in French). Medieval Europe, Paris 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Department of Scandinavian Research University of Copenhagen Jump up ^ See information on the \"Slavonic and Norse names of the Dnieper rapids\" on Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks . Jump up ^ Else Roesdahl (prof. in Arch. & Hist.): The Vikings , Penguin Books (1999), ISBN 0-14-025282-7 Jump up ^ Sawyer, P H: 1997 Jump up ^ Jelling stones . Encyclopædia Britannica . 2008. Jump up ^ Rundata , DR 42 Jump up ^ baþum (Sm101), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ In the nominative: krikiaR (G216). In the genitive: girkha (U922$), k—ika (U104). In the dative: girkium (U1087†), kirikium (SöFv1954;20, U73, U140), ki(r)k(i)(u)(m) (Ög94$), kirkum (U136), krikium (Sö163, U431), krikum (Ög81A, Ög81B, Sö85, Sö165, Vg178, U201, U518), kri(k)um (U792), krikum (Sm46†, U446†), krkum (U358), kr ... (Sö345$A), kRkum (Sö82). In the accusative: kriki (Sö170). Uncertain case krik (U1016$Q). Greece also appears as griklanti (U112B), kriklati (U540), kriklontr (U374$), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ Karusm (Vs1), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ iaursaliR (G216), iursala (U605†), iursalir (U136G216, U605, U136), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ lakbarþilanti (SöFv1954;22), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ serklat (G216), se(r)kl ... (Sö279), sirklanti (Sö131), sirk:lan:ti (Sö179), sirk*la(t)... (Sö281), srklant - (U785), skalat- (U439), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ eklans (Vs18$), eklans (Sö83†), ekla-s (Vs5), enklans (Sö55), iklans (Sö207), iklanþs (U539C), ailati (Ög104), aklati (Sö166), akla - (U616$), anklanti (U194), eg×loti (U812), eklanti (Sö46, Sm27), eklati (ÖgFv1950;341, Sm5C, Vs9), enklanti (DR6C), haklati (Sm101), iklanti (Vg20), iklati (Sm77), ikla-ti (Gs8), i...-ti (Sm104), ok*lanti (Vg187), oklati (Sö160), onklanti (U241), onklati (U344), - klanti (Sm29$), iklot (N184), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF Jump up ^ luntunum (DR337$B), see Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF ^ Jump up to: a b Jasmine Idun Tova Lyman (2007), Viking Age graves in Iceland (PDF) , University of Iceland, p. 4 Jump up ^ Medieval Archaeology: An Encyclopaedia (Pamela Crabtree, ed., 2001), \"Vikings,\" p. 510. Jump up ^ Roesdahl, p. 20. Jump up ^ Roesdahl p. 70 (in Women, gender roles and children) Jump up ^ The Hemlanden cemetery located here is the largest Viking Period cemetery in Scandinavia Phillip Pulsiano; Kirsten Wolf, eds. (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (Illustrated ed.). United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 238–39. ISBN 978-0-8240-4787-0 . Jump up ^ Erlandson (2005). \"A Viking-Age Valley in Iceland: The Mosfell Archaeological Project\" (PDF) . Medieval Archaeology Journal of the Society for Medieval Archaeology . XLIX . Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ See also Jon M. Erlandson . Jump up ^ [I)ór Magnússon: Bátkumlió í Vatnsdal , Arbók hies íslenzka fornleifafélags (1966), 1-32 Jump up ^ A comprehensive list of registered pagan graves in Iceland, can be found in Eldjárn & Fridriksson (2000): Kuml og haugfé . Jump up ^ Dale Mackenzie Brown (28 February 2000). \"The Fate of Greenland's Vikings\" . Archaeology . the Archaeological Institute of America . Retrieved 22 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Longships are sometimes erroneously called drakkar , a corruption of \"dragon\" in Norse. Jump up ^ Hadingham, Evan: Secrets of Viking Ships (05.09.00) NOVA science media. Jump up ^ Durham, Keith: Viking Longship Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2002. Jump up ^ Block, Leo, To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails , Naval Institute Press, 2002, ISBN 1-55750-209-9 Jump up ^ Ian Heath, The Vikings, p. 4, Osprey Publishing, 1985. Jump up ^ Curry, Andrew (10 June 2013). \"The First Vikings\" . Archaeology . the Archaeological Institute of America . Retrieved 22 February 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Roesdahl, pp. 38–48, 61–71. Jump up ^ Mari Kildah (5 December 2013). \"Double graves with headless slaves\" . University of Oslo . Retrieved 23 June 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Borgström Eva (in Swedish) : Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. ISBN 91-501-0191-9 (inb.). Libris 8707902. Jump up ^ Borgström Eva (in Swedish) : Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. ISBN 91-501-0191-9 (inb.). Libris 8707902. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ohlander, Ann-Sofie & Strömberg, Ulla-Britt, Tusen svenska kvinnoår: svensk kvinnohistoria från vikingatid till nutid, 3. (A Thousand Swedish Women's Years: Swedish Women's History from the Viking Age until now), [omarb. och utök.] uppl., Norstedts akademiska förlag, Stockholm, 2008 ^ Jump up to: a b c Ingelman-Sundberg, Catharina, Forntida kvinnor: jägare, vikingahustru, prästinna [Ancient women: hunters, viking wife, priestess], Prisma, Stockholm, 2004 Jump up ^ \"Appearance – What did the Vikings look like?\" . National Museum of Denmark . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Sk. V. Gudjonsson (1941): Folkekost og sundhedsforhold i gamle dage. Belyst igennem den oldnordiske Litteratur. (Dvs. først og fremmest de islandske sagaer). København. (in Danish) Short description in English: Diet and health in previous times, as revealed in the Old Norse Literature, especially the Icelandic Sagas. ^ Jump up to: a b c Pernille Rohde Sloth, Ulla Lund Hansen & Sabine Karg (2013). \"Viking Age garden plants from southern Scandinavia – diversity, taphonomy and cultural aspect\" (PDF) . Danish Journal of Archaeology . Retrieved 19 June 2014 . Jump up ^ This will cause a lactic acid fermentation process to occur. Jump up ^ \"Forråd til vinteren – Salte, syrne, røge og tørre [Supplies for the winter – curing, fermenting, smoking and drying]\" . Ribe Vikingecenter (in Danish) . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Roesdahl, p. 54 Jump up ^ \"Viking Food\" . National Museum of Denmark . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ See the article on the Northern European short-tailed sheep for specific information. In southern Scandinavia (ie. Denmark), the heath sheeps of Lüneburger Heidschnucke was raised and kept. Jump up ^ \"The animals on the farm – Genetic connection\" . Ribe Vikingecenter . Retrieved 19 April 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Poultry\" . Danish Agricultural Museum . Archived from the original on 19 April 2015 . Retrieved 19 April 2015 . Jump up ^ O'Conner, Terry. 1999? \"The Home – Food and Meat.\" Viking Age York. Jorvik Viking Centre. Jump up ^ Roesdahl pp. 102–17 Jump up ^ Nedkvitne, Arnved. \"Fishing, Whaling and Seal Hunting.\" in Pulsiano, Phillip (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia . Garland Reference Library of the Humanities. Jump up ^ Inge Bødker Enghoff (2013). Hunting, fishing and animal husbandry at The Farm Beneath The Sand, Western Greenland . Man & Society . 28 . the Greenland National Museum, Dansk Polar Center. ISBN 9788763512602 . Archived from the original on 21 April 2016 . Retrieved 23 June 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"A Viking Feast – an abundance of foods\" . Ribe Vikingecenter . Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 . Retrieved 19 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Roesdahl, pp. 110–11 Jump up ^ Fondén, R; Leporanta, K; Svensson, U (2007). \"Chapter 7. Nordic/Scandinavian Fermented Milk Products\". In Tamime, Adnan. Fermented Milks . Blackwell. doi : 10.1002/9780470995501.ch7 . ISBN 978-0632064588 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Seastallion from Glendalough\" (PDF) (in Danish). Vikingeskibsmuseet . Retrieved 19 June 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hall, A. R. 1999? \"The Home: Food – Fruit, Grain and Vegetable.\" Viking Age York. The Jorvik Viking Centre . Jump up ^ \"The farm crops\" . Ribe Vikingecenter . Retrieved 19 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"From grains to bread – coarse, heavy and filling\" . Ribe Vikingecenter (in Danish). Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 . Retrieved 19 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Bo Ejstrud et.al. (2011). \"From Flax To Linen – experiments with flax at Ribe Viking Centre\" (PDF) . University of Southern Denmark . ISBN 978-87-992214-6-2 . Retrieved 19 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Kirsten Wolf: Daily Life of the Vikings Greenwood Press \"Daily life through history\" series, 2004, ISBN 0-313-32269-4 , Ch. 7 ^ Jump up to: a b Isak Ladegaard (19 November 2012). \"How Vikings killed time\" . ScienceNordic . Retrieved 1 March 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Games and entertainment in the Viking period\" . National Museum of Denmark . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Darrell Markewitz 1998–2010. \"Iron Smelting at the Norse Encampment – Daily Life in the Viking Age circa 1000 AD at Vinland. The Viking Encampment living history program at Parks Canada L'Anse aux Meadows NHSC in Newfoundland\" . Warehamforge.ca . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Return of Dublin's Viking Warship Archived 18 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine .. Retrieved 14 November 2007. Jump up ^ \"Beyond Lands' End: Viking Voyage 1000\" . Dougcabot.com. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012 . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Scans of Viking Swords Reveal a Slice of Norse Culture\" . Live Science . Retrieved 2017-04-15 . Jump up ^ Fedrigo, Anna; Grazzi, Francesco; Williams, Alan R.; Panzner, Tobias; Lefmann, Kim; Lindelof, Poul Erik; Jørgensen, Lars; Pentz, Peter; Scherillo, Antonella (2017-04-01). \"Extraction of archaeological information from metallic artefacts—A neutron diffraction study on Viking swords\" . Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports . 12 : 425–36. doi : 10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.02.014 . Jump up ^ Shona Grimbly (16 August 2013). Encyclopedia of the Ancient World . Routledge. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-1-136-78688-4 . Jump up ^ Dennis Howard Green; Frank Siegmund (2003). The Continental Saxons from the Migration Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective . Boydell Press. pp. 306–. ISBN 978-1-84383-026-9 . Jump up ^ Howard D. Fabing. \"On Going Berserk: A Neurochemical Inquiry.\" Scientific Monthly. 83 [Nov. 1956] p. 232 Jump up ^ Robert Wernick. The Vikings. Alexandria VA: Time-Life Books . 1979. p. 285 ^ Jump up to: a b Gareth Williams: Viking Money BBC History Jump up ^ Graham-Campbell, James: The Viking World , Frances Lincoln Ltd, London (2013). Maps of trade routes. Jump up ^ Gerriets, Marily. \"Money among the Irish: Coin Hoards in Viking Age Ireland\" The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol.115, 1985, pp. 121-139 Jump up ^ Andrew Curry (July 2008). \"Raiders or Traders?\" . Smithsonian Magazine . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 24 February 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Vikings as traders Archived 28 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine ., Teachers' notes 5. Royal Museums Greenwich Jump up ^ \"Herbs, spices and vegetables in the Viking period\" . National Museum of Denmark . Retrieved 20 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Heidi Michelle Sherman (2008). Barbarians come to Market: The Emporia of Western Eurasia from 500 BC to AD 1000 . ProQuest LLC. pp. 250–55. ISBN 9780549718161 . Retrieved 24 February 2014 . Jump up ^ HL Renart of Berwick: Glass Beads of the Viking Age . An inquiry into the glass beads of the Vikings. Sourced information and pictures. Jump up ^ Glass and Amber Regia Anglorum. Sourced information and pictures. Jump up ^ Yngve Vogt (1 November 2013). \"Norwegian Vikings purchased silk from Persia\" . Apollon – research magazine . University of Oslo . Retrieved 24 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Marianne Vedeler: Silk for The Vikings , Oxbow 2014. Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wincott Heckett (2002). \"Irish Viking Age silks and their place in Hiberno-Norse society\" . Department of Archaeology, University College Cork, NUI Cork, Ireland. Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings . University of Nebraska – Lincoln ( Digital Commons ) . Retrieved 28 February 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Jørgensen, Lise Bender; Jesch, Judith (2002). \"Rural Economy: Ecology, Hunting, Pastoralism, Agricultural and Nutritional Aspects\". The Scandinavians – from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century . Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress. pp. 131–37. ISBN 9780851158679 . Jump up ^ English Historical Documents, c. 500–1042 by Dorothy Whitelock; p. 776 Jump up ^ Derry (2012). A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland , p. 16. Jump up ^ Northern Shores by Alan Palmer; p. 21; ISBN 0-7195-6299-6 Jump up ^ The Viking Revival By Professor Andrew Wawn at bbc Jump up ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings by Peter Hayes Sawyer ISBN 0-19-820526-0 Jump up ^ Hall, pp. 220–21; Fitzhugh and Ward, pp. 362–64 Jump up ^ Fitzhugh and Ward, p. 363 Jump up ^ Hall, p. 221 Jump up ^ Ann-Sofie Nielsen Gremaud, ‘ The Vikings are coming! A modern Icelandic self-image in the light of the economic crisis ’, NORDEUROPAforum 20 (2010), pp. 87–106. Jump up ^ Katla Kjartansdóttir, ‘The new Viking wave: Cultural heritage and capitalism’, Iceland and images of the North , ed. Sumarliði R. Ísleifsson (Québec, 2011), pp. 461–80. Jump up ^ Kristinn Schram, ‘Banking on borealism: Eating, smelling, and performing the North’, Iceland and images of the North, ed. Sumarliði R. Ísleifsson (Québec, 2011), pp. 305–27. Jump up ^ Frank, Roberta (2000). International Scandinavian and Medieval Studies in Memory of Gerd Wolfgang Weber . Ed. Parnaso. p. 487. ISBN 978-88-86474-28-3 . Jump up ^ Did Vikings really wear horns on their helmets? , The Straight Dope, 7 December 2004. Retrieved 14 November 2007. Jump up ^ \"Did Vikings wear horned helmets?\" . The Economist . www.economist.com . Retrieved 10 April 2014 . Jump up ^ \"The Gjermundbu Find – The Chieftain Warrior\" . Retrieved 10 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Williams, G. (2001) How do we know about the Vikings? BBC .co.uk. Retrieved 14 November 2007. Jump up ^ By Magnús Óláfsson, in Ole Worm, Runar seu Danica Litteratura antiquissima, vulgo Gothica dicta (Copenhagen 1636). Jump up ^ E. W. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse (2nd edition, Oxford 1962) pp. lxix–lxx. Jump up ^ Lappalainen T; Laitinen V; Salmela E; et al. (May 2008). \"Migration Waves to the Baltic Sea Region\" . Annals of Human Genetics . 72 (Pt 3): 337–48. doi : 10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00429.x . PMID 18294359 . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Helgason, A.; Hickey, E.; Goodacre, S.; Bosnes, V.; Stefánsson, K. R.; Ward, R.; Sykes, B. (2001). \"MtDNA and the Islands of the North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry\" . The American Journal of Human Genetics . 68 (3): 723–37. doi : 10.1086/318785 . PMC 1274484 . PMID 11179019 . Jump up ^ Roger Highfield, \"Vikings who chose a home in Shetland before a life of pillage\" , Telegraph , 7 April 2005, accessed 16 November 2008 Jump up ^ \"Excavating Past Population Structures by Surname-Based Sampling; The Genetic Legacy of the Vikings in Northwest England, Georgina R. Bowden, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 20 November 2007\" . Mbe.oxfordjournals.org. 20 November 2007 . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . Jump up ^ \"A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles, Capelli, Current Biology, Vol. 13, May 27, 2003\" (PDF) . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . Jump up ^ James Randerson, \"Proof of Liverpool's Viking past\" , The Guardian , 3 Dec 2007, accessed 16 November 2008 Jump up ^ \"DNA shows Celtic hero Somerled's Viking roots\" . Scotsman . 26 April 2005. References Brink, Stefan (2008). \"Who were the Vikings?\". In Brink, Stefan; Price, Neil. The Viking World . Routledge. pp. 4–10. ISBN 978-0415692625 . Brookes, Ian (2004). Chambers concise dictionary . Allied Publishers. ISBN 9788186062364 . D'Amato, Raffaele (2010). The Varangian Guard 988–453 . Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-179-5 . Derry, T.K. (2012). A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland . London and Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-81663-799-7 . Educational Company of Ireland (10 October 2000). Irish-English/English-Irish Easy Reference Dictionary . Roberts Rinehart. ISBN 978-1-4616-6031-6 . Fitzhugh, William W.; Ward, Elisabeth I. (2000). Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga; (an Exhibition at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., April 29, 2000 – September 5, 2000) . Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 978-1560989707 . Hall, Richard Andrew (2007). The World of the Vikings . Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500051443 . Hall, Richard (January 1990). Viking Age Archaeology in Britain and Ireland . Shire. ISBN 978-0747800637 . Lindqvist, Thomas (4 September 2003). \"Early Political Organisation: (a) An Introductory Survey\". In Helle, Knut. The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: Prehistory to 1520 . Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–67. ISBN 978-0521472999 . Roesdahl, Else (1998). The Vikings . Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140252828 . Sawyer, Peter Hayes (1 February 1972). Age of the Vikings . Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312013653 . Sawyer, Peter, ed. (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820526-0 . Williams, Gareth (2007). \"Kingship, Christianity and coinage: monetary and political perspectives on silver economy in the Viking Age\". In Graham-Campbell, James; Williams, Gareth. Silver Economy in the Viking Age . Left Coast Press. pp. 177–214. ISBN 978-1598742220 . Wolf, Kirsten (1 January 2004). Daily Life of the Vikings . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32269-3 . Further reading Askeberg, Fritz (1944). Norden och kontinenten i gammal tid: studier i forngermansk kulturhistoria . Almqvist & Wiksells boktr. Downham, Clare (2007). Viking kings of Britain and Ireland: the dynasty of ́Ívarr to A.D. 1014 . Dunedin Academic Press. ISBN 978-1903765890 . Downham, Clare (2011). \"Viking Ethnicities. A Historiographic Overview\", History Compass 10.1 (2012), pp. 1–12. PDF Academic.edu ( registration required ) Hadley, Dawn (2006). The Vikings in England: Settlement, Society and Culture . Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719059827 . Heide, Eldar (2005). \"Víking – 'rower shifting'? An etymological contribution\". Arkiv för nordisk filologi (PDF) . 120 . C.W.K. Gleerup. pp. 41–54. Heide, Eldar (2008). \"Viking, week, and Widsith. A reply to Harald Bjorvand\". Arkiv för nordisk filologi (PDF) . 123 . C.W.K. Gleerup. pp. 23–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008. Hodges, Richard (2006). Goodbye to the Vikings: Re-Reading Early Medieval Archaeology . Gerald Duckworth & Company Limited. ISBN 978-0715634295 . Svanberg, Fredrik (2003). Decolonizing the Viking Age . Almqvist & Wiksell International. ISBN 978-9122020066 . Wamers, Egon (1985). Insularer Metallschmuck in wikingerzeitlichen Gräbern Nordeuropas. Untersuchungen zur skandinavischen Westexpansion . Neumünster: Karl Wachholtz. ISBN 978-3529011566 . Wamers, Egon (1998). \"Insular Finds in Viking Age Scandinavia and the State Formation of Norway\". In Clarke, H.B.; Mhaonaigh, M. Ní; Floinn, R. Ó. Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age . Dublin: Four Courts Press. pp. 37–72. ISBN 978-1851822355 . Wawn, M.A. (2000). The Vikings and the Victorians: Inventing the Old North in Nineteenth Century Britain . Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer. ISBN 978-0859916448 . External links Look up Viking in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Viking Age . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Vikings and the Old Norse . Wikisource has original text related to this article: Northmen Vikings – View videos at The History Channel Copenhagen-Portal – The Danish Vikings BBC: History of Vikings Encyclopædia Britannica: Viking, or Norseman, or Northman, or Varangian (people) Borg Viking museum, Norway Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah, by James E. Montgomery, with full translation of Ibn Fadlan Reassessing what we collect website – Viking and Danish London History of Viking and Danish London with objects and images Wawm, Andrew, The Viking Revival – BBC Online, Ancient History in Depth (updated 17 February 2011) hide v t e Vikings Viking Age Culture Old Norse language Norse pantheon Norse mythology Norse religion Norsemen Danegeld Berserker Homelands and colonies Sweden Norway Denmark Iceland Greenland Vinland Faroe Islands Orkney Islands Shetland Islands Danelaw Normandy North Sea Empire History Viking expansion British Isles Scotland Battles Tactics and warfare Raid on Seville Sack of Paris Siege of Paris Brunanburh Cnut the Great's Invasion of England Raids in the Rhineland Stamford Bridge Arms and armour and fortifications Halberd Atgeir Skeggöx Dane axe Sword Ulfberht Ingelrii Ring fortress Historical figures Erik the Red Leif Erikson Snorri Sturluson show v t e Piracy Periods Ancient Mediterranean Golden Age Republic of Pirates Libertatia 21st century Types of pirate Baltic Slavic pirates Barbary pirates (corsairs) Brethren of the Coast Buccaneers Cilician pirates Cossack pirates Fillibusters Moro pirates Narentines Privateers ( confederate privateer ) River pirate Sea Beggars Sea Dogs Sindhi corsairs Timber pirate Ushkuiniks Uskoks Vikings Wōkòu Areas Anglo-Turkish piracy Barataria Bay Barbary Coast British Virgin Islands Caribbean Falcon Lake Gulf of Guinea Indonesia Lagos Lake Nicaragua Lundy Persian Gulf Port Royal Saint-Malo Salé Somali Coast South China Coast Spanish Main Strait of Malacca Sulu Sea Tortuga Major figures Pirates Mansel Alcantra Chui A-poo Louis-Michel Aury Joseph Baker Hayreddin Barbarossa Joseph Barss Samuel Bellamy Charlotte de Berry Black Caesar Blackbeard Eli Boggs Stede Bonnet Anne Bonny Hippolyte Bouchard Abshir Boyah Roche Braziliano Henri Caesar Roberto Cofresí William Dampier Liang Daoming Diabolito Peter Easton Henry Every Alexandre Exquemelin Vincenzo Gambi Charles Gibbs Pedro Gilbert Nathaniel Gordon Laurens de Graaf Michel de Grammont Calico Jack Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah Zheng Jing Jørgen Jørgensen Shirahama Kenki William Kidd Fūma Kotarō Jean Lafitte Limahong Samuel Hall Lord John Hawkins Bully Hayes Piet Pieterszoon Hein Moses Cohen Henriques Albert W. 