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{ "text": "List of heads of state of Nigeria - Wikipedia List of heads of state of Nigeria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Nigeria This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Nigeria Constitution Human rights President ( list ) Muhammadu Buhari Vice President Yemi Osinbajo Cabinet Federal Parastatals National Assembly Senate House of Representatives Supreme Court Subdivisions States State governors Local Government Areas Recent elections Presidential: 2011 2015 Parliamentary: 2011 2015 Political parties Foreign relations Nigeria portal Other countries Atlas v t e This is a list of the heads of state of Nigeria , from independence in 1960 to the present day. From 1960 to 1963 the head of state under the Nigeria Independence Act 1960 was the Queen of Nigeria , Elizabeth II , who was also monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms . The Queen was represented in Nigeria by a Governor-General . Nigeria became a federal republic under the Constitution of 1963 and the monarch and Governor-General were replaced by a ceremonial President . In 1979, under the 1979 Constitution, the President gained executive powers, becoming head of both state and government. Since 1994, under the 1993 Constitution and the current 1999 Constitution, the head of state and government has been called the President. [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Monarchs (1960–1963) 1.1 Governors-General 2 First Republic (1963–1966) 3 Military rule (1966–1979) 4 Second Republic (1979–1983) 5 Military rule (1983–1993) 6 Third Republic (1993) 7 Military rule (1993–1999) 8 Fourth Nigerian Republic 9 Living former heads of state 10 References 11 External links Monarchs (1960–1963) [ edit ] The succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne . Queen Reign Royal House Prime Minister № Portrait Name Start End Duration 1 Elizabeth II (1926–) 1 October 1960 1 October 1963 7003109500000000000♠ 3 years, 0 days Windsor Balewa Governors-General [ edit ] Standard of the Governor-General of Nigeria The Governor-General was the representative of the monarch in Nigeria and exercised most of the powers of the monarch. The Governor-General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the monarch. Since Nigeria was granted independence by the Nigeria Independence Act 1960 , rather than being first established as a semi-autonomous Dominion and later promoted to independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931 , the Governor-General was appointed solely on the advice of the Nigerian cabinet without the involvement of the British government, with the sole of exception of James Robertson, the former colonial governor, who served as Governor-General temporarily until he was replaced by Nnamdi Azikiwe. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice would have served as Officer Administering the Government . Governor-General Term of office Monarch Prime Minister № Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration 1 Sir James Robertson (1899–1983) 1 October 1960 16 November 1960 7001460000000000000♠ 46 days Elizabeth II Balewa 2 Nnamdi Azikiwe (1904–1996) 16 November 1960 1 October 1963 7003104900000000000♠ 2 years, 319 days Elizabeth II Balewa First Republic (1963–1966) [ edit ] Under the 1963 Constitution, the first constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President replaced the monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by Parliament for a five-year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate would have served as Acting President. President Term of office Political party (at time of election) Prime Minister(s) № Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration 1 Nnamdi Azikiwe (1904–1996) 1 October 1963 16 January 1966 ( deposed. ) 7002838000000000000♠ 2 years, 107 days National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons Balewa Military rule (1966–1979) [ edit ] Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led a coup d'état in 1966 which overthrew President Azikiwe and his government. Head of State Term of Office Military № Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Duration 2 Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi (1924–1966) 16 January 1966 12 July 1966 ( assassinated. ) 7002177000000000000♠ 177 days Federal Military Government 3 General Yakubu Gowon (1934–) 1 August 1966 29 July 1975 ( deposed. ) 7003328400000000000♠ 8 years, 362 days Federal Military Government 4 General Murtala Mohammed (1938–1976) 29 July 1975 13 February 1976 ( assassinated. ) 7002199000000000000♠ 199 days Federal Military Government 5 Major-General Olusegun Obasanjo (1937–) 13 February 1976 1 October 1979 ( resigned. ) 7003135400000000000♠ 3 years, 258 days Federal Military Government Second Republic (1979–1983) [ edit ] Under the 1979 Constitution, the second constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President was head of both state and government. The President was elected by for a four-year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President would have served as Acting President. President Term of office Political party (at time of election) № Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration 6 Shehu Shagari (1925–) 1 October 1979 31 December 1983 ( deposed. ) 7003155200000000000♠ 4 years, 91 days National Party of Nigeria Military rule (1983–1993) [ edit ] Major-General Muhammadu Buhari led a coup d'état which overthrew President Shagari and his government. Head of State Term of Office Military № Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Duration 7 Major-General Muhammadu Buhari (1942–) 31 December 1983 27 August 1985 ( deposed. ) 1 year, 239 days Supreme Military Council 8 General Ibrahim Babangida (1941–) 27 August 1985 26 August 1993 ( resigned. ) 7003292100000000000♠ 7 years, 364 days Armed Forces Ruling Council Third Republic (1993) [ edit ] The Third Republic was the planned republican government of Nigeria in 1993 which was to be governed by the Third Republican constitution. The constitution of the Third Republic was drafted in 1989, when General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB), the military Head of State , promised to terminate military rule by 1990 – a date which was subsequently pushed back to 1993. IBB lifted the ban on political activity in the spring of 1989, and his government established two political parties: the center-right National Republican Convention (NRC) and the center-left Social Democratic Party (SDP). Gubernatorial and state legislative elections were conducted in December 1991, while the presidential election was postponed till 12 June 1993 – due to political unrest. M. K. O. Abiola , a wealthy Yoruba businessman, won a decisive victory in the presidential elections on the SDP platm. President Term of office Political party (at time of election) № Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration 9 Ernest Shonekan (1936–) 26 August 1993 17 November 1993 ( deposed. ) 7001830000000000000♠ 83 days Independent Military rule (1993–1999) [ edit ] General Sani Abacha led a coup d'état which overthrew President Shonekan and his government. Head of State Term of Office Military № Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Duration 10 General Sani Abacha (1943–1998) 17 November 1993 8 June 1998 ( died in office. ) 7003166400000000000♠ 4 years, 203 days Provisional Ruling Council 11 General Abdulsalami Abubakar (1942–) 8 June 1998 29 May 1999 ( resigned. ) 7002355000000000000♠ 355 days Provisional Ruling Council Fourth Nigerian Republic [ edit ] Under the fourth Constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President is head of both state and government. The President is elected by for a four-year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President serves as Acting President. Status Denotes Vice President acting as President President Term of office Political party (at time of election) № Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration 12 Olusegun Obasanjo (1937–) 29 May 1999 29 May 2007 7003292200000000000♠ 8 years, 0 days People's Democratic Party 13 Umaru Musa Yar'Adua (1951–2010) 29 May 2007 5 May 2010 [2] ( died in office. ) 7003107200000000000♠ 2 years, 341 days People's Democratic Party 14 Goodluck Jonathan (1957–) 5 May 2010 29 May 2015 7003185100000000000♠ 5 years, 25 days People's Democratic Party 15 Muhammadu Buhari (1942–) 29 May 2015 Incumbent 7002886000000000000♠ 2 years, 155 days All Progressives Congress Living former heads of state [ edit ] Name Term/Reign Office Date of birth Elizabeth II 1952–1961 Queen of Nigeria ( 1926-04-21 ) April 21, 1926 (age 91) Yakubu Gowon 1966–1975 Military ruler ( 1934-10-19 ) October 19, 1934 (age 83) Olusegun Obasanjo 1976–1979 1999–2007 Military ruler President of Nigeria ( 1937-03-05 ) March 5, 1937 (age 80) Shehu Shagari 1979–1983 President of Nigeria ( 1925-02-25 ) February 25, 1925 (age 92) Ibrahim Babangida 1985–1993 Military ruler ( 1941-08-17 ) August 17, 1941 (age 76) Ernest Shonekan 1993 President of Nigeria ( 1936-05-09 ) May 9, 1936 (age 81) Abdulsalami Abubakar 1998–1999 Military ruler ( 1942-06-13 ) June 13, 1942 (age 75) Goodluck Jonathan 2010–2015 President of Nigeria ( 1957-11-20 ) November 20, 1957 (age 59) References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Past Presidents & Heads of State\" . StateHouse, Federal Republic of Nigeria. Jump up ^ Goodluck Jonathan was Acting President from 9 February to 5 May 2010 External links [ edit ] State House of the Federal Republic of Nigeria [ show ] v t e Heads of State of Nigeria Queen (1960–1963) Elizabeth II President of the First Republic (1963–1966) Azikiwe Military regime (1966–1979) Aguiyi-Ironsi Gowon Mohammed Obasanjo President of the Second Republic (1979–1983) Shehu Shagari Military regime (1983–1999) Buhari Babangida Shonekan (interim) * Abacha Abubakar President of the Fourth Republic (from 1999) Obasanjo Yar'Adua Jonathan Buhari *civilian; headed transition to abortive Third Republic [ show ] v t e Representatives of the monarch in Commonwealth realms and Dominions National Counsellors of State United Kingdom Governors-general Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Barbados Belize Canada Grenada Jamaica New Zealand Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Solomon Islands Tuvalu Sub-national Australia Governors New South Wales Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia Canada Lieutenant governors Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Realm of New Zealand Governor-general Niue , New Zealand Queen's Representative Cook Islands Administrator Tokelau United Kingdom Lords lieutenant England , Wales , Scotland , Northern Ireland ( list Former Governors general Ceylon (now Sri Lanka ) Fiji The Gambia Ghana Guyana India Irish Free State (now Ireland ) Kenya Malawi Malta Mauritius Nigeria Pakistan Sierra Leone Union of South Africa Tanganyika Trinidad and Tobago Uganda Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_heads_of_state_of_Nigeria&oldid=808050051 \" Categories : Government of Nigeria Lists of political office-holders in Nigeria Hidden categories: Official website not in Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Esperanto فارسی Français Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Basa Jawa Latviešu Norsk Occitan Suomi Svenska Türkçe Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 31 October 2017, at 15:48. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of heads of state of Nigeria", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_heads_of_state_of_Nigeria&oldid=808050051" }

{ "text": "Roger Miller - Wikipedia Roger Miller From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other people named Roger Miller, see Roger Miller (disambiguation) . Roger Miller Roger Miller in 1975 Born Roger Dean Miller, Sr. ( 1936-01-02 ) January 2, 1936 Fort Worth, Texas , U.S. Died October 25, 1992 (1992-10-25) (aged 56) Los Angeles , California, U.S. Nationality American Other names Roger Miller, Sr. Roger D. Miller, Sr. \"The Wild Child\" Occupation Singer, songwriter, musician, actor Years active 1957–1992 Spouse(s) Barbara (m. 19??; div. 19??) Leah Kendrick ( m. 1964; div. 1976) Mary Arnold ( m. 1977) Children 7 Website www.rogermiller.com Musical career Origin Erick, Oklahoma Genres Country Instruments Vocals, guitar, fiddle , drums Associated acts Bill Anderson , George Jones , Dean Miller , Willie Nelson , Johnny Paycheck , Minnie Pearl , Ray Price , Jim Reeves , Sheb Wooley , Dwight Yoakam , Faron Young , Thumbs Carllile , John Denver , Mel Tillis , Glen Campbell , Dean Martin Roger Dean Miller, Sr. (January 2, 1936 – October 25, 1992) was an American singer-songwriter, musician, and actor, best known for his honky-tonk -influenced novelty songs . His most recognized tunes included the chart-topping country and pop hits \" King of the Road \", \" Dang Me \", and \" England Swings \", all from the mid-1960s Nashville sound era. After growing up in Oklahoma and serving in the United States Army , Miller began his musical career as a songwriter in the late 1950s, writing such hits as \" Billy Bayou \" and \"Home\" for Jim Reeves and \" Invitation to the Blues \" for Ray Price . He later began a recording career and reached the peak of his fame in the mid-1960s, continuing to record and tour into the 1990s, charting his final top 20 country hit \" Old Friends \" with Willie Nelson in 1982. He also wrote and performed several of the songs for the 1973 Disney animated film Robin Hood . Later in his life, he wrote the music and lyrics for the 1985 Tony -award winning Broadway musical Big River , in which he acted. Miller died from lung cancer in 1992 and was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame three years later. His songs continued to be recorded by other singers, with covers of \" Tall, Tall Trees \" by Alan Jackson and \" Husbands and Wives \" by Brooks & Dunn ; both reached the number one spot on country charts in the 1990s. The Roger Miller Museum in his home town of Erick, Oklahoma , was a tribute to Miller. Contents [ hide ] 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Nashville songwriter 2.2 Recording career 2.3 Late career 3 Style 4 Personal life and death 5 In popular culture 6 Filmography 7 Discography 7.1 Main albums 7.2 #1 singles 8 Awards 9 References 10 Sources 11 External links Early life [ edit ] Roger Miller was born in Fort Worth, Texas , the third son of Jean and Laudene (Holt) Miller. Jean Miller died from spinal meningitis when Miller was a year old. Unable to support the family during the Great Depression , [1] Laudene sent her three sons to live with three of Jean's brothers. Thus, Miller grew up on a farm outside Erick, Oklahoma , with Elmer and Armelia Miller. [2] As a boy, Miller did farm work, such as picking cotton and plowing. He would later say he was \"dirt poor\" and that as late as 1951 the family did not own a telephone. [3] He received his primary education at a one-room schoolhouse. Miller was an introverted child, and would often daydream or compose songs. One of his earliest compositions went: \"There's a picture on the wall. It's the dearest of them all, Mother.\" [1] Miller was a member of the National FFA Organization in high school. [3] He listened to the Grand Ole Opry and Light Crust Doughboys on a Fort Worth station with his cousin's husband, Sheb Wooley . Wooley taught Miller his first guitar chords and bought him a fiddle. Wooley, Hank Williams , and Bob Wills were the influences that led to Miller's desire to be a singer-songwriter. He began to run away and perform in Oklahoma and Texas. At 17, he stole a guitar out of desperation to write songs; however, he turned himself in the next day. He chose to enlist in the United States Army to avoid jail . He later quipped, \"My education was Korea, Clash of '52 .\" Near the end of his military service, while stationed in Atlanta, Georgia, Miller played fiddle in the \"Circle A Wranglers,\" a military musical group started by Faron Young . [1] While Miller was stationed in South Carolina , an army sergeant whose brother was Kenneth C. \"Jethro\" Burns , from the musical duo Homer and Jethro , persuaded him to head to Nashville after his discharge. [2] Career [ edit ] Nashville songwriter [ edit ] On leaving the Army, Miller traveled to Nashville to begin his musical career. He met with Chet Atkins , who asked to hear him sing, loaning him a guitar since Miller did not own one. Out of nervousness, Miller played the guitar and sang a song in two different keys. Atkins advised him to come back later, when he had more experience. Miller found work as a bellhop at Nashville's Andrew Jackson Hotel, and he was soon known as the \"singing bellhop.\" He was finally hired by Minnie Pearl to play the fiddle in her band. [4] He then met George Jones , who introduced him to music executives from the Starday Records label who scheduled an audition. Impressed, the executives set up a recording session with Jones in Houston . Jones and Miller collaborated to write \"Tall, Tall Trees\" and \"Happy Child.\" [1] The human mind is a wonderful thing. It starts working before you're even born and doesn't stop again until you sit down to write a song. Roger Miller [5] After marrying and becoming a father, Miller put aside his music career to be a fireman in Amarillo, Texas . [1] A fireman by day, he performed at night. Miller said that as a fireman he saw only two fires, one in a \"chicken coop\" and another he \"slept through,\" after which the department \"suggested that...[he] seek other employment.\" Miller met Ray Price , and became a member of his Cherokee Cowboys. He returned to Nashville and wrote \"Invitation to the Blues,\" which was covered by Rex Allen and later by Ray Price, whose recording was a number three hit on country charts. [6] Miller then signed with Tree Publishing on a salary of $50 a week. He wrote: \"Half a Mind\" for Ernest Tubb , \"That's the Way I Feel\" for Faron Young ; and his first number one, \"Billy Bayou,\" which along with \"Home\" was recorded by Jim Reeves . Miller became one of the biggest songwriters of the 1950s; however, Bill Anderson would later remark that \"Roger was the most talented, and least disciplined, person that you could imagine,\" citing the attempts of Miller's Tree Publishing boss, Buddy Killen to force him to finish a piece. He was known to give away lines, inciting many Nashville songwriters to follow him around since, according to Killen, \"everything he said was a potential song.\" [1] Recording career [ edit ] Miller signed a recording deal with Decca Records in 1958. He was paired with singer Donny Lytle, who later gained fame under the name Johnny Paycheck , to perform the Miller-written \"A Man Like Me,\" and later \"The Wrong Kind of Girl.\" Neither of these honky-tonk -style songs charted. His second single with the label, featuring the B-side \"Jason Fleming,\" foreshadowed Miller's future style. To make money, Miller went on tour with Faron Young's band as a drummer, although he had never drummed. During this period, he signed a record deal with Chet Atkins at RCA Victor , for whom Miller recorded \"You Don't Want My Love\" (also known as \"In the Summertime\") in 1960, which marked his first appearance on country charts, peaking at No. 14. The next year he made an even bigger impact, breaking through the top 10 with his single \"When Two Worlds Collide\", co-written with Bill Anderson. [7] But Miller soon tired of writing songs, divorced his wife, and began a party lifestyle that earned him the moniker \"wild child.\" He was dropped from his record label and began to pursue other interests. [1] Miller performing \" Husbands and Wives \" on the set of his television show in 1966 After numerous appearances on late night comedy shows, Miller decided that he might have a chance in Hollywood as an actor. Short of money, he signed with the up-and-coming label Smash Records , asked the label for $1,600 in cash in exchange for recording 16 sides. Smash agreed to the proposal, and Miller performed his first session for the company early in 1964, when he recorded the hits \"Dang Me\" and \" Chug-a-Lug \". Both were released as singles, peaking at No. 1 and No. 3 respectively on country charts; both fared well on the Billboard Hot 100 reaching No. 7 and No. 9. [8] The songs transformed Miller's career, although the former was penned by Miller in just four minutes. Later that year, he recorded the No. 15 hit \" Do-Wacka-Do ,\" and soon after, the biggest hit of his career \" King of the Road \", which topped Country and Adult Contemporary charts while peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard 100. It also reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart for one week in May 1965. The song was inspired by a sign in Chicago that read \"Trailers for Sale or Rent\" and a hobo who happened upon Miller at an airport in Boise , but Miller needed months to write the song, which was certified gold in May 1965 after selling a million copies. It won numerous awards and earned a royalty check of $160,000 that summer. [1] Later in the year Miller scored hits with \"Engine Engine No. 9\", \"Kansas City Star\" (a Top Ten country hit in 1965 about a local television children's show personality who would rather stay in the safety and security of his success in Kansas City than become a bigger star – or risk failure – in Omaha ), and \" England Swings \" (an adult contemporary No. 1). He began 1966 with the hit \"Husbands and Wives.\" [8] Miller was given his own TV show on NBC in September 1966 but it was canceled after 13 weeks in January 1967. During this period Miller recorded songs written by other songwriters. The final hit of his own composition was \"Walkin in the Sunshine,\" which reached No. 7 and No. 6 on the country and adult contemporary charts in 1967. [8] Later in the year he scored his final top 10 hit with a lowkey cover of Bobby Russell 's \" Little Green Apples \". [1] The next year, he was first to cover Kris Kristofferson 's \" Me and Bobby McGee ,\" [6] taking the song to No. 12 on country charts. [8] In 1970, Miller recorded the album A Trip in the Country , honky-tonk-style standards penned by Miller, including \"Tall, Tall Trees.\" Later that year, after Smash Records folded, Miller was signed by Columbia Records , for whom he released Dear Folks: Sorry I Haven't Written Lately in 1973. Later that year, Miller wrote and performed three songs in the Walt Disney animated feature Robin Hood as the rooster and minstrel Allan-a-Dale , including \"Whistle-Stop\" which was sampled for use in the popular Hampster Dance web site. [1] The other songs are Oo-De-Lally and Not In Nottingham . He provided the voice of Speiltoe, the equine narrator of the Rankin/Bass holiday special Nestor the Long-Eared Christmas Donkey in 1977. Miller collaborated with Willie Nelson on an album titled Old Friends. The title track was based on a song he had previously penned for his family in Oklahoma. The song, with guest vocals from Ray Price, was the last hit of Miller's career, [1] peaking at No. 19 on country charts in 1982. [8] Late career [ edit ] He continued to record for different record labels and charted a few songs, but stopped writing in 1978, feeling that his more \"artistic\" works were not appreciated. [2] This was the time when his only visit to England led him to Kippax . He played the social club there but was outdone by 17 Elvis performers. He was absent from the entertainment business following the release of Old Friends in 1981, but returned after receiving an offer to write a Broadway score for a musical based upon Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . Although he had not read the novel, Miller accepted the offer after discovering how the story brought him back to his childhood in rural Oklahoma. [9] It took a year and a half to write the opening, but he eventually finished it. The work, entitled Big River premiered at Eugene O'Neill Theatre in New York on April 25, 1985. The musical received glowing reviews, earning seven Tony Awards including \"Best Score\" for Miller. He acted the part of Huck Finn's father Pap for three months after the exit of actor John Goodman , who left for Hollywood. In 1983, Miller played a dramatic role on an episode of Quincy, M.E. He played a country and western singer who is severely burned while freebasing cocaine. [1] Miller left for Santa Fe to live with his family following the success of Big River . He co-wrote Dwight Yoakam 's hit \" It Only Hurts When I Cry \" from his 1990 album If There Was a Way , and supplied background vocals. [10] The song was released as a single in 1991, peaking at No. 7 on country charts. [11] He began a solo guitar tour in 1990, [1] ending the following year after being diagnosed with lung cancer. [1] His last performance on television occurred on a special tribute to Minnie Pearl [2] which aired on TNN on October 26, 1992, the day after Miller's death. [12] Style [ edit ] Although he is usually grouped with country music singers, Miller's unique style defies easy classification. Many of his recordings were humorous novelty songs with whimsical lyrics, coupled with scat singing or vocalese riffs filled with nonsense syllables. [13] Others were sincere ballads which caught the public's fancy, like his signature song, \"King of the Road.\" [14] The biographical book Ain't Got No Cigarettes described Miller as an \"uncategorizable talent\" and stated that many regarded him as a genius. [15] Miller's whimsical lyrics and nonsense sounding style led to him writing and performing songs for childrens' films such as \"Oo-de-Lally\" for the Disney animated film Robin Hood . [16] During his most successful years as a songwriter and singer, Miller's music was placed in the country genre due to his somewhat country or folk sounding voice and the use of an acoustic guitar, [17] although his lyrics were found to be sporadic and random at times. Yet even Miller's lyrics pointed his music toward country because of their having a \"bluegrass\" ring to them, most commonly found in his most recognizable song, \"King of the Road\". [ citation needed ] On his own style, Miller remarked that he \"tried to do\" things like other artists but that it \"always came out different\" so he got \"frustrated\" until realizing \"I'm the only one that knows what I'm thinking.\" He commented that the favorite song that he wrote was \"You Can't Rollerskate in a Buffalo Herd.\" [14] Johnny Cash discussed Miller's bass vocal range in his 1997 autobiography . He stated that it was the closest to his own that he had heard. Personal life and death [ edit ] Miller was married three times and fathered seven children. Miller married Barbara Crow, from Shamrock, Texas, when she was 17. Together the couple had four children, the first of whom died shortly after birth. As Miller’s young family grew, his desire for fame and success continued to grow, as well. After moving the family to California for a short time, Miller and Barbara divorced. Subsequent public interest in Miller led to the success he had long hoped for but brought with it struggles for the performer that are often associated with life in the entertainment business: depression, insomnia and drug addiction. [ citation needed ] Miller married Leah Kendrick of San Antonio in 1964. Together the couple had two children, Roger Dean Miller, Jr. and Shannon Elizabeth. [18] The Christmas song \" Old Toy Trains \" was written by Miller, Sr. about his son, who was two years old when it was released in 1967. “Shannon’s Song” was written for his youngest biological child and was included as a track on Miller’s album, “Dear Folks, Sorry I Haven’t Written Lately”. After 14 years, Miller’s personal struggles finally took their toll on Miller's marriage to Leah and they divorced in the mid-seventies. Miller eventually married Mary Arnold, whom he met through Kenny Rogers . [19] Arnold was a replacement member in The First Edition , a band that included Rogers. [18] They adopted two children. After the break-up of The First Edition, she performed with her husband Miller on tours as a back up singer. In 2009, she was inducted into the Iowa Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame. She currently manages Roger Miller's estate. She sued Sony for copyright infringement in the 2007 case Roger Miller Music, Inc. v. Sony/ATV Publishing, LLC , which went to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit . [20] Arnold was ultimately awarded nearly $1 million in royalties and rights to the songs Miller wrote in 1964. [21] Miller was a lifelong cigarette smoker . During a television interview, Miller explained that he composed his songs from \"bits and pieces\" of ideas he wrote on scraps of paper. When asked what he did with the unused bits and pieces, he half-joked, \"I smoke 'em!\" He also wrote a song about his habit, titled \"Dad Blame Anything A Man Can't Quit\". Miller died of lung and throat cancer in 1992, at age 56, shortly after the discovery of a malignant tumor under his vocal cords. [2] His remains were cremated. A main street in Erick, Oklahoma was named Roger Miller Boulevard in his memory. He was posthumously inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1995. In popular culture [ edit ] This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1969, Miller appeared on the television show Daniel Boone as American folk hero Johnny Appleseed . In Miller's version of Appleseed, singing was quite common. [22] In 2007, music of \"King of the Road\" was used in a scene in the film Into The Wild , where a character in the film makes a mention of the song in writing a letter. He composed and performed a number of songs in the Disney animated film Robin Hood (1973). The Roger Miller song \"Whistle-Stop\" was whistled by the rooster character Alan-a-Dale. Other Miller songs sung by him included \"Oo-De-Lally\" in two versions and \"Not In Nottingham\". The \"Hampster Dance\" single in 2000 was based on the melody of \"Whistle Stop\". The Internet meme on which \"Hampster Dance\" was based used a sped-up version of Roger Miller's recording. The commercial song for Hampton the Hamster was altered to a sound-alike sample when the producers failed to obtain the rights to the original song. A bluegrass version of \"Boeing Boeing 707\" written by Roger Miller was released by Chris Roberts in January 2018. The song features Chris Roberts as vocalist. Musicians Ronnie McCoury (Mandolin), Cody Kilby (Acoustic Guitar), Dennis Crouch (Bass), Aubrey Haynie (Fiddle), Scott Vestal (Banjo) and Wes Hightower (Harmonies) are also featured on the recording. Produced by Adam Engelhardt and Glen Duncan. Mastered by Eric Conn. Filmography [ edit ] Waterhole No. 3 (1967) - Balladeer (voice) Daniel Boone (1969) - Johnny Appleseed Robin Hood (1973) - Alan-a-Dale - The Rooster (voice) Nestor, the Long–Eared Christmas Donkey (1977) - Steel Toe The Muppet Show Season 3, Episode 21 (Airdate: May 10, 1979) - Himself Murder, She Wrote Season 1, Episode 5, It's A Dog's Life (Airdate: Nov. 4, 1984) the Sheriff Lucky Luke (1991) - Jolly Jumper (voice). Quincy, M.E. (1983) On Dying High S8/Ep16 (undated CF 2825 well) Discography [ edit ] Main article: Roger Miller discography Roger Miller discography Studio albums 19 Live albums 3 Compilation albums 69 Singles 37 No.1 Single 3 Main albums [ edit ] [23] Roger and Out (1964) The Return of Roger Miller (1965) The 3rd Time Around (1965) Words and Music (1966) Walkin' in the Sunshine (1967) A Tender Look at Love (1968) Roger Miller (1969) Roger Miller Featuring Dang Me! (1969) A Trip in the Country (1970) Roger Miller 1970 (1970) Dear Folks, Sorry I Haven't Written Lately (1973) Celebration (1976) Painted Poetry (1977) Off the Wall (1978) Waterhole No. 3 (1978) Making a Name for Myself (1979) Old Friends (with Willie Nelson ) (1982) The Country Side of Roger Miller (1986) Green Green Grass of Home (1994) King of the Road: The Genius of Roger Miller (1995) #1 singles [ edit ] Released and recorded by Miller [8] \" Dang Me \" (1964) \" King of the Road \" (1965) \" England Swings \" (1966) Recorded and released by other artists \" Billy Bayou \" – Jim Reeves (1958) \" Don't We All Have the Right \" – Ricky Van Shelton (1988) \" Tall, Tall Trees \" – Alan Jackson (1995) \" Husbands and Wives \" – Brooks & Dunn (1998) Awards [ edit ] In addition to 11 Grammy Awards , Roger Miller won Broadway's Tony Award for writing the music and lyrics for Big River , which won a total of 7 Tony's including best musical in 1985. He was voted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1973 and the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1995. Miller's 11 Grammy Awards held the record as the most won by a single artist until Michael Jackson 's 1982 album Thriller . [18] In Erick, Oklahoma where he grew up, a thoroughfare was renamed \"Roger Miller Boulevard\" and a museum dedicated to Miller was built on the road in 2004. [24] Below is a list of awards won by Miller: [25] 1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country Song: \"Dang Me\" 1964 — Grammy Award : Best New Country and Western Artist 1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Recording, Single: \"Dang Me\" 1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Performance, Male: \"Dang Me\" 1964 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Album: \"Dang Me\"/\"Chug-a-Lug\" 1965 — Jukebox Artist of the Year 1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country Song: \"King of the Road\" 1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: \"King of the Road\" 1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Recording, Single: \"King of the Road\" 1965 — Grammy Award : Best Contemporary Vocal Performance, Male: \"King of the Road\" 1965 — Grammy Award : Best Contemporary (Rock 'N Roll), Single: \"King of the Road\" 1965 — Grammy Award : Best Country and Western Album: \"The Return of Roger Miller\" 1965 — Academy of Country and Western Music: \"Best Songwriter\" 1965 — Academy of Country and Western Music: \"Man of the Year\" 1973 — Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame 1985 — Tony Award for Best Score and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics for Big River 1988 — Academy of Country Music: Pioneer Award 1995 — Country Music Hall of Fame 1997 — Grammy Hall of Fame Song : \"Dang Me\" 1998 — Grammy Hall of Fame Song : \"King of the Road\" 2003 — CMT 's 40 Greatest Men of Country Music : Ranked No. 23. References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n \"Biography\" . rogermiller.com . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Landon, Grelun; Stambler, Irwin; Stambler, Lyndon (2000), \"Roger Miller\", The Encyclopedia of Country Music , Macmillan, pp. 311–314 ^ Jump up to: a b \"High School Papers\" . rogermiller.com . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller Biography\" . CMT . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ Simpson, Paul (2003). The Rough Guide to Cult Pop . London: Rough Guides Ltd. p. 218. ISBN 1-84353-229-8 . ^ Jump up to: a b Cooper, Daniel. \"The Roger Miller Story\" . Country Music Hall of Fame . Jump up ^ \"Country Music News - Nash Country Daily\" . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Roger Miller > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ Holden, Stephen (October 27, 1992). \"Roger Miller, Quirky Country Singer and Songwriter, Is Dead at 56\" . New York Times . Jump up ^ Jurek, Thom. \"If There Was a Way\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ \"If There Was a Way > Chart & Awards > Billboard Singles\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ \"In brief:\". New York Magazine : 85. October 26, 1992. Jump up ^ Malone, Bill C. (1969). Country music U.S.A: a fifty-year history . University of Texas Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-292-71029-0 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Unhokey Okie\" . Time . May 5, 1965. Jump up ^ Style, Lyle, Ain't Got No Cigarettes , Great Plains Publications, p. 65, ISBN 978-1-894283-60-1 Jump up ^ Roger miller agrees 'words are his toys'. (1966, Sep 11). Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File) Jump up ^ By, JON P. \"Music: Roger Miller.\" New York Times (1923-Current file), New York, N.Y., 1987. ^ Jump up to: a b c Van Ostrand, Maggie (October 26, 2006). \"Thirty or More Things You Should Know About Roger Miller\" . texasescapes.com. Jump up ^ \"Iowa Rock'n Roll Music Association 2009 Hall of Fame Inductee...\" Iowa Rock'n Roll Music Association . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller Music, Inc., and Mary A. Miller v. Sont/ATV Publishing, LLC\" (PDF) . United States Court of Appeals. February 13, 2007. Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller's Widow Wins – Court Victory Equals $900,000 in Royalties\" . National Ledger . March 23, 2010 . Retrieved Mar 24, 2010 . Jump up ^ Daniel Boone TV series season 6 episode 140, \"A Very Small Rifle.\" Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller > Discography > Main Albums\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2010-07-11 . Jump up ^ Flippo, Chet (June 3, 2004). \"Nashville Skyline: Roger Miller Gets a Museum\" . CMT . Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller\" . Nashville Songwriter's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011 . Retrieved July 11, 2010 . Sources [ edit ] Cooper, Daniel. (1998). \"Roger Miller.\" In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Ed. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 347–8. External links [ edit ] All Roger Miller Songs Written and Released Episode of Quincy ME starring Roger Miller Roger Miller on IMDb Roger Miller at the Internet Broadway Database Roger Miller Museum in Erick, Oklahoma Roger Miller interview on the Pop Chronicles [ show ] v t e Roger Miller Studio albums Roger and Out The Return of Roger Miller The 3rd Time Around Words and Music Walkin' in the Sunshine Waterhole #3 (Code of the West) A Tender Look at Love Roger Miller Roger Miller Featuring Dang Me! Roger Miller 1970 A Trip in the Country Dear Folks, Sorry I Haven't Written Lately Celebration Painted Poetry Off the Wall Making a Name for Myself Old Friends with Willie Nelson Roger Miller The Country Side of Roger Miller Green Green Grass of Home Live albums Roger Miller Live! Live Hits You Remember: Live Singles 1950s – 1960s \"Poor Little John\" \"You're Forgettin' Me\" \"On This Mountain Top\" \"Mine is a Lonely Life\" \"Wrong Kind of Girl\" \"Jason Fleming\" \" You Don't Want My Love \" \"When Two Worlds Collide\" \"Fair Swiss Maiden\" \"Sorry Willie\" \"Hey Little Star\" \"Lock, Stock and Teardrops\" \" Dang Me \" \" Chug-a-Lug \" \" Do-Wacka-Do \" \" King of the Road \" \" Engine Engine #9 \" \" One Dyin' and a-Buryin '\" \"It Happened Just That Way\" \" Kansas City Star \" \" England Swings \" \" Husbands and Wives \" \" I've Been a Long Time Leaving (But I'll Be a Long Time Gone) \" \" You Can't Rollerskate in a Buffalo Herd \" \" My Uncle Used to Love Me But She Died \" \" Heartbreak Hotel \" \" Walkin' in the Sunshine \" \"The Ballad of Waterhole #3 (Code of the West)\" \" Old Toy Trains \" \" Little Green Apples \" \" Tolivar \" \"Vance\" \" Me and Bobby McGee \" \"Where Have All the Average People Gone\" 1970s – 1980s \" The Tom Green County Fair \" \"South\" \" Tomorrow Night in Baltimore \" \" Lovin' Her Was Easier (Than Anything I'll Ever Do Again) \" \"We Found It in Each Other's Arms\" \"Sunny Side of My Life\" \"Rings for Sale\" \" Hoppy's Gone \" \"Open Up Your Heart\" \"I Believe in the Sunshine\" \" Whistle Stop \" \"Our Love\" \"I Love a Rodeo\" \"Baby Me Baby\" \"Oklahoma Woman\" \"The Hat\" \"Everyone Gets Crazy Now and Then\" \"Old Friends\" with Willie Nelson and Ray Price \" River in the Rain \" \"Some Hearts Get All the Breaks\" Compilations Golden Hits The Best of Roger Miller, Volume One: Country Tunesmith The Best of Roger Miller, Volume Two: King of the Road King of the Road 20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection All Time Greatest Hits A Man Like Me Related articles Discography Robin Hood Dean Miller [ show ] v t e Country Music Hall of Fame 1990s Tennessee Ernie Ford (1990) Felice and Boudleaux Bryant (1991) George Jones (1992) Frances Preston (1992) Willie Nelson (1993) Merle Haggard (1994) Roger Miller (1995) Jo Walker-Meador (1995) Patsy Montana (1996) Buck Owens (1996) Ray Price (1996) Harlan Howard (1997) Brenda Lee (1997) Cindy Walker (1997) George Morgan (1998) Elvis Presley (1998) E.W. \"Bud\" Wendell (1998) Tammy Wynette (1998) Johnny Bond (1999) Dolly Parton (1999) Conway Twitty (1999) [ show ] v t e Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics Fred Ebb (1969) Stephen Sondheim / Bertolt Brecht (1970) Stephen Sondheim (1971) John Guare (1972) Stephen Sondheim (1973) Al Carmines (1974) Charlie Smalls (1975) Edward Kleban (1976) Martin Charnin (1977) Carol Hall (1978) Stephen Sondheim (1979) Tim Rice (1980) Stephen Sondheim / Maury Yeston (1982) Howard Ashman (1983) Stephen Sondheim (1984) Roger Miller (1985) Stephen Sondheim (1988) David Zippel (1990) William Finn (1991) Susan Birkenhead (1992) Denis Markell and Douglas Bernstein (1993) Stephen Sondheim (1994) Jonathan Larson (1996) Gerard Alessandrini (1997) Lynn Ahrens (1998) Gerard Alessandrini (1999) Stephen Sondheim (2000) Mel Brooks (2001) Jason Robert Brown (2002) Scott Wittman and Marc Shaiman (2003) Stephen Schwartz (2004) Eric Idle (2005) Lisa Lambert and Greg Morrison (2006) Steven Sater (2007) Stew (2008) Stephen Sondheim (2009) John Kander and Fred Ebb (2010) Trey Parker , Robert Lopez and Matt Stone (2011) Glen Hansard and Markéta Irglová (2012) Tim Minchin (2013) Robert L. Freedman and Steven Lutvak (2014) Lin-Manuel Miranda (2015) Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2016) David Yazbek (2017) [ show ] v t e Tony Award for Best Original Score 1947-1975 Street Scene by Kurt Weill (1947) Kiss Me, Kate by Cole Porter (1949) South Pacific by Richard Rodgers (1950) Call Me Madam by Irving Berlin (1951) No Strings by Richard Rodgers (1962) Oliver! by Lionel Bart (1963) Hello, Dolly! by Jerry Herman (1964) Fiddler on the Roof by Jerry Bock and Sheldon Harnick (1965) Man of La Mancha by Mitch Leigh and Joe Darion (1966) Cabaret by John Kander and Fred Ebb (1967) Hallelujah, Baby! by Jule Styne , Betty Comden , and Adolph Green (1968) Company by Stephen Sondheim (1971) Follies by Stephen Sondheim (1972) A Little Night Music by Stephen Sondheim (1973) Gigi by Frederick Loewe and Alan Jay Lerner (1974) The Wiz by Charlie Smalls (1975) 1976-2000 A Chorus Line by Marvin Hamlisch and Edward Kleban (1976) Annie by Charles Strouse and Martin Charnin (1977) On the Twentieth Century by Cy Coleman , Betty Comden , and Adolph Green (1978) Sweeney Todd by Stephen Sondheim (1979) Evita by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice (1980) Woman of the Year by John Kander and Fred Ebb (1981) Nine by Maury Yeston (1982) Cats by Andrew Lloyd Webber and T. S. Eliot (1983) La Cage aux Folles by Jerry Herman (1984) Big River by Roger Miller (1985) Drood by Rupert Holmes (1986) Les Misérables by Claude-Michel Schönberg , Herbert Kretzmer , and Alain Boublil (1987) Into the Woods by Stephen Sondheim (1988) City of Angels by Cy Coleman and David Zippel (1990) The Will Rogers Follies by Cy Coleman , Betty Comden , and Adolph Green (1991) Falsettos by William Finn (1992) Kiss of the Spider Woman by John Kander and Fred Ebb / The Who's Tommy by Pete Townshend (1993) Passion by Stephen Sondheim (1994) Sunset Boulevard by Andrew Lloyd Webber , Don Black , and Christopher Hampton (1995) Rent by Jonathan Larson (1996) Titanic by Maury Yeston (1997) Ragtime by Stephen Flaherty and Lynn Ahrens (1998) Parade by Jason Robert Brown (1999) Aida by Elton John and Tim Rice (2000) 2001-present The Producers by Mel Brooks (2001) Urinetown by Mark Hollmann and Greg Kotis (2002) Hairspray by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman (2003) Avenue Q by Robert Lopez and Jeff Marx (2004) The Light in the Piazza by Adam Guettel (2005) The Drowsy Chaperone by Lisa Lambert and Greg Morrison (2006) Spring Awakening by Duncan Sheik and Steven Sater (2007) In the Heights by Lin-Manuel Miranda (2008) Next to Normal by Tom Kitt and Brian Yorkey (2009) Memphis by David Bryan and Joe DiPietro (2010) The Book of Mormon by Trey Parker , Robert Lopez and Matt Stone (2011) Newsies by Alan Menken and Jack Feldman (2012) Kinky Boots by Cyndi Lauper (2013) The Bridges of Madison County by Jason Robert Brown (2014) Fun Home by Jeanine Tesori and Lisa Kron (2015) Hamilton by Lin-Manuel Miranda (2016) Dear Evan Hansen by Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2017) Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 112431543 LCCN : n85173065 ISNI : 0000 0001 1580 4202 GND : 131518941 SUDOC : 092151752 BNF : cb13897530t (data) BIBSYS : 7026997 MusicBrainz : 102045e3-577c-4b10-b01b-424b7e461094 BNE : XX1225160 SNAC : w64b40ts Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger_Miller&oldid=832977994 \" Categories : 1936 births 1992 deaths People from Fort Worth, Texas American country singers American country singer-songwriters American male singers American army personnel of the Korean War American novelty song performers Singers from Oklahoma Deaths from cancer in California Country Music Hall of Fame inductees Deaths from lung cancer Deaths from esophageal cancer Grammy Award winners Mercury Records artists People from Beckham County, Oklahoma RCA Victor artists Smash Records artists Starday Records artists Tony Award winners United States Army soldiers American male composers American composers 20th-century American singers American country guitarists Columbia Records artists American acoustic guitarists American male guitarists American country fiddlers American country drummers 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American drummers Songwriters from Texas Songwriters from Oklahoma Guitarists from Oklahoma Guitarists from Texas Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from July 2016 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Articles needing additional references from March 2018 All articles needing additional references Pages using infobox artist discography with unknown parameters Articles with IBDb links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Brezhoneg Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Norsk Português Русский Svenska 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2018, at 00:34. 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{ "text": "The Fast and the Furious - Wikipedia The Fast and the Furious From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the film franchise. For the franchise's first film, see The Fast and the Furious (2001 film) . For other uses, see The Fast and the Furious (disambiguation) . The Fast and the Furious Created by Gary Scott Thompson Original work The Fast and the Furious (2001) Owner Universal Studios Films and television Film(s) The Fast and the Furious (2001) 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) Fast & Furious (2009) Fast Five (2011) Fast & Furious 6 (2013) Furious 7 (2015) The Fate of the Furious (2017) Short film(s) The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) Los Bandoleros (2009) Theatrical presentations Play(s) Fast & Furious Live Audio Original music BT ( The Fast and the Furious ) David Arnold ( 2 Fast 2 Furious ) Brian Tyler ( Tokyo Drift–Fast Five, Furious 7 & The Fate of the Furious ) Lucas Vidal ( Fast & Furious 6 ) Miscellaneous Theme park attractions Fast & Furious: Supercharged (2015) Official website http://www.fastandfurious.com/ The Fast and the Furious (also known as Fast & Furious ) is an American franchise based on a series of action films that is largely concerned with illegal street racing , heists and espionage , and includes material in various other media that depicts characters and situations from the films. Distributed by Universal Pictures , the series was established with the 2001 film titled The Fast and the Furious ; this was followed by seven sequels , two short films that tie into the series, and as of May 2017, [1] it has become Universal's biggest franchise of all time, currently the sixth-highest-grossing film series of all time with a combined gross of over $5 billion. [2] The spin-off film is set to be released on July 26, 2019. Contents [ hide ] 1 Films 1.1 The Fast and the Furious (2001) 1.2 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) 1.3 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) 1.4 Fast & Furious (2009) 1.5 Fast Five (2011) 1.6 Fast & Furious 6 (2013) 1.7 Furious 7 (2015) 1.8 The Fate of the Furious (2017) 1.9 Hobbs & Shaw (2019) 1.10 Future 2 Short films 2.1 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) 2.2 Los Bandoleros (2009) 3 Storyline chronology 4 Characters 5 Cast and crew members 5.1 Characters 6 Reception 6.1 Box office performance 6.2 Critical and public response 7 Franchise extension 7.1 Theme park attractions 7.2 Fast & Furious Live 7.2.1 Tour overview 7.2.2 UK tour dates 7.2.3 Worldwide tour dates 7.3 Soundtracks 7.4 Video games 7.5 Toys and model kits 8 International locations 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Films [ edit ] The Fast and the Furious (2001) [ edit ] Main article: The Fast and the Furious (2001 film) The film is based on an article, titled \"Racer X\", about New York street clubs that race Japanese cars late at night, although the film is set primarily in Los Angeles. While elite street racer and ex-convict Dominic Toretto ( Vin Diesel ) and his crew: Jesse ( Chad Lindberg ), Leon ( Johnny Strong ), Vince ( Matt Schulze ) and Letty Ortiz ( Michelle Rodriguez ), are under suspicion of stealing expensive electronic equipment by hijacking moving trucks, Brian O'Conner ( Paul Walker ) is an undercover police officer who attempts to find out who exactly is stealing the equipment. He works for FBI agent Bilkins ( Thom Barry ) and LAPD Sgt. Tanner ( Ted Levine ). Falling for Dominic's younger sister, Mia Toretto ( Jordana Brewster ), Brian confesses to her his status as an undercover police officer and convinces her to come with him to save her brother and his friends from the truck drivers, who have now armed themselves to combat the robberies. He tracks Dominic's location by triangulating his cell phone signal and they arrive at the hijacking in progress to find Letty, badly injured in a car accident, and Vince critically wounded, having lacerated his arm and been shot by a truck driver. Brian and Mia work together with Dominic, Leon and Letty to rescue Vince. Brian then makes the difficult decision to blow his cover to the crew by phoning in for a medivac. The revelation enrages Dominic, who flees with Leon, Letty, and Mia as the medivac arrives for Vince. Brian soon follows Dominic to his house and holds him at gunpoint to prevent him from fleeing further. Jesse arrives shortly afterwards, apologizing for his actions at Race Wars and pleading for Dominic's help with Johnny Tran ( Rick Yune ). Moments later, Tran and his cousin Lance Nguyen ( Reggie Lee ) perform a drive-by shooting, killing Jesse. Brian and Dominic chase them, with Dominic driving his late father's modified 1970 Dodge Charger. Dominic forces Lance's motorcycle off the road, severely injuring him, while Brian shoots and kills Tran. Afterwards, Brian and Dominic engage in an impromptu street race, narrowly avoiding a passing train. However, Dominic collides with a semitruck and rolls his car twice, injuring himself, and rendering the Charger undrivable. Instead of arresting him, Brian hands over the keys to his Supra and lets Dominic escape, using the line \"I owe you a ten-second car.\" 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) [ edit ] Main article: 2 Fast 2 Furious Watched by undercover Customs Agent Monica Fuentes ( Eva Mendes ), Brian is caught by US Customs agents and given a deal by FBI Agent Bilkins and Customs Agent Markham ( James Remar ) to go undercover and try to bring down drug lord Carter Verone ( Cole Hauser ) in exchange for the erasure of his criminal record. Brian agrees but only if he is given permission to choose his partner, refusing to partner with the agent assigned to watch him. Brian heads home to Barstow, California, where he recruits Roman Pearce ( Tyrese Gibson ), a childhood friend of Brian who had served jail time and is under house arrest, to help him. Pearce agrees, but only for the same deal Brian was offered, and with the help of Monica, Brian and Roman work together to take down Verone. After acquiring confiscated vehicles and being hired by Verone as his drivers, the duo return to a Customs/FBI hideout, where Roman confronts Markham over the latter's interference with the mission. After the situation is cooled down, Brian tells Bilkins and Markham that Verone plans to smuggle the money into his private jet and fly off, but also suspects something wrong with Monica's role in the mission. Later, Brian and Roman race two of Verone's drivers for their cars and begin to devise a personal back up plan if the operation goes awry. Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica and the constant threat of Verone's men. On the day of the mission, Brian and Roman begin transporting duffel bags of Verone's money, with two of Verone's men Enrique ( Mo Gallini ) and Roberto (Roberto Sanchez) riding along to watch Brian and Roman. Before the 15-minute window is set, the detective in charge, Whitworth ( Mark Boone Junior ), decides to call in the police to move in for the arrest, resulting in a high-speed chase across the city. The duo lead the police to a warehouse, where a scramble by dozens of street racers disorient the police. Following the scramble, police manage to pull over the Evo and the Eclipse, only to find out that they were driven by two members of Brian's new crew, friends, Tej Parker ( Ludacris ) and Suki ( Devon Aoki ). As Brian approaches the destination point in a Yenko Camaro , Enrique tells him to make a detour away from the airfield. Meanwhile, Roman gets rid of Roberto by using an improvised ejector seat in his (orange) Dodge Challenger powered by nitrous oxide. At the airfield, Customs Agents have Verone's plane and convoy surrounded, only to discover they are duped into a decoy maneuver while Verone is at a boatyard several miles away. As he knew Monica was an undercover agent, he gave her the wrong information on the destination point and plans to use her as leverage. When Brian arrives at the intended drop-off point, Enrique prepares to kill him when Roman suddenly appears and the both of them dispatch Enrique. Verone makes his escape aboard his private yacht, but Brian and Roman use the Yenko Camaro and drive off a ramp, crashing on top of the yacht. The duo manage to apprehend Verone and save Monica. With their crimes pardoned, Brian and Roman ponder on what to do next other than to settle in Miami when the former mentions starting a garage. Roman asks how they would afford that and Brian reveals that he took some of the money, as Roman also reveals that his pockets aren't empty, having taken money for himself. The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) [ edit ] Main article: The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift This film's story occurs sometime after Fast & Furious 6 with a scene that was later made concurrent with events in Furious 7 . After totaling his car in an illegal street race, Sean Boswell ( Lucas Black ) is sent to live in Tokyo, Japan, with his father, a U.S. Navy officer, in order to avoid juvenile detention or even jail. While in school, he befriends Twinkie ( Bow Wow ), a \"military brat\" who introduces him to the world of drift racing in Japan. Though forbidden to drive, he decides to race against Takashi ( Brian Tee ) aka D.K. (Drift King). He borrows a Nissan Silvia from Han Lue ( Sung Kang ), now a business partner to Takashi, and loses, totaling the car because of his lack of knowledge of drifting. To repay his debt for the car he destroyed, Sean works for Han. Later on, Han becomes friends with Sean and teaches him how to drift. Takashi's uncle Kamata ( Sonny Chiba ) (the head of the Yakuza ) reprimands Takashi for allowing Han to steal from him. Takashi confronts Han, Sean and Neela ( Nathalie Kelley ), and in doing so, they flee. During the chase, Han is killed in a car accident when his car catches fire. Takashi, Sean, and his father become involved in an armed standoff which is resolved by Neela agreeing to leave with Takashi. Twinkie gives his money to Sean to replace the money Han stole, which Sean then returns to Kamata. Sean proposes a race against Takashi to determine who must leave Tokyo. Sean and Han's friends then build a 1967 Ford Mustang , with an inline-6 engine and other parts salvaged from Han's Silvia that Sean had destroyed. Sean wins the race and is later challenged by Dominic Toretto. Fast & Furious (2009) [ edit ] Main article: Fast & Furious (2009 film) Fast & Furious , as well as its succeeding films, takes place before the events of The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift . About five years after the events of the first film , Dominic and his new crew (Letty, Han, Leo, Santos and Cara) have been hijacking fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic. When their trail gets too hot, Dominic disbands the crew. However, he is later informed that Letty has been murdered. Dominic returns to Los Angeles where he finds traces of nitro-methane at the crash site, and tracks the buyer of the gas to David Park. Meanwhile, Brian O'Conner, who has been working as an FBI agent, is tracking down a drug trafficker named Arturo Braga . When Brian and Dominic cross paths at David Park's apartment, Dominic is about to drop David out the window. But Brian intervenes, and works a scheme where he enters a street race where the winner would join Braga's team of drivers. Although Dominic wins the four-car race by bumping Brian's car, Brian later joins the team by replacing one of Braga's other drivers. The team meets Fenix Calderon ( Laz Alonso ) who directs them to drive the heroin across the border using underground tunnels to avoid detection. Brian realizes that the drivers are to be killed following the mission, and when Fenix reveals to Dominic that he killed Letty, Dominic detonates the nitrous in his car, blowing up a bunch of vehicles. In the chaos, Brian hijacks the Hummer that is carrying the heroin. Dominic and Brian drive back to Los Angeles, hiding the heroin in an impound lot. When Dominic learns Brian was the last person to contact Letty, he attacks him until Brian reveals that Letty was working undercover for Brian, tracking down Braga in exchange for clearing Dominic's name. Brian negotiates with the agency to free Dominic if they can lure Braga into personally coming to exchange the heroin for cash. However, at the drop site, it is revealed that the Braga they arrested was a decoy, and that the real Braga ( John Ortiz ) has escaped, fleeing to Mexico. Suspended from duty, Brian joins Dominic to go to Mexico and in hopes of catching Braga. Although Braga agreeably surrenders, they are pursued by Braga's men through town and then the tunnels. Fenix T-bones Brian's car right outside the tunnel exit, but before he can kill Brian, Dominic drives into and kills Fenix. As the police arrive, Dominic refuses to escape, saying he is tired of running. Despite Brian's request for clemency , the judge sentences Dominic to 25 years to life . During the prison bus ride to Lompoc penitentiary , Brian and Mia, along with Leo and Santos, arrive in their cars and intercept the bus. Fast Five (2011) [ edit ] Main article: Fast Five This section is transcluded from Fast Five . ( edit | history ) When Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus, his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O'Conner lead an assault on the bus, causing it to crash and freeing Dom. While the authorities search for them, the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro . Awaiting Dom's arrival, Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train. Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property. When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants, he realizes that the lead participant, Zizi, is only interested in stealing one car - a Ford GT40 . Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen, during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles. Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes, the owner of the cars and Zizi's boss. Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car, but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse. While Brian, Dom, and Mia examine the car to discover its importance, Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it. He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own, and Dom forces him to leave. Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains the complete financial details of Reyes' criminal empire, including the locations of US$100 million in cash. Diplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian. With the help of local officer Elena Neves, they travel to Dom's safehouse, but find it under assault by Reyes' men. Brian, Dom and Mia escape; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio, but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian's child. Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life. They organize a team to perform the heist: Han, Roman, Tej, Gisele, Leo, and Santos. Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes' men. Hobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom, Mia, Brian, and Vince. While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States, the convoy is attacked by Reyes' men, who kill Hobbs' team. Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom, Brian, Mia, and Vince as they fight back and escape, but Vince is shot in the process and dies. Wanting to avenge his murdered team, Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist. The gang break into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes' money from the building using their cars, dragging it through the city. After an extensive police chase, Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes, using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles. Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom's assault. Hobbs arrives on the scene and executes Reyes to avenge his team. Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free, he gives them a 24-hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is. However, the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase. After splitting the cash (Vince's share is given to his family), they go their separate ways. On a tropical beach, Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax. They are met by Dom and Elena. Brian challenges Dom to a final, no-stakes race to prove who is the better driver. In a mid-credits scene , Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin , where he discovers a recent photo of Dom's former girlfriend Letty, who had been presumed dead. Fast & Furious 6 (2013) [ edit ] Main article: Fast & Furious 6 This section is transcluded from Fast & Furious 6 . ( edit | history ) Following their successful heist in Brazil , Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto and his professional criminal crew have fled around the world: Dom lives with Elena; his sister Mia lives with Brian O'Conner and their son, Jack; Gisele and Han live together; and Roman and Tej live in luxury. Meanwhile, DSS agent Luke Hobbs and Riley Hicks investigate the destruction of a Russian military convoy by a crew led by former British SAS Major and special ops soldier Owen Shaw. Hobbs persuades Dom to help capture Shaw by showing him a photo of the supposedly long-dead Letty Ortiz, Dom's former lover. Dom and his crew accept the mission in exchange for their amnesty, allowing them to return to the United States. In London, Shaw's hideout is found, but this is revealed to be a trap, distracting them and the police while Shaw's crew performs a heist at an Interpol building. Shaw flees by car, detonating his hideout and disabling most of the police, leaving Dom, Brian, Tej, Han, Gisele, Hobbs, and Riley to pursue him. Letty arrives to help Shaw, shooting Dom without hesitation before escaping. Back at their headquarters, Hobbs tells Dom's crew that Shaw is stealing components to create a deadly device, intending to sell it to the highest bidder. Meanwhile, Shaw's investigation into the opposing crew reveals Letty's relationship with Dom, but she is revealed to be suffering from amnesia. Dominic's crew learns that Shaw is connected to a drug lord who was imprisoned by Brian , Arturo Braga. Brian returns to Los Angeles as a prisoner to question Braga, who says Letty survived the explosion that seemingly killed her; Shaw took her in after discovering her amnesia. With FBI help, Brian is released from prison, regrouping with the team in London. Dom challenges Letty in a street racing competition; afterwards, he returns her cross necklace he had kept. After Letty leaves, Shaw offers Dom a chance to walk away, threatening to otherwise hurt his family, but Dom refuses. Tej tracks Shaw's next attack to a Spanish NATO base. Shaw's crew assaults a highway military convoy carrying a computer chip to complete his deadly device. Dom's crew interferes while Shaw, accompanied by Letty, commandeers a tank, destroying cars en route. Brian and Roman manage to flip the tank before it causes further damage, resulting in Letty being thrown from the vehicle and Dom risking his life to save her. Shaw and his crew are captured, but reveal Mia has been kidnapped by Shaw. Hobbs is forced to release Shaw, and Riley, revealed to be Shaw's covert accomplice, leaves with him; Letty chooses to remain with Dom. Shaw's group board a large moving aircraft on a runway as Dom's crew gives chase. Dom, Letty, and Brian board the craft; Brian rescues Mia, escaping in an onboard car. The plane attempts take-off, but is held down by excess weight as the rest of the team tether the plane to their vehicles. Gisele sacrifices herself to save Han from Shaw's henchman; Letty kills Riley and escapes to safety, but Dom pursues Shaw and the computer chip. As the plane crashes into the ground, Shaw is thrown from it, seriously injuring him, and Dom drives a car out of the exploding plane. Dom reunites with his crew, and gives the chip to Hobbs to secure their pardons. Dom and the others return to his old family home in Los Angeles. Hobbs and Elena, now working together, arrive to confirm the crew's freedom; Elena accepts that Dom loves Letty. As Roman says grace over the crew's meal, Dom asks Letty if the gathering feels familiar; she answers \"no, but it feels like home.\" In a mid-credits scene , which takes place in Tokyo , Han is involved in a car chase when he is suddenly broadsided by an oncoming car. The driver walks away from the scene after leaving Letty's cross necklace by the crash, and calls Dom as Han's car fatally explodes, saying, \" You don't know me. You're about to .\" Furious 7 (2015) [ edit ] Main article: Furious 7 This section is transcluded from Furious 7 . ( edit | history ) After defeating Owen Shaw and his crew and securing amnesty for their past crimes, [N 1] Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto , Brian O'Conner and the rest of their team have returned to the United States to live normal lives again. Brian begins to accustom himself to life as a father, while Dom tries to help Letty Ortiz regain her memory. Meanwhile, Owen's older brother, Deckard Shaw, breaks into the secure hospital that the comatose Owen is being held in and swears vengeance against Dom and his team, before breaking into Luke Hobbs' Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) office to extract profiles of Dom's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight, and escapes when he detonates a bomb that severely injures Hobbs. Dom later learns from his sister Mia that she is pregnant again and convinces her to tell Brian. However, a bomb, disguised in a package sent from Tokyo , explodes and destroys the Toretto house just seconds after Han, a member of Dom's team, is killed by Shaw in Tokyo. Dom later visits Hobbs in a hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother. Dom then travels to Tokyo to claim Han's body, and meets and races Sean Boswell, a friend of Han's who gives him personal items found at Han's crash site. Back at Han's funeral in Los Angeles , Dom notices a car observing them, and after a chase, confronts its driver, who is revealed to be Shaw. Both prepare to fight, but Shaw flees when a covert ops team arrives and opens fire, led by Mr. Nobody . Nobody says that he will assist Dom in stopping Shaw if he helps him obtain God's Eye, a computer program that uses digital devices to track down a person, and save its creator, a hacker named Ramsey, from a mercenary named Mose Jakande. Dom, Brian, Letty, Roman Pearce, and Tej Parker then airdrop their cars over the Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, ambush Jakande's convoy, and rescue Ramsey. The team then heads to Abu Dhabi , where a billionaire has acquired the flash drive containing God's Eye, and manages to steal it from the owner. With God's Eye near telecommunications repeaters , the team tracks down Shaw, who is waiting at a remote factory. Dom, Brian, Nobody and his team attempt to capture Shaw, but are ambushed by Jakande and his men and forced to flee while Jakande obtains God's Eye. At his own request, the injured Nobody is left behind to be evacuated by helicopter while Brian and Dom continue without him. To reduce their disadvantage, the crew returns to Los Angeles to fight Shaw, Jakande and his men. Meanwhile, Brian promises Mia that once they deal with Shaw, he will retire and fully dedicate himself to their family. While Jakande pursues Brian and the rest of the team with a stealth helicopter and an aerial drone , Ramsey attempts to hack into God's Eye. Hobbs, seeing the team in trouble, leaves the hospital and destroys the drone with an ambulance. Brian engages Jakande's henchman Kiet and throws him down an elevator shaft, allowing Ramsey to regain control of God's Eye and shut it down. Dom and Shaw engage in a one-on-one brawl on top of a public parking garage, before Jakande intervenes and attacks them both. Shaw is defeated when part of the parking garage collapses beneath him. Dom then launches his vehicle at Jakande's helicopter, tossing Shaw's bag of grenades onto its skids, before injuring himself when his car lands and crashes. Hobbs then shoots the bag of grenades from ground level, destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. Dom is pulled from the wreckage of his car, believed to be dead. As Letty cradles Dom's body in her arms, she reveals that she has regained her memories, and that she remembers their wedding. Dom regains consciousness soon after, remarking, \"It's about time\". Shaw is taken into custody by Hobbs and locked away in a secret, high-security prison. At a beach, Brian and Mia play with their son while Dom, Letty, Roman, Tej, and Ramsey observe, acknowledging that Brian is better off retired with his family. Dom silently leaves, Ramsey asks if he's gonna say goodbye. Dom says, \"It's never goodbye.\" He drives away, but Brian catches up with him at a crossroad. As Dom remembers the times that he had with Brian, they bid each other farewell and drive off in separate directions , as the screen fades to \"For Paul\" written on a white title screen. The Fate of the Furious (2017) [ edit ] Main article: The Fate of the Furious This section is transcluded from The Fate of the Furious . ( edit | history ) Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark , Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando's reworked car against Raldo's, and wagering his own show car . After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car. The next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin . During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high-security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his protégé to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God's Eye, Ramsey's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves—as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos. In New York City , Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence . Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher and persuades Deckard and Owen's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom. Dom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine , enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene's behest, infiltrates Cipher's plane to rescue Dom's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts a defeated Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane. Mr. Nobody and his protégé visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens . Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother-in-law Brian O'Conner , and they celebrate. Hobbs & Shaw (2019) [ edit ] Vin Diesel announced in an interview with Variety that potential spin-offs for the series were in the early stages of development. [3] [4] A spin-off film centered around two characters Luke Hobbs and Deckard Shaw has been announced by Universal and has a release date of July 26, 2019, [5] with Variety reporting that Shane Black is being considered to direct and Morgan returning to write the script. [6] The announcement of the spin-off provoked a response on Instagram by Tyrese Gibson , criticizing Johnson for causing the ninth Fast & Furious film to be delayed for another year. [5] On October 23, 2017, Dwayne Johnson posted a video on Instagram which showed the finished script for the spin-off, titled Hobbs and Shaw . In February 2018, David Leitch entered talks to direct the film. [7] In March 2018, it was reported that the film will start production in September 2018. [8] On April 12, 2018, it was announced that Leitch would direct the film. Future [ edit ] In February 2016, Diesel announced the ninth film and tenth film would be released on April 10, 2020, [9] [10] and April 2, 2021, respectively, and that the tenth film would serve as the final film in the series. [11] [12] Justin Lin is reportedly in line to direct the ninth installment. [13] It was also announced that Jordana Brewster would return for the ninth installment. In September of the same year, both Caleb and Cody Walker revealed to Entertainment Tonight that their brother's character may possibly return for another cameo in the franchise. [14] On April 23, 2018, Universal and DreamWorks Animation are creating an animated series based on the franchise and will be launched on Netflix . [15] Short films [ edit ] The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) [ edit ] Main article: The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious The short film was included on a new print of the DVD of the first film in June 2003 to bridge the first two films. Brian O'Conner packs his bags and leaves Los Angeles, before the LAPD gets a chance to arrest him for letting Dominic escape. While the FBI launch a national manhunt for him, Brian travels across Arizona , New Mexico , and Texas , winning every street race he participates in, with his red Dodge Stealth . However, he is forced to ditch his car at a motel in San Antonio when police officers are notified of his presence. When they collect the car, he manages to hitch a ride from an unknown woman ( Minka Kelly ), despite her knowing who he really is. She drops him at a used car lot, with him realizing she knows that he is a wanted man. There, he buys a green Nissan Skyline GT-R R34 . Later, collecting money from street races, he modifies the car with new rims and repaints it silver before traveling eastbound and winning more races on the way. Upon reaching Jacksonville, Florida , Brian heads south toward Miami , where he sees Slap Jack's Toyota Supra and Orange Julius' Mazda RX-7 (both 2 Fast 2 Furious characters) before the screen reads \"2 be continued...\" . Los Bandoleros (2009) [ edit ] Main article: Los Bandoleros (film) Tego Leo ( Tego Calderón ) is in a Dominican Republic prison, ranting about corporations holding back the electric car and starting wars for oil. Meanwhile, on the streets, Rico Santos ( Don Omar ) chats to an old man unable to find enough gas. Han Lue ( Sung Kang ) arrives and is collected from the airport by Cara ( Mirtha Michelle ) and Malo (F. Valentino Morales). They drive him back to Santos' house, where his aunt Rubia (Adria Carrasco) is struggling with rising prices linked to the cost of gasoline and Dominic is working on his car. The team then enjoy a welcome meal with the family. After breaking Leo out of prison, they head to a club, where Han and Cara flirt, while Dominic meets up with local politician Elvis ( Juan Fernandez ), who informs them of a window of opportunity to hijack a gasoline shipment. While relaxing at the club afterwards, Dominic is surprised by the arrival of Letty, who has tracked him from Mexico. The two drive together to the beach, where they \"rekindle their relationship\". Storyline chronology [ edit ] Below is a table of all films, both short and feature length, in chronological order. Real world release dates are also noted. [16] Timeline order Title Release date 1 The Fast and the Furious 2001-06-22 ! June 22, 2001 — The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious 2003-06-03 ! June 3, 2003 2 2 Fast 2 Furious 2003-06-06 ! June 6, 2003 — Los Bandoleros 2009-07-28 ! July 28, 2009 3 Fast & Furious 2009-04-03 ! April 3, 2009 4 Fast Five 2011-04-29 ! April 29, 2011 5 Fast & Furious 6 2013-05-24 ! May 24, 2013 6 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift 2006-06-16 ! June 16, 2006 7 Furious 7 2015-04-03 ! April 3, 2015 8 The Fate of the Furious 2017-04-12 ! April 14, 2017 Characters [ edit ] Observação * The dark grey-colored fields indicate that the character did not appear in the film Character Filme The Fast and the Furious (2001) Turbo-Charged Prelude (2003) 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) Los Bandoleros (2009) Fast & Furious (2009) Fast Five (2011) Fast Six (2013) Furious 7 (2015) The Fate of the Furious (2017) Dominic Toretto Vin Diesel Vin Diesel Brian O'Conner Paul Walker Paul Walker Letty Ortiz Michelle Rodriguez Michelle Rodriguez Michelle Rodriguez Mia Toretto Jordana Brewster Jordana Brewster Roman Pearce Tyrese Gibson Tyrese Gibson Sean Boswell Lucas Black Lucas Black Tej Parker Ludacris Ludacris Han Seoul-Oh Sung Kang Tego Leo Tego Calderó Tego Calderón Rico Santos Don Omar Don Omar Gisele Yashar Gal Gadot Luke Hobbs Dwayne Johnson Twinkie Bow Wow (rapper) Bow Wow (rapper) Elena Neves Elsa Pataky Owen Shaw Luke Evans Deckard Shaw Jason Statham Neela Nathalie Kelley Nathalie Kelley Cast and crew members [ edit ] Crew/Detail The Fast and the Furious (2001) 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) Fast & Furious (2009) Fast Five (2011) Fast & Furious 6 (2013) Furious 7 (2015) The Fate of the Furious (2017) Director Rob Cohen John Singleton Justin Lin James Wan F. Gary Gray Producer(s) Neal H. Moritz Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel , Michael Fottrell Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Clayton Townsend Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Michael Fottrell Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Michael Fottrell, Chris Morgan Writer(s) Screenplay by: Gary Scott Thompson Erik Bergquist David Ayer Based on: \"Racer X\" by Ken Li Screenplay by: Michael Brandt Derek Haas Story by: Michael Brandt Derek Haas Gary Scott Thompson Written by: Chris Morgan Based on characters by: Gary Scott Thompson Cinematographer(s) Ericson Core Matthew F. Leonetti Stephen F. Windon Amir Mokri Stephen F. Windon Stephen F. Windon Marc Spicer Stephen F. Windon Composer BT David Arnold Brian Tyler Lucas Vidal Brian Tyler Editor(s) Peter Honess Bruce Cannon Dallas Puett Kelly Matsumoto Dallas Puett Fred Raskin Christian Wagner Fred Raskin Kelly Matsumoto Fred Raskin Christian Wagner Christian Wagner Kelly Matsumoto Dylan Highsmith Greg D'auria Leigh Folsom Boyd Christian Wagner Leigh Folsom Boyd Dylan Highsmith Kirk M. Morri Christian Wagner Paul Rubell Costume Designer(s) Sanja Milkovic Hays Production Designer Waldemar Kalinowski Keith Brian Burns Ida Random Peter Wenham Jan Roelfs Bill Brzeski Running time 106 minutes 107 minutes 104 minutes 107 minutes 131 minutes (extended - 132 minutes) 130 minutes (extended - 131 minutes) 137 minutes (extended - 140 minutes) 136 minutes (extended, only on digital - 148 minutes) MPAA rating PG-13 PG-13 (Theatrical version) Unrated (Extended version) PG-13 (Theatrical version) Unrated (Extended Director’s Cut, only on Digital) Characters [ edit ] Main article: List of The Fast and the Furious characters Reception [ edit ] For more details on the reception of each film, see the \"Reception\" section on each film's article. Box office performance [ edit ] Film Release date Budget Box office gross Box office ranking Ref(s) North America Other territories Worldwide All time North America All time Other territories All time worldwide The Fast and the Furious June 22, 2001 $38,000,000 $144,533,925 $62,750,000 $207,283,925 #299 #573 [17] 2 Fast 2 Furious June 6, 2003 $76,000,000 $127,154,901 $109,195,760 $236,350,661 #388 #476 [18] The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift June 16, 2006 $85,000,000 $62,514,415 $95,953,877 $158,468,292 #1,121 [19] [20] Fast & Furious April 3, 2009 $85,000,000 $155,064,265 $208,100,000 $363,164,265 #281 #257 #244 [21] Fast Five April 29, 2011 $125,000,000 $209,837,675 $416,300,000 $626,137,675 #137 #85 #89 [22] Fast & Furious 6 May 24, 2013 $160,000,000 $238,679,850 $550,000,000 $788,679,850 #101 #38 #49 [23] Furious 7 April 3, 2015 $190,000,000 $353,007,020 $1,163,038,891 $1,516,045,911 #37 #3 #6 [24] The Fate of the Furious April 14, 2017 $250,000,000 $226,008,385 $1,009,996,733 $1,236,005,118 #140 #6 [25] #11 [26] Total $1,009,000,000 $1,516,800,436 $3,615,335,261 $5,132,135,697 10 [27] [28] - [29] 6 [30] [1] List indicator(s) A dark grey cell indicates the information is not available for the film. Critical and public response [ edit ] Film Rotten Tomatoes Metacritic CinemaScore The Fast and the Furious 53% (147 reviews) [31] 58 (34 reviews) [32] 7001750000000000000♠ B+ [33] 2 Fast 2 Furious 36% (160 reviews) [34] 38 (36 reviews) [35] 7001833300000000000♠ A- [33] The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift 37% (114 reviews) [36] 45 (32 reviews) [37] 7001833300000000000♠ A- [33] Fast & Furious 29% (175 reviews) [38] 46 (28 reviews) [39] 7001833300000000000♠ A- [33] Fast Five 77% (196 reviews) [40] 66 (41 reviews) [41] 7001916700000000000♠ A [33] Fast & Furious 6 69% (198 reviews) [42] 61 (39 reviews) [43] 7001916700000000000♠ A [33] Furious 7 80% (240 reviews) [44] 67 (50 reviews) [45] 7001916700000000000♠ A [33] The Fate of the Furious 66% (253 reviews) [46] 56 (45 reviews) [47] 7001916700000000000♠ A [33] Franchise extension [ edit ] Theme park attractions [ edit ] Universal has incorporated several theme park attractions involving the Fast & Furious franchise. Universal Studios Hollywood and its Studio Tour has featured several of the picture car vehicles. From 2006 to 2013, The Fast & The Furious: Extreme Close-Up attraction was part of the Studio Tour. [48] [49] [50] On June 25, 2015, Universal Studios Hollywood allotted the final portion of their Studio Tour for the dark ride Fast and Furious: Supercharged . [51] Universal Orlando announced the development of a ride of the same name to open in 2018. [52] Fast & Furious Live [ edit ] Fast & Furious Live is a live show that combines stunt drivers , pyrotechnics and projection mapping . [53] The show had two preview shows on January 11–12 at Liverpool's Echo Arena . It officially began its tour at London's The O2 Arena on January 19, 2018, followed by a worldwide tour until later in 2018. On March 1, 2018, it was revealed on the tour's website that five new dates had been released for September. The following list is sourced from the tour's website. Tour overview [ edit ] Tour Cities Shows Start date End date UK London; Newcastle; Manchester; Birmingham; Sheffield; Belfast; Glasgow 20 19 January 2018 ( 2018-01-19 ) 13 May 2018 ( 2018-05-13 ) Worldwide Antwerp; Vienna; Munich; Cologne; Lisbon; Zürich; Stockholm; Oslo; Helsinki; Copenhagen; Berlin; Paris; Turin; Amsterdam; Prague 36 26 January 2018 ( 2018-01-26 ) 22 September 2018 ( 2018-09-22 ) UK tour dates [ edit ] Venue(s) City(s) Show(s) Date(s) The O2 Arena London 2 19/20 January 2018 Metro Radio Arena Newcastle 3 6-8 April 2018 Manchester Arena Manchester 3 13-15 April 2018 Arena Birmingham Birmingham 3 20-22 April 2018 The SSE Arena Belfast 3 27-29 April 2018 FlyDSA Arena Sheffield 3 4-6 May 2018 The SSE Hydro Glasgow 3 11-13 May 2018 Worldwide tour dates [ edit ] Venue(s) City(s) Country(s) Show(s) Date(s) Sportpaleis Antwerp Belgium 3 26-28 January 2018 Stadthalle Vienna Austria 3 9-11 February 2018 Olympiahalle Munich Germany 3 16-18 February 2018 Lanxess Arena Cologne 3 2-4 March 2018 Altice Arena Lisbon Portugal 1 17 March 2018 Hallenstadion Zürich Switzerland 3 18-20 May 2018 Ericsson Globe Stockholm Sweden 3 25-27 May 2018 Telenor Arena Oslo Norway 3 1-3 June 2018 Hartwall Arena Helsinki Finland 3 8-10 June 2018 Royal Arena Copenhagen Denmark 3 15-17 June 2018 Mercedes-Benz Arena Berlin Germany 3 22-24 June 2018 AccorHotels Arena Paris France 3 29 June–1 July 2018 Pala Alpitour Turin Italy 2 7/8 September 2018 Ziggo Dome Amsterdam The Netherlands 1 15 September 2018 O2 Arena Prague Czech Republic 2 21/22 September 2018 Soundtracks [ edit ] Fast & Furious soundtrack albums Title Release date The Fast and the Furious: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2001 First soundtrack to the 2001 film More Fast and Furious 2001 Second soundtrack album to the 2001 film 2 Fast 2 Furious: Soundtrack 2003 Soundtrack to the 2003 film The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) 2006 First soundtrack to the 2006 film The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (Original Motion Picture Score) 2006 Second soundtrack to the 2006 film Fast & Furious: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2009 First soundtrack to the 2009 film Fast & Furious (Original Motion Picture Score) 2009 Second soundtrack to the 2009 film Fast Five (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) 2011 First soundtrack to the 2011 film Fast Five: Original Motion Picture Score 2011 Second soundtrack to the 2011 film Fast & Furious 6 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) 2013 Soundtrack to the 2013 film Furious 7: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2015 First soundtrack to the 2015 film Furious 7: Original Motion Picture Score 2015 Second soundtrack to the 2015 film The Fate of the Furious: The Album 2017 First soundtrack to the 2017 film The Fate of the Furious: Original Motion Picture Score 2017 Second soundtrack to the 2017 film Video games [ edit ] The film series has spawned several racing video games for various systems. The arcade game The Fast and the Furious (known as Wild Speed in Japan) was released by Raw Thrills in 2004. [54] In 2006, the video game The Fast and the Furious was released for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable . Several games ( The Fast and the Furious: Pink Slip , Fast & Furious , Fast Five , Fast & Furious: Adrenaline , Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy ) have all been released for iOS and are available on the iTunes App Store ; for Android devices there is an official version of Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy . In 2013, Fast & Furious: Showdown was released for the PC ( Windows OS ), Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Wii U and Nintendo 3DS . Various cars, locations and characters from the series have also appeared in the Facebook game Car Town . In 2015, in a deal with Microsoft Studios , a standalone expansion of Forza Horizon 2 for Xbox One and Xbox 360 was released titled Forza Horizon 2 Presents Fast & Furious . Toys and model kits [ edit ] Racing Champions released diecast metal replicas of the film's cars in different scales from 1/18 to 1/64. [55] RadioShack sold ZipZaps micro RC versions of the cars in 2002. [56] 1/24 scale plastic model kits of the hero cars were manufactured by AMT Ertl . Johnny Lightning, under the JL Full Throttle Brand, released 1/64th and 1/24th models of the cars from Tokyo Drift. These models were designed by Diecast Hall of Fame designer Eric Tscherne. Greenlight has also sold cars from the new films in the series and some from the previous films. [57] Hot Wheels has released 1/64 models since 2013. [58] International locations [ edit ] The Fast and the Furious franchise was filmed in a number of countries including: Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Spain, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and the United States. [59] See also [ edit ] List of highest-grossing film franchises References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Fast and the Furious Movies at the Box Office\" . Box Office Mojo . June 15, 2015 . Retrieved March 27, 2018 . Jump up ^ David Gonzales (6 April 2015). \" ' Furious 7' Marks Universal's Biggest Franchise Ever\" . Forbes . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Lang, Brent (November 16, 2015). \" ' Fast & Furious' Spinoffs In the Works (EXCLUSIVE)\" . Variety . Jump up ^ \"Fast and Furious 10 Cast and Crew\" . Fast and Furious . January 22, 2017. Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved January 28, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Fast & Furious: The Rock And Jason Statham Spin-Off Coming In 2019\" . October 6, 2017. Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (October 5, 2017). \"Dwayne Johnson and Jason Statham's 'Fast and Furious' Spinoff Gets 2019 Release Date\" . Jump up ^ \" ' Deadpool 2' Director in Early Talks for Dwayne Johnson's 'Fast and Furious' Spinoff\" . Jump up ^ \"The Rock's Fast and Furious Spin-Off Begins Shooting This Fall\" . Jump up ^ Mendelson, Scott. \"Box Office: 'Fast And Furious 9' Delay Offers Answer To Universal's 'Wicked' Problem\" . Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (October 4, 2017). \" ' Fast and Furious 9' Moved Back a Year to 2020\" . Jump up ^ Rahman, Abid (February 3, 2016). \"Universal Sets Dates for 'Fast & Furious' Parts 9 and 10\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 10 will be the final movie of the series\" . April 21, 2017. Jump up ^ Kit, Borys. \"Fast and Furious Spinoff Gets July 2019 Release Date\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 9, 2017 . Jump up ^ Michael, Alex (April 14, 2017). \"EXCLUSIVE: Paul Walker's brother Cody claims Fast & Furious: Ride or Die 'WILL be filmed and set in Australia ' \" . Daily Mail . Jump up ^ \" ' Fast and Furious' Animated Series From DreamWorks Animation Set at Netflix\" . Variety . April 23, 2018 . Retrieved April 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ aegies. \"The Fast & Furious Timeline\" . Polygon . Retrieved May 29, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious (2001)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Challenge (2006)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Challenge\" . The Numbers . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fast and Furious (2009)\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fast Five (2011)\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 6\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved October 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Furious 7 (2015)\" . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved June 11, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"BoxOfficeMojo Movie Franchises – WORLDWIDE GROSSES - Overseas\" . Retrieved June 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Fate of the Furious (2017)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved June 26, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"BoxOfficeMojo Movie Franchises – Franchise Index\" . Retrieved April 12, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"All Time Domestic Gross\" . Archived from the original on June 13, 2015 . Retrieved June 11, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"BoxOfficeMojo – Alltime Box Office – Worldwide Grosses & #1-100\" . Retrieved May 7, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"TheNumbers Movie Franchises\" . The Numbers . Nash Information Services . Retrieved May 7, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved August 4, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious (2001)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved August 15, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h \"CinemaScore\" . cinemascore.com . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"2 Fast 2 Furious\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved August 4, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved August 15, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved August 15, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious (2009)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved August 15, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Fast Five\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fast Five (2011)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved August 15, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 6\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved September 28, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 6 (2013)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved August 4, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Furious 7\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved May 28, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Furious 7 (2015)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved April 8, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Fate of the Furious\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved April 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"The Fate of the Furious (2017)\" . Metacritic . Retrieved April 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"theStudioTour.com - Universal Studios Hollywood - The Fast and the Furious\" . thestudiotour.com . Retrieved December 15, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious attraction takes shape at Universal Studios Hollywood\" . Los Angeles Times . May 5, 2015 . Retrieved December 15, 2015 . Jump up ^ IGN Cars (July 11, 2006). \"Fast and Furious: Extreme Close Up\" . IGN . Retrieved December 15, 2015 . Jump up ^ Marc Graser. \" ' Fast & Furious-Supercharged' Opening at Universal Studios June 25 - Variety\" . Variety . Retrieved December 15, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Universal Orlando Close Up - New Fast & Furious Ride Coming - Universal Orlando Blog\" . Close Up . Jump up ^ Spectacular Fast and Furious car stunt live show is a £25m gamble - Mark Brown, The Guardian, 22 September 2017 Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on April 23, 2005 . Retrieved October 24, 2013 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on October 11, 2004 . Retrieved May 21, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Mods – RadioShack ZipZaps – These Zaps Zip From Radio Shack\" . Micro RC Cars. November 25, 2002 . Retrieved December 1, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on November 2, 2004 . Retrieved May 21, 2011 . Jump up ^ HW City / Speed Power Series (2013 New Model): Toyota Supra - Orange Track Diecast, 8 January 2016 Jump up ^ The Fate of the Furious (2017) , retrieved 2017-09-05 External links [ edit ] Official website The Fast and the Furious on IMDb [ hide ] v t e The Fast and the Furious Films The Fast and the Furious album 2nd album 2 Fast 2 Furious album The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift Fast & Furious album score Fast Five album score Fast & Furious 6 album Furious 7 album score The Fate of the Furious album score Characters Dominic Toretto Brian O'Conner Letty Ortiz Han Lue Gisele Yashar TV series Fast & Furious Short films The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious Los Bandoleros Video games The Fast and the Furious Fast & Furious: Showdown Attractions Fast & Furious: Supercharged Related \" Act a Fool \" \" Conteo \" \" See You Again \" video \" Gang Up \" Category Cite error: There are <ref group=N> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=N}} template (see the help page ). 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{ "text": "The Song of Roland - Wikipedia The Song of Roland From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 1978 film starring Klaus Kinski, see The Song of Roland (film) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The eight phases of The Song of Roland in one picture. The Song of Roland ( French : La Chanson de Roland ) is an epic poem ( Chanson de geste ) based on the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, during the reign of Charlemagne . It is the oldest surviving major work of French literature and exists in various manuscript versions, which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The date of composition is put in the period between 1040 and 1115: an early version beginning around 1040 with additions and alterations made up until about 1115. The final text has about 4,000 lines of poetry. The epic poem is the first [1] and, along with The Poem of the Cid , one of the most outstanding examples of the chanson de geste , a literary form that flourished between the 11th and 15th centuries and celebrated legendary deeds. Contents 1 Manuscripts and dating 1.1 AOI 2 Critical opinions 2.1 Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions 3 Plot 4 Form 5 Characters 5.1 Principal characters 5.2 Secondary characters 6 Durandal 7 Historical adaptations 8 Modern adaptations 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Further reading 12 External links Manuscripts and dating [ edit ] Bodleian Library, MS Digby 23, Part 2 Set in the Carolingian era, it was written much later. There is a single extant manuscript of the Song of Roland in Old French , held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford . [2] This copy dates between 1129 and 1165 and was written in Anglo-Norman . [3] There are also eight further manuscripts, and three fragments, of other poems on the subject of Roland. [4] Some scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named Turold ( Turoldus in the manuscript itself), between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade . Those who prefer a later dating do so based upon what they interpret as brief references made in the poem to events of the First Crusade. In the poem, the term d'oltre mer or l'oltremarin comes up three times in reference to named Muslims who came from oltre mer to fight in Spain and France. Oltre mer , modern French Outremer , literally \"oversea, beyond sea, other side of the sea\", is a native French term from the classical Latin roots ultra = \"beyond\" and mare = \"sea\". The name was commonly used by the Crusaders to refer to Palestine . [ citation needed ] The occurrence of this term in the poem cannot be interpreted as showing influence from the Crusades in the poem; on the contrary, the way it is used in the poem, in which it is simply a Muslim land, indicates that the author of the poem was unacquainted with the Crusades, and that the term was in French before the Crusades began meaning the far side of the Mediterranean Sea. The bulk of the poem is adjudged to date from before the Crusades (which started in 1098), but there are a few items where questions remain about these items being late additions shortly after the Crusades started. After two manuscripts were found in 1832 and 1835, the Song of Roland became recognized as France's national epic when an edition was published in 1837. [5] AOI [ edit ] Detail of manuscript showing \"AOI\" Certain lines of the Oxford manuscript end with the letters \"AOI\". The meaning of this word or annotation is unclear. Scholars have hypothesized that the marking may have played a role in public performances of the text, such as indicating a place where a jongleur would change the tempo. [6] Critical opinions [ edit ] Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions [ edit ] Scholarly consensus has long accepted that the Song of Roland differed in its presentation depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions. Early editors of the Song of Roland, informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes, [7] \"[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French epic\". Plot [ edit ] The death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux , from an illuminated manuscript c.1455–1460. Charlemagne 's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain . They have been there for seven years, and the last city standing is Saragossa , held by the Muslim King Marsile . Threatened by the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks , Marsile seeks advice from his wise man, Blancandrin , who councils him to conciliate the Emperor, offering to surrender and giving hostages. Accordingly, Marsile sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsile's conversion to Christianity if the Franks will go back to France. Charlemagne and his men, tired of fighting, accept his peace offer and select a messenger to Marsile's court. The protagonist Roland , Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather Ganelon as messenger. Ganelon, who fears to be murdered by the enemy and accuses Roland of intending this, takes revenge by informing the Saracens of a way to ambush the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland, as the Franks re-enter France through the mountain passes. As Ganelon predicted, Roland leads the rear guard, with the wise and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims ambush them at Roncesvalles and the Christians are overwhelmed. Oliver pleads with Roland to blow his horn to call for help, but Roland tells him that blowing his horn in the middle of the battle would be an act of cowardice. If Roland continues to refuse, Oliver will not let Roland see his sister again whom Roland loves the most. However, Archbishop Turpin intervenes and tells them that the battle will be fatal for all of them and so instructs Roland to blow his horn oliphant (the word is an old alternative to \"elephant\", and was used to refer to a hunting horn made from an elephant tusk) to call for help from the Frankish army. The emperor hears the call on their way to France. Charlemagne and his noblemen gallop back even though Count Ganelon tries to trick them. The Franks fight well, but are outnumbered, until almost all Roland's men are dead and he knows that Charlemagne's army can no longer save them. Despite this, he blows his olifant to summon revenge, until his temples burst and he dies a martyr's death. Angels take his soul to Paradise. When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find the dead bodies of Roland's men, who have been utterly annihilated. They pursue the Muslims into the river Ebro , where the Muslims drown. Meanwhile, Baligant , the powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived in Spain to help Marsile. His army encounters that of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles, where the Christians are burying and mourning their dead. Both sides fight valiantly. When Charlemagne kills Baligant, the Muslim army scatters and flees, leaving the Franks to conquer Saragossa. With Marsile's wife Bramimonde , Queen of Saragossa, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix , their capital in France. The Franks discover Ganelon's betrayal and keep him in chains until his trial, where Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, not treason. While the council of barons assembled to decide the traitor's fate is initially swayed by this claim, partially out of fear of Ganelon's friend Pinabel who threatens to fight anyone who judges Ganelon guilty, one man, Thierry, argues that because Roland was serving Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal. Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat . By divine intervention, Thierry kills Pinabel. By this the Franks are convinced of Ganelon's treason. Thus, he is torn apart by having four galloping horses tied one to each arm and leg and thirty of his relatives are hanged. Bramimonde converts to Christianity, her name changing to Juliana. While sleeping, Charlemagne is told by Gabriel to ride to help King Vivien and bemoans his life. Form [ edit ] Charlemagne finds Roland dead (14th-century miniature). The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses . The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable . The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal , not a rhyming stanza. On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Roland proposes Ganelon for the dangerous mission to Sarrogossa; Ganelon designates Roland to man the rearguard. Charlemagne is contrasted with Baligant. [8] Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature , the poem focuses on action rather than introspection. The characters are presented through what they do, not through what they think or feel. The narrator gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive. The narrator is openly biased towards the Franks. His moral view is very black-and-white: the Franks are good, and the pagans are bad. The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot. Characters [ edit ] Principal characters [ edit ] Andriodos , helpless boy; despite the honor came from King Charlemagne. Baligant , emir of Babylon; Marsile enlists his help against Charlemagne. Blancandrin , wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and then suggests dishonouring a promise to allow Marsile's baptism Bassalt , came from the name of rocks that are solid and may occur in the second phrase of the poem; captured the horse of the king. Bramimonde , Queen of Saragossa , King Marsile's wife; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls. Charlemagne , Holy Roman Emperor ; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain. Ganelon , treacherous lord and Roland's stepfather who encourages Marsile to attack the French army. King Marsile , Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later. Naimon , Charlemagne's trusted adviser. Oliver , Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Margarice. He represents wisdom. Roland , the hero of the Song ; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French forces; bursts his temples by blowing his olifant-horn, wounds from which he eventually dies facing the enemy's land. Turpin , Archbishop of Rheims , represents the force of the Church . Secondary characters [ edit ] Aude , the fiancée of Roland and Oliver's sister Basan , French baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsile. Bérengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsile's troops; kills Estramarin; killed by Grandoyne. Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is discovered. Geboin , guards the French dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column. Godefroy , standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne's defender against Pinabel. Grandoyne , fighter on Marsile's side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier, Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland. Hamon , joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division. Lorant , French commander of one of the first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant. Milon , guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces. Ogier , a Dane who leads the third column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces. Othon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces. Pinabel , fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat . Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat. Durandal [ edit ] According to the Song of Roland, the legendary sword called Durandal was first given to Charlemagne by an angel. It contained one tooth of Saint Peter , blood of Saint Basil , hair of Saint Denis , and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary , and was supposedly the sharpest sword in all existence. In the story of the Song of Roland, the weapon is given to Roland, and he uses it to defend himself single-handedly against thousands of Muslim attackers. According to one 12th-century legend from the French town of Rocamadour , Roland threw the sword into a cliffside. [ citation needed ] You can still see a sword there, allegedly Durandal, embedded into the cliff-face. [ citation needed ] Historical adaptations [ edit ] A Latin poem, Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis , was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, Historia Caroli Magni (often known as \"The Pseudo-Turpin\") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle High German Rolandslied by Konrad der Pfaffe [8] (formerly thought to have been the author of the Kaiserchronik ). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century. It was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th- or 15th-century poem of Ronsasvals , which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. An Old Norse version of the Song of Roland exists as Karlamagnús saga , and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy . In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic Orlando Furioso , which deals largely with characters first described in the Song of Roland . There is also Faroese adoption of this ballad named \"Runtsivalstríðið\" (Battle of Roncevaux). [9] The ballad is one of many sung during the Faroese folkdance tradition of chain dancing. Modern adaptations [ edit ] The Chanson de Roland has an important place in the background of Graham Greene 's The Confidential Agent , published in 1939. The book's protagonist had been a Medieval scholar specialising in this work, until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War forced him to become a soldier and secret agent. Throughout the book, he repeatedly compares himself and other characters with the characters of \"Roland\". Particularly, the book includes a full two pages of specific commentary, which is relevant to its 20th-century plot line: \"Oliver, when he saw the Saracens coming, urged Roland to blow his horn and fetch back Charlemagne – but Roland wouldn't blow. A big brave fool. In war one always chooses the wrong hero. Oliver should have been the hero of that song, instead of being given second place with the blood-thirsty Bishop Turpin.