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{ "text": "Colorado River - Wikipedia Colorado River From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other uses, see Colorado River (disambiguation) . Colorado River The Colorado River at Horseshoe Bend , Arizona , a few miles below Glen Canyon Dam Countries United States , Mexico States Colorado , Utah , Arizona , Nevada , California , Baja California , Sonora Tributaries - left Fraser River , Blue River , Eagle River , Roaring Fork River , Gunnison River , Dolores River , San Juan River , Little Colorado River , Bill Williams River , Gila River - right Green River , Dirty Devil River , Escalante River , Kanab River , Virgin River , Hardy River Cities Glenwood Springs, CO , Grand Junction, CO , Moab, UT , Page, AZ , Bullhead City, AZ , Lake Havasu City, AZ , Yuma, AZ , San Luis Rio Colorado, SON Source La Poudre Pass - location Rocky Mountains , Colorado , United States - elevation 10,184 ft (3,104 m) - coordinates 40°28′20″N 105°49′34″W  /  40.47222°N 105.82611°W  / 40.47222; -105.82611 [1] Mouth Gulf of California - location Colorado River Delta , Baja California – Sonora , Mexico - elevation 100 ft (30 m) - coordinates 31°54′00″N 114°57′03″W  /  31.90000°N 114.95083°W  / 31.90000; -114.95083 Coordinates : 31°54′00″N 114°57′03″W  /  31.90000°N 114.95083°W  / 31.90000; -114.95083 [1] Length 1,450 mi (2,334 km) [2] Basin 246,000 sq mi (637,137 km 2 ) [2] Discharge for mouth (average virgin flow), max and min at Topock, AZ , 300 mi (480 km) from the mouth - average 22,500 cu ft/s (637 m 3 /s) [3] - max 384,000 cu ft/s (10,900 m 3 /s) [4] - min 422 cu ft/s (12 m 3 /s) [5] Map of the Colorado River basin Wikimedia Commons: Colorado River The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Rio Grande ). The 1,450-mile-long (2,330 km) river drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. Starting in the central Rocky Mountains of Colorado , the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona – Nevada border, where it turns south toward the international border . After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora . Known for its dramatic canyons, whitewater rapids, and eleven U.S. National Parks , the Colorado River and its tributaries are a vital source of water for 40 million people. [6] The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts, which in most years divert its entire flow for agricultural irrigation and domestic water supply. [7] [8] Its large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power , and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West . Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles (160 km) of the river, which has rarely reached the sea since the 1960s. [7] [9] [10] Beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers , Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago, the watershed was home to large agricultural civilizations – considered some of the most sophisticated indigenous North American cultures – which eventually declined due to a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices. Most native peoples that inhabit the region today are descended from other groups that settled there beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, which became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821. Early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river. After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846, much of the river's course was still the subject of myths and speculation. Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century – one of which, led by John Wesley Powell , was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that was later used to develop the river for navigation and water supply. Large-scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid- to late-19th century, with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the river that linked to wagon roads to the interior. Starting in the 1860s, gold and silver strikes drew prospectors to parts of the upper Colorado River basin. Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century, with major guidelines established in a series of international and U.S. interstate treaties known as the \"Law of the River\". The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts, although many state and local water agencies were also involved. Most of the major dams were built between 1910 and 1970; the system keystone, Hoover Dam , was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, with every drop of its water fully allocated. The environmental movement in the American Southwest has opposed the damming and diversion of the Colorado River system because of detrimental effects on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries. During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam , environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river, and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition. As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy. Contents [ hide ] 1 Course 1.1 Major tributaries 2 Discharge 3 Watershed 4 Geology 5 History 5.1 Indigenous peoples 5.2 Early explorers 5.3 Exploration and navigation below Fort Yuma, 1850–54 5.4 Exploration and navigation above Fort Yuma, 1851–1887 5.5 Powell's expeditions, 1869–1871 5.6 American settlement 5.6.1 Naming of the upper Colorado River and controversy 6 Engineering and development 6.1 Lower Basin development, 1930s–50s 6.2 Upper Basin development, 1950s–1970s 6.3 Pacific Southwest Water Plan 6.4 Environmental impacts 6.4.1 Minute 319 6.5 Uncertain future 7 Wildlife and plants 8 Recreation 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Works cited 13 Further reading 14 External links Course [ edit ] Main article: Course of the Colorado River The Kawuneeche Valley , near the headwaters of the Colorado River in Rocky Mountain National Park The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, at just under 2 miles (3 km) above sea level. [11] After a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake , the largest natural lake in the state. [12] For the first 250 miles (400 km) of its course, the Colorado carves its way through the mountainous Western Slope , a sparsely populated region defined by the portion of the state west of the Continental Divide . As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many small tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue , Eagle and Roaring Fork rivers. After passing through De Beque Canyon , the Colorado emerges from the Rockies into the Grand Valley , a major farming and ranching region where it meets one of its largest tributaries, the Gunnison River , at Grand Junction . Most of the upper river is a swift whitewater stream ranging from 200 to 500 feet (60 to 150 m) wide, the depth ranging from 6 to 30 feet (2 to 9 m), with a few notable exceptions, such as the Blackrocks reach where the river is nearly 100 feet (30 m) deep. [13] [14] In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters [15] and the Grand Valley, it exhibits braided characteristics. [14] Arcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau , a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. Here, the climate becomes significantly drier than that in the Rocky Mountains, and the river becomes entrenched in progressively deeper gorges of bare rock, beginning with Ruby Canyon and then Westwater Canyon as it enters Utah , now once again heading southwest. [16] Farther downstream it receives the Dolores River and defines the southern border of Arches National Park , before passing Moab and flowing through \"The Portal\", where it exits the Moab Valley between a pair of 1,000-foot (300 m) sandstone cliffs. [17] In Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the \" slickrock \" country, which is characterized by its narrow canyons and unique \"folds\" created by the tilting of sedimentary rock layers along faults. This is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. [18] [19] Below the confluence with the Green River , its largest tributary, in Canyonlands National Park , the Colorado enters Cataract Canyon , named for its dangerous rapids, [20] and then Glen Canyon , known for its arches and erosion-sculpted Navajo sandstone formations. [21] Here, the San Juan River , carrying runoff from the southern slope of Colorado's San Juan Mountains , joins the Colorado from the east. The Colorado then enters northern Arizona , where since the 1960s Glen Canyon Dam near Page has flooded the Glen Canyon reach of the river, forming Lake Powell for water supply and hydroelectricity generation. [22] [23] Colorado River in the Grand Canyon seen from Pima Point, near Hermit's Rest In Arizona, the river passes Lee's Ferry , an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin. [24] Downstream, the river enters Marble Canyon , the beginning of the Grand Canyon , passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course. Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River , the river swings west into Granite Gorge, the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon, where the river cuts up to one mile (1.6 km) into the Colorado Plateau, exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth, dating as long ago as 2 billion years. [25] The 277 miles (446 km) of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater, separated by pools that reach up to 110 feet (34 m) in depth. [26] At the lower end of Grand Canyon, the Colorado widens into Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the continental United States, formed by Hoover Dam on the border of Arizona and Nevada . Situated southeast of metropolitan Las Vegas , the dam is an integral component for management of the Colorado River, controlling floods and storing water for farms and cities in the lower Colorado River basin. [27] Below the dam the river passes under the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge – which at nearly 900 feet (270 m) above the water is the highest concrete arch bridge in the Western Hemisphere [28] – and then turns due south towards Mexico, defining the Arizona–Nevada and Arizona– California borders. Satellite view of the Colorado River valley near Yuma, Arizona ; the Mexico–United States border runs from left to right just below center. After leaving the confines of the Black Canyon , the river emerges from the Colorado Plateau into the Lower Colorado River Valley (LCRV), a desert region dependent on irrigation agriculture and tourism and also home to several major Indian reservations . [29] The river widens here to a broad, moderately deep waterway averaging 500 to 1,000 feet (150 to 300 m) wide and reaching up to 1 ⁄ 4 mile (400 m) across, with depths ranging from 8 to 60 feet (2 to 20 m). [30] [31] Before channelization of the Colorado in the 20th century, the lower river was subject to frequent course changes caused by seasonal flow variations. Joseph C. Ives , who surveyed the lower river in 1861, wrote that \"the shifting of the channel, the banks, the islands, the bars is so continual and rapid that a detailed description, derived from the experiences of one trip, would be found incorrect, not only during the subsequent year, but perhaps in the course of a week, or even a day.\" [32] The LCRV is one of the most densely populated areas along the river, and there are numerous towns including Bullhead City, Arizona , Needles, California , and Lake Havasu City, Arizona . Here, many diversions draw from the river, providing water for both local uses and distant regions including the Salt River Valley of Arizona and metropolitan Southern California . [33] The last major U.S. diversion is at Imperial Dam , where over 90 percent of the river's remaining flow is moved into the All-American Canal to irrigate California's Imperial Valley , the most productive winter agricultural region in the United States. [34] Colorado River as it exits the United States into Mexico beneath the San Luis Colorado-Colonia Miguel Aléman Bridge (September 2009) Below Imperial Dam, only a small portion of the Colorado River makes it beyond Yuma, Arizona , and the confluence with the intermittent Gila River – which carries runoff from western New Mexico and most of Arizona – before defining about 24 miles (39 km) of the Mexico–United States border . At Morelos Dam , the entire remaining flow of the Colorado is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley , among Mexico's most fertile agricultural lands. [35] Below San Luis Río Colorado , the Colorado passes entirely into Mexico, defining the Baja California – Sonora border; in most years, the stretch of the Colorado between here and the Gulf of California is dry or a trickle formed by irrigation return flows. The Hardy River provides most of the flow into the Colorado River Delta , a vast alluvial floodplain covering about 3,000 square miles (7,800 km 2 ) of northwestern Mexico. [36] A large estuary is formed here before the Colorado empties into the Gulf about 75 miles (120 km) south of Yuma. Before 20th-century development dewatered the lower Colorado, a major tidal bore was present in the delta and estuary; the first historical record was made by the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on July 18, 1746. [37] During spring tide conditions, the tidal bore – locally called El Burro – formed in the estuary about Montague Island in Baja California and propagated upstream. [38] Major tributaries [ edit ] The San Juan River near Mexican Hat, Utah The Green River at Mineral Bottom, just north of Canyonlands National Park Main article: List of tributaries of the Colorado River The Colorado is joined by over 25 significant tributaries, of which the Green River is the largest by both length and discharge. The Green takes drainage from the Wind River Range of west-central Wyoming, from Utah's Uinta Mountains , and from the Rockies of northwestern Colorado. [39] The Gila River is the second longest and drains a greater area than the Green, [40] but has a significantly lower flow because of a more arid climate and larger diversions for irrigation and cities. [41] Both the Gunnison and San Juan rivers, which derive most of their water from Rocky Mountains snowmelt, contribute more water than the Gila did naturally. [42] Statistics of the Colorado's longest tributaries Name State Length Watershed Discharge References mi km mi 2 km 2 cfs m 3 /s Green River UT 730 1,170 48,100 125,000 6,048 171.3 [40] [43] [44] [n 1] Gila River AZ 649 1,044 58,200 151,000 247 7.0 [2] [40] [45] [n 2] San Juan River UT 383 616 24,600 64,000 2,192 62.1 [40] [46] [47] [n 3] Little Colorado River AZ 356 573 26,500 69,000 424 12.0 [40] [48] [49] Dolores River UT 250 400 4,574 11,850 633 17.9 [40] [50] [51] Gunnison River CO 164 264 7,930 20,500 2,570 73 [40] [46] [52] Virgin River NV 160 260 13,020 33,700 239 6.8 [40] [53] [54] [n 4] Discharge [ edit ] In its natural state, the Colorado River poured about 16.3 million acre feet (20.1 km 3 ) into the Gulf of California each year, amounting to an average flow rate of 22,500 cubic feet per second (640 m 3 /s). [3] Its flow regime was not at all steady – indeed, \"prior to the construction of federal dams and reservoirs, the Colorado was a river of extremes like no other in the United States.\" [55] Once, the river reached peaks of more than 100,000 cubic feet per second (2,800 m 3 /s) in the summer and low flows of less than 2,500 cubic feet per second (71 m 3 /s) in the winter annually. [55] At Topock, Arizona , about 300 miles (480 km) upstream from the Gulf, a maximum historical discharge of 384,000 cubic feet per second (10,900 m 3 /s) was recorded in 1884 and a minimum of 422 cubic feet per second (11.9 m 3 /s) was recorded in 1935. [4] [5] [56] [57] In contrast, the regulated discharge rates on the lower Colorado below Hoover Dam rarely exceed 35,000 cubic feet per second (990 m 3 /s) or drop below 4,000 cubic feet per second (110 m 3 /s). [58] Annual runoff volume has ranged from a high of 22.2 million acre feet (27.4 km 3 ) in 1984 to a low of 3.8 million acre feet (4.7 km 3 ) in 2002, although in most years only a small portion of this flow, if any, reaches the Gulf. [59] Annual Colorado River discharge volumes at Lee's Ferry between 1895 and 2004 Between 85 and 90 percent of the Colorado River's discharge originates in snowmelt, mostly from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming. [59] The three major upper tributaries of the Colorado – the Gunnison, Green, and San Juan – alone deliver almost 9 million acre feet (11 km 3 ) per year to the main stem, mostly from snowmelt. [60] The remaining 10 to 15 percent comes from a variety of sources, principally groundwater base flow and summer monsoon storms. [59] The latter often produces heavy, highly localized floods on lower tributaries of the river, but does not often contribute significant volumes of runoff. [59] [61] Most of the annual runoff in the basin occurs with the melting of Rocky Mountains snowpack , which begins in April and peaks during May and June before exhausting in late July or early August. [62] Flows at the mouth have steadily declined since the beginning of the 20th century, and in most years after 1960 the Colorado River has run dry before reaching the sea. [63] Irrigation, industrial, and municipal diversions, evaporation from reservoirs, natural runoff, and likely climate change have all contributed to this substantial reduction in flow, threatening the future water supply. [64] [65] [66] For example, the Gila River – formerly one of the Colorado's largest tributaries – contributes little more than a trickle in most years due to use of its water by cities and farms in central Arizona. [67] The average flow rate of the Colorado at the northernmost point of the Mexico–United States border (NIB, or Northerly International Boundary) is about 2,060 cubic feet per second (58 m 3 /s), 1.49 million acre feet (1.84 km 3 ) per year – less than a 10th of the natural flow – due to upstream water use. [68] Below here, all of the remaining flow is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, leaving a dry riverbed from Morelos Dam to the sea that is supplemented by intermittent flows of irrigation drainage water. [69] There have been exceptions, however, namely in the early to mid-1980s, when the Colorado once again reached the sea during several consecutive years of record-breaking precipitation and snowmelt. [70] In 1984, so much excess runoff occurred that some 16.5 million acre feet (20.4 km 3 ), or 22,860 cubic feet per second (647 m 3 /s), poured into the sea. [71] [ show ] Discharge of the Colorado River at selected locations Gage Discharge (average) Discharge (max) Drainage area Period of record Ref cfs m 3 /s cfs m 3 /s mi 2 km 2 Grand Lake, CO 62.7 1.78 976 27.6 63.9 166 1953–2010 [72] Dotsero, CO 2,095 59.3 22,200 630 4,390 11,400 1941–2011 [73] Cisco, UT 7,181 203.3 125,000 3,500 24,100 62,000 1895–2010 [74] Lee's Ferry, AZ 14,800 420 300,000 8,500 107,800 279,000 1895–2010 [75] Davis Dam, AZ–NV 14,180 402 116,000 3,300 169,300 438,000 1905–2010 [76] Parker Dam, AZ–CA 11,990 340 42,400 1,200 178,500 462,000 1935–2010 [77] Laguna Dam, AZ–CA 1,693 47.9 30,900 870 184,600 478,000 1971–2010 [78] NIB [n 5] (near Andrade, CA ) 2,059 58.3 40,600 1,150 238,700 618,000 1950–2010 [68] [ show ] Monthly discharge of the Colorado at Lee's Ferry [75] Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Discharge cfs 9,650 9,740 10,500 16,000 28,000 32,800 18,300 13,200 10,900 9,530 9,620 9,440 m 3 /s 273.3 275.8 297.3 453.1 792.9 928.8 518.2 373.8 308.7 269.9 272.4 267.3 The United States Geological Survey (USGS) operates or has operated 46 stream gauges to measure the discharge of the Colorado River, ranging from the headwaters near Grand Lake to the Mexico–U.S. border. [79] The tables at right list data associated with eight of these gauges. River flows as gauged at Lee's Ferry, Arizona, about halfway along the length of the Colorado and 16 miles (26 km) below Glen Canyon Dam, are used to determine water allocations in the Colorado River basin. The average discharge recorded there was approximately 14,800 cubic feet per second (420 m 3 /s), 10.72 million acre feet (13.22 km 3 ) per year, from 1921 to 2010. [80] This figure has been heavily affected by upstream diversions and reservoir evaporation, especially after the completion of the Colorado River Storage Project in the 1970s. Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam in 1964, the average discharge recorded between 1912 and 1962 was 17,850 cubic feet per second (505 m 3 /s), 12.93 million acre feet (15.95 km 3 ) per year. [75] Watershed [ edit ] Colorado River at the Coyote Valley Trail head, Kawuneeche Valley The drainage basin or watershed of the Colorado River encompasses 246,000 square miles (640,000 km 2 ) of southwestern North America, making it the seventh largest on the continent. [2] About 238,600 square miles (618,000 km 2 ), or 97 percent of the watershed, is in the United States. [40] The river and its tributaries drain most of western Colorado and New Mexico, southwestern Wyoming , eastern and southern Utah, southeastern Nevada and California, and nearly all of Arizona. The areas drained within Baja California and Sonora are very small and do not contribute measurable runoff. Most of the basin is arid, defined by the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the expanse of the Colorado Plateau, although significant expanses of forest are found in the Rocky Mountains; the Kaibab, Aquarius , and Markagunt plateaus in southern Utah and northern Arizona; the Mogollon Rim through central Arizona; and other smaller mountain ranges and sky islands . [81] [82] Elevations range from sea level at the Gulf of California to 14,321 feet (4,365 m) at the summit of Uncompahgre Peak in Colorado, with an average of 5,500 feet (1,700 m) across the entire basin. [83] [84] Climate varies widely across the watershed. Mean monthly high temperatures are 25.3 °C (77.5 °F) in the upper basin and 33.4 °C (92.1 °F) in the lower basin, and lows average −3.6 and 8.9 °C (25.5 and 48.0 °F), respectively. Annual precipitation averages 6.5 inches (164 mm), ranging from over 40 inches (1,000 mm) in some areas of the Rockies to just 0.6 inches (15 mm) along the Mexican reach of the river. [60] The upper basin generally receives snow and rain during the winter and early spring, while precipitation in the lower basin falls mainly during intense but infrequent summer thunderstorms brought on by the North American Monsoon . [85] The river in western Colorado, with the California Zephyr running alongside As of 2010, approximately 12.7 million people lived in the Colorado River basin. [n 6] Phoenix in Arizona and Las Vegas in Nevada are the largest metropolitan areas in the watershed. Population densities are also high along the lower Colorado River below Davis Dam, which includes Bullhead City, Lake Havasu City, and Yuma. Other significant population centers in the basin include Tucson, Arizona ; St. George, Utah ; and Grand Junction, Colorado. Colorado River basin states are among the fastest-growing in the U.S.; the population of Nevada alone increased by about 66 percent between 1990 and 2000 as Arizona grew by some 40 percent. [89] The Colorado River basin shares drainage boundaries with many other major watersheds of North America. The Continental Divide of the Americas forms a large portion of the eastern boundary of the watershed, separating it from the basins of the Yellowstone River and the Platte River – both tributaries of the Missouri River – on the northeast, and from the headwaters of the Arkansas River on the east. Both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers are part of the Mississippi River system. Further south, the Colorado River basin borders on the Rio Grande drainage, which along with the Mississippi flows to the Gulf of Mexico , as well as a series of endorheic (closed) drainage basins in southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona. [90] For a short stretch, the Colorado watershed meets the drainage basin of the Snake River , a tributary of the Columbia River , in the Wind River Range of western Wyoming. Southwest of there, the northern divide of the Colorado watershed skirts the edge of the Great Basin , bordering on the closed drainage basins of the Great Salt Lake and the Sevier River in central Utah, and other closed basins in southern Utah and Nevada. [90] To the west in California, the Colorado River watershed borders on those of small closed basins in the Mojave Desert, the largest of which is the Salton Sea drainage north of the Colorado River Delta. [90] On the south, the watersheds of the Sonoyta , Concepción , and Yaqui rivers, all of which drain to the Gulf of California, border that of the Colorado. [91] Geology [ edit ] As recently as the Cretaceous period about 100 million years ago, much of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean . Tectonic forces from the collision of the Farallon Plate with the North American Plate pushed up the Rocky Mountains between 50 and 75 million years ago in a mountain-building episode known as the Laramide orogeny . [92] The Colorado first formed as a west-flowing stream draining the southwestern portion of the range, and the uplift also diverted the Green River, once a tributary of the Mississippi River , west towards the Colorado. About 30 to 20 million years ago, volcanic activity related to the orogeny led to the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up , which created smaller formations such as the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona and deposited massive amounts of volcanic ash and debris over the watershed. [93] The Colorado Plateau first began to rise during the Eocene , between about 55 and 34 million years ago, but did not attain its present height until about 5 million years ago, about when the Colorado River established its present course into the Gulf of California. [94] The time scale and sequence over which the river's present course and the Grand Canyon were formed is uncertain. Before the Gulf of California was formed around 12 to 5 million years ago by faulting processes along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates, [95] the Colorado flowed west to an outlet on the Pacific Ocean – possibly Monterey Bay on the Central California coast, and may have played a role in the formation of the Monterey submarine canyon . Crustal extension in the Basin and Range Province began about 20 million years ago and the modern Sierra Nevada began forming about 10 million years ago, eventually diverting the Colorado southwards towards the Gulf. [96] As the Colorado Plateau continued to rise between 5 and 2.5 million years ago, the river maintained its ancestral course (as an antecedent stream ) and began to cut the Grand Canyon. Antecedence played a major part in shaping other peculiar geographic features in the watershed, including the Dolores River's bisection of Paradox Valley in Colorado and the Green River's cut through the Uinta Mountains in Utah. [97] Remnants of basalt flows from the Uinkaret volcanic field are seen here descending into the Grand Canyon, where they dammed the Colorado over 10 times in the past 2 million years. Sediments carried from the plateau by the Colorado River created a vast delta made of more than 10,000 cubic miles (42,000 km 3 ) of material that walled off the northernmost part of the gulf in approximately 1 million years. Cut off from the ocean, the portion of the gulf north of the delta eventually evaporated and formed the Salton Sink , which reached about 260 feet (79 m) below sea level. [98] [99] Since then the river has changed course into the Salton Sink at least three times, transforming it into Lake Cahuilla , which at maximum size flooded up the valley to present-day Indio, California . The lake took about 50 years to evaporate after the Colorado resumed flowing to the Gulf. The present-day Salton Sea can be considered the most recent incarnation of Lake Cahuilla, though on a much smaller scale. [100] Between 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago, massive flows of basalt from the Uinkaret volcanic field in northern Arizona dammed the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon. At least 13 lava dams were formed, the largest of which was more than 2,300 feet (700 m) high, backing the river up for nearly 500 miles (800 km) to present-day Moab, Utah. [101] The lack of associated sediment deposits along this stretch of the Colorado River, which would have accumulated in the impounded lakes over time, suggests that most of these dams did not survive for more than a few decades before collapsing or being washed away. Failure of the lava dams caused by erosion, leaks and cavitation caused catastrophic floods, which may have been some of the largest ever to occur in North America, rivaling the late- Pleistocene Missoula Floods of the northwestern United States. [102] Mapping of flood deposits indicate that crests as high as 700 feet (210 m) passed through the Grand Canyon, [103] reaching peak discharges as great as 17 million cubic feet per second (480,000 m 3 /s). [104] History [ edit ] Indigenous peoples [ edit ] Navajo woman and child, photographed by Ansel Adams , c. 1944 Pueblos and cliff dwellings such as this one in New Mexico were inhabited by people of the Colorado River basin between 2,000 and 700 years ago. The first humans of the Colorado River basin were likely Paleo-Indians of the Clovis and Folsom cultures, who first arrived on the Colorado Plateau about 12,000 years ago. Very little human activity occurred in the watershed until the rise of the Desert Archaic Culture , which from 8,000 to 2,000 years ago constituted most of the region's human population. These prehistoric inhabitants led a generally nomadic lifestyle, gathering plants and hunting small animals (though some of the earliest peoples hunted larger mammals that became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene epoch). [105] Another notable early group was the Fremont culture , whose peoples inhabited the Colorado Plateau from 2,000 to 700 years ago. The Fremont were likely the first peoples of the Colorado River basin to domesticate crops and construct masonry dwellings; they also left behind a large amount of rock art and petroglyphs , many of which have survived to the present day. [106] [107] Beginning in the early centuries A.D., Colorado River basin peoples began to form large agriculture-based societies, some of which lasted hundreds of years and grew into well-organized civilizations encompassing tens of thousands of inhabitants. The Ancient Puebloan (also known as Anasazi or Hisatsinom) people of the Four Corners region were descended from the Desert Archaic culture. [108] The Puebloan people developed a complex distribution system to supply drinking and irrigation water in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico. [109] The Puebloans dominated the basin of the San Juan River, and the center of their civilization was in Chaco Canyon. [110] In Chaco Canyon and the surrounding lands, they built more than 150 multi-story pueblos or \"great houses\", the largest of which, Pueblo Bonito , is composed of more than 600 rooms. [111] [112] The Hohokam culture was present along the middle Gila River beginning around 1 A.D. Between 600 and 700 A.D. they began to employ irrigation on a large scale, and did so more prolifically than any other native group in the Colorado River basin. [113] An extensive system of irrigation canals was constructed on the Gila and Salt rivers, with various estimates of a total length ranging from 180 to 300 miles (290 to 480 km) and capable of irrigating 25,000 to 250,000 acres (10,000 to 101,000 ha). Both civilizations supported large populations at their height; the Chaco Canyon Puebloans numbered between 6,000 and 15,000 [114] and estimates for the Hohokam range between 30,000 and 200,000. [115] These sedentary peoples heavily exploited their surroundings, practicing logging and harvesting of other resources on a large scale. The construction of irrigation canals may have led to a significant change in the morphology of many waterways in the Colorado River basin. Prior to human contact, rivers such as the Gila, Salt and Chaco were shallow perennial streams with low, vegetated banks and large floodplains . In time, flash floods caused significant downcutting on irrigation canals, which in turn led to the entrenchment of the original streams into arroyos , making agriculture difficult. [116] A variety of methods were employed to combat these problems, including the construction of large dams, but when a megadrought hit the region in the 14th century A.D. the ancient civilizations of the Colorado River basin abruptly collapsed. [116] [117] Some Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico and south-central Colorado, becoming the predecessors of the Hopi , Zuni , Laguna and Acoma people in western New Mexico. [105] Many of the tribes that inhabited the Colorado River basin at the time of European contact were descended from Puebloan and Hohokam survivors, while others already had a long history of living in the region or migrated in from bordering lands. [105] [118] Native American names for the Colorado River Maricopa : 'Xakxwet [119] Mohave : 'Aha Kwahwat [120] Havasupai : Ha Ŧay Gʼam / Sil Gsvgov [121] Yavapai : ʼHakhwata [122] The Navajo were an Athabaskan people who migrated from the north into the Colorado River basin around 1025 A.D. [123] They soon established themselves as the dominant Native American tribe in the Colorado River basin, and their territory stretched over parts of present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado – in the original homelands of the Puebloans. In fact, the Navajo acquired agricultural skills from the Puebloans before the collapse of the Pueblo civilization in the 14th century. [124] A profusion of other tribes have made a continued, lasting presence along the Colorado River. The Mohave have lived along the rich bottomlands of the lower Colorado below Black Canyon since 1200 A.D. They were fishermen – navigating the river on rafts made of reeds to catch Gila trout and Colorado pikeminnow – and farmers, relying on the annual floods of the river rather than irrigation to water their crops. [125] Ute peoples have inhabited the northern Colorado River basin, mainly in present-day Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, for at least 2,000 years, but did not become well established in the Four Corners area until 1500 A.D. [126] [127] The Apache , Cocopah , Halchidhoma , Havasupai , Hualapai , Maricopa , Pima , and Quechan are among many other groups that live along or had territories bordering on the Colorado River and its tributaries. [105] [128] Beginning in the 17th century, contact with Europeans brought significant changes to the lifestyles of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin. Missionaries sought to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity – an effort sometimes successful, such as in Father Eusebio Francisco Kino 's 1694 encounter with the \"docile Pimas of the Gila Valley [who] readily accepted Father Kino and his Christian teachings\". [128] The Spanish introduced sheep and goats to the Navajo, who came to rely heavily on them for meat, milk and wool. [123] By the mid-16th century, the Utes, having acquired horses from the Spanish, introduced them to the Colorado River basin. The use of horses spread through the basin via trade between the various tribes and greatly facilitated hunting, communications and travel for indigenous peoples. More warlike groups such as the Utes and Navajos often used horses to their advantage in raids against tribes that were slower to adopt them, such as the Goshutes and Southern Paiutes . [129] Two Mohave warriors beside the Colorado River in 1871 The gradual influx of European and American explorers, fortune seekers and settlers into the region eventually led to conflicts that forced many Native Americans off their traditional lands. After the acquisition of the Colorado River basin from Mexico in the Mexican–American War in 1846, U.S. military forces commanded by Kit Carson forced more than 8,000 Navajo men, women and children from their homes after a series of unsuccessful attempts to confine their territory, many of which were met with violent resistance. In what is now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo, the captives were marched from Arizona to Fort Sumner in New Mexico, and many died along the route. Four years later, the Navajo signed a treaty that moved them onto a reservation in the Four Corners region that is now known as the Navajo Nation . It is the largest Native American reservation in the United States, encompassing 27,000 square miles (70,000 km 2 ) with a population of over 180,000 as of 2000. [130] [131] [132] The Mohave were expelled from their territory after a series of minor skirmishes and raids on wagon trains passing through the area in the late 1850s, culminating in an 1859 battle with American forces that concluded the Mohave War . [133] In 1870, the Mohave were relocated to a reservation at Fort Mojave , which spans the borders of Arizona, California and Nevada. [134] Some Mohave were also moved to the 432-square-mile (1,120 km 2 ) Colorado River Indian Reservation on the Arizona–California border, originally established for the Mohave and Chemehuevi people in 1865. [135] In the 1940s, some Hopi and Navajo people were also relocated to this reservation. [136] The four tribes now form a geopolitical body known as the Colorado River Indian Tribes . [135] Water rights of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin were largely ignored during the extensive water resources development carried out on the river and its tributaries in the 19th and 20th centuries. The construction of dams has often had negative impacts on tribal peoples, such as the Chemehuevi when their riverside lands were flooded after the completion of Parker Dam in 1938. Ten Native American tribes in the basin now hold or continue to claim water rights to the Colorado River. [137] The U.S. government has taken some actions to help quantify and develop the water resources of Native American reservations. The first federally funded irrigation project in the U.S. was the construction of an irrigation canal on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867. [138] Other water projects include the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project , authorized in 1962 for the irrigation of lands in part of the Navajo Nation in north-central New Mexico. [139] The Navajo continue to seek expansion of their water rights because of difficulties with the water supply on their reservation; about 40 percent of its inhabitants must haul water by truck many miles to their homes. In the 21st century, they have filed legal claims against the governments of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah for increased water rights. Some of these claims have been successful for the Navajo, such as a 2004 settlement in which they received a 326,000-acre-foot (402,000 ML) allotment from New Mexico. [140] Early explorers [ edit ] During the 16th century, the Spanish began to explore and colonize western North America. An early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold , or \"Cibola\", rumored to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. According to a United States Geological Survey publication, it is likely that Francisco de Ulloa was the first European to see the Colorado River when in 1536 he sailed to the head of the Gulf of California. [141] Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 's 1540–1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance of Hopi Indians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon. [142] Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at 6 feet (1.8 m) and estimating 300-foot (91 m)-tall rock formations to be the size of a man. After failing at an attempt to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather. [143] Coronado Sets Out To The North , by Frederic Remington , c. 1905 In 1540, Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the river, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado's expedition. Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present-day California–Arizona border. Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcón eventually gave up and left. Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcón, but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz's arrival. Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon (\"Firebrand River\") after seeing a practice used by the local natives for warming themselves. [144] The name Tizon lasted for the next 200 years, while the name Rio Colorado (\"Red River\") was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River, possibly the Verde River , circa 1720. The first known map to label the main stem as the Colorado was drawn by French cartographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellin in 1743. [145] During the 18th and early 19th centuries, many Americans and Spanish believed in the existence of the Buenaventura River , purported to run from the Rocky Mountains in Utah or Colorado to the Pacific Ocean. [146] The name Buenaventura was given to the Green River by Silvestre Vélez de Escalante as early as 1776, but Escalante did not know that the Green drained to the Colorado. Many later maps showed the headwaters of the Green and Colorado rivers connecting with the Sevier River (Rio San Ysabel) and Utah Lake (Lake Timpanogos) before flowing west through the Sierra Nevada into California. Mountain man Jedediah Smith reached the lower Colorado by way of the Virgin River canyon in 1826. Smith called the Colorado the \"Seedskeedee\", as the Green River in Wyoming was known to fur trappers, correctly believing it to be a continuation of the Green and not a separate river as others believed under the Buenaventura myth. [147] John C. Frémont 's 1843 Great Basin expedition proved that no river traversed the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada, officially debunking the Buenaventura myth. [148] Exploration and navigation below Fort Yuma, 1850–54 [ edit ] Between 1850 and 1854 the U. S. Army explored the lower reach of the Colorado River from the Gulf of California, looking for the river to provide a less expensive route to supply the remote post of Fort Yuma. First in November 1850 to January 1851, by its transport schooner , Invincible under Captain Alfred H. Wilcox and then by its longboat commanded by Lieutenant George Derby . Later Lieutenant Derby, in his expedition report, recommended that a shallow draft sternwheel steamboat would be the way to send supplies up river to the fort. [149] The next contractors George Alonzo Johnson with his partner Benjamin M. Hartshorne , brought two barges and 250 tons of supplies arriving at the river's mouth in February 1852, on the United States transport schooner Sierra Nevada under Captain Wilcox. Poling the barges up the Colorado, the first barge sank with its cargo a total loss. The second was finally, after a long struggle poled up to Fort Yuma, but what little it carried was soon consumed by the garrison. Subsequently, wagons again were sent from the fort to haul the balance of the supplies overland from the estuary through the marshes and woodlands of the Delta. [150] : 5–9 At last Derby's recommendation was heeded and in November 1852, the Uncle Sam , a 65-foot long side-wheel paddle steamer , built by Domingo Marcucci , became the first steamboat on the Colorado River. [151] : 15 It was brought by the schooner Capacity from San Francisco to the delta by the next contractor to supply the fort, Captain James Turnbull . It was assembled and launched in the estuary, 30 miles above the mouth of the Colorado River. Equipped with only a 20-horsepower engine, the Uncle Sam could only carry 35 tons of supplies, taking 15 days to make the first 120-mile trip. It made many trips up and down the river, taking four months to finish carrying the supplies for the fort, improving its time up river to 12 days. Negligence caused it to sink at its dock below Fort Yuma, and was then washed away before it could be raised, in the spring flood of 1853. Turnbull in financial difficulty, disappeared. Nevertheless, he had shown the worth of steamboats to solve Fort Yuma's supply problem. [150] : 10–11 George Alonzo Johnson with his partner Hartshorne and a new partner Captain Alfred H. Wilcox (formerly of the Invincible and Sierra Nevada ), formed George A. Johnson & Company and obtained the next contract to supply the fort. Johnson and his partners, all having learned lessons from their failed attempts ascending the Colorado and with the example of the Uncle Sam , brought the parts of a more powerful side-wheel steamboat, the General Jesup , with them to the mouth of the Colorado from San Francisco. There it was reassembled at a landing in the upper tidewater of the river and reached Fort Yuma, January 18, 1854. This new boat, capable of carrying 50 tons of cargo, was very successful making round trips from the estuary to the fort in only four or five days. Costs were cut from $200 to $75 per ton. [150] : 11–12 [152] : 34 Exploration and navigation above Fort Yuma, 1851–1887 [ edit ] Lithograph of Fort Yuma, c. 1875 Lorenzo Sitgreaves led the first Corps of Topographical Engineers mission across northern Arizona to the Colorado River (near modern Bullhead City, Arizona ), and down its east bank to the river crossings of the Southern Immigrant Trail at Fort Yuma in 1851. [153] [154] The second Corps of Topographical Engineers expedition passed along and crossed the Colorado was the 1853-1854 Pacific Railroad Survey expedition along the 35th parallel north from Oklahoma to Los Angeles , led by Lt. Amiel Weeks Whipple . [155] George A. Johnson was instrumental in getting the support for Congressional funding a military expedition up the river. With those funds Johnson expected to provide the transportation for the expedition but was angry and disappointed when the commander of the expedition Lt. Joseph Christmas Ives rejected his offer of one of his steamboats. Before Ives could finish reassembling his steamer in the delta, George A. Johnson set off from Fort Yuma on December 31, 1857, conducting his own exploration of the river above the fort in his steamboat General Jesup . He ascended the river in twenty one days as far as the first rapids in Pyramid Canyon , over 300 miles (480 km) above Fort Yuma and 8 miles (13 km) above the modern site of Davis Dam . Running low on food he turned back. [150] : 16–17,19 [156] He as he returned he encountered Lieutenant Ives, Whipple's assistant, who was leading an expedition to explore the feasibility of using the Colorado River as a navigation route in the Southwest. Ives and his men used a specially built steamboat, the shallow-draft U.S.S. Explorer , and traveled up the river as far as Black Canyon. He then took a small boat up beyond the canyon to Fortification Rock and Las Vegas Wash . [157] : Part 1, 85–87 After experiencing numerous groundings and accidents and having been inhibited by low water in the river, Ives declared: \"Ours has been the first, and will doubtless be the last, party of whites to visit this profitless locality. It seems intended by nature that the Colorado River, along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way, shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed.\" [158] [159] Until 1866, El Dorado Canyon was the actual head of navigation on the Colorado River. In that year Captain Robert T. Rogers , commanding the steamer Esmeralda with a barge and ninety tons of freight, reached Callville, Nevada , on October 8, 1866. [150] : 49 Callville remained the head of navigation on the river until July 7, 1879, when Captain J. A. Mellon in the Gila left El Dorado Canyon landing, steamed up through the rapids in Black Canyon, making record time to Callville and tied up overnight. Next morning he to steamed up through the rapids in Boulder Canyon to reach the mouth of the Virgin River at Rioville July 8, 1879. From 1879 to 1887, Rioville, Nevada was the high water Head of Navigation for the steamboats and the mining company sloop Sou'Wester that carried the salt needed for the reduction of silver ore from there to the mills at El Dorado Canyon. [150] : 78 Powell's expeditions, 1869–1871 [ edit ] Up until the mid-19th century, long stretches of the Colorado and Green rivers between Wyoming and Nevada remained largely unexplored due to their remote location and dangers of navigation. Because of the dramatic drop in elevation of the two rivers, there were rumors of huge waterfalls and violent rapids, and Native American tales strengthened their credibility. [160] In 1869, one-armed Civil War veteran John Wesley Powell led an expedition from Green River Station in Wyoming, aiming to run the two rivers all the way down to St. Thomas, Nevada , near present-day Hoover Dam. [161] Powell and nine men – none of whom had prior whitewater experience – set out in May. After braving the rapids of the Gates of Lodore , Cataract Canyon and other gorges along the Colorado, the party arrived at the mouth of the Little Colorado River, where Powell noted down arguably the most famous words ever written about the Grand Canyon of the Colorado: [162] Marble Canyon, one of the many gorges that Powell's expedition traversed We are now ready to start on our way down the Great Unknown. Our boats, tied to a common stake, are chafing each other, as they are tossed by the fretful river. They ride high and buoyant, for their loads are lighter than we could desire. We have but a month's rations remaining. The flour has been re-sifted through the mosquito net sieve; the spoiled bacon has been dried, and the worst of it boiled; the few pounds of dried apples have been spread in the sun, and re-shrunken to their normal bulk; the sugar has all melted, and gone on its way down the river; but we have a large sack of coffee. The lighting of the boats has this advantage: they will ride the waves better, and we shall have little to carry when we make a portage. We are three-quarters of a mile in the depths of the earth, and the great river shrinks into insignificance, as it dashes its angry waves against the walls and cliffs, that rise to the world above; they are but puny ripples, and we but pigmies, running up and down the sands, or lost among the boulders. We have an unknown distance yet to run; an unknown river yet to explore. What falls there are, we know not; what rocks beset the channel, we know not; what walls rise over the river, we know not; Ah, well! we may conjecture many things. The men talk as cheerfully as ever; jests are bandied about freely this morning; but to me the cheer is somber and the jests are ghastly. — John Wesley Powell's journal, August 1869 [162] On August 28, 1869, three men deserted the expedition, convinced that they could not possibly survive the trip through the Grand Canyon. They were killed by Native Americans after making it to the rim of the canyon; two days later, the expedition ran the last of the Grand Canyon rapids and reached St. Thomas. [163] Powell led a second expedition in 1871, this time with financial backing from the U.S. government. [164] The explorers named many features along the Colorado and Green rivers, including Glen Canyon, the Dirty Devil River, Flaming Gorge, and the Gates of Lodore. In what is perhaps a twist of irony, modern-day Lake Powell, which floods Glen Canyon, is also named for their leader. [165] American settlement [ edit ] The steamboat Mohave No. 2 at Yuma, c. 1876 Starting in the latter half of the 19th century, the lower Colorado below Black Canyon became an important waterway for steamboat commerce . In 1852, the Uncle Sam was launched to provide supplies to the U.S. Army outpost at Fort Yuma . Although this vessel accidentally foundered and sank early in its career, commercial traffic quickly proliferated because river transport was much cheaper than hauling freight over land. [166] Navigation on the Colorado River was dangerous because of the shallow channel and flow variations, so the first sternwheeler on the river, the Colorado of 1855, was designed to carry 60 short tons (54 t) while drawing less than 2 feet (0.6 m) of water. [167] The tidal bore of the lower Colorado also presented a major hazard; in 1922, a 15-foot (4.6 m)-high wave swamped a ship bound for Yuma, killing between 86 and 130 people. [168] [169] Steamboats quickly became the principal source of communication and trade along the river until competition from railroads began in the 1870s, and finally the construction of dams along the lower river in 1909, none of which had locks to allow the passage of ships. [170] During the Manifest Destiny era of the mid-19th century, American pioneers settled many western states but generally avoided the Colorado River basin until the 1850s. Under Brigham Young 's grand vision for a \"vast empire in the desert\", [171] (the State of Deseret ) Mormon settlers were among the first whites to establish a permanent presence in the watershed, Fort Clara or Fort Santa Clara , in the winter of 1855-1856 along the Santa Clara River , tributary of the Virgin River. In the lower Colorado mining was the primary spur to economic development, copper mining in southwestern New Mexico Territory the 1850s then the Mohave War and a gold rush on the Gila River in 1859, the El Dorado Canyon Rush in 1860 and Colorado River Gold Rush in 1862. In 1860, anticipating the American Civil War, the Mormons established a number of settlements to grow cotton along the Virgin River in Washington County, Utah . From 1863 to 1865, Mormon colonists founded St. Thomas and other colonies on the Muddy and Virgin rivers in northwestern Arizona Territory , (now Clark County, Nevada ). Stone's Ferry was established by these colonists on the Colorado at the mouth of the Virgin River to carry their produce on a wagon road to the mining districts of Mohave County, Arizona to the south. Also, in 1866, a steamboat landing was established at Callville , intended as an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Colorado River, for Mormon settlements in the Great Basin. These settlements reached a peak population of about 600 before being abandoned in 1871, and for nearly a decade these valleys became a haven for outlaws and cattle rustlers. [172] One Mormon settler Daniel Bonelli , remained, operating the ferry and began mining salt in nearby mines, bring it in barges, down river to El Dorado Canyon where it was used to process silver ore. From 1879 to 1887, Colorado Steam Navigation Company steamboats carried the salt, operating up river in the high spring flood waters, through Boulder Canyon , to the landing at Rioville at the mouth of the Virgin River. From 1879 to 1882 the Southwestern Mining Company, largest in El Dorado Canyon, brought in a 56-foot sloop the Sou'Wester that sailed up and down river carrying the salt in the low water time of year until it was wrecked in the Quick and Dirty Rapids of Black Canyon. [150] : 78 John D. Lee , date and photographer unknown. He established a permanent ferry across the Colorado. Mormons founded settlements along the Duchesne River Valley in the 1870s, and populated the Little Colorado River valley later in the century, settling in towns such as St. Johns, Arizona . [127] They also established settlements along the Gila River in central Arizona beginning in 1871. These early settlers were impressed by the extensive ruins of the Hohokam civilization that previously occupied the Gila River valley, and are said to have \"envisioned their new agricultural civilization rising as the mythical phoenix bird from the ashes of Hohokam society\". [173] The Mormons were the first whites to develop the water resources of the basin on a large scale, and built complex networks of dams and canals to irrigate wheat, oats and barley in addition to establishing extensive sheep and cattle ranches. [171] One of the main reasons the Mormons were able to colonize Arizona was the existence of Jacob Hamblin 's ferry across the Colorado at Lee's Ferry (then known as Pahreah Crossing), which began running in March 1864. [174] This location was the only section of river for hundreds of miles in both directions where the canyon walls dropped away, allowing for the development of a transport route. John Doyle Lee established a more permanent ferry system at the site in 1870. One reason Lee chose to run the ferry was to flee from Mormon leaders who held him responsible for the Mountain Meadows Massacre , in which 120 emigrants in a wagon train were killed by a local militia disguised as Native Americans. Even though it was located along a major travel route, Lee's Ferry was very isolated, and there Lee and his family established the aptly named Lonely Dell Ranch . [174] In 1928, the ferry sank, resulting in the deaths of three men. Later that year, the Navajo Bridge was completed at a point 5 miles (8 km) downstream, rendering the ferry obsolete. [175] Gold strikes from the mid-19th to early 20th centuries played a major role in attracting settlers to the upper Colorado River basin. In 1859, a group of adventurers from Georgia discovered gold along the Blue River in Colorado and established the mining boomtown of Breckenridge . [176] During 1875, even bigger strikes were made along the Uncompahgre and San Miguel rivers, also in Colorado, and these led to the creation of Ouray and Telluride , respectively. [177] [178] Because most gold deposits along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries occur in lode deposits, extensive mining systems and heavy machinery were required to extract them. Mining remains a substantial contributor to the economy of the upper basin and has led to acid mine drainage problems in some regional streams and rivers. [179] [180] Naming of the upper Colorado River and controversy [ edit ] Prior to 1921, the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names. Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776. Through the mid-1800s, the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River. The river above the junction with the Gunnison River, however, was known variously as the Bunkara River, the North Fork of the Grand River, the Blue River, and the Grand River. The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s. [181] In 1921, U.S. Representative Edward T. Taylor of Colorado petitioned the Congressional Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce to rename the Grand River as the Colorado River. Taylor saw the fact that the Colorado River started outside the border of his state as an \"abomination\". [182] On July 25, the name change was made official in House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th Congress , over the objections of representatives from Wyoming, Utah, and the USGS, which noted that the Green River was much longer and had a larger drainage basin above its confluence with the Grand River, although the Grand contributed a greater flow of water. [181] [183] [n 7] Engineering and development [ edit ] Glen Canyon Dam (right) forms Lake Powell , the second-largest reservoir on the Colorado River with a capacity of more than 24.3 million acre feet (3.00 × 10 10 m 3 ). The Colorado River is the sole source of water for the Imperial Valley in southern California, one of the most productive agricultural regions in the U.S. The Colorado River flowing into Lake Mead See also: International Boundary and Water Commission , Dams in the Colorado River system , and Colorado River Compact Today, between 36 and 40 million people depend on the Colorado River's water for agricultural, industrial and domestic needs. [87] [185] Southern Nevada Water Authority called the Colorado River one of the \"most controlled, controversial and litigated rivers in the world\". [186] Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to supply thirsty cities, provide irrigation water to some 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares), [187] and meet peaking power demands in the Southwest, [188] [189] generating more than 12 billion kWh of hydroelectricity each year. [190] Often called \"America's Nile \", [191] the Colorado is so carefully managed – with basin reservoirs capable of holding four times the river's annual flow – that each drop of its water is used an average of 17 times in a single year. [192] [193] One of the earliest water projects in the Colorado River basin was the Grand Ditch , a 16-mile (26 km) diversion canal that sends water from the Never Summer Mountains , which would naturally have drained into the headwaters of the Colorado River, to bolster supplies in Colorado's Front Range Urban Corridor . Constructed primarily by Japanese and Mexican laborers, the ditch was considered an engineering marvel when completed in 1890, delivering 17,700 acre feet (21,800 ML) across the Continental Divide each year. [194] Because roughly 75 percent of Colorado's precipitation falls west of the Rocky Mountains while 80 percent of the population lives east of the range, more of these interbasin water transfers , locally known as transmountain diversions, followed. [195] While first envisioned in the late 19th century, construction on the Colorado-Big Thompson Project (C-BT) did not begin until the 1930s. The C-BT now delivers more than 11 times the Grand Ditch's flow from the Colorado River watershed to cities along the Front Range. [196] Meanwhile, large-scale development was also beginning on the opposite end of the Colorado River. In 1900, entrepreneurs of the California Development Company (CDC) looked to the Imperial Valley of southern California as an excellent location to develop agriculture irrigated by the waters of the river. Engineer George Chaffey was hired to design the Alamo Canal , which split off from the Colorado River near Pilot Knob , curved south into Mexico, and dumped into the Alamo River , a dry arroyo which had historically carried flood flows of the Colorado into the Salton Sink. With a stable year-round flow in the Alamo River, irrigators in the Imperial Valley were able to begin large-scale farming, and small towns in the region started to expand with the influx of job-seeking migrants. [197] By 1903, more than 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) in the valley were under cultivation, supporting a growing population of 4,000. [198] It was not long before the Colorado River began to wreak havoc with its erratic flows. In autumn, the river would drop below the level of the canal inlet, and temporary brush diversion dams had to be constructed. In early 1905, heavy floods destroyed the headworks of the canal, and water began to flow uncontrolled down the canal towards the Salton Sink. On August 9, the entire flow of the Colorado swerved into the canal and began to flood the bottom of the Imperial Valley. In a desperate gamble to close the breach, crews of the Southern Pacific Railroad , whose tracks ran through the valley, attempted to dam the Colorado above the canal, only to see their work demolished by a flash flood. [197] It took seven attempts, more than $3 million, and two years for the railroad, the CDC, and the federal government to permanently block the breach and send the Colorado on its natural course to the gulf – but not before part of the Imperial Valley was flooded under a 45-mile-long (72 km) lake, today's Salton Sea . After the immediate flooding threat passed, it was realized that a more permanent solution would be needed to rein in the Colorado. [199] [200] [201] Lower Basin development, 1930s–50s [ edit ] In 1922, six U.S. states in the Colorado River basin signed the Colorado River Compact , which divided half of the river's flow to both the Upper Basin (the drainage area above Lee's Ferry, comprising parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming and a small portion of Arizona) and the Lower Basin (Arizona, California, Nevada, and parts of New Mexico and Utah). Each was given rights to 7.5 million acre feet (9.3 km 3 ) of water per year, a figure believed to represent half of the river's minimum flow at Lee's Ferry. [202] This was followed by a U.S.–Mexico treaty in 1944, allocating 1.5 million acre feet (1.9 km 3 ) of Colorado River water to the latter country per annum. [203] Arizona refused to ratify the Colorado River Compact in 1922 because it feared that California would take too much of the lower basin allotment; in 1944 a compromise was reached in which Arizona would get a firm allocation of 2.8 million acre feet (3.5 km 3 ), but only if California's 4.4-million-acre-foot (5.4 km 3 ) allocation was prioritized during drought years. [204] These and nine other decisions, compacts, federal acts and agreements made between 1922 and 1973 form what is now known as the Law of the River. [204] [205] Hoover Dam releasing water in 1998 On September 30, 1935, the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) completed Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. [206] Behind the dam rose Lake Mead, the largest artificial lake in the U.S., capable of holding more than two years of the Colorado's flow. [27] The construction of Hoover was a major step towards stabilizing the lower channel of the Colorado River, storing water for irrigation in times of drought, and providing much-needed flood control as part of a program known as the Boulder Canyon Project. Hoover was the tallest dam in the world at the time of construction and also had the world's largest hydroelectric power plant. [207] Flow regulation from Hoover Dam opened the doors for rapid development on the lower Colorado River; Imperial and Parker dams followed in 1938, and Davis Dam was completed in 1950. [208] [209] Completed in 1938 some 20 miles (32 km) above Yuma, Imperial Dam diverts nearly all of the Colorado's flow into two irrigation canals. The All-American Canal, built as a permanent replacement for the Alamo Canal, is so named because it lies completely within the U.S., unlike its ill–fated predecessor. With a capacity of over 26,000 cubic feet per second (740 m 3 /s), the All-American is the largest irrigation canal in the world, [210] supplying water to 500,000 acres (2,000 km 2 ) of California's Imperial Valley. [211] Because the valley's warm and sunny climate lends to a year-round growing season in addition to the large water supply furnished by the Colorado, the Imperial Valley is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in North America. [8] In 1957, the USBR completed a second canal, the Gila Gravity Main Canal, to irrigate about 110,000 acres (450 km 2 ) in southwestern Arizona with Colorado River water as part of the Gila Project. [212] Colorado River water allocations [202] [203] [213] User Amount (MAF) [n 8] Share United States 15.0 90.9% CA 4.4 26.7% CO 3.88 23.5% AZ 2.8 17.0% UT 1.72 10.4% WY 1.05 6.4% NM 0.84 5.1% NV 0.3 1.8% Mexico 1.5 9.1% Total 16.5 100% The Lower Basin states also sought to develop the Colorado for municipal supplies. Central Arizona initially relied on the Gila River and its tributaries through projects such as the Theodore Roosevelt and Coolidge Dams – completed in 1911 and 1928, respectively. Roosevelt was the first large dam constructed by the USBR and provided the water needed to start large-scale agricultural and urban development in the region. [214] The Colorado River Aqueduct , which delivers water nearly 250 miles (400 km) from near Parker Dam to 10 million people in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, was completed in 1941. [215] The San Diego Aqueduct branch, whose initial phase was complete by 1947, furnishes water to nearly 3 million people in San Diego and its suburbs. [216] The Las Vegas Valley of Nevada experienced rapid growth in part due to Hoover Dam construction, and Las Vegas had tapped a pipeline into Lake Mead by 1937. Nevada officials, believing that groundwater resources in the southern part of the state were sufficient for future growth, were more concerned with securing a large amount of the dam's power supply than water from the Colorado; thus they settled for the smallest allocation of all the states in the Colorado River Compact. [217] Upper Basin development, 1950s–1970s [ edit ] Through the early decades of the 20th century, the Upper Basin states, with the exception of Colorado, remained relatively undeveloped and used little of the water allowed to them under the Colorado River Compact. Water use had increased significantly by the 1950s, and more water was being diverted out of the Colorado River basin to the Front Range corridor, the Salt Lake City area in Utah, and the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico. [218] Such projects included the Roberts Tunnel, completed in 1956, which diverts 63,000 acre feet (78,000 ML) per year from the Blue River to the city of Denver, [219] [220] and the Fryingpan-Arkansas Project , which delivers 69,200 acre feet (85,400 ML) from the Fryingpan River to the Arkansas River basin each year. [221] Without the addition of surface water storage in the upper basin, there was no guarantee that the upper basin states would be able to use the full amount of water given to them by the compact. There was also the concern that drought could impair the upper basin's ability to deliver the required 7.5 million acre feet (9.3 × 10 9 m 3 ) past Lee's Ferry per year as stipulated by the compact. A 1956 act of Congress cleared the way for the USBR's Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP), which entailed the construction of large dams on the Colorado, Green, Gunnison and San Juan Rivers. [222] The initial blueprints for the CRSP included two dams on the Green River within Dinosaur National Monument 's Echo Park Canyon , a move criticized by both the U.S. National Park Service and environmentalist groups such as the Sierra Club . [223] Controversy reached a nationwide scale, and the USBR dropped its plans for the Dinosaur dams in exchange for a dam at Flaming Gorge and a raise to an already-proposed dam at Glen Canyon. The famed opposition to Glen Canyon Dam, the primary feature of the CRSP, did not build momentum until construction was well underway. This was primarily because of Glen Canyon's remote location and the result that most of the American public did not even know of the existence of the impressive gorge; the few who did contended that it had much greater scenic value than Echo Park. Sierra Club leader David Brower fought the dam both during the construction and for many years afterwards until his death in 2000. Brower strongly believed that he was personally responsible for the failure to prevent Glen Canyon's flooding, calling it his \"greatest mistake, greatest sin\". [224] [225] Pacific Southwest Water Plan [ edit ] Agricultural and urban growth in Arizona eventually outstripped the capacity of local rivers; these concerns were reflected in the creation of a Pacific Southwest Water Plan in the 1950s, which aimed to build a project that would permit Arizona to fully utilize its 2.8-million-acre-foot (3.5 km 3 ) allotment of the river. The Pacific Southwest Water Plan was the first major proposal to divert water to the Colorado Basin from other river basins – namely, from the wetter northwestern United States. It was intended to boost supplies for the Lower Basin states of Arizona, California and Nevada as well as Mexico, thus allowing the Upper Basin states to retain native Colorado River flows for their own use. Although there was still a surplus of water in the Colorado Basin during the mid-20th century, the Bureau of Reclamation predicted, correctly, that eventually population growth would outstrip the available supply and require the transfer of water from other sources. The original version of the plan proposed to divert water from the Trinity River in northern California to reduce Southern California's dependence on the Colorado, allowing more water to be pumped, by exchange, to central Arizona. Because of the large amount of power that would be required to pump Colorado River water to Arizona, the CAP originally included provisions for hydroelectric dams at Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon , which would have flooded large portions of the Colorado within the Grand Canyon and dewatered much of the remainder. [226] When these plans were publicized, the environmental movement – still reeling from the Glen Canyon controversy – successfully lobbied against the project. As a result, the Grand Canyon dams were removed from the CAP agenda, the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park were extended to preclude any further development in the area, and the pumping power was replaced by the building of the coal-fired Navajo Generating Station near Page, Arizona, in 1976. [227] [228] [229] The resulting Central Arizona Project (CAP) irrigates more than 830,000 acres (3,400 km 2 ) and provides municipal supplies to over 5 million people from Phoenix to Tucson using water from the Colorado River. [227] Environmental impacts [ edit ] The Colorado was named for the reddish color caused by its natural sediment loads, but damming the river has caused it to acquire a clear green hue as seen here in lower Glen Canyon. Historically, the Colorado transported from 85 to 100 million short tons (77,000,000 to 91,000,000 t) of sediment or silt to the Gulf of California each year – second only to the Mississippi among North American rivers. [230] This sediment nourished wetlands and riparian areas along the river's lower course, particularly in its 3,000-square-mile (7,800 km 2 ) delta, once the largest desert estuary on the continent. [231] Currently, the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at the upper end of Lake Powell, and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead. Various estimates place the time it would take for Powell to completely fill with silt at 300 to 700 years. Dams trapping sediment not only pose damage to river habitat but also threaten future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system. [232] Reduction in flow caused by dams, diversions, water for thermoelectric power stations, [233] and evaporation losses from reservoirs – the latter of which consumes more than 15 percent of the river's natural runoff [234] – has had severe ecological consequences in the Colorado River Delta and the Gulf of California. Historically, the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf. Today's desiccated delta, at only a fraction of its former size, no longer provides suitable habitat, and populations of fish, shrimp and sea mammals in the gulf have seen a dramatic decline. [190] Since 1963, the only times when the Colorado River has reached the ocean have been during El Niño events in the 1980s and 1990s. [235] Reduced flows have led to increases in the concentration of certain substances in the lower river that have impacted water quality. Salinity is one of the major issues and also leads to the corrosion of pipelines in agricultural and urban areas. [236] The lower Colorado's salt content was about 50 parts per million (ppm) in its natural state, [190] but by the 1960s, it had increased to well over 2000 ppm. [237] By the early 1970s, there was also serious concern about salinity caused by salts leached from local soils by irrigation drainage water, which were estimated to add 10 million short tons (9,100,000 t) of excess salt to the river per year. The Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act was passed in 1974, mandating conservation practices including the reduction of saline drainage. The program reduced the annual load by about 1.2 million short tons (1,100,000 t), but salinity remains an ongoing issue. [238] In 1997, the USBR estimated that saline irrigation water caused crop damages exceeding $500 million in the U.S. and $100 million in Mexico. Further efforts have been made to combat the salt issue in the lower Colorado, including the construction of a desalination plant at Yuma. [239] In 2011, the seven U.S. states agreed upon a \"Plan of Implementation\", which aims to reduce salinity by 644,000 short tons (584,000 t) per year by 2030. [238] In 2013, the Bureau of Reclamation estimated that around $32 million was spent each year to prevent around 1.2 million tons of salt from entering and damaging the Colorado River. [236] Agricultural runoff containing pesticide residues has also been concentrated in the lower river in greater amounts. Toxins derived from pesticides have led to fish kills; six of these events were recorded between 1964 and 1968 alone. [240] The pesticide issue is even greater in streams and water bodies near agricultural lands irrigated by the Imperial Irrigation District with Colorado River water. In the Imperial Valley, Colorado River water used for irrigation overflows into the New and Alamo rivers and into the Salton Sea. Both rivers and the sea are among the most polluted bodies of water in the United States, posing dangers not only to aquatic life but to contact by humans and migrating birds. [241] [242] Pollution from agricultural runoff is not limited to the lower river; the issue is also significant in upstream reaches such as Colorado's Grand Valley, also a major center of irrigated agriculture. [243] Large dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower levels of their reservoirs, resulting in stable and relatively cold year-round temperatures in long reaches of the river. The Colorado's average temperature once ranged from 85 °F (29 °C) at the height of summer to near freezing in winter, but modern flows through the Grand Canyon, for example, rarely deviate significantly from 46 °F (8 °C). [244] Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations, and stable flows have enabled increased vegetation growth, obstructing riverside habitat. [245] These flow patterns have also made the Colorado more dangerous to recreational boaters; people are more likely to die of hypothermia in the colder water, and the general lack of flooding allows rockslides to build up, making the river more difficult to navigate. [246] Minute 319 [ edit ] In the 21st century, there has been renewed interest in restoring a limited water flow to the delta. In November 2012, the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement, known as Minute 319, permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years, thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used. In addition to renovating irrigation canals in the Mexicali Valley to reduce leakage, this will make about 45,000 acre feet (56,000,000 m 3 ) per year available for release to the delta on average. The water will be used to provide both an annual base flow and a spring \"pulse flow\" to mimic the river's original snowmelt-driven regime. [247] [248] The first pulse flow, an eight-week release of 105,000 acre feet (130,000,000 m 3 ), was initiated on March 21, 2014, with the aim of revitalising 2,350 acres (950 hectares) of wetland . [249] This pulse reached the sea on May 16, 2014, marking the first time in 16 years that any water from the Colorado flowed into the ocean, and was hailed as \"an experiment of historic political and ecological significance\" and a landmark in U.S.–Mexican cooperation in conservation. [10] [250] [251] The pulse will be followed by the steady release of 52,000 acre feet (64,000,000 m 3 ) over the following three years, just a small fraction of its average flow before damming. [249] Uncertain future [ edit ] “ [The Colorado is] a 'deficit' river, as if the river were somehow at fault for its overuse. ” — Marc Reisner , in Cadillac Desert [252] When the Colorado River Compact was drafted in the 1920s, it was based on barely 30 years of streamflow records that suggested an average annual flow of 17.5 million acre feet (21.6 km 3 ) past Lee's Ferry. [253] Modern studies of tree rings revealed that those three decades were probably the wettest in the past 500 to 1,200 years and that the natural long-term annual flow past Lee's Ferry is probably closer to 13.5 million acre feet (16.7 km 3 ), [254] [n 9] as compared to the natural flow at the mouth of 16.3 million acre feet (20.1 km 3 ). [3] This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows through the Colorado. [256] Droughts have exacerbated the issue of water over-allocation, [257] including the Texas drought of the 1950s , which saw several consecutive years of notably low water and has often been used in planning for \"a worst-case scenario\". [258] Lake Mead in 2010, showing the \"bathtub ring\" left behind by low water levels The most severe drought on record began in the early 21st century, in which the river basin produced normal or above-average runoff in only four years between 2000 and 2012. [259] Major reservoirs in the basin dropped to historic lows, [260] with Lake Powell falling to just one-third of capacity in early 2005, the lowest level on record since 1969, when the reservoir was still in the process of filling. [261] The watershed is experiencing a warming trend, which is accompanied by earlier snowmelt and a general reduction in precipitation. A 2004 study showed that a 1–6 percent decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff declining by as much as 18 percent by 2050. [262] Average reservoir storage declined by at least 32 percent, further crippling the region's water supply and hydropower generation. [263] A study by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand an even chance of dropping to useless levels or \"dead pool\" [n 10] by 2021 if current drying trends and water usage rates continue. [265] In late 2010, Lake Mead dropped to just 8 feet (2.4 m) above the first \"drought trigger\" elevation, a level at which Arizona and Nevada would have to begin rationing water as delineated by the Colorado River Compact. [266] Despite above-average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than 30 feet (9.1 m), [267] [268] record drought conditions returned in 2012 and 2013. [269] Reservoir levels were low enough at the beginning of water year 2014 that the Bureau of Reclamation cut releases from Lake Powell by 750,000 acre feet (930,000,000 m 3 ) – the first such reduction since the 1960s, when Lake Powell was being filled for the first time. [270] This resulted in Lake Mead dropping to its lowest recorded level since 1937, when it was first being filled. [271] Rapid development and economic growth further complicate the issue of a secure water supply, particularly in the case of California's senior water rights over those of Nevada and Arizona: in case of a reduction in water supply, Nevada and Arizona would have to endure severe cuts before any reduction in the California allocation, which is also larger than the other two combined. [256] [272] Although stringent water conservation measures have been implemented, the threat of severe shortfalls in the Colorado River basin continues to increase each year. [273] After a much lower-than-average snowpack in the 2018 water year, Bureau of Reclamation officials projected the odds of an official shortage declaration in 2020 at 52 percent, in 2021 at 64 percent, and in 2022 at 68 percent. [274] [275] Wildlife and plants [ edit ] Further information: List of flora of the Lower Colorado River Valley The Colorado River and its tributaries often nourish extensive corridors of riparian growth as they traverse the arid desert regions of the watershed. Although riparian zones represent a relatively small proportion of the basin and have been affected by engineering projects and river diversion in many places, they have the greatest biodiversity of any habitat in the basin. [276] The most prominent riparian zones along the river occur along the lower Colorado below Davis Dam, [277] especially in the Colorado River Delta, where riparian areas support 358 species of birds despite the reduction in freshwater flow and invasive plants such as tamarisk (salt cedar). [278] Reduction of the delta's size has also threatened animals such as jaguars and the vaquita porpoise, which is endemic to the gulf. [279] Human development of the Colorado River has also helped to create new riparian zones by smoothing the river's seasonal flow, notably through the Grand Canyon. [280] Heavily forested banks of the Colorado River near Topock, Arizona More than 1,600 species of plants grow in the Colorado River watershed, ranging from the creosote bush , saguaro cactus , and Joshua trees of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts to the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other uplands, composed mainly of ponderosa pine , subalpine fir , Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce . [60] Before logging in the 19th century, forests were abundant in high elevations as far south as the Mexico–U.S. border, and runoff from these areas nourished abundant grassland communities in river valleys. Some arid regions of the watershed, such as the upper Green River valley in Wyoming, Canyonlands National Park in Utah and the San Pedro River valley in Arizona and Sonora, supported extensive reaches of grassland roamed by large mammals such as buffalo and antelope as late as the 1860s. Near Tucson, Arizona, \"where now there is only powder-dry desert, the grass once reached as high as the head of a man on horse back\". [281] Rivers and streams in the Colorado basin were once home to 49 species of native fish, of which 42 were endemic . Engineering projects and river regulation have led to the extinction of four species and severe declines in the populations of 40 species. [282] Bonytail chub , razorback sucker , Colorado pikeminnow, and humpback chub are among those considered the most at risk; all are unique to the Colorado River system and well adapted to the river's natural silty conditions and flow variations. Clear, cold water released by dams has significantly changed characteristics of habitat for these and other Colorado River basin fishes. [283] A further 40 species that occur in the river today, notably the brown trout , were introduced during the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly for sport fishing. [284] Recreation [ edit ] A rafting party on the Colorado River Famed for its dramatic rapids and canyons, the Colorado is one of the most desirable whitewater rivers in the United States, and its Grand Canyon section – run by more than 22,000 people annually [285] – has been called the \"granddaddy of rafting trips\". [286] Grand Canyon trips typically begin at Lee's Ferry and take out at Diamond Creek or Lake Mead ; they range from one to eighteen days for commercial trips and from two to twenty-five days for private trips. [287] Private (noncommercial) trips are extremely difficult to arrange because the National Park Service limits river traffic for environmental purposes; people who desire such a trip often have to wait more than 10 years for the opportunity. [288] Several other sections of the river and its tributaries are popular whitewater runs, and many of these are also served by commercial outfitters. The Colorado's Cataract Canyon and many reaches in the Colorado headwaters are even more heavily used than the Grand Canyon, and about 60,000 boaters run a single 4.5-mile (7.2 km) section above Radium, Colorado , each year. [289] The upper Colorado also includes many of the river's most challenging rapids, including those in Gore Canyon, which is considered so dangerous that \"boating is not recommended\". [289] Another section of the river above Moab, known as the Colorado \"Daily\" or \"Fisher Towers Section\", is the most visited whitewater run in Utah, with more than 77,000 visitors in 2011 alone. [290] The rapids of the Green River's Gray and Desolation Canyons [291] and the less difficult \" Goosenecks \" section of the lower San Juan River are also frequently traversed by boaters. [292] Eleven U.S. national parks – Arches, Black Canyon of the Gunnison , Bryce Canyon , Canyonlands, Capitol Reef , Grand Canyon, Mesa Verde , Petrified Forest , Rocky Mountain , Saguaro , and Zion – are in the watershed, in addition to many national forests, state parks, and recreation areas. [293] Hiking, backpacking, camping, skiing, and fishing are among the multiple recreation opportunities offered by these areas. Fisheries have declined in many streams in the watershed, especially in the Rocky Mountains, because of polluted runoff from mining and agricultural activities. [294] The Colorado's major reservoirs are also heavily traveled summer destinations. Houseboating and water-skiing are popular activities on Lakes Mead, Powell, Havasu, and Mojave, as well as Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah and Wyoming, and Navajo Reservoir in New Mexico and Colorado. Lake Powell and surrounding Glen Canyon National Recreation Area received more than two million visitors per year in 2007, [295] while nearly 7.9 million people visited Lake Mead and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 2008. [296] Colorado River recreation employs some 250,000 people and contributes $26 billion each year to the Southwest economy. [297] See also [ edit ] Arizona portal California portal Colorado portal Mexico portal Nevada portal New Mexico portal Utah portal Wyoming portal Colorado River Delta Colorado Desert List of Colorado River rapids and features List of largest reservoirs in the United States List of longest rivers of Mexico List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem) London Bridge (Lake Havasu City) Moab uranium mill tailings pile Upper Colorado River Endangered Fish Recovery Program Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Discharge data is for Green River, Utah , 117.6 miles (189.3 km) upstream from the mouth. The stream gauge here measures flow from an area of 44,850 square miles (116,200 km 2 ), representing about 93.2 percent of the basin. [44] Jump up ^ Before large irrigation and municipal diversions, the Gila River discharged about 1.3 million acre feet (1.6 × 10 9 m 3 ) per year, [41] equating a flow of nearly 2,000 cubic feet per second (57 m 3 /s). Jump up ^ Discharge data is for Bluff, Utah , located about 113.5 miles (182.7 km) above the confluence with the Colorado. The gauge measures flow from an area of 23,000 square miles (60,000 km 2 ), about 93.5 percent of the basin. [47] Jump up ^ Discharge data is for Littlefield, Arizona , about 66 miles (106 km) from the confluence with the Colorado, and also upstream of the confluence with its major tributary, the Muddy River . The gauge measures flow from an area of 5,090 square miles (13,200 km 2 ), about 39.1 percent of the total basin. [54] Jump up ^ NIB = \"Northerly International Boundary\", or the point at which the Colorado begins to form the Mexico–U.S. border, south of Yuma. Also note that the SIB (\"Southerly International Boundary\") is the point at which the Colorado ceases to form the border and passes entirely into Mexico. Jump up ^ American population (9.7 million) calculated from statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau [86] and the State of Colorado. [87] The population in Mexico is about 3 million. [88] Jump up ^ The average discharge of the Colorado (Grand) River at Cisco, Utah , about 97 miles (156 km) upstream from the Green River confluence, is 7,181 cubic feet per second (203.3 m 3 /s); between here and the confluence, only a few small, intermittent tributaries join the river. [74] The Green River has an average discharge of 6,048 cubic feet per second (171.3 m 3 /s) as measured at Green River, Utah , about 117.6 miles (189.3 km) above the confluence; [44] below here the only major tributary is the San Rafael River , which contributes an average of 131 cubic feet per second (3.7 m 3 /s), resulting in a total of 6,169 cubic feet per second (174.7 m 3 /s), still significantly lower than the discharge of the Colorado at their confluence. [184] Jump up ^ 1 MAF=1 million acre feet (1.2 km 3 ) Jump up ^ The discrepancy between the natural flow at Lee's Ferry (13.5 million acre-feet/16.65 km 3 ) and the gauged flow between 1921 and 2010 (10.7 million acre-feet/13.22 km 3 ) [80] is mostly due to water diversions above Lee's Ferry and evaporation from reservoirs, especially Lake Powell. [255] Jump up ^ Dead pool refers to the lowest lake level at which water can be released through the dam. For example, Lake Mead's \"dead\" capacity is about 2 million acre feet (2.5 km 3 ). [264] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"Colorado River\" . Geographic Names Information System . United States Geological Survey . February 8, 1980 . Retrieved February 18, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Kammerer, J.C. (May 1990). \"Largest Rivers in the United States\" . U.S. Geological Survey . Retrieved July 2, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Nowak, Kenneth C. (April 2, 2012). \"Stochastic Streamflow Simulation at Interdecadal Time Scales and Implications to Water Resources Management in the Colorado River Basin\" (PDF) . Center for Advanced Decision Support for Water and Environmental Systems . University of Colorado. p. 114. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 11, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b Wiltshire, Gilbert & Rogers 2010 , p. 102. ^ Jump up to: a b \"USGS Gage #09424000 on the Colorado River near Topock, AZ – Daily Data\" . National Water Information System . U.S. Geological Survey. February 14, 1935 . Retrieved April 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Compact and Lees Ferry\" . Colorado River Streamflow: A Paleo Perspective . Western Water Assessment. Archived from the original on April 29, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b Waterman, Jonathan (February 5, 2012). \"Where the Colorado Runs Dry\" . The New York Times . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Imperial Valley\". Encyclopædia Britannica . 1995. 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IVES, CORPS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS, UNDER THE DIRECTION OP THE OFFICE OF EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS, A. A. HUMPHREYS, CAPTAIN TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS, IN CHARGE. BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, 1861; PART I. GENERAL REPORT. Jump up ^ Dellenbaugh 1909 , p. 170. Jump up ^ Schmidt 1993 , p. 12. Jump up ^ Dolnick 2002 , p. 5. Jump up ^ Leuchtenburg 2000 , p. 360. ^ Jump up to: a b Dolnick 2002 , p. 238. Jump up ^ \"Three leave Powell's Grand Canyon expedition\" . This Day In History . History.com . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Historic 3D Photographs of the Second Powell Expedition (1871–1872)\" . Geology of National Parks . U.S. Geological Survey. February 13, 2012 . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Warburton, David L. (May 16, 2005). \"Geology of National Parks: Glen Canyon National Recreation Area\" . Florida Atlantic University. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Jump up ^ Peterson, Richard H. 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The Journal of San Diego History . San Diego History Center. 21 (1) . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Billington, Jackson & Melosi 2005 , p. 140. Jump up ^ Patten, McCaskie and Unitt, pp. 4–5 Jump up ^ \"Origin of the Salton Sea\" . Suburban Emergency Management Project. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Jump up ^ Billington, Jackson & Melosi 2005 , pp. 141–142. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Colorado River Compact, 1922\" (PDF) . U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2012 . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande: Treaty Between the United States of America and Mexico\" (PDF) . International Boundary and Water Commission. February 3, 1944 . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, Larry (May 2002). \"Utah's Perspective: The Colorado River\" (PDF) . Utah Division of Water Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 9, 2014 . 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Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation . Grand Canyon River Guides . Retrieved July 15, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Chapter VII: The Grand Canyon\" . A Survey of the Recreational Resources of the Colorado River Basin . U.S. National Park Service. September 6, 2005. Archived from the original on November 6, 2013 . Retrieved July 15, 2013 . Jump up ^ Gupta 2007 , p. 200. Jump up ^ \"Why The Colorado River Stopped Flowing\" . National Public Radio. July 14, 2011 . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Weisheit, John. \"A Colorado River Sediment Inventory\" (PDF) . Colorado Plateau River Guides . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Colorado River Basin\" . coriverbasin.org . Retrieved May 20, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Colorado River System Consumptive Uses and Losses Report 1996–2000\" (PDF) . U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. December 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 19, 2009. Jump up ^ Sandra Postel (April 5, 2013). \"Landmark Cooperation Brings the Colorado River Home\" . 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Colorado River Basin Regional Water Quality Control Board . California Environmental Protection Agency . Retrieved June 29, 2011 . Jump up ^ Polakovic, Gary. \"A Sea in Trouble\" . The Press-Enterprise . San Diego State University . Retrieved June 29, 2011 . Jump up ^ Bauch, Nancy J.; Spahr, Norman E. (2000). \"Pesticides in Surface Waters of the Upper Colorado River Basin, Colorado, 1996–98\" (PDF) . Water-Resources Investigation Report 00-4005 . U.S. Geological Survey . Retrieved June 29, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Grand Canyon\" . Glen Canyon Institute . Retrieved February 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ Clarkson, Robert W.; Childs, Michael R. (May 8, 2000). \"Temperature Effects of Hypolimnial-Release Dams on Early Life Stages of Colorado River Basin Big-River Fishes\". Copeia . 2000 (2). doi : 10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0402:teohrd]2.0.co;2 . Jump up ^ Ghiglieri & Myers 2001 , pp. 194–214. 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(2003). \"Interannual to Decadal Climate and Streamflow Variability Estimated from Tree Rings\" . Developments in Quaternary Science . pp. 491–504. Jump up ^ \"Upper Colorado River Basin Consumptive Uses and Losses Report 2006-2010\" (PDF) . U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. August 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 10, 2012 . Retrieved June 29, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b Gelt, Joe (August 1997). \"Sharing Colorado River Water: History, Public Policy and the Colorado River Compact\" . Arroyo . University of Arizona, Water Resources Research Center. 10 (1) . Retrieved February 25, 2014 . Jump up ^ Weisheit, John. \"Persistent Drought In The Colorado River Basin\" (PDF) . Confluence . Retrieved May 15, 2012 . Jump up ^ Woodhouse, Connie; Webb, Robert S.; Lukas, Jeff. \"Paleoenvironmental Archives as a source of Climate Information for Natural Resource Management: An Example from Tree Rings and Colorado Water Management\" (PDF) . U.S. Forest Service . Retrieved May 19, 2012 . 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Jump up ^ Sevigny, Melissa (2018-05-17). \"Colorado River Water Shortage Could be Declared in 2020\" . KNAU . Retrieved 2018-05-24 . Jump up ^ Chow, Lorraine (2018-05-17). \"Unprecedented Colorado River Water Shortage Could Be Declared in 2020\" . EcoWatch . Retrieved 2018-05-24 . Jump up ^ \"Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau: Riparian Areas\" . Land Use History of North America . Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original on February 13, 2012 . Retrieved February 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ Ohmart, Robert D.; Anderson, Bertin W.; Hunter, William C. (September 1988). \"The Ecology of the Lower Colorado River from Davis Dam to the Mexico-United States International Boundary: A Community Profile\" (PDF) . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. pp. 9, 12, 14 . Retrieved June 29, 2013 . Jump up ^ Shanahan, S.A.; Nelson, S.M.; Van Dooremolen, D.M.; Eckberg, J.R. (2011). \"Restoring Habitat for Riparian Birds in the Lower Colorado River Watershed: An Example from the Las Vegas Wash, Nevada\" (PDF) . Journal of Arid Environments . 75 : 1182–1190. doi : 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.06.017 . Jump up ^ Alles, David L. (August 8, 2007). \"The Delta of the Colorado River\" (PDF) . Western Washington University . Retrieved February 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ Schell, Robert; King, Morgan E. \"Riparian Vegetation: Structural Diversity Benefits Birds\" (PDF) . University of California, Davis. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 6, 2011 . Retrieved February 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Status of Plant and Animal Life\" . A Survey of the Recreational Resources of the Colorado River Basin . U.S. National Park Service. September 6, 2004 . Retrieved February 23, 2012 . Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005 , p. 493. Jump up ^ \"130: Colorado\" . Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. January 11, 2012. Archived from the original on June 18, 2012 . Retrieved February 23, 2012 . 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(2005). \"The History of Large Federal Dams: Planning, Design and Construction in the Era of Big Dams\" (PDF) . U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2012 . Retrieved April 22, 2012 . Blond, Becca; Dunford, Lisa; Schulte-Peevers, Andrea (2008). Southwest USA . Lonely Planet Travel Guides. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74104-713-7 . Brown, Robert Leaman (1972). Colorado Ghost Towns – Past and Present . Caxton Press. ISBN 0-87004-218-1 . Casey, Robert L. (2007). Journey to the High Southwest: A Traveler's Guide to Santa Fe and the Four Corners of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah . Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-4064-7 . Dellenbaugh, Frederick Samuel (1909). The Romance of the Colorado River: The Story of its Discovery in 1540, With an Account of the Later Explorations, and with Special Reference to the Voyages of Powell Through The Line of the Great Canyons . G.P. Putnam's Sons. OCLC 645167127 . Dolnick, Edward (2002). Down the Great Unknown: John Wesley Powell's Journey of Discovery and Tragedy Through the Grand Canyon . HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-095586-4 . Felger, Richard Stephen; Broyles, Bill (2007). Dry borders: great natural reserves of the Sonoran desert . University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-818-9 . Fielder, John (2002). John Fielder's Best of Colorado . Big Earth Publishing. ISBN 1-56579-429-X . Fradkin, Philip L. (1996). A River No More: The Colorado River and the West (2 ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20564-2 . Glass, Mary Ellen; Glass, Al (1983). Touring Nevada: A Historic and Scenic Guide . University of Nevada Press. ISBN 0-87417-074-5 . Gudde, Erwin G.; Bright, William (2004). California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current Geographical Names . University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24217-3 . Gupta, Avijit (2007). Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management . John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-470-84987-8 . Gupta, S.K. (2010). Modern Hydrology and Sustainable Water Development . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 1-4443-2397-0 . Ghiglieri, Michael P.; Myers, Thomas M. (2001). Over the Edge: Death in Grand Canyon (1st, tenth revision ed.). Flagstaff: Puma Press. ISBN 0-9700973-1-X . Hopkins, Ralph Lee (2002). Hiking the Southwest's Geology: Four Corners Region . The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 1-59485-169-7 . Kessel, William B.; Wooster, Robert (2005). Encyclopedia Of Native American Wars And Warfare . Infobase Publishing. ISBN 0-8160-3337-4 . Lankford, Andrea (2010). Ranger Confidential: Living, Working, and Dying in the National Parks . Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-5263-7 . Leuchtenburg, William Edward (2000). American Places: Encounters with History . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513026-X . Leopold, Luna Bergere (1994). A View of the River . Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-93732-5 . Lindberg, Eric (2009). Colorado Off the Beaten Path: A Guide to Unique Places . Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-5024-3 . Lingenfelter, Richard E. (1978). Steamboats on the Colorado River, 1852–1916 . University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-0650-7 . Logan, Michael F. (2006). Desert Cities: The Environmental History of Phoenix and Tucson . University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-4294-1 . National Research Council (U.S.), Committee to Review the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies (1996). River Resource Management in the Grand Canyon . National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-05448-6 . Nobles, Gregory H. (1998). American Frontiers: Cultural Encounters and Continental Conquest . Macmillan. ISBN 0-8090-1602-8 . Powell, Allan Kent (2003). The Utah Guide (3 ed.). Fulcrum Publishing. ISBN 1-55591-114-5 . Prisciantelli, Tom (2002). Spirit of the American Southwest: Geology, Ancient Eras and Prehistoric People, Hiking Through Time . Sunstone Press. ISBN 0-86534-354-3 . Pritzker, Barry (1998). Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples . 1 . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0-87436-836-7 . Reisner, Marc (1993). Cadillac Desert . Penguin. ISBN 0-14-017824-4 . Rolle, Andrew (1999). John Charles Fremont: Character As Destiny . University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3135-7 . Schmidt, Jeremy (1993). Grand Canyon National Park: A Natural History Guide . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-395-59932-6 . Van Cott, John W. (1990). Utah Place Names: A Comprehensive Guide to the Origins of Geographic Names . University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-345-4 . Wildfang, Frederic B. (2005). Lake Havasu City . Images of America. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-3012-3 . Wiltshire, Richard L.; Gilbert, David R.; Rogers, Jerry R., eds. (2010). Hoover Dam 75th Anniversary History Symposium: Proceedings of the Hoover Dam 75th Anniversary History Symposium, October 21–22, 2010, Las Vegas, Nevada . ASCE Publications. ISBN 0-7844-1141-7 . Young, Richard A.; Spamer, Earle E. (2001). The Colorado River: Origin and Evolution . Grand Canyon Association. ISBN 0-938216-79-1 . Further reading [ edit ] Darrah, William Culp , Ralph V. Chamberlin, and Charles Kelly, editors. (2009). The Exploration of the Colorado River in 1869 and 1871–1872: Biographical Sketches and Original Documents of the First Powell Expedition of 1869 and the Second Powell Expedition of 1871–1872 . ISBN 978-0-87480-963-3 . DeBuys, William (2011). A Great Aridness: Climate Change and the Future of the American Southwest . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977892-8 . Fleck, Richard F., editor. (2000). A Colorado River Reader . ISBN 978-0-87480-647-2 . Fowler, Don D., editor. (2012). Cleaving an Unknown World: The Powell Expeditions and the Scientific Exploration of the Colorado Plateau . ISBN 978-1-60781-146-6 . Gregory, Herbert E., William Culp Darrah, and Charles Kelly, editors. (2009). The Exploration of the Colorado River and the High Plateaus of Utah by the Second Powell Expedition of 1871–1872 . ISBN 978-0-87480-964-0 . Martin, Russell (1990). A Story That Stands Like A Dam: Glen Canyon and the Struggle for the Soul of the West (1 ed.). Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-0822-5 . Summitt, April R. (2013). Contested Waters: An Environmental History of the Colorado River . Boulder: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-201-6 . Summitt, April R. (2013) Contested Waters: An Environmental History of the Colorado River External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Colorado River . Wikisource has original text related to this article: Colorado River Agriculture in the Colorado River Basin : Colorado River Water Users Association Colorado River Water Allocations by State : GOOD Infographics Drought in the Upper Colorado River Basin : U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Irrigation Water Withdrawals in the Colorado River Basin : Pacific Institute Living Rivers: Colorado Riverkeeper Water Level Data for Major Colorado River Reservoirs : water-data.com Where the Colorado Runs Dry : The New York Times 1854 report from the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers: Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado Rivers Killing the Colorado — ProPublica [ show ] v t e Colorado River system Jurisdictions United States Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Utah Wyoming Mexico Baja California Sonora Canyons Byers Canyon Gore Canyon Red Gorge Glenwood Canyon De Beque Canyon Horsethief Canyon Ruby Canyon Westwater Canyon Cataract Canyon Narrow Canyon Glen Canyon Grand Canyon Marble Canyon Granite Gorge Middle Granite Gorge Lower Granite Gorge Grand Wash Canyon Iceberg Canyon Virgin Canyon Boulder Canyon Black Canyon Pyramid Canyon Mohave Canyon Natural features River course Rocky Mountains Colorado River Basin Colorado Plateau Grand Lake Horseshoe Bend Sonoran Desert Mojave Desert Lower Colorado River Valley Mohave Valley Parker Valley Palo Verde Valley Colorado Desert Alamo River New River Salton Sea Imperial Valley Delta Montague Island Gulf of California/Sea of Cortez Tributaries Blue River Dirty Devil River Dolores River Escalante River Eagle River Fraser River Gila River Green River Gunnison River Kanab Creek Little Colorado River Paria River Roaring Fork River San Juan River Thunder River / Tapeats Creek Virgin River Las Vegas Wash Williams Fork Río Hardy Engineering Mainstem dams Shadow Mountain Granby Windy Gap Grand Valley Price-Stubb Glen Canyon Hoover Davis Parker Headgate Rock Palo Verde Imperial Laguna Morelos Major reservoirs Fontenelle Reservoir Flaming Gorge Reservoir Blue Mesa Reservoir Navajo Lake Lake Powell Lake Mead Lake Mohave Lake Havasu Imperial Reservoir Theodore Roosevelt Lake San Carlos Lake Aqueducts and canals Grand Ditch Colorado River Aqueduct San Diego Aqueduct Central Arizona Project All-American Canal Coachella Canal Water projects Boulder Canyon Project Colorado-Big Thompson Project Colorado River Storage Project Grand Valley AVA Yuma Project Designated areas Arches National Park Canyonlands National Park Colorado National Monument Dead Horse Point State Park Glen Canyon National Recreation Area Grand Canyon National Park Lake Mead National Recreation Area Rocky Mountain National Park Related topics Arizona v. 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{ "text": "Pearl Jam 2018 Tour - Wikipedia Pearl Jam 2018 Tour From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pearl Jam 2018 Tour World tour by Pearl Jam Promotional poster Start date March 13, 2018 End date September 4, 2018 Legs 3 No. of shows 5 in South America (1 cancelled) 15 in Europe 7 in North America 27 in total Pearl Jam concert chronology Pearl Jam 2016 North America Tour (2016) Pearl Jam 2018 Tour (2018) The Pearl Jam 2018 Tour was a concert tour by the American rock band Pearl Jam . The tour consisted of twenty-seven shows, with five in South America, fifteen in Europe and seven in North America. [1] [2] It was the band's first tour following their North American tour that finished in August 2016. [3] [4] The South American shows took place in March 2018 and were part of the Lollapalooza festival. [5] [6] The band also played their own headlining shows at the Movistar Arena , Chile and the Maracanã Stadium , Brazil. [7] [8] The European shows started at the Ziggo Dome in Amsterdam on June 12 and concluded at the NOS Alive Festival in Lisbon on July 14, 2018. [9] [10] On March 30, 2018, a second show at the Ziggo Dome was announced. [11] [12] In January 2018, the band announced two shows at Safeco Field in Seattle , billed as the \"Home Shows\", with proceeds to benefit regional homelessness programs. [13] It was the first time in five years since the band last played in their hometown. [14] [15] Later the same month, five more dates were announced in North America, under the name of the \"Away Shows\". [16] The band used the show at Washington–Grizzly Stadium in Missoula, Montana to promote their Rock2Vote campaign to encourage young people to vote. [17] [18] Contents 1 Tour 1.1 South America 1.2 Europe 1.3 North America 2 Tour dates 3 Band members 4 References Tour [ edit ] South America [ edit ] Prior to the first shows in South America, Pearl Jam released a new song, \" Can't Deny Me \", which is taken from their forthcoming album. [19] [20] [21] The tour started on March 13, 2018, with a show at the Movistar Arena in Santiago , Chile. [22] At the opening show of the tour, the band played their new song for the first time, dedicating it to the victims of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting . [23] They also played the song \"Come Back\" in memory of Chris Cornell who died the previous year. [24] Pearl Jam's show on March 18, 2018, at the Lollapalooza festival in Argentina, was cancelled due to severe weather. [25] [26] At the final show in South America, in Brazil, Pearl Jam were joined onstage with Perry Farrell , frontman of Jane's Addiction and co-founder of Lollapalooza, to play the Jane's Addiction track \" Mountain Song \". [27] Europe [ edit ] The European tour started with two shows at the Ziggo Dome in Amsterdam, with the band paying tribute to Anthony Bourdain and Chris Cornell. [28] [29] [30] The tour continued with an appearance at the Pinkpop Festival , also in the Netherlands. [31] The next scheduled dates were two sold out nights at the O2 Arena in London, England. [32] However, after playing the first show, Eddie Vedder lost his voice, [33] and the second night was postponed until July 17. [34] It was the first time that the band had postponed a show for this reason. [35] The tour continued, with Pearl Jam playing at the i-Days Festival in Milan , Italy on June 22. [36] They played two further shows in Italy, in Padua and Rome . [37] [38] The show in Rome saw the band cover several songs, including \" Comfortably Numb \" by Pink Floyd , \" Eruption \" by Van Halen and \" Black Diamond \" by Kiss , with drummer Matt Cameron on vocals for the latter. [39] The European tour continued with several more arena shows, with Pearl Jam covering \" Help! \" by the Beatles at the gig in Prague, [40] and they were joined onstage with J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr. to cover Neil Young 's \" Rockin' in the Free World \" in Berlin. [41] Following the arena shows, the band played three festival dates: the Werchter Festival in Beglium, the Mad Cool Festival in Spain, and the NOS Alive Festival in Portugal. [42] [43] [44] The European leg concluded on July 17, 2018, with the rescheduled date at London's O2 Arena. The Donald Trump baby balloon was on display outside the venue prior to and during the gig. [45] [46] North America [ edit ] The American leg started on August 8, 2018, with a concert at Safeco Field in the band's hometown of Seattle, as part of project across the city to tackle homelessness. [47] At the first show in Seattle, the band covered \" We're Going to Be Friends \" by the White Stripes . [48] At the second Seattle show, Pearl Jam covered the Chris Cornell song \"Missing\", which was written for the Singles Soundtrack . [49] The band were also joined onstage with Kim Thayil of Soundgarden , along with Mark Arm and Steve Turner from Mudhoney . [50] The two shows raised more than $11 million to help with homelessness in the city. [51] [52] The next show was at the Washington–Grizzly Stadium in Missoula on August 13, where Pearl Jam promoted the Rock2Vote campaign, to get young people voting. [53] The poster for the gig featured an image of Donald Trump 's corpse being pecked at by a bald eagle outside the White House . [54] It drew some