(...) In the Oxford version Oliver is reconciled in the end, he gives Roland his death-blow by accident, his eyes blinded by wounds. [But] the story had been tidied up. In truth, Oliver strikes his friend down in full knowledge – because of what he has done to his men, all the wasted lives. Oliver dies hating the man he loves – the big boasting courageous fool who was more concerned with his own glory than with the victory of his faith. This makes the story tragedy, not just heroics\". [10] It is also adapted by Stephen King, in the Dark Tower series in which Roland Deschain wishes to save the Dark Tower from the Crimson King. The Song of Roland is part of the Matter of France (the Continental counterpart to the Arthurian legendarium known as the Matter of Britain ), and related to Orlando Furioso . The names Roland and Orlando are cognates. Emanuelle Luzzati's animated short film, I paladini di Francia , together with Giulio Gianini , in 1960, was turned into the children's picture-story book, with verse narrative, I Paladini de Francia ovvero il tradimento di Gano di Maganz , which translates literally as “The Paladins of France or the treachery of Gano of Maganz” (Ugo Mursia Editore, 1962). This was then republished, in English, as Ronald and the Wizard Calico (1969). The Picture Lion paperback edition (William Collins, London, 1973) is a paperback imprint of the Hutchinson Junior Books edition (1969), which credits the English translation to Hutchinson Junior Books. Luzatti's original verse story in Italian is about the plight of a beautiful maiden called Biancofiore – White Flower, or Blanchefleur – and her brave hero, Captain Rinaldo, and Ricardo and his paladins – the term used for Christian knights engaged in Crusades against the Saracens and Moors. Battling with these good people are the wicked Moors – North African Muslims and Arabs – and their Sultan, in Jerusalem. With the assistance of the wicked and treacherous magician, Gano of Maganz, Biancofiore is stolen from her fortress castle, and taken to become the reluctant wife of the Sultan. The catalyst for victory is the good magician, Urlubulu, who lives in a lake, and flies through the air on the back of his magic blue bird. The English translators, using the original illustrations, and the basic rhyme patterns, slightly simplify the plot, changing the Christians-versus-Muslim-Moors conflict into a battle between good and bad magicians and between golden knights and green knights. The French traitor in The Song of Roland, who is actually Roland's cowardly step-father, is Ganelon – very likely the inspiration for Luzzati's traitor and wicked magician, Gano. Orlando Furioso (literally, Furious or Enraged Orlando, or Roland), includes Orlando's cousin, the paladin Rinaldo, who, like Orlando, is also in love with Angelica, a pagan princess. Rinaldo is, of course, the Italian equivalent of Ronald. Flying through the air on the back of a magic bird is equivalent to flying on a magic hippogriff . On July 22, 2017, Michael Eging and Steve Arnold released a novel ″The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland,\" inspired by the La Chanson de Roland. This work is more closely based on a screenplay written by Michael Eging in 2008, simply known as \"Song of Roland\" and first optioned to Alan Kaplan at Cine LA that same year. The book explores the untold story of how Roland finds himself at Ronceveaux, betrayed by Ganelon and facing the expansive Saragossan host. Primary characters in the novel include Charles (Charlemagne), Ganelon, Bishop Turpin, Oliver, Aude, Marsilion, Blancandarin and others recognizable from the poem. Introduced in this tale are additional characters that inject intrigue and danger to the story, including Charles oldest son, Pepin, Marsilion's treacherous son, Saleem, and the scheming Byzantine emissary, Honorius. The cover artwork was hand painted by Jordan Raskin. The authors determined when writing both the screenplay and the novel to remain in the world created by the poem; thus Charles remains an older man near the end of his long reign rather than in 778 when the attack on the rearguard actually occurred. Further, this novel bookends the story with William the Conqueror 's use of the poem as a motivator for Norman forces prior to the Battle of Hastings in 1066. [11] See also [ edit ] La Brèche de Roland Matter of France Herzog Ernst Lamprecht Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"The Song of Roland\" . FordhamUniversity.edu. Archived from the original on 2015-02-04 . Retrieved 2015-02-04 . Jump up ^ (in French) La Chanson de Roland on Dictionnaire Étymologique de l'Ancien Français Jump up ^ Short, Ian (1990). Introduction . France: Le Livre de Poche. pp. 5–20. Jump up ^ La Chanson de Roland on Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge Jump up ^ Gaunt, Simon; Pratt, Karen (2016). The Song of Roland, and Other Poems of Charlemagne (1st ed.). New York, NY 10016, United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-19-965554-0 . Jump up ^ Love, Nathan (1984). \"AOI in the Chanson de Roland: A divergent hypothesis\" . Olifant . 10 (4). Société Rencesvals. Jump up ^ Taylor, Andrew, \"Was There a Song of Roland?\" Speculum 76 (January 2001): 28-65 ^ Jump up to: a b Brault, Gerard J., Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary , Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN 9780271039145 Jump up ^ Part of Runtsivalstríðið with Dansifelagið í Havn Jump up ^ \" The Confidential Agent \", Part 1, Ch. 2, quoted in \"Graham Greene: an approach to the novels\" by Robert Hoskins, p. 122 [1] Jump up ^ Author's Notes, The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland, iUniverse, July 2017 ( http://www.iuniverse.com/Bookstore/BookDetail.aspx?BookId=SKU-000995830 ) Further reading [ edit ] Brault, Gerard J. Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary (Penn State Press, 2010). DiVanna, Isabel N. \"Politicizing national literature: the scholarly debate around La chanson de Roland in the nineteenth century.\" Historical Research 84.223 (2011): 109-134. Jones, George Fenwick. The ethos of the song of Roland (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963). Vance, Eugene. Reading the Song of Roland (1970). External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Song of Roland French Wikisource has original text related to this article: La Chanson de Roland Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Song of Roland Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chanson de Roland . The Song of Roland at Project Gutenberg (English translation of Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff ) The Song of Roland--(Dorothy L. Sayers) at Faded Page (Canada) The Song of Roland public domain audiobook at LibriVox La Chanson de Roland (Old French) The Romance of the Middle Ages: The Song of Roland , discussion of Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23, audio clip, and discussion of the manuscript's provenance. Earliest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland , readable online images of the complete original, Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23 (Pt 2) La Chanson de Roland , in Anglo-Norman, 12th century, ? 2nd quarter\". Old French Audio clips of a reading of The Song of Roland in Old French Timeless Myths: Song of Roland \" Roland, The Song of \". New International Encyclopedia . 1905. show v t e King Charlemagne and the Matter of France Key people Charlemagne Roland Ganelon Naimon Oliver Renaud de Montauban Paladins and other characters Agolant Albracca Angelica Astolfo Atlantes Aude Aymon Baligant Blancandrin Bradamante Bramimonde Brandimarte Brunello Charlot Doon de Mayence Ferragut Fierabras Garin de Monglane Girart de Roussillon Huon of Bordeaux Marfisa Marsile Maugris Melissa Ogier the Dane Pinabel Rodomonte Ruggiero Sacripante Turpin William of Gellone Zerbino Horses and other animals Barbamouche Bayard Gaignun Gramimond Hippogriff Marmorie Passecerf Rabicano Sautperdu Sorel Tachëbrun Tencendur Veillantif Swords and other objects Almace Curtana Durendal Hauteclere Joyeuse Murgleys Olifant Précieuse Places Aachen La Brèche de Roland Roncevaux Pass Chansons de geste and other works The Song of Roland Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne Chanson de Guillaume Gormond et Isembart The Four Sons of Aymon Karlamagnús saga Orlando Innamorato Orlando Furioso Morgante show v t e The Song of Roland Source Battle of Roncevaux Pass Films The Song of Roland (1978) Other versions Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis Historia Caroli Magni Karlamagnús saga The Dark Tower Characters Baligant Blancandrin Bramimonde Charlemagne Ganelon King Marsile Naimon Oliver Roland Turpin Aude Ogier Pinabel Authority control BNF : cb12008442d (data) NKC : unn2010568621 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Song_of_Roland&oldid=865446055 \" Categories : Chansons de geste Matter of France French folklore French poems Epic poems in French Anglo-Norman folklore The Song of Roland Works of unknown authorship Cultural depictions of Charlemagne Hidden categories: Articles with French-language external links Articles needing additional references from December 2014 All articles needing additional references Articles containing French-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Lingua Franca Nova 47 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2018, at 00:51 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Song of Roland", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Song_of_Roland&amp;oldid=865446055" }

{ "text": "Who's Making Love - Wikipedia Who's Making Love From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Who's Making Love\" Single by Johnnie Taylor from the album Who's Making Love... STS-2005 B-side \"I'm Trying\" Released October 1968 ( 1968 ) Recorded 1968 Genre Memphis soul Length 2 : 47 Label Stax STA-0009 Songwriter(s) Homer Banks Bettye Crutcher Don Davis Raymond Jackson Producer(s) Don Davis \" Who's Making Love \" is a song written by Stax Records staffers Homer Banks , Bettye Crutcher, Don Davis and Raymond Jackson and recorded by singer Johnnie Taylor . Released on the Stax label in the late summer of 1968, it became Taylor's breakthrough single, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot R&B singles chart and number five on the Billboard Hot 100 . [1] It became one of the few singles Taylor would become primarily known for in the mainstream. The song featured the Stax house band, Booker T. & the M.G.'s , and Isaac Hayes (on keyboards). It was Taylor's best-selling single before the release of \"Disco Lady\" almost a decade later. According to Bettye Crutcher, the lyrics were inspired by the 1920s novelty song \"Who Takes Care of the Caretaker's Daughter (While the Caretaker's Busy Taking Care)\". [2] Contents [ hide ] 1 Chart positions 2 Cover versions 3 References 4 External links Chart positions [ edit ] Chart (1967–68) Peak position U.S. Billboard Hot 100 5 U.S. Billboard Hot R&B singles 1 Cover versions [ edit ] Tony Joe White covered the song on his 1968 album Black and White . The Blues Brothers released a cover version as a single in 1980, which reached number 39 on the US charts. Latvian Blues Band released a cover version on their 2013 live album Live at the Dream Factory . Christian McBride included the song in his 2013 album Out Here . References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004 . Record Research. p. 568. Jump up ^ Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A.: The Story of Stax Records , p.163 External links [ edit ] Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Preceded by \" Hey, Western Union Man \" by Jerry Butler Billboard Hot R&B Singles number-one single November 23, 1968 – December 7, 1968 (three weeks) Succeeded by \" I Heard It Through the Grapevine \" by Marvin Gaye [ hide ] v t e Johnnie Taylor Songs \" Who's Making Love \" \" Take Care of Your Homework \" \" Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone \" \" I Believe in You (You Believe in Me) \" \" Disco Lady \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Who%27s_Making_Love&oldid=808924661 \" Categories : 1968 singles Johnnie Taylor songs Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs number-one singles Songs written by Homer Banks 1980 singles The Blues Brothers songs Songs written by Raymond Jackson (songwriter) Songs written by Don Davis (record producer) 1968 songs Stax Records singles Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Norsk nynorsk Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2017, at 01:55. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Who's Making Love", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Who%27s_Making_Love&amp;oldid=808924661" }

{ "text": "Maggie Pierce - Wikipedia Maggie Pierce From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other people named Maggie Pierce, see Maggie Pierce (disambiguation) . Maggie Pierce Grey's Anatomy character The season thirteen promotional photograph of Kelly McCreary as Dr. Maggie Pierce First appearance \"Everything I Try to Do, Nothing Seems to Turn Out Right\" 10x23, May 8, 2014 (as recurring cast) \"All I Could Do Was Cry\" 11x11, February 12, 2015 (as main cast) Created by Shonda Rhimes Portrayed by Kelly McCreary Information Nickname(s) Maggie Sherlock The Perfect 12 year old Mags The Good Sister The Crazy Sister The Child-Prodigy Little Maggot Pierce Species Human Gender Female Occupation Attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital Title Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery M.D. F.A.C.S. Family Diane Pierce (adoptive mother) (deceased) Bill Pierce (adoptive father) Ellis Grey (biological mother, deceased) Richard Webber (biological father) Meredith Grey (biological half-sister) Catherine Avery (stepmother) Jackson Avery (stepbrother) Significant other(s) Dean (ex-fiance) Ethan Boyd (ex-boyfriend) Andrew DeLuca (ex-boyfriend) Relatives Derek Shepherd (brother in-law, deceased) Zola Grey Shepherd (half-niece) Bailey Shepherd (half-nephew) Ellis Shepherd (half-niece) Nationality American Margaret \" Maggie \" Pierce , M.D. is a fictional character from the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes and is portrayed by actress Kelly McCreary from the tenth season 's penultimate episode onwards. It is revealed in the \" season ten finale \", Maggie's biological parents are Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr. ) and Ellis Grey ( Kate Burton ), making her Meredith 's half-sister. McCreary was upgraded to a series regular in the eleventh episode of the eleventh season . Pierce has been described as \"perky\" and \"chatty\", [1] as well as focusing mostly on her academic career rather than social life, causing her to be socially inept at times and childlike. She graduated from high school and medical school early, and becomes the head of her department at the young age of 31 years old. McCreary was well received upon her introduction. Contents [ hide ] 1 Storylines 2 Development 2.1 Casting and creation 2.2 Characterization 2.3 Introduction 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Storylines [ edit ] This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (February 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Maggie is first introduced in the penultimate episode of the tenth season . Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) interviews various different candidates to replace her as the head of her department in Cardiothoracic surgery. Maggie, having finished high school and medical school early, becomes head of her department at 31 years old. It is revealed in the season 10 finale \" Fear (of the Unknown) \", Maggie's biological mother was Ellis Grey. [2] Richard Webber is shocked by this, knowing he is her biological father. Throughout the eleventh season, Webber struggles to deal with the revelation and keeps it from Maggie. Maggie explains that 2 years prior, she looked for her birth mom and needed to go to the court for the records. She found out that she was dead, but got her name, and discovered that she was an amazing surgeon that worked at the Seattle Grace Hospital. She stated that that's not why she took the job, but it's \"a little bit\" why she took the interview. When Maggie identifies Meredith Grey , her half-sister, she attempts to bond with her. However, Meredith attempts to take charge and conflicts with her on a case. After several arguments, Maggie tells Meredith that she is her half-sister. Meredith, in disbelief, points out that she would know that her mother would be pregnant when she was five years old, as Maggie is five years younger than her. Meredith works with Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) to decide whether Maggie is lying or if she is wrong. They discover she is correct. Meredith gets flashes back to the time of her mother's crisis at five years old, and remembers being at a hospital and hearing a screaming baby. After several weeks, Webber admits to Maggie that he is her father. Maggie is angry at him. Later, when he comes to apologize for not being there as a father, Maggie corrects him and says he is not her father, as she has adoptive parents she loves, and that she is only angry because of his dishonesty and making her look foolish and naive for weeks. Derek and Meredith decide to have Maggie come over to their house for dinner, to get to know Maggie better. After Maggie says yes, Derek decides it is a good idea to ask Richard as well. Richard reluctantly agrees. The night of the dinner, Maggie and Richard show up, but no-one answers. Maggie leaves him after that. Maggie develops a relationship with radiologist, Ethan Boyd. She admits her awkwardness in relationships, having ended her previous engagement to Dean, who she was unable to sleep in the same bed with. Meredith ends up in a bind with no one to watch her kids, so Maggie offers to watch them. Richard and Maggie eventually come to good terms, and Maggie's helping with Meredith's kids help her integrate into her family home more. Maggie learns about the histories of Meredith, Alex and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) as they commemorate their dead friend, George O'Malley ( TR Knight ). After Derek's death, Meredith abandons Seattle for a year, leaving Maggie a note. Maggie is shocked by this, and admits she felt abandoned by Meredith right when they were starting to become a family. She invites Webber to a Christmas party, noticing his loneliness. Meredith eventually returns home, hugging Maggie and re-integrating into her old family home. While Maggie and her colleagues are busy dealing with Keith Gardner after a tunnel collapse, Maggie gets a phone call that her parents are getting a divorce. Her mother confesses to her that she'd been having an affair with their car serviceman for eleven years and they had only stayed together for her sake, but were getting a divorce now that she was out on her own. Maggie is emotional about this, but she doesn't want to bother her colleagues about it. Later, she confides in Meredith over the issue, but feels it is silly in comparison to her husband's death. Meredith, however, says she can tell her anything and she should come to her whenever she is having a problem. After Meredith buys her house back from Alex, she invites Maggie and Amelia Shepherd ( Caterina Scorsone ) to move in with her. They assist Meredith in caring for her kids. Maggie also often mediates between Meredith and Amelia, who frequently get into fights over little things. She often helps with Meredith's three kids, with each \"sister\" in charge of getting one kid ready for the day. In the twelfth season, Maggie develops a relationship with intern Andrew DeLuca. Maggie sleeps with DeLuca after a short conversation and a couple of drinks at Joe's. They agree it is a one-time thing, before they have sex again. Maggie and DeLuca keep their relationship private to avoid difficulties at work. DeLuca grows frustrated with their secrecy, so Maggie abruptly decides to go public. When this happens, DeLuca becomes uncomfortable with the way he is viewed by others because he is dating an attending, and doesn't want others to think he is getting special treatment. He also feels intimidated by her authority. When she confronts him, he ends things with her. Maggie attempts to move on and develops an interest in Nathan Riggs ( Martin Henderson ). However, she is unaware Meredith has a sexual relationship with him. She confides in Meredith about this at Amelia's wedding to Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ). In the thirteenth season, Maggie is personally hurt by Meredith lying to her about Alex's actions assaulting DeLuca. She tells her to never lie to her again, but she does so immediately afterwards about Riggs. Riggs tells Meredith she needs to tell Maggie. Maggie works up the courage to ask Riggs out, but he rejects her. Development [ edit ] Casting and creation [ edit ] McCreary on the role When I auditioned, all they told me was that the character might recur a little bit into Season 11; they did not tell me it was Meredith’s sister and there was long-term potential. I had no idea the scope of it in terms of how [she] fit into the mythology of the series. Her character ties into a lot of things that have already occurred in these people’s lives. “ ” Benjamin Lindsay, Backstage 2015 [3] On April 5, 2014, TVLine reported that Kelly McCreary best known for her series regular role on The CW 's short lived medical drama Emily Owens, M.D. and recent guest appearances on Scandal had been cast in a guest star role. McCeary was slated to debut on the May 8, 2015 episode. [4] On October 23, 2014, it was announced that McCreary was promoted to series regular after being credited as guest-starring until the eleventh episode. [5] [6] [7] [8] It was a couple of months after McCreary wrapped her stint on Scandal that she was invited to audition for Grey's . [9] McCeary revealed that she originally auditioned for the character of \"Claudette\" with dummy sides, unbeknownst to her. The only information McCeary had about the character was \"that she was adopted, that she would recur, and she was going to be a very important storyline.\" Just before the script reading for the season 10 finale, Rhimes summoned McCeary to inform her of Maggie's true identity. [10] \"I was really psyched\" McCeary revealed when Rhimes informed her of Maggie's lineage. \"I felt really honored to be the one to accept the challenge.\" [11] However, it wasn't until McCeary experienced the reactions to Maggie's existence from her fellow cast mates that McCeary realized just how big of a deal the character would be. [12] The character's potential existence was first referenced in the press in February 2009 when Michael Ausiello hinted at the possibility of Meredith having a half-sibling, the product of her mother's affair with Richard. [13] Initial speculation pointed to Jesse Williams ' Jackson Avery as the child, but the actor refuted those rumors. [14] Shonda Rhimes revealed that the character had always been a part of the original story plans, but the character's existence was not set in stone until season 4. [15] Characterization [ edit ] Kelly McCeary expressed her excitement about how special Maggie in an interview with BuddyTV . \"I just feel like it's a rare opportunity to be able to play somebody that is so complex and fully realized and smart and fierce and compassionate and awkward and the whole thing.\" [16] Maggie is very good at her job so she can find a place in a professional capacity, but in her personal life, she \"gets more than she bargained for\" McCreary said. [17] \"I think she's a really good doctor\" McCeary said of Maggie. \"She's obviously super-bright. She's very young to be as high in her field as she is.\" McCeary further described Maggie as a \"really great problem-solver.\" Maggie is \"very compassionate\" and at the same time can \"keep a clear head and do the right thing medically all the time.\" [16] McCeary further described Maggie as \"so dynamic.\" [11] While Maggie initially \"came across as all business,\" Kelly McCeary relishes in playing \"Maggie's neurotic, existential, meltdown side.\" [3] \"Maggie also won't really back down from a fight; she's very decisive.\" [12] Introduction [ edit ] Further information: Puzzle With a Piece Missing and Got to Be Real (Grey's Anatomy) Kate Aurthur noted that until Maggie's introduction, Grey's was not \"known for dropping in stories that it planted seasons before -- it's never been filled with twisty mythology.\" [10] Rhimes insisted that the timing wasn't right for Maggie's introduction in previous seasons. In season 3, the series introduced Meredith's paternal half-sister Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) and it was at that time that Maggie became a serious topic of discussion. Though Lexie was killed off in the season 8 finale, \" Flight ,\" Rhimes felt it was still too soon for Maggie's arrival. [9] [18] The scribe even thought the show might end without the character ever being introduced. \"Then we hit this moment in time and I remember walking into the writers' room and going, 'You guys, it's time.'\" [15] When Maggie makes the sudden revelation that she is Ellis' child to Richard, viewers are left to wonder about her history. The second episode of the season puts Maggie front and center. The episode appropriately titled \" Puzzle With a Piece Missing ,\" focuses on Maggie's struggle to fit in throughout her life, even with her own adoptive parents whom she is very different from. [19] Though she is very close with her parents, and they get along very well, she's grown up \"still feeling like something's missing.\" Kelly McCreary said \"That's what's really compelling to me about Maggie: that sort of dark underbelly of this person who seems to really have it all together.\" [20] Maggie struggles to build relationships with her colleagues. She unknowingly shares confidential information about Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) and she gets she also insults the hospital board when she tries to prop up Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ). Though she's got the \"best intentions,\" things backfire. [19] Maggie also serves as a \"mentor\" to Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ). [21] As Maggie discovers she has several things in common with Richard, the stage is set for Maggie to learn that Richard is her father. [20] [19] \"I think people will relate to the awkwardness of being the new kid at school\" McCeary said of the episode's comedic tone. [20] Despite so many different interactions, the episode highlights \"Maggie's loneliness.\" [21] The Maggie-centric episode also featured Kelly McCreary stepping into the coveted role of narrator for the episode, which was usually reserved for Ellen Pompeo 's Meredith, and on occasion other veteran cast members. [22] [23] \"It was overwhelming and very surprising\" McCeary said of being the center of attention so early into her Grey's tenure. She continued, \"I felt terrified and also really grateful that they trusted me with the institution about of Grey's Anatomy for a whole episode.\" McCeary relished in finally learning the character's history. \"[It] was a huge gift to have 65 pages worth of material telling me exactly who she is. It was great!\" [21] Reception [ edit ] This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . (February 2017) Critics responded positively to the development of Pierce in her centric episode \" Puzzle With a Piece Missing \". Fempop gave a largely positive review writing, \" Puzzle With a Piece Missing is a funny and insightful look both into this latest interloper and the established characters of Grey’s.\" praising the new addition, \"Thankfully she’s (Pierce) her own person, confident and happy to bring the thunder and put everyone, from interns to the chief of surgery, into their places.\" [24] Entertainment Weekly lauded the episode stating, \"Coming into the second week without Cristina Yang , Grey’s was smart to focus all of its attention on the newcomer. With most other main characters only making occasional cameos, it made it more difficult to feel Yang’s absence. And by showing Maggie’s side of the story, it made her more relatable. It was a win-win.\" adding on McCreary's character, \" this episode is about how Maggie is her own, very likable person.\" [25] On her character TV Fanatic wrote, Overall, we got to know Maggie a little better and it's nice to see that she's made some friends. It was a fair episode that showed Maggie's basically a work in progress. Maybe she'll grow on us eventually.\" [26] For the thirteenth season, Vulture writer, Maggie Fremont spoke positively about the character: \"It’s never easy for a long-running series to introduce a new character, especially when that character is meant to immediately fit in with the rest of the ensemble. But when Maggie Pierce arrived in season ten, that’s exactly what Grey’s Anatomy did. It could’ve been easy to dislike her — she showed up to take over cardio as Cristina Yang was leaving, for chrissakes! She was yet another one of Meredith’s long-lost sisters. The cards were really stacked against Maggie Pierce. Yet, thanks to the writers and Kelly McCreary’s terrific performance, Maggie was immediately endearing. She is weird and neurotic and cheerful. She is nothing like Cristina, but she fills a void that Meredith needs filled in order to function. Can you really imagine Grey’s without Maggie Pierce?\" [27] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/greys-anatomy-11-big-developments-735827 Jump up ^ Writer: William Harper; Director: Tony Phelan (May 15, 2014). \" Fear (of the Unknown) \". Grey's Anatomy . Season 10. Episode 24. American Broadcasting Company . |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b Lindsay, Benjamin (December 8, 2015). \"How Kelly McCreary of ‘Grey’s Anatomy’ Finds Catharsis in Emotional Scenes\" . Backstage . Backstage, LLC . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (April 5, 2014). \"Exclusive: Ill-Fated Scandal Guest Star Resurrected on Grey's Anatomy\" . TVLine . Penske Media Corporation . Retrieved September 27, 2014 . Jump up ^ Raftery, Liz (October 23, 2014). \"Grey's Anatomy: Kelly McCreary Upped to Series Regular\" . TV Guide . CBS Interactive . Retrieved October 23, 2014 . Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (October 23, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy's' Kelly McCreary Upped to Series Regular\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"‘Grey’s Anatomy’ Promotes Kelly McCreary to Series Regular\" . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . October 23, 2014 . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . Jump up ^ \" ' Grey's Anatomy' promotes Kelly McCreary to series regular\" . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc. October 23, 2014 . Retrieved October 24, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Greco, Patti (October 9, 2014). \" \" Grey's Anatomy\" Newbie Kelly McCreary on What's Next for Meredith and Maggie\" . Cosmopolitan . Hearst . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Aurthur, Kate (January 29, 2015). \"Everything You Need To Know About The Woman Who Plays Meredith Grey’s Sister On \"Grey’s Anatomy \" \" . BuzzFeed . BuzzFeed Inc . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Nelli, Victoria (October 16, 2014). \"Maggie’s Anatomy: Kelly McCreary Dishes on Joining GREY’S ANATOMY and Previews Tonight’s Flashback Fun\" . The TV Addict . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Goldberg, Lesley (October 2, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy's Kelly McCreary: There's a Lot Maggie Doesn't Know\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved September 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (February 25, 2009). \" ' Grey's' exclusive: Does Mer have another MIA sibling?\" . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc. Retrieved December 8, 2013 . Jump up ^ Webb Mitovich, Matt (December 8, 2009). \"Grey's Anatomy's Jesse Williams Addresses Meredith's Brother Rumor\" . Archived from the original on December 12, 2009 . Retrieved December 8, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b Abrams, Natalie (July 15, 2014). \"Grey's Anatomy's Shonda Rhimes Teases Half-Sister Twist, Possible New Romance\" . TV Guide . CBS Interactive . Retrieved October 3, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Jacobs, Meredith (October 1, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy' Exclusive Interview: Kelly McCreary on 'Clashing' with Meredith and a 'Shift' with Richard\" . BuddyTV . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (September 25, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy' Stars Tease Season 11: New Love, Board Drama and Meddling Meredith\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved October 3, 2014 . Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (July 16, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy's' Shonda Rhimes: Season 11 to Focus on Meredith, Explore Callie and Arizona's 'Band-Aid ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Abrams, Natalie (September 30, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy' sneak peek: Things get even worse between Meredith and Maggie\" . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc. Retrieved September 24, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Raftery, Liz (October 1, 2014). \"Grey's Anatomy Newcomer Kelly McCreary: Maggie and Meredith Are Like \"Oil and Water \" \" . TV Guide . CBS Interactive . Retrieved September 24, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Bucksbaum, Sydney (October 2, 2014). \"Maggie's Grey's Anatomy Secret Won't Stay Hidden for Long! Kelly McCreary Gives the Scoop\" . E! . NBCUniversal . Retrieved September 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (October 2, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy' Postmortem: 'Meredith Will Delve Deep Into the Past' to Uncover the Truth\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved September 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ Samson, Janalen (October 2, 2014). \" ' Grey's Anatomy' Recap: Maggie Opens Pandora's Box\" . BuddyTV . Retrieved September 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ Alex Cranz. \"Review: Grey's Anatomy - 'Puzzle With a Missing Piece ' \" . FemPop Magazine . Retrieved August 14, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy recap: 'Puzzle With A Piece Missing ' \" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 14, 2015 . Jump up ^ Tran, Christina. \"Grey's Anatomy\" . TV Fanatic . Retrieved August 14, 2015 . Jump up ^ Fremont, Maggie. \"Grey’s Anatomy Recap: Oh, Mother\" . Vulture . Retrieved February 10, 2017 . External links [ edit ] Grey's Anatomy portal Fictional characters portal Television portal Maggie Piece at ABC.com Maggie Pierce on IMDb [ hide ] v t e Grey's Anatomy Episodes Season 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Characters ( cast members ) Meredith Grey Cristina Yang Izzie Stevens Alex Karev George O'Malley Miranda Bailey Richard Webber Derek Shepherd Preston Burke Addison Montgomery Mark Sloan Callie Torres Lexie Grey Erica Hahn Owen Hunt Sadie Harris Arizona Robbins Teddy Altman Jackson Avery April Kepner Amelia Shepherd Stephanie Edwards Maggie Pierce Other Awards and nominations Soundtrack Video game Private Practice A Corazón Abierto (Mexican telenovela) A Corazón Abierto (Colombian telenovela) Portal Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maggie_Pierce&oldid=799923131 \" Categories : Grey's Anatomy characters Fictional African-American people Fictional characters from Washington (state) Fictional storytellers Fictional characters introduced in 2014 Fictional surgeons Fictional female doctors Hidden categories: Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Articles needing additional references from February 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles to be expanded from February 2017 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2017, at 16:48. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Maggie Pierce", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Maggie_Pierce&amp;oldid=799923131" }