controversy, with the Republican candidate for the Senate election in Montana, Matt Rosendale , calling it \"disgusting and reprehensible\". [55] The next two dates of the tour were at Wrigley Field , Chicago . At the first night, the band covered \" Rebel Rebel \" by David Bowie , [56] and were later joined onstage with Dennis Rodman . [57] Writing for the Chicago Sun-Times , Selena Fragassi said that \"Pearl Jam shows remain some of the most unpredictable and eclectic live performances\". [58] As per the show at Wrigley Field on the 2013 tour , the second night in Chicago suffered a rain delay during Pearl Jam's set. [59] The band were able to return to the stage to complete the show, which included the first ever live performance of the song \"Evil Little Goat\", an outtake from their debut album Ten . [60] [61] The tour concluded with two sold-out shows at Fenway Park in Boston . [62] [63] At the first show, the song \"Out of My Mind\", an outtake from Vitalogy , was played for the first time in nine years. [64] The Boston Herald 's Jed Gottlieb said that the band \"seemed to pluck sublime rock, unafraid of real emotion from nowhere, and thrill the stadium\". [65] Tour dates [ edit ] Frontman Eddie Vedder at the O2 Arena , London on June 18, 2018 Guitarist Mike McCready at the O2 Arena, London on June 18, 2018 Guitarist Stone Gossard at the Stadio Euganeo , Padua on June 24, 2018 Drummer Matt Cameron at the O2 Arena , Prague on July 1, 2018 List of concerts, showing date, city, country, venue, tickets sold, amount of available tickets and gross revenue Date City Country Venue Attendance Revenue Leg 1 - South America [66] March 13, 2018 Santiago Chile Movistar Arena — — March 16, 2018 [A] O'Higgins Park N/A N/A March 18, 2018 [A] Buenos Aires Argentina Hipódromo de San Isidro (Cancelled due to severe weather) March 21, 2018 Rio de Janeiro Brazil Maracanã Stadium 42,664 / 43,000 $3,324,380 March 24, 2018 [A] São Paulo Autódromo José Carlos Pace N/A N/A Leg 2 - Europe [67] June 12, 2018 Amsterdam Netherlands Ziggo Dome — — June 13, 2018 June 15, 2018 [B] Landgraaf Megaland N/A N/A June 18, 2018 London United Kingdom The O2 Arena 18,539 / 19,221 $1,669,400 June 19, 2018 June 22, 2018 [C] Milan Italy Arena Expo N/A N/A June 24, 2018 Padua Stadio Euganeo — — June 26, 2018 Rome Stadio Olimpico — — July 1, 2018 Prague Czech Republic O2 Arena — — July 3, 2018 Kraków Poland Tauron Arena — — July 5, 2018 Berlin Germany Waldbühne — — July 7, 2018 [D] Werchter Belgium Werchter Festivalpark N/A N/A July 10, 2018 Barcelona Spain Palau Sant Jordi — — July 12, 2018 [E] Madrid Espacio Mad Cool N/A N/A July 14, 2018 [F] Lisbon Portugal Passeio Marítimo de Algés July 17, 2018 [G] London England The O2 Arena 18,171 / 19,572 $1,632,820 Leg 3 - North America August 8, 2018 Seattle United States Safeco Field — — August 10, 2018 August 13, 2018 Missoula Washington–Grizzly Stadium — — August 18, 2018 Chicago Wrigley Field — — August 20, 2018 September 2, 2018 Boston Fenway Park — — September 4, 2018 Total 79,374 / 81,793 $6,626,600 Notes A These concerts are part of the Lollapalooza festival. B This concert is part of the Pinkpop Festival . C This concert is part of the i-Days Festival. D This concert is part of the Werchter Festival . E This concert is part of the Mad Cool Festival. F This concert is part of the NOS Alive Festival. G This concert was originally scheduled to take place on June 19. Band members [ edit ] Pearl Jam Jeff Ament – bass guitar Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar Mike McCready – lead guitar Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, guitar Matt Cameron – drums Additional musicians Boom Gaspar – Hammond B3 and keyboards References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"See Pearl Jam at Lollapalooza in South America\" . Pearl Jam. September 27, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam announce UK and Europe 2018 tour\" . NME. December 1, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Announce North American Spring and Summer Tour\" . Rolling Stone. January 19, 2016 . Retrieved January 19, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"2016 Pearl Jam Tour Announcement\" . Pearl Jam. January 19, 2016 . Retrieved January 19, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and More to Play Lollapalooza Chile, Argentina, and Brasil in 2018\" . Billboard. September 27, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam + Red Hot Chili Peppers Lead 2018 Lollapalooza Concerts in Chile, Argentina + Brazil\" . Loudwire. September 27, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Rio de Janeiro, Brasil Show Date Added\" . Pearl Jam. October 25, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Add Big Show To Tour, Alice In Chains Announce Massive Show With STP\" . Alternative Nation. January 29, 2018 . Retrieved January 31, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam announce details of a European tour\" . Joe.ie. December 1, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Announce 2018 European Tour\" . Spin. December 1, 2017 . Retrieved December 1, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"2nd Amsterdam Show Added\" . Pearl Jam. March 30, 2018 . Retrieved March 30, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam geeft in juni extra concert in Ziggo Dome\" (in Dutch). Artiesten Nieuws. March 30, 2018 . Retrieved March 30, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam brings 'Home Shows' to Seattle to fight homelessness\" . Meaww. August 7, 2018 . Retrieved August 8, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Announce First Seattle Shows in Five Years\" . Spin. January 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Announce Seattle Stadium 'Home Shows' to Fight Homelessness\" . Rolling Stone. January 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Detail Short Summer Stadium Tour\" . Rolling Stone. January 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 24, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Aims To Tap Into Youth Movement With Montana Show\" . Billboard. April 18, 2018 . Retrieved April 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam launching Rock2Vote voting campaign in Montana\" . Rock107. April 18, 2018 . Retrieved April 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"New Song \"Can't Deny Me\" Out Now\" . Pearl Jam. March 12, 2018 . Retrieved March 13, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam confirm release of new album\" . Consequence of Sound. March 13, 2018 . Retrieved March 13, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"There's a new Pearl Jam album on the way\" . NME. March 13, 2018 . Retrieved March 13, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam en Chile: como en casa\" (in Spanish). Publimetro. March 14, 2018 . Retrieved March 14, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Dedicate 'Can't Deny Me' Live Debut to Parkland Students\" . Rolling Stone. March 14, 2018 . Retrieved March 14, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Play First Show in Nearly Two Years: Set List and Video\" . Ultimate Classic Rock. March 14, 2018 . Retrieved March 14, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Comunicado oficial: el tercer día del festival se cancela por severas condiciones climáticas\" (in Spanish). Lollapalooza. March 18, 2018 . Retrieved March 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Lollapalooza Argentina 2018 Cancels Final Day Over Severe Weather\" . Pitchfork. March 18, 2018 . Retrieved March 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Cover Grunge Classic With Perry Farrell\" . Alternative Nation. March 25, 2018 . Retrieved March 25, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam pay tribute to Anthony Bourdain during opening night of tour\" . NME. June 13, 2018 . Retrieved June 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Pay Tribute to Anthony Bourdain and the Spade Family in Amsterdam\" . Spin. June 13, 2018 . Retrieved June 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Pays Tribute to Chris Cornell in Amsterdam With Classic T-Shirts\" . Billboard. June 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pinkpop 2018\" . Festival Info. June 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam, 02 Arena, London — power chords and propulsive beats\" . Financial Times. June 20, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Postpone London Performance After Eddie Vedder Loses Voice\" . Loudwire. June 20, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam reschedule cancelled London show\" . NME. June 25, 2018 . Retrieved June 27, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam cancel O2 Arena show after Eddie Vedder loses voice\" . NME. June 20, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Eddie Vedder's wife wears \"Yes We All Care. Y Don't U?\" jacket at Pearl Jam concert\" . Consequence of Sound. June 23, 2018 . Retrieved June 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Padova, Pearl Jam vs Trump: «gli daremo un calcio nelle palle»\" (in Italian). Vvox. June 25, 2018 . Retrieved June 29, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Il concerto da record dei Pearl Jam a Roma\" (in Italian). Onstage. June 27, 2018 . Retrieved June 29, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Concerti, Pearl Jam: la scaletta del concerto allo stadio Olimpico di Roma\" (in Italian). Rockol. June 26, 2018 . Retrieved June 29, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Eddie Vedder Covers The Beatles' 'Help!' at Pearl Jam Show in Prague\" . Billboard. July 5, 2018 . Retrieved July 6, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Perform With Dinosaur Jr. Singer J Mascis\" . Alternative Nation. July 6, 2018 . Retrieved July 6, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam + MC50 Reunite Soundgarden Pair Onstage for 'Kick Out the Jams' at Rock Werchter\" . Loudwire. July 8, 2018 . Retrieved July 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam rock for freedom and equality in the free world at Mad Cool 2018\" . NME. July 13, 2018 . Retrieved July 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Jack White joins Pearl Jam on stage in Portugal\" . Consequence of Sound. July 15, 2018 . Retrieved July 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Baby Trump Balloon Takes Flight Outside Pearl Jam Show in London\" . Billboard. July 18, 2018 . Retrieved July 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Use Trump Baby Balloon at London Show\" . Ultimate Classic Rock. July 18, 2018 . Retrieved July 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Honor Seattle Roots at 'Home Shows' Kickoff\" . Rolling Stone. August 9, 2018 . Retrieved August 9, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam cover The White Stripes' \"We're Going to Be Friends\" at first Seattle concert in five years\" . Consequence of Sound. August 9, 2018 . Retrieved August 9, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Cover Chris Cornell's \"Missing \" \" . Pitchfork. August 11, 2018 . Retrieved August 11, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam cover Chris Cornell and Tom Petty at Seattle Home Away show\" . Consequence of Sound. August 11, 2018 . Retrieved August 11, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Cover Chris Cornell's 'Missing' at Seattle Stadium Gig\" . Rolling Stone. August 11, 2018 . Retrieved August 11, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam raise 11 million dollars for Seattle's homeless population\" . Consequence of Sound. August 12, 2018 . Retrieved August 12, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam rocks Missoula's vote, the great 'equalizer ' \" . Missoula Current. August 14, 2018 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam under fire for poster depicting Donald Trump's rotting corpse\" . NME. August 15, 2018 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam poster from Missoula show ignites online controversy\" . KPAX. August 15, 2018 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Watch Pearl Jam Cover David Bowie's 'Rebel Rebel' at Chicago's Wrigley Field\" . Rolling Stone. August 19, 2018 . Retrieved August 20, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Dennis Rodman crashes Pearl Jam's Chicago concert to talk politics\" . Fox News. August 19, 2018 . Retrieved August 20, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam as eclectic as always in triumphant, emotional Wrigley Field return\" . Chicago Sun-Times. August 19, 2018 . Retrieved August 20, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Forced To Clear Field At Wrigley Field Due To Weather Concerns\" . CBS Chicago. August 20, 2018 . Retrieved August 22, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam Debut Incredible New Ten Song For First Time\" . Alternative Nation. August 20, 2018 . Retrieved August 22, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Live Review: Pearl Jam Keep Tradition Alive at Chicago's Wrigley Field (8/18, 8/20)\" . Consequence of Sound. August 20, 2018 . Retrieved August 22, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam brings the heat at Fenway\" . The Boston Globe . September 3, 2018 . Retrieved September 4, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam's Fenway shows by the numbers\" . Telegram.com . September 5, 2018 . Retrieved September 6, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam cover Buffalo Tom's \"Taillights Fade\" at Fenway Park\" . Consequence of Sound . September 3, 2018 . Retrieved September 4, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Pearl Jam delivers gem of a show at Fenway Park\" . The Boston Herald . September 4, 2018 . Retrieved September 4, 2018 . Jump up ^ Boxscore leg 1: \"Earnings & Attendance From 'Lollapalooza Brasil', Pearl Jam, Judas Priest, Motionless In White, Etc. Shows\" . Retrieved April 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ Boxscore leg 2: \"Current Boxscore\" . Billboard . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . show v t e Pearl Jam Jeff Ament Matt Cameron Stone Gossard Mike McCready Eddie Vedder Additional personnel Boom Gaspar Former members Dave Abbruzzese Matt Chamberlain Jack Irons Dave Krusen Studio albums Ten Vs. Vitalogy No Code Yield Binaural Riot Act Pearl Jam Backspacer Lightning Bolt Live albums Live on Two Legs Official Bootlegs Live at Benaroya Hall Live in NYC 12/31/92 Live at Easy Street Live at the Gorge 05/06 Live at Lollapalooza 2007 Live on Ten Legs Pearl Jam Twenty 9.11.2011 Toronto, Canada Let's Play Two Compilations Lost Dogs Rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991–2003) Pearl Jam Twenty Extended plays Merkin Ball Videos Single Video Theory Touring Band 2000 Live at the Showbox Live at the Garden Vote for Change? 2004 Immagine in Cornice Pearl Jam Twenty Let's Play Two Singles \" Alive \" \" Even Flow \" \" Jeremy \" \" Oceans \" \" Go \" \" Daughter \" \" Animal \" \" Dissident \" \" Spin the Black Circle \" \" Not for You \" \" Immortality \" \" I Got Id \" \" Who You Are \" \" Hail, Hail \" \" Off He Goes \" \" Given to Fly \" \" Wishlist \" \" Nothing as It Seems \" \" Light Years \" \" I Am Mine \" \" Save You \" \" Love Boat Captain \" \" Man of the Hour \" \" World Wide Suicide \" \" Life Wasted \" \" Gone \" \" The Fixer \" \" Just Breathe \" \" Amongst the Waves \" \" Crown of Thorns \" \" Mind Your Manners \" \" Sirens \" \" Can't Deny Me \" Other songs \" Once \" \" Black \" \" Porch \" \" State of Love and Trust \" \" Breath \" \" Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town \" \" Glorified G \" \" W.M.A. \" Rearviewmirror \" \" Yellow Ledbetter \" \" Tremor Christ \" \" Better Man \" \" Nothingman \" \" Corduroy \" \" I Got Id \" \" Red Mosquito \" \" In Hiding \" \" Do the Evolution \" \" Grievance \" \" Thumbing My Way \" \" You Are \" \" ½ Full \" \" Brother \" Tours Mookie Blaylock 1991 United States Tour 1991 United States Tour Ten Tour Lollapalooza 1992 1993 European and North American Tour Vs. Tour Vitalogy Tour No Code Tour Yield Tour Binaural Tour Riot Act Tour Vote for Change 2005 North American and Latin American Tour 2006 World Tour 2007 European Tour 2008 United States Tour Backspacer Tour Pearl Jam Twenty Tour 2012 Tour Lightning Bolt Tour 2015 Latin America Tour 2016 North America Tour 2018 Tour Related articles Articles Discography Band members Awards and nominations Monkeywrench Records Pearl Jam Radio Bands Green River Soundgarden Bad Radio Mother Love Bone Temple of the Dog Brad Hater Wellwater Conspiracy Hovercraft Mad Season Red Hot Chili Peppers Three Fish The Rockfords RNDM Albums Mirror Ball Bayleaf Into the Wild Tone Ukulele Songs Water on the Road Moonlander Book Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pearl_Jam_2018_Tour&oldid=863432481 \" Categories : 2018 concert tours Pearl Jam concert tours Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Use mdy dates from December 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 10 October 2018, at 18:46 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Indian Penal Code - Wikipedia Indian Penal Code From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search The Indian Penal Code,1860 Council of the Governor General of India Citation Act No. 45 of 1860 Territorial extent India (except the state of Jammu and Kashmir ) Enacted by Legislative Council Date enacted 6 October 1860 Date assented to 6 October 1860 Date commenced 1 January 1862 Committee report First Law Commission Amendments see Amendments Related legislation Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 Status: Substantially amended The Indian Penal Code ( IPC ) is the main criminal code of India. It is a comprehensive code intended to cover all substantive aspects of criminal law . The code was drafted in 1860 on the recommendations of first law commission of India established in 1834 under the Charter Act of 1833 under the Chairmanship of Thomas Babington Macaulay . [1] [2] [3] It came into force in British India during the early British Raj period in 1862. However, it did not apply automatically in the Princely states , which had their own courts and legal systems until the 1940s. The Code has since been amended several times and is now supplemented by other criminal provisions. After the partition of the British Indian Empire , the Indian Penal Code was inherited by its successor states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan , where it continues independently as the Pakistan Penal Code . The Ranbir Penal Code (RPC) applicable in Jammu and Kashmir is also based on this Code. [2] After the separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan, the code continued in force there . The Code was also adopted by the British colonial authorities in Colonial Burma , Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), the Straits Settlements (now part of Malaysia), Singapore and Brunei , and remains the basis of the criminal codes in those countries. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Objective 3 Structure 4 Controversies 5 Criminal justice reforms 6 Amendments 7 Acclaim 8 Cultural references 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History [ edit ] The draft of the Indian Penal Code was prepared by the First Law Commission, chaired by Thomas Babington Macaulay in 1835 and was submitted to Governor-General of India Council in 1837. Its basis is the law of England freed from superfluities, technicalities and local peculiarities. Elements were also derived from the Napoleonic Code and from Edward Livingston 's Louisiana Civil Code of 1825. The first final draft of the Indian Penal Code was submitted to the Governor-General of India in Council in 1837, but the draft was again revised. The drafting was completed in 1850 and the Code was presented to the Legislative Council in 1856, but it did not take its place on the statute book of British India until a generation later, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The draft then underwent a very careful revision at the hands of Barnes Peacock , who later became the first Chief Justice of the Calcutta High Court , and the future puisne judges of the Calcutta High Court, who were members of the Legislative Council, and was passed into law on 6 October 1860. [4] The Code came into operation on 1 January 1862. Macaulay did not survive to see his masterpiece come into force, having died near the end of 1859. Objective [ edit ] The objective of this Act is to provide a general penal code for India. [5] Though not an initial objective, the Act does not repeal the penal laws which were in force at the time of coming into force in India. This was so because the Code does not contain all the offences and it was possible that some offences might have still been left out of the Code, which were not intended to be exempted from penal consequences. Though this Code consolidates the whole of the law on the subject and is exhaustive on the matters in respect of which it declares the law, many more penal statutes governing various offences have been created in addition to the code. Structure [ edit ] Main article: List of sections of Indian Penal Code The Indian Penal Code of 1860, sub-divided into twenty three chapters, comprises five hundred and eleven sections. The Code starts with an introduction, provides explanations and exceptions used in it, and covers a wide range of offences. The Outline is presented in the following table: [6] INDIAN PENAL CODE, 1860 (Sections 1 to 511) Chapter Sections covered Classification of offences Chapter I Sections 1 to 5 Introduction Chapter II Sections 6 to 52 General Explanations Chapter III Sections 53 to 75 of Punishments Chapter IV Sections 76 to 106 General Exceptions of the Right of Private Defence (Sections 96 to 106) Chapter V Sections 107 to 120 Of Abetment Chapter VA Sections 120A to 120B Criminal Conspiracy Chapter VI Sections 121 to 130 Of Offences against the State Chapter VII Sections 131 to 140 Of Offences relating to the Army, Navy and Air Force Chapter VIII Sections 141 to 160 Of Offences against the Public Tranquillity Chapter IX Sections 161 to 171 Of Offences by or relating to Public Servants Chapter IXA Sections 171A to 171I Of Offences Relating to Elections Chapter X Sections 172 to 190 Of Contempts of Lawful Authority of Public Servants Chapter XI Sections 191 to 229 Of False Evidence and Offences against Public Justice Chapter XII Sections 230 to 263 Of Offences relating to coin and Government Stamps Chapter XIII Sections 264 to 267 Of Offences relating to Weight and Measures Chapter XIV Sections 268 to 294 Of Offences affecting the Public Health, Safety, Convenience, Decency and Morals. Chapter XV Sections 295 to 298 Of Offences relating to Religion Chapter XVI Sections 299 to 377 Of Offences affecting the Human Body. Of Offences Affecting Life including murder, culpable homicide (Sections 299 to 311) Of the Causing of Miscarriage, of Injuries to Unborn Children, of the Exposure of Infants, and of the Concealment of Births (Sections 312 to 318) Of Hurt (Sections 319 to 338) Of Wrongful Restraint and Wrongful Confinement (Sections 339 to 348) Of Criminal Force and Assault (Sections 349 to 358) Of Kidnapping , Abduction , Slavery and Forced Labour (Sections 359 to 374) Sexual Offences including rape (Sections 375 to 376) Of Unnatural Offences (Section 377) Chapter XVII Sections 378 to 462 Of Offences Against Property Of Theft (Sections 378 to 382) Of Extortion (Sections 383 to 389) Of Robbery and Dacoity (Sections 390 to 402) Of Criminal Misappropriation of Property (Sections 403 to 404) Of Criminal Breach of Trust (Sections 405 to 409) Of the Receiving of Stolen Property (Sections 410 to 414) Of Cheating (Section 415 to 420) Of Fraudulent Deeds and Disposition of Property (Sections 421 to 424) Of Mischief (Sections 425 to 440) Of Criminal Trespass (Sections 441 to 462) Chapter XVIII Section 463 to 489 -E Offences relating to Documents and Property Marks Offences relating to Documents (Section 463 to 477-A) Offences relating to Property and Other Marks (Sections 478 to 489) Offences relating to Currency Notes and Bank Notes (Sections 489A to 489E) Chapter XIX Sections 490 to 492 Of the Criminal Breach of Contracts of Service Chapter XX Sections 493 to 498 Of Offences Relating to Marriage Chapter XXA Sections 498A Of Cruelty by Husband or Relatives of Husband Chapter XXI Sections 499 to 502 Of Defamation Chapter XXII Sections 503 to 510 Of Criminal intimidation , Insult and Annoyance Chapter XXIII Section 511 Of Attempts to Commit Offences Controversies [ edit ] Various sections of the Indian Penal Code are controversial. They are challenged in courts claiming as against constitution of India. Also there is demand for abolition of some controversial IPC sections completely or partially. Unnatural Offences - Section 377 Whoever, voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment of life, or with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to ten Years, and shall also be liable to fine. Explanation - Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described in this section. [7] Section 377 The Delhi High Court on 2 July 2009 gave a liberal interpretation to this section and laid down that this section can not be used to punish an act of consensual sexual intercourse between two same sex individuals. [8] On December 11, 2013, Supreme Court of India over-ruled the judgment given by Delhi High court in 2009 and clarified that \"Section 377, which holds same-sex relations unnatural, does not suffer from unconstitutionality\". The Bench said: \"We hold that Section 377 does not suffer from ... unconstitutionality and the declaration made by the Division Bench of the High Court is legally unsustainable.