{ "text": "Transient lingual papillitis - Wikipedia Transient lingual papillitis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article contains weasel words : vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information . Such statements should be clarified or removed . (January 2014) Transient lingual papillitis (also termed fungiform papillary glossitis , [1] eruptive lingual papillitis , [2] or colloquially, lie bumps ), [2] are painful, hypertrophic , red and white papillae on the tongue . [2] Cause [ edit ] The name \"lie bumps\" is a result of a myth that telling lies would cause them. However, very little has been written about this condition in scientific articles or textbooks and scientific studies have failed to produce a definite cause. [2] Possible causes include: \"stress, gastrointestinal upset, menstruation, acidic or sour food, smoking, and local trauma\" (direct physical irritation) of the tongue. Lie bumps are often caused by the taste bud(s) splitting. These bumps are small, white bumps on the base of the tongue. They are likely to be the result of transient lingual papillitis (TLP). This condition is limited to the upper (dorsal) surface of the tongue, affecting some of the tiny bumps on the tongue known as the fungiform papillae, what we commonly call the \"taste buds.\" TLP is a harmless problem. [ citation needed ] These bumps can become notably red or white and are quite tender for up to several days. While the cause of TLP is not known with certainty, most experts [ who? ] feel that local accidental trauma (rubbing, scraping or biting) is a major factor; however, contact reactions to things like certain foods have also been suggested. Lie bumps are not contagious and the discomfort is relatively minor. Typically these lesions heal within a few days with no treatment, though a doctor may refer a patient to an oral pathologist in prolonged cases. Treatments [ edit ] There are no specific treatments for this problem, other than using ice or numbing medicines to ease the pain. [ citation needed ] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Marks, R.; Scarff, C.E.; Yap, L.M.; Verlinden, V.; Jolley, D.; Campbell, J. (October 2005). \"Fungiform papillary glossitis: atopic disease in the mouth?\" . British Journal of Dermatology . British Association of Dermatologists. 153 (100,000,000,000): 740–745. doi : 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06577.x . PMID 16181454 . Retrieved 2007-10-30 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Roux, O.; Lacour, J.P.; Paediatricians of the Region Var-Cote D'Azur (February 2004). \"Eruptive lingual papillitis with household transmission: a prospective clinical study\" . British Journal of Dermatology . British Association of Dermatologists. 150 (2): 299–303. doi : 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2004.05703.x . PMID 14996101 . Retrieved 2007-10-30 . [ show ] v t e Oral and maxillofacial pathology ( K00–K06, K11–K14 , 520–525, 527–529 ) [ show ] Lips Cheilitis Actinic Angular Plasma cell Cleft lip Congenital lip pit Eclabium Herpes labialis Macrocheilia Microcheilia Nasolabial cyst Sun poisoning Trumpeter's wart [ show ] Tongue Ankyloglossia Black hairy tongue Caviar tongue Crenated tongue Cunnilingus tongue Fissured tongue Foliate papillitis Glossitis Geographic tongue Median rhomboid glossitis Transient lingual papillitis Glossoptosis Hypoglossia Lingual thyroid Macroglossia Microglossia Rhabdomyoma [ show ] Palate Bednar's aphthae Cleft palate High-arched palate Palatal cysts of the newborn Inflammatory papillary hyperplasia Stomatitis nicotina Torus palatinus [ show ] Oral mucosa – Lining of mouth Amalgam tattoo Angina bullosa haemorrhagica Behçet's disease Bohn's nodules Burning mouth syndrome Candidiasis Condyloma acuminatum Darier's disease Epulis fissuratum Erythema multiforme Erythroplakia Fibroma Giant-cell Focal epithelial hyperplasia Fordyce spots Hairy leukoplakia Hand, foot and mouth disease Hereditary benign intraepithelial dyskeratosis Herpangina Herpes zoster Intraoral dental sinus Leukoedema Leukoplakia Lichen planus Linea alba Lupus erythematosus Melanocytic nevus Melanocytic oral lesion Molluscum contagiosum Morsicatio buccarum Oral cancer Benign: Squamous cell papilloma Keratoacanthoma Malignant: Adenosquamous carcinoma Basaloid squamous carcinoma Mucosal melanoma Spindle cell carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma Verrucous carcinoma Oral florid papillomatosis Oral melanosis Smoker's melanosis Pemphigoid Benign mucous membrane Pemphigus Plasmoacanthoma Stomatitis Aphthous Denture-related Herpetic Smokeless tobacco keratosis Submucous fibrosis Ulceration Riga–Fede disease Verruca vulgaris Verruciform xanthoma White sponge nevus [ show ] Teeth ( pulp , dentin , enamel ) Amelogenesis imperfecta Ankylosis Anodontia Caries Early childhood caries Concrescence Failure of eruption of teeth Dens evaginatus Talon cusp Dentin dysplasia Dentin hypersensitivity Dentinogenesis imperfecta Dilaceration Discoloration Ectopic enamel Enamel hypocalcification Enamel hypoplasia Turner's hypoplasia Enamel pearl Fluorosis Fusion Gemination Hyperdontia Hypodontia Maxillary lateral incisor agenesis Impaction Wisdom tooth impaction Macrodontia Meth mouth Microdontia Odontogenic tumors Keratocystic odontogenic tumour Odontoma Dens in dente Open contact Premature eruption Neonatal teeth Pulp calcification Pulp stone Pulp canal obliteration Pulp necrosis Pulp polyp Pulpitis Regional odontodysplasia Resorption Shovel-shaped incisors Supernumerary root Taurodontism Trauma Avulsion Cracked tooth syndrome Vertical root fracture Occlusal Tooth loss Edentulism Tooth wear Abrasion Abfraction Acid erosion Attrition [ show ] Periodontium ( gingiva , periodontal ligament , cementum , alveolus ) – Gums and tooth-supporting structures Cementicle Cementoblastoma Gigantiform Cementoma Eruption cyst Epulis Pyogenic granuloma Congenital epulis Gingival enlargement Gingival cyst of the adult Gingival cyst of the newborn Gingivitis Desquamative Granulomatous Plasma cell Hereditary gingival fibromatosis Hypercementosis Hypocementosis Linear gingival erythema Necrotizing periodontal diseases Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis Pericoronitis Peri-implantitis Periodontal abscess Periodontal trauma Periodontitis Aggressive As a manifestation of systemic disease Chronic Perio-endo lesion Teething [ show ] Periapical, mandibular and maxillary hard tissues – Bones of jaws Agnathia Alveolar osteitis Buccal exostosis Cherubism Idiopathic osteosclerosis Mandibular fracture Microgenia Micrognathia Intraosseous cysts Odontogenic : periapical Dentigerous Buccal bifurcation Lateral periodontal Globulomaxillary Calcifying odontogenic Glandular odontogenic Non-odontogenic: Nasopalatine duct Median mandibular Median palatal Traumatic bone Osteoma Osteomyelitis Osteonecrosis Bisphosphonate-associated Neuralgia-inducing cavitational osteonecrosis Osteoradionecrosis Osteoporotic bone marrow defect Paget's disease of bone Periapical abscess Phoenix abscess Periapical periodontitis Stafne defect Torus mandibularis [ show ] Temporomandibular joints , muscles of mastication and malocclusions – Jaw joints, chewing muscles and bite abnormalities Bruxism Condylar resorption Mandibular dislocation Malocclusion Crossbite Open bite Overbite Overeruption Overjet Prognathia Retrognathia Scissor bite Maxillary hypoplasia Temporomandibular joint dysfunction [ show ] Salivary glands Benign lymphoepithelial lesion Ectopic salivary gland tissue Frey's syndrome HIV salivary gland disease Necrotizing sialometaplasia Mucocele Ranula Pneumoparotitis Salivary duct stricture Salivary gland aplasia Salivary gland atresia Salivary gland diverticulum Salivary gland fistula Salivary gland hyperplasia Salivary gland hypoplasia Salivary gland neoplasms Benign: Basal cell adenoma Canalicular adenoma Ductal papilloma Monomorphic adenoma Myoepithelioma Oncocytoma Papillary cystadenoma lymphomatosum Pleomorphic adenoma Sebaceous adenoma Malignant: Acinic cell carcinoma Adenocarcinoma Adenoid cystic carcinoma Carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma Lymphoma Mucoepidermoid carcinoma Sclerosing polycystic adenosis Sialadenitis Parotitis Chronic sclerosing sialadenitis Sialectasis Sialocele Sialodochitis Sialosis Sialolithiasis Sjögren's syndrome [ show ] Orofacial soft tissues – Soft tissues around the mouth Actinomycosis Angioedema Basal cell carcinoma Cutaneous sinus of dental origin Cystic hygroma Gnathophyma Ludwig's angina Macrostomia Melkersson–Rosenthal syndrome Microstomia Noma Oral Crohn's disease Orofacial granulomatosis Perioral dermatitis Pyostomatitis vegetans [ show ] Other Eagle syndrome Hemifacial hypertrophy Facial hemiatrophy Oral manifestations of systemic disease Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transient_lingual_papillitis&oldid=842620026 \" Categories : Tongue Conditions of the mucous membranes Oral mucosal pathology Tongue disorders Hidden categories: Articles with weasel words from January 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 23 May 2018, at 15:58. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Transient lingual papillitis", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Transient_lingual_papillitis&amp;oldid=842620026" }

{ "text": "Meredith Grey - Wikipedia Meredith Grey From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Meredith Grey Grey's Anatomy character Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey First appearance \" A Hard Day's Night \" 1x01, March 27, 2005 Created by Shonda Rhimes Portrayed by Ellen Pompeo (adult) Nicolette Collier (young) Claire Geare (age 3) Aria Leabu (Season 11 flashbacks) Information Nickname(s) Slutty Mistress Our Lady of General Surgery Mer Grey The girl in the bar The Perfect Twelve-year-old Dirty Mistress Adulterous Whore Death Twisted Sister The Good Grey Big Grey Mrs. Shepherd Medusa Cindy Lou Occupation Chief of General Surgery Board Director Title Head of General Surgery M.D. F.A.C.S. Family Ellis Grey (mother, deceased) Thatcher Grey (father) Lexie Grey (paternal half-sister, deceased) Molly Thompson (paternal half-sister) Maggie Pierce (maternal half-sister) Spouse(s) Derek Shepherd ( m. 2009; d. 2015) Significant other(s) Finn Dandridge Will Thorpe Nathan Riggs Children Zola Shepherd (daughter) Derek Bailey Shepherd (son) Ellis Shepherd (daughter) Meredith Grey , M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States . The character was created by series' producer Shonda Rhimes , and is portrayed by actress Ellen Pompeo . Meredith is the series' protagonist , and was introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital (later Seattle Grace-Mercy West, and afterwards Grey Sloan Memorial), eventually obtaining the position of a resident , and later the position of an attending , and in 2015, attaining the Chief of General Surgery position. As the daughter of world-renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , Meredith struggles with the everyday life of being in a competitive profession, maintaining the relationship with her one-night stand and eventual husband Derek Shepherd (deceased), her motherhood, and her friendships with her colleagues. Meredith is the narrator of the show and serves as the focal point for most episodes. Pompeo's connection with Patrick Dempsey (Derek Shepherd) is acclaimed as a high point of the series. Rhimes has characterized Meredith as not believing in good or bad, but instead doing what she thinks is right. Grey has been positively received by television critics, with Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times referring to her as \"the heroine of Grey's Anatomy \". News of Pompeo leaving arose when it was made clear that her contract ended after the eighth season, and whether or not she would return to the series after her contract expires has been the centre of media speculation ever since. In 2016, Pompeo re-negotiated her contract and signed up for the thirteenth season of the show. Pompeo's performance has been well received throughout the show and the character has gained widespread popularity worldwide. Pompeo has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of the character in the long running ABC medical drama including Satellite Award for Best Actress and multiple nominations at the People's Choice Awards for Best Actress winning at 39th People's Choice Awards in 2013 and again in 2015 at 41st People's Choice Awards , Pompeo has also received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards . Contents [ hide ] 1 Storylines and Characteristics 2 Development 2.1 Casting and creation 2.2 Characterization 3 Reception 3.1 Reviews 3.2 Awards 4 References 5 External links Storylines and Characteristics [ edit ] Dr. Meredith Grey is the daughter of world-renowned surgeon Ellis Grey, and grew up in her shadow. Ellis was a deeply flawed, emotionally and verbally abusive, neglectful mother towards her. Meredith is described as a \"dark and twisty,\" damaged person who sees the world in varying shades of gray morality. Because of this, she is an emotionally complex person capable of empathizing with others when they're at their lowest points, and a sensitive observer of the people around her. Meredith is a graduate of Dartmouth College and nearly did not attend med school due to conflicts with her mother. Meredith was directionless after obtaining her undergrad and had plans to sleep and party her way through Europe. After a month abroad, Meredith was called back to care for Ellis, who had developed early-onset Alzheimer's disease , and Meredith obtained her M.D. The night before Meredith's internship begins, she has a one-night stand with Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ), a stranger she meets at a bar. She discovers the next day that he is the recently-hired attending and new head of neurosurgery at her new workplace, Seattle Grace Hospital. Meredith is assigned to work under resident Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ), and befriends her fellow interns, George O'Malley ( T.R. Knight ), Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ), Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ). She is particularly close with Cristina Yang, who becomes her best friend and \"person\". Though she initially thinks poorly of him, Alex Karev also evolves into Meredith's \"person\" and the two assume a sibling-esque familial relationship. Meredith has a conflicted relationship with Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr. ), the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace. Richard was very close to Ellis when Meredith was a child, which inclines him to save or mentor Grey and make exceptions for her. Meredith has a habit of \"collecting strays\", allowing her friends and coworkers to live in the house her mother left her and become her pseudo-family. Meredith is endlessly loyal to those she deems her family, and bends traditional morality as needed in order to keep them safe. Having grown up in a hospital, Meredith shows immense natural talent. She possesses a steadfast, calm ease during medical procedures and emergencies, and is a natural observer of people. She exhibits a knack for catching subtle hints and accurately determining difficult-to-catch diagnoses. Her placid, non-judgmental bedside manner often causes people to open up and trust her. Her surgical skills are solidly impressive and she shows a talent and patience for medical research trials and dealing with psychologically damaged patients. Meredith resists Derek's advances throughout her internship, but is eventually charmed into starting a relationship with him despite misgivings about an intern dating an attending. She is therefore shocked by the arrival of Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ), Derek's wife, unaware that he was married. Derek struggles to choose between the two, but ultimately returns to Addison, despite Meredith begging to be chosen instead. Meredith is devastated and turns to multiple, self-destructive means of coping. Initially she falls on old habits of self-medicating with tequila and sex, and buys a dog. She also tries to resolve some issues by searching for her long-absent father, Thatcher. [1] She learns that her father, who left when she was five and she has not seen since, remarried and had two more daughters. The two do not become close, but Grey becomes fond of her stepmother. Meredith spirals further when Ellis is admitted to the hospital, revealing Ellis' diagnosis of early-onset Alzheimer's and her verbally abusive tendencies. Meredith self-destructive behavior increases when she saves a patient with a bomb in their chest by impulsively inserting her hand to hold it until the bomb squad can remove it. Mereidth has a series of one-night stands, including one with George, who is in love with her. When she cries in the middle of their encounter, their friendship temporarily ends. Meredith swears off her behavior, agrees to be friends only with Shepherd, and embarks on a relationship with veterinarian Finn Dandridge ( Chris O'Donnell ). Derek regrets his decision to return to his wife and Meredith must decide whether to continue a relationship with Finn, or allow Derek a second chance. When Ellis experiences a rare, completely lucid day, and expresses her immense disappointment at how ordinary Meredith has turned out to be, she becomes depressed and possibly suicidal. During a ferryboat accident, Meredith is knocked into the water and chooses to give up and drown, rather than fight and swim. She flatlines at the hospital, and awakens in an \"afterlife\", where she interacts with deceased former acquaintances. Ellis dies in the interim, and Meredith meets with her mother, who tells her that she is anything but ordinary. She is subsequently resuscitated at the insistence of Cristina. Derek distances himself from Meredith as the result of her self recklessness, prompting her to seek therapy to address her problems. Meredith sees a therapist, Dr. Wyatt ( Amy Madigan ), to seek happiness and begins to successfully tackle her issues. Meredith found her mother's diaries, dredging up old memories and secrets for her to work through. Meanwhile, Meredith nearly fails her intern exam after a drunken Thatcher publicly blames Meredith for the death of his wife, Susan, a distraught Grey sits through her entire test without writing a single answer. Dr. Webber gives her a second chance, saving her from destroying her career. After Meredith is promoted to a resident, her younger half-sister Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) begins working at Seattle Grace as an intern. Meredith initially rejects Lexie's attempts to form a relationship, but slowly softens towards her. The sisters are very different people with different childhoods. Lexie had an idealistic family life and often has difficulty understanding her much darker sister, who does not have the same positive associations with family as Lexie. She later initiates a neurosurgical clinical trial, enlisting Derek as a consulting neurosurgeon. The trial fails repeatedly, but the final patient they treat survives, which leads them to reuniting and moving in together. Their relationship is healthier than before, but still experiences snags as the two attempt to understand each other and navigate what they now look on as a permanent, long-term relationship. Meredith relies heavily on Cristina for emotional support and guidance. Eventually, Derek and Meredith decide to marry, but on their wedding day, the pair give their \"perfect\" wedding ceremony to Izzie and Alex, to marry each other during the planned ceremony instead. The development of Grey and Shepherd's relationship, during season three, was disliked among television critics. Meredith and Derek marry by writing their wedding vows on a post-it note . Meredith spends the majority of a season out of commission after donating part of her liver to Thatcher and supporting Cristina's new relationship with Owen Hunt, an army doctor with worrisome PTSD . Mereduth experiences another immense trauma after the hospital is put under a lockdown from an active mass-shooter seeking revenge against Derek. Meredith offers her own life in exchange for his and miscarries her baby during the crisis. She goes through this traumatic experience with Cristina, who operates on Derek while threatened at gunpoint. Meredith hides her loss and the trauma psychiatrist refuses to clear neither Cristina nor Meredith for their return to surgery. Meredith is able to work through her issues and become cleared, but Cristina remains deeply traumatized. Meredith covers for and supports her friend through her dark time, but is ultimately unable to fully help her return to surgery. Meredith decides to actively try to become pregnant, but learns that she has a \" hostile uterus \", which leads her to consider her other possible genetic flaws. Derek, who is constantly worried about the possibility that she will develop Alzheimer's, initiates a clinical trial hoping to cure the disease. Meredith opts to work on the trial and appears to be leaning towards a neuro specialty. When the chief of surgery, Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr. )'s wife, Adele, is diagnosed with Alzheimer's, she receives a spot on the trial. Meredith tampers with the drugs so that Adele does not receive the placebo . She and Derek decide to adopt Zola, an orphaned baby from Malawi , and make their marriage legal. When the truth about the tampering comes out, however, a furious Derek tells her he cannot raise a child with her because of her moral ambiguity. Meredith is fired, and tries to conceal both this and her marital separation from the adoption counselor in order to keep Zola. Although Dr. Webber steps down as chief of surgery and takes the blame for the trial tampering to protect Meredith, Zola is taken away. She and Derek reconcile. Meredith chooses a general specialty over neuro, and they successfully fight to get Zola back. As her last year of residency is coming to a close, the residents travel around the country, searching for the best jobs in their specialties . In order to finish their residency, the residents must take the medical boards . Meredith takes the exam while sick with the flu. She decides to take a job offer at The Brigham and Women's Hospital as the next step in her career. During a medical flight to undertake a prestigious surgery involving conjoined twins, Meredith, Derek, Cristina, and Lexie, among others, are involved in an aviation accident . The plane crash kills Lexie, and the survivors are trapped in the wooded wilderness for days waiting for help. Following their rescue, Merdith becomes an attending general surgeon at Seattle Grace, now Seattle Grace-Mercy West. While Cristina flees Seattle for her fellowship, Meredith, afraid of flying and change, declines her job offer, and clings to what remains in Seattle. Cristina and Meredith begin calling the hospital Seattle Grace Mercy Death in light of the immense amount of trauma, death, and pain they have experienced there. Meredith's newfound attitude and sarcasm leads to her being dubbed \" Medusa \" by the hospital's new batch of interns. In the aftermath of the plane accident, the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence. Each victim including Derek, Cristina, Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) and herself must receive $15 million of compensation, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurance company refuses to pay due to a loophole. The doctors along with Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) buy the hospital with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing and become new members of the directing board. Meredith asks Dr. Bailey to perform gene mapping on her to finally know whether she has Alzheimer's genes like her mother. She tests positive for more than one of the genetic markers for the disease. Meredith moves to the completed dream home and sells her house to Alex, who purchases it as the only true home he's ever known. He continues Meredith's tradition of keeping the house open to any \"strays\" needing a home. Meredith discovers she is pregnant and gives birth to a son. The baby is delivered via C-section . While stitching Meredith up, the obstetrician who operated on her is called away to another patient and intern Shane Ross completes the stitching. When blood begins to appear from everywhere, Meredith diagnoses herself in as being in DIC . Dr. Bailey performs a spleen removal , which saves her life. In return, Derek and Meredith name their son Bailey. As a spouse, surgeon, and mother, Meredith has cited a number times that she did not want to be like either of her parents: her father had followed her mother around pathetically before leaving to be happy, while her mother valued her career over her family. Meredith is frequently conflicted trying to balance between the two, and fears her family are hindering her medical aspirations, as much as she fears becoming like her mother whenever she's tempted to choose surgery over family. Meredith and Cristina have a huge rift when Cristina confirms Meredith's fears by stating that Meredith's skills have fallen behind Cristina's due to her familial obligations taking her away from OR time. Meredith and Derek come to an agreement that he, already established in his career and reputation, would take a step back to take care of the children and allow her to shine. Meredith attempts to regain some ground by starting a promising research trial 3-D printing portal veins. The conflict between Cristina and Meredith widens when Cristina commandeers Meredith's resources for her own trial, ultimately garnering a Harper Avery nomination for Cristina. Cristina and Meredith repair their relationship when Meredith confesses that Cristina was correct, her skills have surpassed Meredith's. Cristina moves to Switzerland take up a job offer from Dr. Preston Burke , her former attending, mentor and fiancé, who was looking for a replacement at a research hospital he was running, thus leaving Alex in charge of being Meredith's \"person\" in her place, an honor he gladly accepts. Meredith and Derek's marriage becomes strained when Derek goes against his promise and accepts an offer from the U.S. President to participate in the Brain Mapping Initiative, which consumes his time and eclipses Meredith, who is feeling increasingly left behind and mommy-tracked. He receives an offer to head the project itself in Washington D.C. , meaning that he would have to be based there permanently. Meredith puts her foot down as she does not want to uproot their young family to move across the country for his career at the sacrifice of her own. They begin a series of on-and-off arguments and \"cold wars\" over their careers. Derek accepts the job in the heat of the moment and promptly leaves for Washington. During a phone call with Meredith, they agree to work things out after she tells him that she did not want them to become \"one of those couples\" and he reciprocates, saying that he missed her. She privately admits to Alex that she has realized that she could live independently of Derek, but chooses not to. Meredith finds out she has a maternal half sister named Maggie Pierce who is now working in Grey Sloan Memorial. Meredith is in denial and rejects Maggie, thinking she would have remembered if her mother was pregnant until she finds a hospital document confirming the revelation. Meredith tries to piece together her relationship with her mother and half sister by going through old videos of her mother. She eventually recovers her repressed memories of the pregnancy when she views her mother's diary and has a change of heart, choosing to accept Maggie and begin building a relationship. Meredith is widowed when Derek is killed in a car accident and was taken to an understaffed hospital. The doctors failed to recognize his head injury in time and allowed personal conflicts to interfere. Derek is declared brain dead, and Meredith must go to the medical center to consent to remove him from life support, shortly before she's hit with the first waves of morning sickness. She tells Penny, the intern who was assigned to Derek that every doctor has \"that one\" patient who dies on their watch and haunts them forever and \"that one will make you work harder, and they make you better.\" After Derek's death, Meredith returns to Grey Sloan Memorial to inform the others of his passing. Following the funeral service, Meredith impulsively packs up her belongings and leaves with the children to San Diego. Months pass by while her friends and family are unaware of her whereabouts. Eventually, parallels show similarities in Meredith's and Ellis' lives: Both have lost the love of their life, both run away from Seattle following their loss, and both eventually give birth to a daughter. Meredith names her newborn daughter after her mother. Although still grieving over Derek, Meredith returns to Seattle with the children and later becomes chief of general surgery. She sells the \"dream house\" and moves back to her mother's house, having purchased it back from Alex, and now lives there with Maggie and Amelia Shepherd , her sister-in-law. Meredith hosts a dinner party and at the party Callie brings Penny as a date. Later at the event Meredith finds out Penny will be joining her at Grey Sloan Memorial. Meredith eventually forgives Penny, who becomes her favorite resident over Alex's girlfriend, Jo. Alex and Meredith continue their close, sibling-like relationship of being each other's \"person\", despite Jo's displeasure and inability to understand their closeness. He supports her when she is violently attacked by a disoriented patient, and she supports him through his legal difficulties. Alex initiates a weekly family waffle day where he makes waffles for everyone in the house. Meredith recovers enough to start seeing Nathan Riggs , Owen Hunt's former best friend, by season 13, although their relationship is complicated by the fact that Maggie confesses to Meredith that she has feelings for Riggs and Meredith is not ready to declare their relationship formally or publicly. Eventually she accepts her relationship with Riggs, but it's complicated by the unexpected return of Owen's sister, Megan Hunt, Riggs' fiancée. Meredith finds herself in another love triangle when Megan rejects Riggs because he is still in love with Meredith, but Meredith pushes them to be together. After her relationship with Riggs ends, Meredith is nominated for a Harper Avery Award for her groundbreaking surgery on Megan. Development [ edit ] Casting and creation [ edit ] Pompeo discovered Grey's Anatomy after an extended period of doing nothing in the acting profession. Her agent suggested she audition amongst other projects. [2] While casting actresses for the part of Meredith Grey, series' creator Shonda Rhimes said: \"I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile , and after a while, they were like, 'We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile.' I spent time with her and got to know her, and then we started casting for the men.\" She reported that Grey was not an easy role to cast because of the strong verbal possibilities. [3] Rhimes was informed that the actress in question was Pompeo, who had a deal in place with ABC , having previously tested for a pilot show on the network. [4] It has been speculated that Pompeo was the first character to be cast, but when asked, she said she did not know of this. [5] When asked of how she created Pompeo's character, Rhimes said: “ \"[I was] in my pajamas at home, which is where I spent a lot of time writing. I kept asking myself, 'What kind of woman should the heroine be?' I thought she should be someone who had made some big mistakes. As it turns out, Meredith also has another problem: She is trying to live up to her mother's renowned career in surgery. Meredith is the daughter of a mother who basically never spent any time with her—the daughter of a mother who now has Alzheimer's and doesn't even remember her.\" [6] ” Pompeo was cast as the program's titular character, described by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times as \"a prickly, independent sort whose ambition, and ambivalence, is fueled by the fact that her mother was a gifted surgeon and now suffers from Alzheimer's.\" [7] Grey also serves as the show's narrator, and as such was likened in early reviews to Carrie Bradshaw ( Sarah Jessica Parker ), the narrator and protagonist of Sex and the City . [8] [9] After her initial contract with Grey's Anatomy expired, Pompeo negotiated a new one, in which she would be paid US$200,000 per episode, making her and Dempsey the highest-paid cast members on the show. [10] In 2012, Forbes recognized Pompeo as the eighth highest-paid actress on television, with a salary of US$275,000 per episode for her role on Grey's Anatomy . [11] Pompeo's second contract with Grey's Anatomy expired after the eighth season , and speculation arose that she would be leaving subsequently. [12] In September 2011, Pompeo reported that she is open to the idea of extending her contract, if invited. She told TV Guide : \"I would never turn up my nose at [ Grey's Anatomy ]. As long as the stories are honest and truthful, and Patrick [Dempsey] and I feel there is material for us to be passionate about, it still beats a 9-to-5 job any day. If I hear from the fans that they want us to keep going, then I would continue because we owe them everything.\" E! Online reported in May 2012, that Pompeo, as well as all original cast members have signed on for two more years. [13] With the Huffington Post 's announcement of season nine having officially been renewed, the contract is set into place for Pompeo to return. [14] Pompeo's contract expired again at the end of the twelfth season. She signed a new contract to keep her in the starring role on the series for thirteenth season. [15] According to a report in Deadline.com , Pompeo was earning $300,000 per episode under the new deal. [16] Characterization [ edit ] Whatever I come up with, [Pompeo] is always game to play. She's been so good at what she's done that I've just let the character do what I've wanted the character to do, which has been wonderful. She's managed to sell every single thing because she's really believed it. The incredible thing is that you can have no fear to write what you think because she is always able to deliver. Executive producer Betsy Beers on developing Pompeo's character [17] Grey is the protagonist and focal point of the series. She has been called \"intelligent, compassionate, hard-working, oftentimes outspoken, easily distracted, and indecisive\" by Grey's Anatomy executives. [18] Pompeo says she is unaware if her character knows how to have fun, adding: \"All of my scenes with [Dempsey] are the same—we're either breaking up or having sex.\" [19] Her personality has evolved over the past few seasons from depressed, to happy and \"fixed\". Pompeo said to Good Morning America , \"I am so incredibly lucky to have Patrick [Dempsey], to have the chemistry that we do, we have an amazing relationship, and it's like any other relationship, you have your ups and downs. But we work it out, and we've found a way to do this for this long and still get along, and make it work and believe in what we're doing.\" Pompeo told Entertainment Weekly : \"It's awkward with Patrick [Dempsey] because he's like my brother. As soon as the camera is off, I'm like, 'Is your hand on my butt?' But there are millions of girls who have been waiting for this, so I feel an obligation to the fans.\" [20] Rhimes used the dog \"Doc\", which Meredith and Derek shared, as a metaphor of their relationship during the second season . [21] She characterizes Grey as doing what she thinks is right: “ Meredith is the girl who put her hand on a bomb in a body cavity. Meredith is the girl who tried to help a serial killer kill himself, so that he could donate his organs. Meredith—and this is obvious—has a compass that has always led her to shades of grey. She does not believe in black-and-white, she does not believe in good or bad, she does what she thinks is right. [22] ” McKee deemed Grey and O'Malley's sexual encounter irreversible. The character had a one-night stand with George O'Malley, in the second season. Series writer Stacy McKee, said of the sexual encounter: \"There’s no turning back. There’s nothing George and Meredith can do. The damage is done – things will never be the same. They’ve just changed something important in their lives FOREVER and…they are freaking out.\" [23] Grey's character development has also been known as an influence on the creation of her half-sister, Lexie Grey. Particularly, it has been made clear that they both share the same motives. McKee offered her thoughts: \"Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed. They want to be strong. They want to feel normal. They want, so much, to be whole. But it’s a struggle – a genuine struggle for them. Being hardcore doesn’t come naturally. Sometimes, they have to fake it.\" [24] Grey's personality has been compared with that of Alex Karev's. Rhimes offered the insight: \"I like to create moments for him and Meredith. Because, in my head, they are very similar people. Even though Karev can be such an ass, even though he’s arrogant, even though he gave O'Malley the Syph. He and Meredith are both lost, both lonely, both former screw-ups who got their acts together. In another lifetime, they would be really good friends. So throughout the season, we watch them pause from time to time to look at each other and see that they are mirrors of one another. — Shonda Rhimes, Grey Matter [25] Pompeo fights for a truthful storyline for her character—she wants it to be realistic and says you can't always wrap it up in a neat little package. [26] Referring to Grey's tampering with Shepherd's trial, Pompeo said: \"Listen, what Meredith did clearly crossed a line. Derek has a right to be pissed.\" [27] Following the tampering, Rhimes said she believes that Grey and Shepherd are meant to be together and that it in the end, they will end up with each other. [22] Grey's relationship with Cristina Yang, has been looked upon as \"sisterhood\", and Yang has repeatedly referred to Grey as \"her person\". This led to the two being dubbed \"the twisted sisters\". At the conclusion of season three, the duo went on a \"honeymoon\" together, and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale. [28] Grey has been characterized, by some, as \"whiny\". Rhimes offered her insight: “ I've heard a lot of talk about Meredith being whiny but the truth is, she's got a mom [who died of] Alzheimer's, no other family to speak of, and the man she loves is married. She's pretty freaking lonely, people. She's got a right to get her whine on. So, when she falters, it's partly because she's got nothing to hang on to. As she says in the first episode, she needs a reason to go on, she needs some hope. [29] ” Rhimes felt that the 100th episode showed well Meredith's evolution throughout the show from a \"dark and twisty girl\" to a \"happy woman\". She said: \"She is the thing her mother wished for her. She is extraordinary. Because, to get past the crap of your past? To move on? To let the past go and change? That is extraordinary. To love? Without fear? Without screwing it up? That is extraordinary. It makes me happy to see her happy.\" [30] Following the departure of Patrick Dempsey's character, Rhimes was quoted as saying that \"...Meredith and the entire Grey’s Anatomy family are about to enter uncharted territory as we head into this new chapter of her life. The possibilities for what may come are endless.\" [31] With at least a year left in Pompeo's contract with the show, viewers are sure to witness some of the most difficult times of Meredith's life yet. Reception [ edit ] Reviews [ edit ] The character has received both overwhelmingly positive reviews to weary response from television critics throughout the course of the show. The initial response to the character was positive but as the series progressed Meredith Grey became immensely popular and Pompeo established the character as a critic and fan favorite featuring on a number of Top TV Character lists. The development of the character has been deemed as the highlight of the show. Grey has constantly been defined as \"the heroine of Grey's Anatomy \". [32] At the time of inception Newsday ' s Diane Werts praised the character stating, \"Like Hugh Laurie 's irascible \"House\" title character, star Ellen Pompeo 's newly minted Dr. Grey conveys such substance that you simply can't stop watching.\" [33] Ellen A. Kim of After Pompeo not receiving an Emmy nomination for her work as Grey, McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo, \"who has worked very hard and against all narrative odds to make Meredith Grey an interesting character at last\" should have received a nomination at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . [34] Later, during the twelfth season Western Gazette gave Ellen Pompeo the credit for carrying the show and re-ittirated.\" (It's) time for Pompeo to finally win an Emmy Award .\" [35] Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly referred to Grey as the \"trusty voice over master\" of Grey's Anatomy . Pompeo's connection with Patrick Dempsey ( Derek Shepherd ) is acclaimed as a high point of the series. Former television columnist for The Star-Ledger Alan Sepinwall expressed his boredom on the focus given on Grey's relationships storylines while reviewing the second season's finale : \"On those occasions when Meredith's not involved in a plot about her love life, I do kind of like her, but those moments are so infrequent compared to her constant angsting over McDreamy -- not to mention all those seemingly unrelated storylines that always turn into a metaphor for that relationship -- that I really, really can't stand her.\" [36] During the show's third season , the development of the character received negative reviews, with Cristopher Monfette of IGN stating that her storyline has become \"some bizarrely under-developed sub-plot about depression and giving Derek a season's worth of reconsidering to do.\" [37] Also during the third season, Robert Rorke of the New York Post noted the decline in Meredith's role in the show, expressing disappointment: \"She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas, but lately, she's been a little dopey, what with the endless McDreamy soliloquies.\" [38] Similarly, Macleans.ca found their storyline in the fourth season overused, \"This whole 'Oh I need more time,' but 'Oh, I'm jealous if you look at someone else' angst was tired in the second season, frustrating in the third and now a total channel changer. The will-they-or-won't-they plot doesn't work because they've already been in and out of that relationship too many times. Meredith is a nag and McDreamy is henpecked.\" [39] On a more positive note, her relationship with Shepherd was included in AOL TV 's list of the \"Best TV Couples of All Time\" and in the same list by TV Guide . [40] [41] During the sixth season the development of the character was praised, Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that \"You gotta love Mer when she's gloomy.\", in addition to praising Pompeo's performance. In her review of the episode Tainted Obligation she wrote \"I felt for Meredith, but after Lexie's heartfelt begging and pleading, I was happy that Mere finally grows up and casts her selfishness aside. Three seasons ago Meredith would never have dreamed of putting Lexie first, and I was proud of her for giving up part of her liver—her offer to get to know her dad was an even bigger milestone.\" [42] Reviewing the first part of the eighth season , TV Fanatic lauded the character and wrote: \"this season belongs to Meredith Grey. She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding. This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman. Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season.\" [43] Wit & Fancy praised the transformation of the character and stated, \"Of course Meredith will still make rash decisions like when she took off with Zola, or tampered with the trial but she does things out of love and the kindness of her heart now and not because she is dark and twisty. Considering where Meredith was at the beginning and where she is now, I think she went through a remarkable journey and did more than just growing up, she finally became “all whole and healed“.\" [44] Maura O'Malley of Bustle also lauded the development of the character ahead of season 12 saying, \"When the series began, Meredith was just a girl sitting in a bar celebrating the exciting next phase of her life. She had graduated medical school, she was starting her residency at a prestigious hospital, and she was simply looking for a no-strings attached, one night stand. What she got instead was a complicated romantic relationship that rivals Romeo and Juliet — but the key is, she wasn't searching for love. Working and learning were — and continue to be — her priorities, while McDreamy was simply an added perk. Hopefully, the new season of Grey's Anatomy will reflect this change in tone, because Meredith is a strong, independent woman — and she will be just fine.\" [45] Later in the series, Ellen Pompeo received critical acclaim with numerous critics lauding her portrayal of the character. Reviewing the episode She's Leaving Home CarterMatt called her the \"anchor\" for Grey's saying, \"Throughout, this was an episode completely anchored by Ellen Pompeo , who has done some of her best work ever on the show the past couple of weeks. Tonight, she cried, she fought, and she learned that she was carrying his child.\" [46] and added that Pompeo is often \"ovelooked\" saying, \"Her subtlety is probably why she is often overlooked.\" [47] Rick Porter of Zap2it reviewing \" How to Save a Life \" wrote, \"Without Meredith, and without one of Pompeo's strongest performances in her long time on the show, \"How to Save a Life\" would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode, the likes of which the show has done several times before. He added. \"How to Save a Life\" may not be the ideal Emmy-submission episode for Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it's among the best work she's ever done on the show.\" [48] USA Today also lauded Pompeo saying, \" In some ways, the episode ( How to Save a Life ) was even more of a showcase for Pompeo. She had some of the more memorable and well-played scenes, from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are, to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life.\" [49] Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered Meredith's friendship with Cristina ( Sandra Oh ) to be \"the secret core of Grey's\". The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be \"the secret core of Grey's\". Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that \"With those two characters, showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television.\" [50] Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because \"they don’t try to be\". There’s nothing fake about them, which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television. She further went on to call them 'soulmates', \" And even though they’d never dare get sappy enough to say it, they’re soul mates. [51] Margaret Lyons of Vulture (magazine) called the friendship \" dream BFF relationship.\" and the primary focus of the show, \"One of the series' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships.\" [52] “ \"I wanted to create a world in which you felt as if you were watching very real women. Most of the women I saw on TV didn't seem like people I actually knew. They felt like ideas of what women are. They never got to be nasty or competitive or hungry or angry. They were often just the loving wife or the nice friend. But who gets to be the bitch? Who gets to be the three-dimensional woman?\" - Rhimes on Cristina-Meredith friendship. [53] ” E! at the time of Sandra Oh 's exit wrote, \"In Grey's Anatomy 's 10-year history, the doctor duo has been through a lot together: weddings, deaths, plane crashes, bomb threats, shooting, you name it, they've lived (and danced) through it. \" and added, \"And with the three words, \"You're my person.\" Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen's best best friends ever.\" [54] Marama Whyte of Hypable wrote, \"Critically, the key relationship in Meredith’s life was not her romance with Derek Shepherd , but her passionate, indestructible, absolutely enviable friendship with Cristina. Talk about relationship goals; who wants McDreamy when Cristina Yang could be your person. These two were the real powerhouse, and Shonda Rhimes didn’t shy away from making the audience remember this. Derek was the love of her life, but Cristina was her soul mate. More than anyone else, Cristina challenged Meredith, was honest with her, and inspired her. For these reasons, it was Cristina who was constantly the source of Meredith’s character development, not Derek.\" [55] Pompeo's character has also been used to define the image a strong woman, Bustle previewing the 12th season wrote, \"Meredith Grey has always been capable of being on her own. Grey's Anatomy is about Meredith's journey. Men and romantic interests are a part of her life, but they are not the priority. She doesn't need McDreamy. Grey's Anatomy doesn't need McDreamy. So even if the writers do decide to create a new love interest for Ms. Grey ( Martin Henderson , perhaps?), it wouldn't matter. I have faith that the show's writers will do this storyline justice, because TV needs more strong single women — and Meredith seems like the perfect candidate.\" The site added, \"This past season was almost a trial run for a McDreamy-less Grey's Anatomy. When Derek left for Washington D.C. to pursue his research, Meredith stayed behind and focused on her own career. She didn't chase him. Her priority were her children and the Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. Meredith showed that she would never put aside her own dreams and aspirations for a man, and I believe that this won't change after Derek's death.\" [45] Awards [ edit ] Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Grey's Anatomy Pompeo's failure to garner an Emmy Award nomination has been called a \"snub\" on multiple occasions. Pompeo has won and has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of Grey. She and the Grey's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards . [56] During the following year's ceremony , she was named Best Actress in a Television Drama Series . [57] She was among the Grey's Anatomy cast members awarded the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series accolade at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards , [58] and received nominations in the same category in 2006 [59] and 2008. [60] Pompeo received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards – the program won Best Drama Series at the same ceremony. [61] Also in 2007, Pompeo and the female cast and crew of Grey's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award , which honors those \"whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women.\" [62] Pompeo's performance has garnered her multiple People's Choice Awards . At the 37th People's Choice Awards , she was nominated against Dempsey and Oh in the Favorite TV Doctor category, [63] and the following year , she was a contender in the Favorite TV Drama Actress category. [64] Since 2012 Pompeo has received nomination at the People's Choice Awards every year in two categories at 40th People's Choice Awards alongside Patrick Dempsey and Sandra Oh respectively. She won the Best Drama Actress Award at both the 39th People's Choice Awards [65] and the 41st People's Choice Awards . [66] In 2007, show-business awards reporter Tom O'Neil commented that Pompeo was overdue an Emmy Award nomination for her role in Grey's Anatomy . [67] Readers of O'Neil's awards website, The Envelope , included Pompeo in their 2009 nominations for Best Drama Actress in the site's Gold Derby TV Awards. [68] Entertainment Weekly launched the EWwy Awards in 2008, to honor actors who have not received Emmy nominations. Pompeo was nominated in the Best Actress in a Drama Series category, and placed fourth, with 19 percent of readers' votes. [69] References [ edit ] Specific Jump up ^ \" Yesterday \". Grey's Anatomy . Season 2. Episode 18. February 19, 2006. ABC . Jump up ^ \"Ellen Pompeo Biography\" . Yahoo . Yahoo! Movies. Archived from the original on January 14, 2013 . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ Ryan, Maureen (September 30, 2005). \"Chicago as a 'Grey' area?\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved January 23, 2012 . 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Retrieved 5 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Grey's Anatomy Season Three DVD: Commentary Feature . Buena Vista, ABC. 2007. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) Jump up ^ \"Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) Bio\" . American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on May 15, 2013 . Retrieved June 13, 2013 . Jump up ^ Keck, William (September 24, 2007). \"A lighter shade of 'Grey's' on the set\" . USA Today . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Ellen Pompeo Biography\" . People . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (May 17, 2006). \"From Shonda Rhimes (FINALLY)…\" . Grey Matter . American Broadcasting Company . Archived from the original on March 19, 2013 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b Mitovich, Matt Webb. \"Shonda Rhimes: Grey's Anatomy Finale Sets Up What May Be Original Cast's Final Run\" . TVLine . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ McKee, Stacy (February 26, 2006). \"From Stacy McKee, writer of \"What Have I Done To Deserve This? \" \" . ABC . Grey Matter. Archived from the original on December 19, 2012 . Retrieved June 19, 2012 . Jump up ^ McKee, Stacy (November 1, 2007). \"Stacy McKee on \"Kung Fu Fighting\"...\" . ABC . Grey Matter. Archived from the original on February 10, 2012 . Retrieved June 19, 2012 . Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (November 22, 2005). \"From Shonda Rhimes, creator and writer of \"Thanks For The Memories \" \" . ABC . Grey Matter. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012 . Retrieved June 19, 2012 . Jump up ^ Mosthof, Marielle. \"Ellen Pompeo Discusses Keeping the Spark Alive With Her On-Screen Hubby\" . Wet Paint . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb. \"Grey's Exclusive: Ellen Pompeo Weighs In on Mer-Der Fight: 'He Needs To Get Over It, Quick ' \" . TVLine . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (October 3, 2007). \"Shonda on the Season Premiere Episode \"A Change Is Gonna Come\"...\" . ABC . Grey Matter. Archived from the original on March 31, 2012 . Retrieved June 19, 2012 . Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (February 12, 2006). \"From Shonda: It's the end of the episode (as we know it)\" . ABC . Grey Matter. Archived from the original on July 2, 2013 . Retrieved June 19, 2012 . Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (May 8, 2009). \"Shonda Rhimes on \"What a Difference a Day Makes\"...\" . Grey Matter . American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on July 2, 2013 . Retrieved September 3, 2013 . Jump up ^ Gay, Verne (April 24, 2015). \"Patrick Dempsey leaves 'Grey's Anatomy'; creator Shonda Rhimes says show entering 'uncharted territory ' \" . Newsday . Retrieved May 1, 2015 . Jump up ^ Stanley, Alessandra (September 12, 2006). \"TV Review: Men In Trees\" . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . Retrieved May 10, 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/tv/greys-anatomy/critic-reviews Jump up ^ McNamara, Mary (July 17, 2009). \"Seven Emmy nods a good fit\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . 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Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy\" . www.goldenglobes.org . Hollywood Foreign Press Association . Archived from the original on March 10, 2012 . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . Jump up ^ Davidson, Ben G. (June 14, 2007). \"WIF's Lucy Award goes to women of 'Grey's Anatomy ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Nielsen Company . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . (subscription required) Jump up ^ \"People's Choice Awards 2011 Nominees\" . www.peopleschoice.com . People's Choice Awards . Archived from the original on July 15, 2011 . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"People's Choice Awards 2012 Nominees\" . www.peopleschoice.com . People's Choice Awards . Archived from the original on March 3, 2016 . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.wetpaint.com/greys-anatomy/articles/ellen-pompeo-and-greys-anatomy-win-big-at-2013-peoples-choice-awards?rand=130121 Jump up ^ http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-et-peoples-choice-awards-2015-winners-list-20150107-story.html Jump up ^ O'Neil, Tom (June 6, 2007). \"Battle to the finish\" . The Envelope ( Los Angeles Times ) . Tribune Broadcasting . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . Jump up ^ O'Neil, Tom (June 30, 2009). \" ' 30 Rock,' 'Mad Men' lead Gold Derby TV Award nominations\" . Gold Derby ( Los Angeles Times ) . Tribune Broadcasting . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"EWwy Winners Revealed!\" . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . September 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 22, 2012 . General \"Grey's Anatomy: Episode Recap Guide\" . ABC . Retrieved June 19, 2012 . External links [ edit ] Grey's Anatomy portal Fictional characters portal Television portal Meredith Grey at ABC.com Meredith Grey on IMDb [ hide ] v t e Grey's Anatomy Episodes Season 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Characters ( cast members ) Meredith Grey Cristina Yang Izzie Stevens Alex Karev George O'Malley Miranda Bailey Richard Webber Derek Shepherd Preston Burke Addison Montgomery Mark Sloan Callie Torres Lexie Grey Erica Hahn Owen Hunt Sadie Harris Arizona Robbins Teddy Altman Jackson Avery April Kepner Amelia Shepherd Stephanie Edwards Maggie Pierce Other Awards and nominations Soundtrack Video game Private Practice A Corazón Abierto (Mexican telenovela) A Corazón Abierto (Colombian telenovela) Portal Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meredith_Grey&oldid=808602648 \" Categories : Grey's Anatomy characters Fictional characters from Massachusetts Fictional characters from Washington (state) Fictional storytellers Fictional characters introduced in 2005 Fictional surgeons Fictional female doctors Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing author or editor Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Pages containing links to subscription-only content Good articles Pages using deprecated image syntax Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Čeština Español فارسی Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano Македонски Polski Português Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 November 2017, at 22:13. 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{ "text": "Finger - Wikipedia Finger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Finger (disambiguation) and Fingertips (disambiguation) . Finger Details Identifiers Latin Digiti manus MeSH D005385 TA A01.1.00.030 FMA 75592 Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata ] A finger is a limb of the human body and a type of digit , an organ of manipulation and sensation found in the hands of humans and other primates . [1] [2] Normally humans have five digits, [3] the bones of which are termed phalanges, [2] on each hand, although some people have more or fewer than five due to congenital disorders such as polydactyly or oligodactyly , or accidental or medical amputations . The first digit is the thumb , followed by index finger , middle finger , ring finger , and little finger or pinky. According to different definitions, the thumb can be called a finger, or not. Contents 1 Anatomy 1.1 Skeleton 1.2 Muscles 1.3 Skin 1.4 Fingertip wrinkling in water 1.5 Brain representation 1.6 Other animals 2 Clinical significance 2.1 Anomalies, injuries and diseases 3 History 3.1 Etymology 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Anatomy Skeleton Illustration depicting the bones of the human hand The thumb (connected to the trapezium ) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm. The palm has five bones known as metacarpal bones, one to each of the five digits. Human hands contain fourteen digital bones, also called phalanges, or phalanx bones : two in the thumb (the thumb has no middle phalanx) and three in each of the four fingers. These are the distal phalanx, carrying the nail, the middle phalanx, and the proximal phalanx. Sesamoid bones are small ossified nodes embedded in the tendons to provide extra leverage and reduce pressure on the underlying tissue. Many exist around the palm at the bases of the digits; the exact number varies between different people. The articulations are: interphalangeal articulations between phalangeal bones, and metacarpophalangeal joints connecting the phalanges to the metacarpal bones. Muscles Play media The precision of finger movements in space and time is highlighted in this motion tracking of two pianists ' fingers playing the same piece (slow motion, no sound). [4] Each finger may flex and extend , abduct and adduct , and so also circumduct . Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that augment the movement. Each finger may move independently of the others, though the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely free movement. Fingers do not contain muscles (other than arrector pili ). The muscles that move the finger joints are in the palm and forearm . The long tendons that deliver motion from the forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the back of the hand. Muscles of the fingers can be subdivided into extrinsic and intrinsic muscles.\nThe extrinsic muscles are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm. The fingers have two long flexors, located on the underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers. The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group ( opponens and abductor brevis muscle ), moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible. The extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the tendons of these form the anatomical snuff box . Also, the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor, used for instance for pointing. The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments. The 1st compartment contains abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. The 2nd compartment contains extensors carpi radialis longus and brevis. The 3rd compartment contains extensor pollicis longus. The extensor digitorum indicis and extensor digititorum communis are within the 4th compartment. Extensor digiti minimi is in the fifth, and extensor carpi ulnaris is in the 6th. The intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar and hypothenar muscles (thenar referring to the thumb, hypothenar to the small finger), the dorsal and palmar interossei muscles (between the metacarpal bones) and the lumbrical muscles . The lumbricals arise from the deep flexor (and are special because they have no bony origin) and insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism. Skin Aside from the genitals , the fingertips possess the highest concentration of touch receptors and thermoreceptors among all areas of the human skin, [ citation needed ] making them extremely sensitive to temperature, pressure, vibration, texture and moisture. Recent studies suggest fingers can feel nano-scale wrinkles on a seemingly smooth surface, a level of sensitivity not previously recorded. [5] This makes the fingers commonly used sensory probes to ascertain properties of objects encountered in the world, making them prone to injury . The pulp of a finger is the fleshy mass on the palmar aspect of the extremity of the finger. [6] Fingertip wrinkling in water Although a common phenomenon, the underlying functions and mechanism of fingertip wrinkling following immersion in water are relatively unexplored. Originally it was assumed [ by whom? ] that the wrinkles were simply the result of the skin swelling in water, [ citation needed ] but it is now understood that the furrows are caused by the blood vessels constricting due to signalling by the sympathetic nervous system in response to water exposure. [7] [8] One hypothesis for why this occurs, the “rain tread” hypothesis, posits that the wrinkles may help the fingers grip things when wet, possibly being an adaption from a time when humans dealt with rain and dew in forested primate habitats. [7] A 2013 study supporting this hypothesis found that the wrinkled fingertips provided better handling of wet objects but gave no advantage for handling dry objects. [9] However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips. [8] Brain representation Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b, [10] part of area 1 [11] and a distributed, overlapping representations in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area . [12] The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed, shortened fingers. However, not only are the fingers of their hands fused, but the cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand. The fingers can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand. Surgeons did this at the Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32-year-old man with the initials O. G.. They touched O. G.’s fingers before and after surgery while using MRI brain scans. Before the surgery, the fingers mapped onto his brain were fused close together; afterward, the maps of his individual fingers did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand. [13] Other animals Chimpanzees have lower limbs that are specialized for manipulation, and (arguably) have fingers on their lower limbs as well. The term 'finger' is not applied to the digits of most other animals, such as canines , felines , or ungulates , none of which can engage in fine manipulation with their forelimbs as a primate can. Clinical significance Anomalies, injuries and diseases Radiograph of Type 1 Syndactyly A rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500 humans, in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits; this is known as polydactyly . A human may also be born without one or more fingers or underdevelopment of some fingers such as symbrachydactyly . Extra fingers can be functional. One individual with seven fingers not only used them but claimed that they \"gave him some advantages in playing the piano\". [14] Phalanges are commonly fractured. A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of function in fine motor control, such as with a mallet finger . They can be damaged by cold, including frostbite and non-freezing cold injury (NFCI); and heat, including burns . The fingers are commonly affected by diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout . Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples for regular blood sugar testing. Raynaud's phenomenon and Paroxysmal hand hematoma are neurovascular disorders that affects the fingers. Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone , and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length [15] and risk for development of alcohol dependence [16] or video game addiction . [17] History Etymology English dictionaries describe finger as meaning either one of the five digits including the thumb, or one of the four excluding the thumb (in which case they are numbered from 1 to 4 starting with the index finger closest to the thumb). [1] [2] [18] Linguistically, it appears that the original sense was to include the thumb as a finger: the word is derived from Old English thūma. [ non sequitur ] The name pinkie derives from Dutch pinkje, of uncertain origin. In English only the digits on the hand are known as fingers. However, in some languages the translated version of fingers can mean either the digits on the hand or feet. In English a digit on a foot has the distinct name of toe . See also Finger snapping Fingerprint Nail (anatomy) Paroxysmal hand hematoma Notes ^ Jump up to: a b Chambers 1998 page 603 ^ Jump up to: a b c Oxford Illustrated pages 311,380 Jump up ^ Tracy L. Kivell; Pierre Lemelin; Brian G. Richmond; Daniel Schmitt (10 August 2016). The Evolution of the Primate Hand: Anatomical, Developmental, Functional, and Paleontological Evidence . Springer. pp. 7–. ISBN 978-1-4939-3646-5 . Jump up ^ Goebl, W.; Palmer, C. (2013). Balasubramaniam, Ramesh, ed. \"Temporal Control and Hand Movement Efficiency in Skilled Music Performance\" . PLoS ONE . 8 (1): e50901. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0050901 . PMC 3536780 . PMID 23300946 . Jump up ^ \"Feeling small: Fingers can detect nano-scale wrinkles even on a seemingly smooth surface\" . Science Daily . September 16, 2013. Jump up ^ medilexicon.com > Medical Dictionary - 'Pulp Of Finger' Citing: Stedman's Medical Dictionary. 2006 ^ Jump up to: a b Changizi, M.; Weber, R.; Kotecha, R.; Palazzo, J. (2011). \"Are Wet-Induced Wrinkled Fingers Primate Rain Treads?\". Brain, Behavior and Evolution . 77 (4): 286–90. doi : 10.1159/000328223 . PMID 21701145 . ^ Jump up to: a b Haseleu, Julia; Omerbašić, Damir; Frenzel, Henning; Gross, Manfred; Lewin, Gary R. (2014). Goldreich, Daniel, ed. \"Water-Induced Finger Wrinkles Do Not Affect Touch Acuity or Dexterity in Handling Wet Objects\" . PLoS ONE . 9 : e84949. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0084949 . PMC 3885627 . PMID 24416318 . Jump up ^ Kareklas, K.; Nettle, D.; Smulders, T. V. (2013). \"Water-induced finger wrinkles improve handling of wet objects\" . Biology Letters . 9 (2): 20120999. doi : 10.1098/rsbl.2012.0999 . PMC 3639753 . PMID 23302867 . Jump up ^ Van Westen, D; Fransson, P; Olsrud, J; Rosén, B; Lundborg, G; Larsson, EM (2004). \"Fingersomatotopy in area 3b: an fMRI-study\" . BMC Neurosci . 5 : 28. doi : 10.1186/1471-2202-5-28 . PMC 517711 . PMID 15320953 . Jump up ^ Nelson, AJ; Chen, R (2008). \"Digit somatotopy within cortical areas of the postcentral gyrus in humans\". Cereb Cortex . 18 (10): 2341–51. doi : 10.1093/cercor/bhm257 . PMID 18245039 . Jump up ^ Kleinschmidt, A; Nitschke, MF; Frahm, J (1997). \"Somatotopy in the human motor cortex hand area. A high-resolution functional MRI study\". Eur J Neurosci . 9 (10): 2178–86. doi : 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01384.x . PMID 9421177 . Jump up ^ Mogilner, A; Grossman, JA; Ribary, U; Joliot, M; Volkmann, J; Rapaport, D; Beasley, RW; Llinás, RR (1993). \"Somatosensory cortical plasticity in adult humans revealed by magnetoencephalography\" . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 90 (8): 3593–7. doi : 10.1073/pnas.90.8.3593 . PMC 46347 . PMID 8386377 . Jump up ^ Dwight, T (1892). \"Fusion of hands\". Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History . 4 : 473–486. Jump up ^ Researchers Find Association Between Penile Length and Ratio of Length of Men's Fingers Jump up ^ Kornhuber, J; Erhard, G; Lenz, B; Kraus, T; Sperling, W; Bayerlein, K; Biermann, T; Stoessel, C (2011). \"Low digit ratio 2D:4D in alcohol dependent patients\" . PLoS ONE . 6 (4): e19332. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0019332 . PMC 3081847 . PMID 21547078 . Jump up ^ Kornhuber, J.; Zenses, EM; Lenz, B; Stoessel, C; Bouna-Pyrrou, P; Rehbein, F; Kliem, S; Mößle, T (2013). \"Low digit ratio 2D:4D associated with video game addiction\" . PLoS ONE . 8 (11): e79539. doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0079539 . PMC 3827365 . PMID 24236143 . Jump up ^ Oxford Advanced page 326 References The Chambers Dictionary . Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. 2000 [1998]. ISBN 0-550-14000-X . The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary . Great Britain: Oxford University Press. 1976 [1975]. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English . London: Oxford University Press. 1974 [1974]. ISBN 0-19-431102-3 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fingers . Look up finger in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. hide v t e Human regional anatomy Head Ear Face Cheek Chin Eye Mouth Nose Forehead Jaw Occiput Scalp Temple Neck Adam's apple Throat Trunk Abdomen Waist Midriff Navel Back Thorax Breast Pelvis Sex organs Limbs Arm Shoulder Axilla Brachium Elbow Forearm Wrist Hand Finger Thumb Index Middle Ring Little Leg Buttocks Hip Thigh Knee Calf Foot Ankle Heel Sole Toe Other Écorché General anatomy : systems and organs , regional anatomy , planes and lines , superficial axial anatomy , superficial anatomy of limbs Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finger&oldid=835420359 \" Categories : Fingers Hidden categories: Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2013 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2017 Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Avañe'ẽ تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig ગુજરાતી 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut Íslenska ಕನ್ನಡ Kurdî മലയാളം مازِرونی Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog తెలుగు ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Walon 粵語 Zazaki 中文 44 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2018, at 16:28 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Finger", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Finger&amp;oldid=835420359" }