\" It, however, said: \"Notwithstanding this verdict, the competent legislature shall be free to consider the desirability and propriety of deleting Section 377 from the statute book or amend it as per the suggestion made by Attorney-General G.E. Vahanvati.\" [9] Attempt to Commit Suicide The Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code deals with an unsuccessful attempt to suicide. Attempting to commit suicide and doing any act towards the commission of the offence is punishable with imprisonment up to one year or with fine or with both. Considering long-standing demand and recommendations of the Law Commission of India , which has repeatedly endorsed the repeal of this section, the Government of India in December 2014 decided to decriminalise attempt to commit suicide by dropping Section 309 of IPC from the statute book. Though this decision found favour with most of the states, a few others argued that it would make law enforcement agencies helpless against people who resort to fast unto death, self-immolation, etc., pointing out the case of anti-AFSPA activist Irom Chanu Sharmila . [10] In February 2015, the Legislative Department of the Ministry of Law and Justice was asked by the Government to prepare a draft Amendment Bill in this regard. [11] In an August 2015 ruling, the Rajasthan High Court made the Jain practice of undertaking voluntary death by fasting at the end of a person's life, known as Santhara , punishable under sections 306 and 309 of the IPC. This led to some controversy, with some sections of the Jain community urging the Prime Minister to move the Supreme Court against the order. [12] [13] Section 497 The Section 497 of the IPC has been criticised on the one hand for allegedly treating woman as the private property of her husband, and on the other hand for giving women complete protection against punishment for adultery. [14] [15] Death Penalty Sections 120B (criminal conspiracy), 121 (war against the Government of India), 122 (mutiny), 194 (false evidence to procure conviction for a capital offence), 302, 303 (murder), 305 (abetting suicide), 364A (kidnapping for ransom), 364A (banditry with murder), 376A (rape) have death penalty as punishment. There is ongoing debate for abolishing capital punishment. [16] Criminal justice reforms [ edit ] In 2003, the Malimath Committee submitted its report recommending several far-reaching penal reforms including separation of investigation and prosecution (similar to the CPS in the UK) to streamline criminal justice system. [17] The essence of the report was a perceived need for shift from an adversarial to an inquisitorial criminal justice system, based on the Continental European systems. Amendments [ edit ] The Code has been amended several times. [18] [19] S. No. Short title of amending legislation No. Year 1 The Repealing Act, 1870 14 1870 2 The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1870 27 1870 3 The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1872 19 1872 4 The Indian Oaths Act, 1873 10 1873 5 The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1882 8 1882 6 The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1882 10 1882 7 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1886 10 1886 8 The Indian Marine Act, 1887 14 1887 9 The Metal Tokens Act, 1889 1 1889 10 The Indian Merchandise Marks Act, 1889 4 1889 11 The Cantonments Act, 1889 13 1889 12 The Indian Railways Act, 1890 9 1890 13 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1891 10 1891 14 The Amending Act, 1891 12 1891 15 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1894 3 1894 16 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1895 3 1895 17 The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1896 6 1896 18 The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1898 4 1898 19 The Currency-Notes Forgery Act, 1899 12 1899 20 The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1910 3 1910 21 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1913 8 1913 22 The Indian Elections Offences and Inquiries Act, 1920 39 1920 23 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1921 16 1921 24 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1923 20 1923 25 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1924 5 1924 26 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1924 18 1924 27 The Workmen's Breach of Contract (Repealing) Act, 1925 3 1925 29 The Obscene Publications Act, 1925 8 1925 29 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1925 29 1925 30 The Repealing and Amending Act, 1927 10 1927 31 The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1927 25 1927 32 The Repealing and Amending Act, 1930 8 1930 33 The Indian Air Force Act, 1932 14 1932 34 The Amending Act, 1934 35 1934 35 The Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 N/A 1937 36 The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1939 22 1939 37 The Offences on Ships and Aircraft Act, 1940 4 1940 38 The Indian Merchandise Marks (Amendment) Act, 1941 2 1941 39 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1942 8 1942 40 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1943 6 1943 41 The Indian Independence (Adaptation of Central Acts and Ordinances) Order, 1948 N/A 1948 42 The Criminal Law (Removal of Racial Discriminations) Act, 1949 17 1949 43 The Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 1949 42 1949 44 The Adaptation of Laws Order, 1950 N/A 1950 45 The Repealing and Amending Act, 1950 35 1950 46 The Part B States (Laws) Act, 1951 3 1951 47 The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1952 46 1952 48 The Repealing and Amending Act, 1952 48 1952 49 The Repealing and Amending Act, 1953 42 1953 50 The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 1955 26 1955 51 The Adaptation of Laws (No.2) Order, 1956 N/A 1956 52 The Repealing and Amending Act, 1957 36 1957 53 The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1958 2 1958 54 The Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 43 1958 55 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1959 52 1959 56 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1961 41 1961 57 The Anti-Corruption Laws (Amendment) Act, 1964 40 1964 58 The Criminal and Election Laws Amendment Act, 1969 35 1969 59 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1969 36 1969 60 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1972 31 1972 61 The Employees' Provident Funds and Family Pension Fund (Amendment) Act, 1973 40 1973 62 The Employees' State Insurance (Amendment) Act, 1975 38 1975 63 The Election Laws (Amendment) Act, 1975 40 1975 64 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983 43 1983 65 The Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Act, 1983 46 1983 66 The Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act, 1986 43 1986 67 The Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions (Amendment) Act, 1988 33 1988 68 The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 49 1988 69 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1993 42 1993 70 The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1995 24 1995 71 The Information Technology Act, 2000 21 2000 72 The Election Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003 24 2003 73 The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 2005 25 2005 74 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2005 2 2006 75 The Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008 10 2009 76 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 13 2013 Acclaim [ edit ] The Code is universally acknowledged as a cogently drafted code, ahead of its time. It has substantially survived for over 150 years in several jurisdictions without major amendments. Nicholas Phillips , Justice of Supreme Court of United Kingdom applauded the efficacy and relevance of IPC while commemorating 150 years of IPC. [20] Modern crimes involving technology unheard of during Macaulay's time fit easily within the Code [ citation needed ] mainly because of the broadness of the Code's drafting. Cultural references [ edit ] Some references to specific sections (called dafa'a in Hindi-Urdu, دفعہ or दफ़आ/दफ़ा) of the IPC have entered popular speech in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. For instance, conmen are referred to as 420s ( chaar-sau-bees in Hindi-Urdu)) after Section 420 which covers cheating. [21] Similarly, specific reference to section 302 (\" tazīrāt-e-Hind dafā tīn-sau-do ke tehet sazā-e-maut \", \" punishment of death under section 302 of the Indian Penal Code \"), which covers the death penalty, have become part of common knowledge in the region due to repeated mentions of it in Bollywood movies and regional pulp literature . [22] [23] Dafa 302 was also the name of a Bollywood movie released in 1975. [24] Similarly, Shree 420 was the name of a 1955 Bollywood movie starring Raj Kapoor. [25] and Chachi 420 was a Bollywood movie released in 1997 starring Kamal Haasan . [26] See also [ edit ] Civil Procedure Code, 1908 Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 Indian Evidence Act Category:Indian Penal Code Sections References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Universal's Guide to Judicial Service Examination . Universal Law Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 93-5035-029-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b Lal Kalla, Krishan. The Literary Heritage of Kashmir . Jammu and Kashmir: Mittal Publications. p. 75 . Retrieved 19 September 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Law Commission of India - Early Beginnings\" . Law Commission of India . Retrieved 19 September 2014 . Jump up ^ \"history of IPC is provided in comments\" . Jump up ^ \"Preamble of IPC\" . Jump up ^ B.M.Gandhi. Indian Panel Code (Paper Back) |format= requires |url= ( help ) (2013 ed.). EBC. pp. 1–832. ISBN 81-7012-892-7 . Jump up ^ B.M.Gandhi. Indian Penal Code . EBC. pp. 1–796. ISBN 81-7012-892-7 . Jump up ^ \"Delhi High Court reinterprets the Sec. 377\" . Jump up ^ \"Supreme Court sets aside Delhi HC verdict decriminalising gay sex\" . Jump up ^ \"Government decriminalizes attempt to commit suicide, removes section 309\" . The Times of India . 10 December 2014 . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Attempt to Suicide\" . Press Information Bureau . Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Rajasthan HC says Santhara illegal, Jain saints want PM Modi to move SC\" . The Indian Express . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Rajasthan HC bans starvation ritual 'Santhara', says fasting unto death not essential tenet of Jainism\" . IBN Live . CNN-IBN. 10 August 2015 . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Wife is private property, so no trespassing\" . The Times of india . 17 July 2015 . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Adultery law biased against men, says Supreme Court\" . The Times of India . 3 December 2011 . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . Jump up ^ [1] Jump up ^ \"IPC Reform Committee recommends separation of investigation from prosecution powers (pdf)\" (PDF) . Retrieved 2012-05-23 . Jump up ^ Parliament of India. \"The Indian Penal Code\" (PDF) . childlineindia.org.in . Retrieved 7 June 2015 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ The Indian Penal Code, 1860 . Current Publications. 7 May 2015 . Retrieved 8 June 2015 . Jump up ^ \"IPC's endurance lauded\" . Jump up ^ Henry Scholberg, The return of the Raj: a novel , NorthStar Publications, 1992, ... People were saying, 'Twenty plus Four equals Char Sau Bees.' Char Sou Bees is 420 which is the number of the law that has to do with counterfeiting ... Jump up ^ Star Plus, The Great Indian Laughter Challenge – Jokes Book , Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7991-343-7 , ... Tazeerat-e-hind, dafa 302 ke tahat, mujrim ko maut ki saza sunai jaati hai ... Jump up ^ Alok Tomar; Monisha Shah; Jonathan Lynn, Ji Mantriji: The diaries of Shri Suryaprakash Singh , Penguin Books in association with BBC Worldwide, 2001, ISBN 978-0-14-302767-6 , ... we'd have the death penalty back tomorrow. Dafa 302, taaziraat-e-Hind ... to be hung by the neck until death ... Jump up ^ D. P. Mishra, Great masters of Indian cinema: the Dadasaheb Phalke Award winnersGreat Masters of Indian Cinema Series , Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 2006, ISBN 978-81-230-1361-9 , ... Badti Ka Naam Dadhi ( 1975), Chhoti Si Baat ( 1975), Dafa 302 ( 1 975), Chori Mera Kaam ( 1975), Ek Mahal Ho Sapnon Ka (1975) ... Jump up ^ Shree 420 on IMDB Jump up ^ Haasan, Kamal; Puri, Amrish; Puri, Om; Tabu (1997-12-19), Chachi 420 , retrieved 2017-04-03 Further reading [ edit ] C.K.Takwani (2014). Indian Penal Code . Eastern Book Company. Murlidhar Chaturvedi (2011). Bhartiya Dand Sanhita,1860 . EBC. ISBN 978-93-5028-140-6 . Surender Malik; Sudeep Malik (2015). Supreme Court on Penal Code . EBC. ISBN 978-93-5145-218-8 . External links [ edit ] Constitution of India Download Constitution Of India FREE In Hindi & English I.P.C (Mobile Friendly) [ hide ] v t e Indian Penal Code Chapters Chapter I Chapter II Chapter III Chapter IV Chapter V Chapter VA Chapter VI Chapter VII Chapter VIII Chapter IX Chapter IXA Chapter X Chapter XI Chapter XII Chapter XIII Chapter XIV Chapter XV Chapter XVI Chapter XVII Chapter XVIII Chapter XIX Chapter XX Chapter XXA Chapter XXI Chapter XXII Chapter XXIII Full list Capital offence sections 120B (criminal conspiracy) 121 (war against the Government of India) 122 ( mutiny ) 194 (false evidence to procure conviction for a capital offence) 302, 303 (murder) 305 (abetting suicide) 364A (kidnapping for ransom) 364A (banditry with murder) 376A (rape) Other sections 1 2 3 4 5 20 299 ( culpable homicide ) 304 (culpable homicide not amounting to murder) 320 (grievous hurt) 326A ( acid throwing ) 326B (attempted acid throwing) 420 Controversial sections 124A ( sedition ) 294 (obscenity) 309 ( attempted suicide ) 377 (unnatural offences) [ show ] v t e Indian legislation Constitution of India ( amendments ) Indian Penal Code Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 Acts of the Parliament Ordinance In Force Consumer Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016 Consumer Protection Act, 1986 Essential Commodities Act Essential Services Maintenance Act Corruption Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 Black Money (Undisclosed Foreign Income and Assets) and Imposition of Tax Act, 2015 Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2011 Criminal Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007 Arms Act, 1959 Army Act, 1950 Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act Indian Evidence Act Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 National Security Act (India) Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 Education Indian Institutes of Management Act, 2017 Institutes of Technology Act, 1961 National Institutes of Technology Act, 2007 Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 University Grants Commission Act, 1956 Environment Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Biological Diversity Act, 2002 CAMPA bill Environment Protection Act, 1986 Indian Forest Act, 1927 National Green Tribunal Act Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Financial Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and other Subsidies, benefits and services) Act, 2016 Banking Regulation Act, 1949 Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act Depositories Act The Electricity Act, 2003 Expenditure Tax Act, 1987 Finance Act (India) Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 Foreign Contribution Regulation Act Foreign Exchange Management Act Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 Government Securities Act, 2006 Indian Contract Act, 1872 Indian Stamp Act, 1899 Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016 Insurance Act, 1938 Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 Securities Laws (Amendment) Act, 2014 Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002 The Competition Act, 2002 The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978 The Income-tax Act, 1961 Transfer of Property Act 1882 Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act, 1976 Healthcare Central Council of Homoeopathy Act, 1973 Clinical Establishments (Registration and Regulation) Act, 2010 Dentist Act Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954 Indian Medical Council Act Mental Health Act, 1987 Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 Labour Bonded Labor System (Abolition) Act, 1976 Factories Act,1948, India Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 Interstate Migrant Workmen Act 1979 Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 Minimum Wages Act 1948 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008 Personal Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956) Majority Act (India) Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act Hindu Succession Act, 1956 Special Marriage Act, 1954 The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986 Social Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act National Food Security Act, 2013 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994 The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 Street Vendors Act, 2014 State Laws Anti-Superstition and Black Magic Act The Bombay Prohibition Act, 1949 Bombay Prohibition (Gujarat Amendment) 2009 Chhattisgarh Food Security Act, 2012 Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act The Gujarat Local Authorities Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2009 Puducherry Prevention of Anti-Social Activities Act State Reorganisation Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000 Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2000 Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 States Reorganisation Act, 1956 Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2000 Terrorism Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act Transport Aircraft Act Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 National Waterways Act, 2016 Inland Vessels Act Metro Railways Act, 1978 Metro Railway Act, 2002 Organisation / Body Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 Companies Act 2013 Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008 Indian Trusts Act, 1882 Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act 1996 Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 The Indian Partnership Act, 1932 Societies Registration Act, 1860 The Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008 Repeal Repealing and Amending Act, 2015 Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2015 Repealing and Amending Act, 2016 Repealing and Amending Act, 2017 Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017 Other All India Services Act, 1951 Delimitation Act Enemy Property Act, 1968 Information Technology Act, 2000 Nuclear Liability Act Official Secrets Act (India) Representation of the People Act, 1951 Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 Right to Information Act, 2005 State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005 The Foreigners Act, 1946 Repealed Pre-Independence Age of Consent Act, 1891 Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850 Criminal Tribes Act Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 English Education Act 1835 Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, 1907 Post-Independence Anti-Copying Act, 1992 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act Gift Tax Act, 1958 Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, 1983 Interest Tax Act, 1974 Maintenance of Internal Security Act Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act The Gold (Control) Act, 1968 Wealth Tax Act, 1957 Bills Proposed Foreign Education Providers Bill, 2013 Geospatial Information Regulation Bill Gujarat Control of Organised Crime Act Marriage Laws Amendment Bill Road Transport and Safety Bill Uniform civil code Lapsed Judges Assets Bill Women's Reservation Bill Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_Penal_Code&oldid=838190846 \" Categories : Indian Penal Code Acts of the Parliament of India Legislation in British India Criminal codes 1860 in British law 1860 in law 1860 in India Hidden categories: Pages using citations with format and no URL Use dmy dates from June 2016 Use Indian English from June 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2010 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages অসমীয়া বাংলা हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia മലയാളം ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 3 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018, at 13:48. 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