{ "text": "Industrial Revolution - Wikipedia Industrial Revolution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution and mechanized factories, powered by a central water wheel or steam engine , were the new workplace. The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines , new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power , the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system . Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. [1] : 40 The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain , and many of the technological innovations were of British origin. [2] By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation [3] , controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa , and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent , through the activities of the East India Company . [4] The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution. [1] : 15 The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. [5] [6] [7] GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, [8] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. [9] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. [10] The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes . [11] [12] [13] [14] Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, [11] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. [12] Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, [15] with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France. [1] An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph , widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution . These new innovations included new steel making processes, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories. [1] [16] [17] [18] Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 2 Important technological developments 2.1 Textile manufacture 2.1.1 British textile industry statistics 2.1.2 Cotton 2.1.3 Trade and textiles 2.1.4 Pre-mechanized European textile production 2.1.5 Invention of textile machinery 2.1.6 Wool 2.1.7 Silk 2.2 Iron industry 2.2.1 UK iron production statistics 2.2.2 Iron process innovations 2.3 Steam power 2.4 Machine tools 2.5 Chemicals 2.6 Cement 2.7 Gas lighting 2.8 Glass making 2.9 Paper machine 2.10 Agriculture 2.11 Mining 2.12 Transportation 2.12.1 Canals and improved waterways 2.12.2 Roads 2.12.3 Railways 2.13 Other developments 3 Social effects 3.1 Factory system 3.2 Standards of living 3.2.1 Food and nutrition 3.2.2 Housing 3.2.3 Sanitation 3.2.4 Water supply 3.2.5 Increase in literacy 3.3 Clothing and consumer goods 3.4 Population increase 3.5 Urbanization 3.6 Impact on women and family life 3.7 Labour conditions 3.7.1 Social structure and working conditions 3.7.2 Factories and urbanisation 3.7.3 Child labour 3.7.4 Organisation of labour 3.7.5 Luddites 3.7.6 Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc. 3.7.7 Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery 3.8 Impact on environment 4 Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom 4.1 Continental Europe 4.1.1 Belgium 4.1.1.1 Demographic effects 4.1.2 France 4.1.3 Germany 4.1.4 Sweden 4.2 Japan 4.3 United States 5 Second Industrial Revolution 6 Causes 6.1 Causes in Europe 6.2 Causes in Britain 6.3 Transfer of knowledge 6.3.1 Protestant work ethic 7 Opposition from Romanticism 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Sources 10 External links Etymology The earliest recorded use of the term \"Industrial Revolution\" seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto , announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise. [19] In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society , Raymond Williams states in the entry for \"Industry\": \"The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen , between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the [19th] century.\" The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui 's description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle . [20] Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of \"an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society\". However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee , whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term. [21] Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts , have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians. Important technological developments The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, [22] beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies: Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. [23] The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50. [17] Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. [1] Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. [1] : 82 The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation. [24] Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production. [1] : 89–93 Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, [25] [26] resulting in economies of scale . The steam engine began being used to power blast air in the mid 1750s, enabling a large increase iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power. [27] The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge . [28] The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades. Invention of machine tools – The first machine tools were invented. These included the screw cutting lathe , cylinder boring machine and the milling machine . Machine tools made the economical manufacture of precision metal parts possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques. [29] Textile manufacture Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution British textile industry statistics In 1750 Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of which was spun and woven by cottage industry in Lancashire. The work was done by hand in workers' homes or occasionally in shops of master weavers. In 1787 raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded and spun on machines. [1] : 41–42 The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6% in 1760, 17% in 1801 and 22.4% in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1% in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760 approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by 1800. In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800 less than 0.1% of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years. [30] Wages in Lancashire , a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about six times those in India in 1770, when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India. [30] Cotton Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle-East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange . In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality. [30] The early Spanish explorers found Native Americans growing a previously unknown species of good quality cotton: Gossypium hirsutum . Cotton plantations were eventually established in the West Indies and the Americas which provided Britain with a source of this difficult to obtain raw material. [30] A strain of cotton seed brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi, USA in 1806 became the parent genetic material for over 90% of world cotton production today; it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick. Trade and textiles The Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century. Following the discovery of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (abbr. VOC) or Dutch East India Company and the British founded the East India Company , along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid-1760s cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century. [30] European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution. Pre-mechanized European textile production By 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The Moors in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century. [30] British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labor cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's. [31] In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India. [1] [32] The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian , a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft . Flax was used for the warp because wheel-spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100% cotton and was more difficult to sew. [32] On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system . Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel , it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver. [1] [32] [33] : 823 Invention of textile machinery The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay , with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, Robert , invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors. [33] : 821–22 Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham . Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743 a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster , but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill . Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule . Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal . Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution. In 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny , which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles. [34] The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting. [35] It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in 1792, [36] and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft , not warp . [33] : 825–27 The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright. [33] : 827–30 For each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre, which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name. The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton . The mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour. Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule was introduced in 1779. Mule implies a hybrid because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating. [33] : 832 Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities. [33] : 832 Interior of Marshall's Temple Works Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two-man operated loom which was more conventional. [33] : 834 Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers. Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co. [37] The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin . With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day. [17] These advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs , of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay ; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power – first horse power and then water power —which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery. Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories. [38] Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine-woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand-woven Indian cloth, in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high tread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low-wage India, eventually destroying the industry. [30] Wool The earliest European attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant, but was far less than that of cotton. [1] [4] Silk Lombe's Mill site today, rebuilt as Derby Silk Mill Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe 's water-powered silk mill at Derby , operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, becasue the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London . [39] [40] Iron industry The reverberatory furnace could produce cast iron using mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur and silica. This opened the way to increased iron production. The Iron Bridge , Shropshire , England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron. [41] Horizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single puddling furnace. A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door; F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall UK iron production statistics Bar iron was the commodity form of iron used as the raw material for making hardware goods such as nails, wire, hinges, horse shoes, wagon tires, chains, etc. and for structural shapes. A small amount of bar iron was converted into steel. Cast iron was used for pots, stoves and other items where its brittleness was tolerable. Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron, with substantial losses. Bar iron was also made by the bloomery process, which was the predominant iron smelting process until the late 18th century. In the UK in 1720 there were 20,500 tons of cast iron produced with charcoal and 400 tons with coke. In 1750 charcoal iron production was 24,500 and coke iron was 2,500 tons. In 1788 the production of charcoal cast iron was 14,000 tons while coke iron production was 54,000 tons. In 1806 charcoal cast iron production was 7,800 tons and coke cast iron was 250,000 tons. [27] : 125 In 1750 the UK imported 31,200 tons of bar iron and either refined from cast iron or directly produced 18,800 tons of bar iron using charcoal and 100 tons using coke. In 1796 the UK was making 125,000 tons of bar iron with coke and 6,400 tons with charcoal; imports were 38,000 tons and exports were 24,600 tons. In 1806 the UK did not import bar iron but exported 31,500 tons. [27] : 125 Iron process innovations A major change in the iron industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, [42] and coal was much more abundant than wood, supplies of which were becoming scarce before the enormous increase in iron production that took place in the late 18th century. [1] [27] : 122 By 1750 coke had generally replaced charcoal in smelting of copper and lead and was in widespread use in making glass. In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and coke produced inferior iron to that made with charcoal because of the coal's sulfur content. Low sulfur coals were known, but they still contained harmful amounts. Conversion of coal to coke only slightly reduces the sulfur content. [27] : 122–125 A minority of coals are coking. Another factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows. This was solved by the steam engine. [27] Use of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different, and later, innovation.) By 1709 Abraham Darby made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale . [43] However, the coke pig iron he made was not suitable for making wrought iron and was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron until 1755-56, when Darby's son Abraham Darby II built furnaces at Horsehay and Ketley where low sulfur coal was available (and not far from Coalbrookdale). These new furnaces were equipped with water-powered bellows, the water being pumped by Newcomen steam engines . The Newcomen engines were not attached directly to the blowing cylinders because the engines would not produce a steady air blast. Abraham Darby III installed similar steam-pumped, water-powered blowing cylinders at the Dale Company when he took control in 1768. The Dale Company used several Newcomen engines to drain its mines and made parts for engines which it sold throughout the country. [27] : 123–125 Steam engines made the use higher-pressure and volume blast practical; however, the leather used in bellows was expensive to replace. In 1757 iron master John Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine for blast furnaces. [44] The blowing cylinder for blast furnaces was introduced in 1760 and the first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by John Smeaton . [27] : 124, 135 Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping. James Watt had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine. In 1774 John Wilkinson, who built a cast iron blowing cylinder for his iron works, invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders. After Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a Boulton and Watt steam engine in 1776, he was given an exclusive contract for providing cylinders. [17] After Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, they were widely applied to blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting. [27] : 124 The solutions to the sulfur problem were the addition of sufficient limestone to the furnace to force sulfur into the slag and the use of low sulfur coal. Use of lime or limestone required higher furnace temperatures to form a free-flowing slag. The increased furnace temperature made possible by improved blowing also increased the capacity of blast furnaces and allowed for increased furnace height. [27] : 123–125 In addition to lower cost and greater availability, coke had other important advantages over charcoal in that it was harder and made the column of materials (iron ore, fuel, slag) flowing down the blast furnace more porous and did not crush in the much taller furnaces of the late 19th century. [45] As cast iron was became cheaper and widely available, it began being a structural material for bridges and buildings. A famous early example was the Iron Bridge built in 1778 with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III . [41] However, most cast iron was converted to wrought iron , which was turned into hardware items such as nails, wire, chains, agricultural implements, tools and wagon tires. Europe relied on the bloomery for most of its wrought iron until the large scale production of cast iron. Conversion of cast iron was done in a finery forge , as it long had been. An improved refining process known as potting and stamping was developed, but this was superseded by Henry Cort 's puddling process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784. [1] : 91 Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost. Puddling was a means of decarburizing molten pig iron by slow oxidation in a reverberatory furnace by manually stirring it with a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob a large enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40. [46] Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke could be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised. Rolling was an important part of the puddling process because the grooved rollers expelled most of the molten slag and consolidated the mass of hot wrought iron. Rolling was 15 times faster at this than a trip hammer . A different use of rolling, which was done at lower temperatures than that for expelling slag, was in the production of iron sheets, and later structural shapes such as beams, angles and rails. The puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with iron oxide. [47] In 1838 John Hall patented the use of roasted tap cinder (iron silicate) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom. The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorus, but this was not understood at the time. [27] : 166 Hall's process also used iron scale or rust, which reacted with carbon in the molten iron. Hall's process, called wet puddling , reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%. [1] : 93 Puddling became widely used after 1800. Up to that time British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of iron imported from Sweden and Russia to supplement domestic supplies. Because of the increased British production, imports began to decline in 1785 and by the 1790s Britain eliminated imports and became a net exporter of bar iron. Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke; [48] however, the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved. [49] Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive; [50] however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably. Shortly before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel , which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process . The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and other hardware items. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries. Steam power Main article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution A Watt steam engine . James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine. The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp. [51] The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its \"brand name\", The Miner's Friend ). Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century. The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a significant amount of capital to build, and produced upwards of 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800. [52] Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution. A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt . With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton , he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine , which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder, thereby making the low-pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20–25% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen's. Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795. By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces , and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (3.7 to 7.5 kW). Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine , built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine . Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats . The development of machine tools , such as the engine lathe , planing , milling and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines. Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century. These included crank -powered, treadle -powered and horse-powered workshop and light industrial machinery. [53] Machine tools Main article: Machine tool See also: Interchangeable parts Maudslay 's famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800 The Middletown milling machine of circa 1818, associated with Robert Johnson and Simeon North Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen – millwrights built water and windmills, carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners. The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools . They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve. [29] [17] The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. Wilkinson's boring machine differed from earlier cantilevered machines used for boring cannon in that the cutting tool was mounted on a beam that ran through the cylinder being bored and was supported outside on both ends. [17] The planing machine , the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century. [29] [17] Henry Maudslay , who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich . He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of Jan Verbruggen . In 1774 Jan Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size Lathe in the UK. Maudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template. [17] [33] : 392–95 The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions. Although it was not entirely Maudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest and change gears. [17] : 31, 36 Maudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills . These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability . The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts , Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth . [17] James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement. The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century. [29] In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added. [54] Chemicals The large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck ( James Watt 's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead . Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase. The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate . The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid . The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone ( calcium carbonate ) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide . Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants ( barilla ) or from kelp , which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, [55] and also to potash ( potassium carbonate ) produced from hardwood ashes. These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth. The development of bleaching powder ( calcium hypochlorite ) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet , revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow , became the largest chemical plant in the world. After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs , and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry. [56] Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860–1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead, the practice was to hire German-trained chemists. [57] Cement The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843). Cement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin , a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete . Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel . [58] Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later. Gas lighting Main article: Gas lighting Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting . Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch , an employee of Boulton & Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before. Glass making Main article: Glass production The Crystal Palace held the Great Exhibition of 1851 A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process , was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure. Paper machine Main article: Paper machine A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint-Léger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier , who were stationers in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today. The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes. [59] Agriculture Main article: British Agricultural Revolution The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy. [60] However, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century. [61] Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill , the Dutch plough , which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine. Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century. [62] Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough. [63] [64] [65] [66] The threshing machine , invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail , a laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour. [67] : 286 It took several decades to diffuse [68] and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots . Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders and combine harvesters. [29] Mining Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales , started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton 's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The Cornish engine , developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine . Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson . However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions , so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls. Transportation Main article: Transport during the British Industrial Revolution See also: Productivity improving technologies (economic history) § Infrastructures At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed 50% between 1750 and 1830. [69] The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly. Canals and improved waterways Main article: History of the British canal system The Bridgewater Canal , famous because of its commercial success, crossing the Manchester Ship Canal , one of the last canals to be built. Before and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening and building navigation locks . Britain had over 1000 miles of navigable rivers and streams by 1750. [1] : 46 Canals and waterways allowed bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart. [33] [70] Building of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand Canal in China, \"the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence,\" parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804 km) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing. [71] In the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West England , which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater . From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost £168,000 (£22,589,130 as of 2013 [update] ), [72] [73] but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half. [74] This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania . [75] New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively. By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal , which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world, [76] and opened Manchester as a port . However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper. Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain. Roads Construction of the first macadam road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones \"so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring\". [77] France was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution; however, most of the roads on the European Continent and in the U.K. were in bad condition and dangerously rutted. [70] [78] Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust . New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf , Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam , with the first ' macadamised ' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. [79] The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse . Stagecoaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts . Railways Main article: History of rail transport in Great Britain Painting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its success. Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England. “A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.” [80] Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800. Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill Trials , which demonstrated Robert Stephenson 's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of Hot blast , which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the blast furnace . On 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened, the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington . [81] The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson , linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool . The opening was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania . Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories. Other developments Other developments included more efficient water wheels , based on experiments conducted by the British engineer John Smeaton [82] the beginnings of a machine industry [17] [83] and the rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar ) by John Smeaton , which had been lost for 1300 years. [84] Social effects Main article: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution Factory system Main article: Factory system Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants, or as landless agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India, China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods. In Britain by the 16th century the putting-out system , by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes, often described as cottage industry , was being practiced. Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece , and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system. [85] Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers. [86] Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories. The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers. [30] Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: British Agricultural Revolution , Threshing machine ) The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx , however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology. [87] Standards of living Some economists, such as Robert E. Lucas, Jr. , say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that \"for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.\" [5] Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s. [6] [7] During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829. [88] The effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s. [89] A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards. [89] During 1813–1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages. [90] [91] [92] Food and nutrition Main article: British Agricultural Revolution Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45–50 years although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century. [93] Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the Corn Laws (1815-1846). The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the Great Irish Famine . The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices. [61] In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by Thomas Malthus . [1] [67] [94] [95] This condition is called the Malthusian trap , and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships. [96] Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution. [67] Housing The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London. [97] The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms. [98] [99] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. [100] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low-income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s. [101] [102] [103] A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high. [104] Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions. Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house . Sanitation In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described how untreated sewage created awful odors and turned the rivers green in industrial cities. In 1854 John Snow traced a cholera outbreak in Soho to fecal contamination of a public water well by a home cesspit. Snow's findings that cholera could be spread by contaminated water took some years to be accepted, but his work led to fundamental changes in the design of public water and waste systems. Water supply Pre-industrial water supply relied on gravity systems and pumping of water was done by water wheels. Pipes were typically made of wood. Steam powered pumps and iron pipes allowed the widespread piping of water to horse watering troughs and households. [78] Increase in literacy The invention of the paper machine and the application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which contributed to rising literacy and demands for mass political participation. Clothing and consumer goods Wedgwood tea and coffee service Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe. Watches and household clocks became popular consumer items. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood , founder of Wedgwood fine china and porcelain, created goods such as tableware , which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables. [105] Population increase The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income. [106] According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore , the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. [107] Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s. [108] [109] Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900. [110] Urbanization The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities, [111] compared to nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century). [112] Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million. [113] Impact on women and family life Women's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women. [114] [115] Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th-century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women. [116] In a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation. [117] Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the \"family wage economy\" of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the \"family consumer economy,\" in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption. [118] Labour conditions Social structure and working conditions In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20% to 40% less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life; [119] however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children. [30] Also, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel – child labour , dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution. [120] Factories and urbanisation Main article: Factory system Manchester, England (\" Cottonopolis \"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory chimneys Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory . The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed \" Cottonopolis \", and the world's first industrial city. [121] Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford was actually born there. [122] For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water-powered and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler. In other industries, the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen , known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills , and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement . By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol . Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system. Child labour See also: Child labour § The Industrial Revolution A young \"drawer\" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery. [123] In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions. The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly. [88] [124] There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. [125] Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, [126] 10–20% of an adult male's wage. [127] Children as young as four were employed. [127] Beatings and long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm. [127] Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions. [127] Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25. [127] Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as \"pauper apprentices\", working without wages for board and lodging. [127] Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape. [127] Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated. [127] Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw . [127] Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust. [127] Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines [128] and textile factories, [129] and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare. Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation , and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts , were passed in Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult. [127] About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century. [130] Organisation of labour See also: Trade union § History The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining. The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action . Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted. In 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne , to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs . In the 1830s and 1840s, the Chartist movement was the first large-scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration. Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class. Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain. [131] Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party . Luddites Main article: Luddite Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812 The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers, and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd , a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures, using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life. Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions , and further pressure for reform. Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc. The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine-made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved. [30] Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in subtropical regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies, particularly in Hispaniola , but Haitian cotton production was halted by the Haitian Revolution in 1791. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable, leading to the widespread growth of cotton plantations in the United States and Brazil. The Americas, particularly the U.S., had labor shortages and high priced labor, which made slavery attractive. America's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable, and able to keep up with demand. [132] The U.S. Civil war created a \"cotton famine\" that lead to increased production in other areas of the world, including new colonies in Africa. Impact on environment Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century. The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. [133] The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts , passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution ( gaseous hydrochloric acid ) given off by the Leblanc process , used to produce soda ash . An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke , grit, dust and fumes under supervision. The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812–1820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity. [134] The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits. [135] In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. [136] Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond , frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations. [137] Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom Continental Europe The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron ), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted. Belgium Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: Wallonia (French speaking southern Belgium) was the first region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi . The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill . His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825. [138] Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word \"houille\" was coined in Wallonia), [139] the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel , 'Especially in the Haine , Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège , (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...'. [140] Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: \"It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain.\" [141] \"The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent .\" [142] Michel De Coster, Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: \"The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated.\" [143] Demographic effects Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel , which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say: The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine , Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège , where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows. [144] France Main article: Economic history of France The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take-off . [145] Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer: French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789–1815), industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860), economic slowdown (1860–1905), renewal of the growth after 1905. Germany Main article: Economic history of Germany Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical. [146] Germany's political disunity – with three dozen states – and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France [147] Sweden Main article: Economic history of Sweden This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) During the period 1790–1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation , with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s. During 1815–1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen , textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in Norrland . Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848. During 1850–1890, Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. During 1890–1930, Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution. New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile. Japan Main articles: Meiji Restoration and Economic history of Japan The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan ( Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan ). In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan , founded in 1882, [148] used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west. Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas. [149] United States Main articles: American system of manufacturing , Interchangeable parts , Economic history of the United States , Technological and industrial history of the United States , and Industrial Revolution in the United States See also: History of Lowell, Massachusetts Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island . During the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy. [150] The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period. [151] [152] Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts , the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century. Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production . [29] The United States originally used horse-powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States , which has fast-moving rivers. The newer water-powered production lines proved more economical than horse-drawn production. In the late 19th century steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest. Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era, [153] and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill. [154] In 1793, Samuel Slater (1768–1835) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island . He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire , England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills. [155] Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut , and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts .) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of \"America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island , was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's Industrial and Technological Development. Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company . Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts , second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory . After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering , one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts , using 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River , is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like Waltham-Lowell system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine , the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour. A major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The milling machine , a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by Eli Whitney , who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by Thomas Blanchard . The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing . [29] Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry. [156] and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company , with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches. Second Industrial Revolution Main article: Second Industrial Revolution Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz , Germany, 1868 Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a \"Second Industrial Revolution\", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality. [33] [157] Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century. This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical industries , petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive industry , and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany. The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation. A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries . The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel , General Electric , Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's stock markets . Causes Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution. The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self-sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry , for example weaving , and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories . [158] The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. [159] A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development. [160] Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. [161] However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution. [162] Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages , much earlier than most estimates. [163] He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that \"the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock\". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine. The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them. [164] Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England , they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain. Governments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors. [165] Watt's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick , William Murdoch , or Jonathan Hornblower , whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power. [166] [167] Causes in Europe Main article: Great Divergence Interior of the London Coal Exchange , c. 1808. European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth. One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India , and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity [168] or the Middle Ages . [169] Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes [170] (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), \"modern\" government, \"modern\" work attitudes, ecology, and culture. [171] China was the world's most technological advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society. [172] [173] Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars [174] ) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe. [175] Historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. [176] The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius , Mencius , Han Feizi ( Legalism ), Lao Tzu ( Taoism ), and Buddha ( Buddhism ), resulting in very different worldviews. [177] Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea. [178] Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: \"The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain.\" [179] In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire , with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas , Sikhs , Bengal Subah , and Kingdom of Mysore . In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors – agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over. [ citation needed ] Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that political fragmentation (the presence of a large number of European states) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India. China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an \"integrated market for ideas\" where Europe's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters . [180] Causes in Britain As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies. Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution. [181] Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland; (2) no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint-stock companies (corporations); (5) absence of tolls, which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century, but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world, and (6) a free market (capitalism). [1] \"An unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself.\" – British historian Jeremy Black on the BBC's Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here . [105] Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe. [1] : 332 There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self-interest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution. [105] These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions. [182] The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution. [183] Even though slavery accounted for so little, Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12% of Britain's industrial output. [184] William Bell Scott Iron and Coal , 1855–60 Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy [185] ). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position – an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe , 1716, Sir James Thornhill . Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals William III and Mary II who had taken the throne after the Glorious Revolution and signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king Louis XIV . [186] Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England , the English Midlands , South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands . Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution , and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism. [187] (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc 's The Servile State .) The French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, Letters on the English (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. \"Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London , a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan [Muslim], and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker’s word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another’s throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.\" [188] Britain's population grew 280% 1550–1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50–80%. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750–1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 ha ) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy. In 1700, 5/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s. [189] Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur. [190] These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies. [190] Transfer of knowledge A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766). Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods. Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham , in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' ( i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, \"They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution\". [191] Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions . There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris 's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Abraham Rees 's Cyclopaedia (1802–1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates. Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines , published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours. Protestant work ethic Main article: Protestant work ethic Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work. [192] The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber ) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War . Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England , contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures. Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities ). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act , they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians , in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences – areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies. Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class , such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Opposition from Romanticism Main article: Romanticism During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes. [193] Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , John Keats , Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley . The movement stressed the importance of \"nature\" in art and language, in contrast to \"monstrous\" machines and factories; the \"Dark satanic mills\" of Blake's poem \" And did those feet in ancient time \". Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry. [194] See also General Automation Capitalism in the nineteenth century Capitalist mode of production Carboniferous period Coal Deindustrialization Digital Revolution Division of labour Dual revolution Economic history of the United Kingdom Hydraulics Human timeline Industrial Age Industrial society Information revolution Laissez-faire Law of the handicap of a head start – Dialectics of progress Machine Age Steam The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Other Chinese industrialization Petroleum Revolution Science and invention in Birmingham References ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r David S. 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The Unbound Prometheus . Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 20–32. ISBN 0-521-09418-6 . Jump up ^ Merson 1990 , pp. 34–35 Jump up ^ How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor Iain Stewart Jump up ^ South Asian History Archived 27 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine . – Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation. Rajni-Palme Dutt India Today (Indian Edition published 1947). Retrieved January 2007. Jump up ^ \"Mokyr, J.: A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy. (eBook and Hardcover)\" . press.princeton.edu . Retrieved 9 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Julian Hoppit, \"The Nation, the State, and the First Industrial Revolution,\" Journal of British Studies (April 2011) 50#2 pp. 307–31 Jump up ^ Kiely, Ray (November 2011). \"Industrialization and Development: A Comparative Analysis\". UGL Press Limited: 25–26. Jump up ^ Digital History; Steven Mintz. \"Was slavery the engine of economic growth? Digital History\" . Digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014 . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ The Industrial Revolution by Pat Hudson, pg. 198 . Books.google.com. 1992. ISBN 978-0-7131-6531-9 . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth. Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced every 4 to 5 years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be seen as a similar factor. Jump up ^ Old Naval College Archived 26 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Barrington Moore, Jr. , Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World , pp. 29–30, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966. Jump up ^ Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de. (1909–14) [1734]. \"Letter VI – On the Presbyterians. Letters on the English\" . www.bartleby.com . The Harvard Classics . Retrieved 22 July 2017 . Jump up ^ E A Wrigley, Continuity chance and change . ^ Jump up to: a b Crafts, Nicholas (2011-04-01). \"Explaining the first Industrial Revolution: two views\" . European Review of Economic History . 15 (1): 153–168. doi : 10.1017/S1361491610000201 . ISSN 1361-4916 . Jump up ^ \"The Lunar Society\" . Archived from the original on 7 February 2008 . Retrieved 7 February 2008 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) at Moreabout, the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide, Bob Miles. Jump up ^ Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation . Northwich: Arley Hall Press. ISBN 0-9518382-4-5 . Argues that capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible, for example. Jump up ^ Michael Löwy and Robert Sayre, eds., Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity (Duke University Press, 2001). Jump up ^ AJ George, The development of French romanticism: the impact of the industrial revolution on literature (1955) Sources Ashton, Thomas S. (1948). \"The Industrial Revolution (1760–1830)\" . Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Berlanstein, Lenard R., ed. (1992). The Industrial Revolution and work in nineteenth-century Europe . London and New York: Routledge. Clapham, J. H. (1926). \"An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820–1850\" . Cambridge University Press. Clapham, J. H. The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914 (1921) online , a famous classic, filled with details. Clark, Gregory (2007). A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World . Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12135-4 . Daunton, M. J. (1995). \"Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700–1850\" . Oxford University Press. Dunham, Arthur Louis (1955). \"The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815–1848\" . New York: Exposition Press. Gatrell, Peter (2004). \"Farm to factory: a reinterpretation of the Soviet industrial revolution\". The Economic History Review . 57 (4): 794. doi : 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x . Griffin, Emma (2010). Short History of the British Industrial Revolution . Palgrave. Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1958). The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America . Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1971). The Chemical Industry: 1900–1930: International Growth and Technological Change . Jacob, Margaret C. (1997). \"Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West\". Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Kindleberger, Charles Poor (1993). A Financial History of Western Europe . Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-507738-5 . Kisch, Herbert (1989). \"From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the Rhineland Textile Districts\" . Oxford University Press. Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997) Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present . Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-09418-6 . McNeil, Ian, ed. (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology . London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1 . Maddison, Angus (2003). \"The World Economy: Historical Statistics\". Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Mantoux, Paul (1961) [1928]. \"The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century\" (First English translation 1928 ed.). McLaughlin Green, Constance (1939). \" Holyoke, Massachusetts: A Case History of the Industrial Revolution in America\" . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914 (1977) Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870 (1973) Mokyr, Joel (1999). \"The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective\" . More, Charles (2000). \"Understanding the Industrial Revolution\" . London: Routledge. Olson, James S. Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America (2001) Pollard, Sidney (1981). \"Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760–1970\" . Oxford University Press. Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920 (2 vol. 2007) Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders , New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 ( LCCN 27-24075 ); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, ( ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7 ). Smelser, Neil J. (1959). \"Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry\" . University of Chicago Press. Staley, David J. ed. Encyclopedia of the History of Invention and Technology (3 vol 2011), 2000pp Stearns, Peter N. (1998). \"The Industrial Revolution in World History\" . Westview Press. Smil, Vaclav (1994). \"Energy in World History\" . Westview Press. Archived from the original on 18 July 2007. Snooks, G.D. (2000). \"Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary?\". London: Routledge. Szostak, Rick (1991). \"The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of England and France\" . Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. Timbs, John (1860). Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts: A Book for Old and Young . Harper & Brothers. Toynbee, Arnold (1884). Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England . ISBN 1-4191-2952-X . Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . Uglow, Jenny (2002). \"The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future 1730–1810\". London: Faber and Faber. Usher, Abbott Payson (1920). \"An Introduction to the Industrial History of England\" . University of Michigan Press. Chambliss, William J. (editor), Problems of Industrial Society , Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, December 1973. ISBN 978-0-201-00958-3 Hawke, Gary. \"Reinterpretations of the Industrial Revolution\" in Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault, eds. The Industrial Revolution and British Society (1993) pp 54–78 McCloskey, Deirdre (2004). \"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson)\" . Times Higher Education Supplement . 15 (January) . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Industrial revolution . 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{ "text": "How to Win Friends and Influence People - Wikipedia How to Win Friends and Influence People From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the Terrorvision album, see How to Make Friends and Influence People . How to Win Friends and Influence People First edition, 11th printing (February 1937) Author Dale Carnegie Country United States Language English Subject Self-help Genre Non-fiction Publisher Simon and Schuster (1936) Publication date October 1936 Media type Print ( hardcover / paperback ) Pages 291 pp ISBN 1-4391-6734-6 OCLC 40137494 How to Win Friends and Influence People is a self-help book written by Dale Carnegie , published in 1936. Over 30 million copies have been sold world-wide, making it one of the best-selling books of all time . In 2011, it was number 19 on Time Magazine' s list of the 100 most influential books. [1] In 1934, Leon Shimkin of the publishing firm Simon & Schuster took one of Carnegie's 14-week courses; afterward, Shimkin persuaded Carnegie to let a stenographer take notes from the course to be revised for publication. The original book contained colorful anecdotes and insightful wisdom, and gave instruction in handling people, \"winning\" friends, bringing people to your way of thinking, being a great leader, and successfully navigating home life. Carnegie combined age-old truisms with the emerging field of psychology to present a handbook in human relations which was interesting and accessible. Emphasizing using others' egotistical tendencies to one's advantage, Carnegie maintained that success could be found by charm, appreciation, and personality. The book sold exceptionally well from the start, going through 17 editions in its first year alone. In 1981, a revised edition containing updated language and anecdotes was released. [2] The revised edition reduced the number of sections from six to four, eliminating sections on effective business letters and improving marital satisfaction. In 2011, a third edition was released, How to Win Friends and Influence People in the Digital Age . Written by Dale Carnegie & Associates, it applies Carnegie's prescription for relationship and business success to the digital age . [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Major sections and points 1.1 Twelve Things This Book Will Do For You 1.2 Fundamental Techniques in Handling People 1.3 Six Ways to Make People Like You 1.4 Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking 1.5 Be a Leader: How to Change People Without Giving Offense or Arousing Resentment 1.6 Letters That Produced Miraculous Results 1.7 Seven Rules For Making Your Home Life Happier 2 Origins 3 Reception 4 In popular culture 5 References 6 External links Major sections and points [ edit ] Twelve Things This Book Will Do For You [ edit ] This section was included in the original 1936 edition as a single page list, which preceded the main content of the book, showing a prospective reader what to expect from it. The 1981 edition omits points 6 to 8, and 11. Get you out of a mental rut, give you new thoughts, new visions, new ambitions. Enable you to make friends quickly and easily. Increase your popularity. Help you to win people to your way of thinking. Increase your influence, your prestige, your ability to get things done. Enable you to win new clients, new customers. Increase your earning power. Make you a better salesman, a better executive. Help you to handle complaints, avoid arguments, keep your human contacts smooth and pleasant. Make you a better speaker, a more entertaining conversationalist. Make the principles of psychology easy for you to apply in your daily contacts. Help you to arouse enthusiasm among your associates. The book has six major sections. The core principles of each section are explained and quoted from below. [3] Fundamental Techniques in Handling People [ edit ] Don't criticize, condemn, or complain. Human nature does not like to admit fault. When people are criticized or humiliated, they rarely respond well and will often become defensive and resent their critic. To handle people well, we must never criticize, condemn or complain because it will never result in the behavior we desire. Give honest and sincere appreciation. Appreciation is one of the most powerful tools in the world. People will rarely work at their maximum potential under criticism, but honest appreciation brings out their best. Appreciation, though, is not simple flattery, it must be sincere, meaningful and with love. Arouse in the other person an eager want. To get what we want from another person, we must forget our own perspective and begin to see things from the point of view of others. When we can combine our desires with their wants, they become eager to work with us and we can mutually achieve our objectives. Six Ways to Make People Like You [ edit ] Become genuinely interested in other people. \"You can make more friends in two months by being interested in them, than in two years by making them interested in you.\" [4] The only way to make quality, lasting friendships is to learn to be genuinely interested in them and their interests. Smile. Happiness does not depend on outside circumstances, but rather on inward attitudes. Smiles are free to give and have an amazing ability to make others feel wonderful. Smile in everything that you do. Remember that a person's name is, to that person, the sweetest and most important sound in any language. \"The average person is more interested in their own name than in all the other names in the world put together.\" [5] People love their names so much that they will often donate large amounts of money just to have a building named after themselves. We can make people feel extremely valued and important by remembering their name. Be a good listener. Encourage others to talk about themselves. The easiest way to become a good conversationalist is to become a good listener. To be a good listener, we must actually care about what people have to say. Many times people don't want an entertaining conversation partner; they just want someone who will listen to them. Talk in terms of the other person's interest. The royal road to a person's heart is to talk about the things he or she treasures most. If we talk to people about what they are interested in, they will feel valued and value us in return. Make the other person feel important – and do it sincerely. The golden rule is to treat other people how we would like to be treated. We love to feel important and so does everyone else. People will talk to us for hours if we allow them to talk about themselves. If we can make people feel important in a sincere and appreciative way, then we will win all the friends we could ever dream of. Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking [ edit ] The only way to get the best of an argument is to avoid it. Whenever we argue with someone, no matter if we win or lose the argument, we still lose. The other person will either feel humiliated or strengthened and will only seek to bolster their own position. We must try to avoid arguments whenever we can. Show respect for the other person's opinions. Never say \"You're wrong.\" We must never tell people flat out that they are wrong. It will only serve to offend them and insult their pride. No one likes to be humiliated, we must not be so blunt. If you're wrong, admit it quickly and emphatically. Whenever we are wrong we should admit it immediately. When we fight we never get enough, but by yielding we often get more than we expected. When we admit that we are wrong people trust us and begin to sympathize with our way of thinking. Begin in a friendly way. \"A drop of honey can catch more flies than a gallon of gall.\" [6] If we begin our interactions with others in a friendly way, people will be more receptive. Even if we are greatly upset, we must be friendly to influence people to our way of thinking. Start with questions to which the other person will answer yes. Do not begin by emphasizing the aspects in which we and the other person differ. Begin by emphasizing and continue emphasizing the things on which we agree. People must be started in the affirmative direction and they will often follow readily. Never tell someone they are wrong, but rather lead them where we would like them to go with questions that they will answer \"yes\" to. Let the other person do a great deal of the talking. People do not like listening to us boast, they enjoy doing the talking themselves. Let them rationalize and talk about the idea, because it will taste much sweeter to them in their own mouth. Let the other person feel the idea is his or hers. People inherently like ideas they come to on their own better than those that are handed to them on a platter. Ideas can best be carried out by allowing others to think they arrived at it themselves. Try honestly to see things from the other person's point of view. Other people may often be wrong, but we cannot condemn them. We must seek to understand them. Success in dealing with people requires a sympathetic grasp of the other person's viewpoint. Be sympathetic with the other person's ideas and desires. People are hungering for sympathy. They want us to recognize all that they desire and feel. If we can sympathize with others, they will appreciate our side as well and will often come around to our way of thinking. Appeal to the nobler motives. Everyone likes to be glorious in their own eyes. People believe that they do things for noble and morally upright reasons. If we can appeal to others' noble motives we can successfully convince them to follow our ideas. Dramatize your ideas. In this fast paced world, simply stating a truth isn't enough. The truth must be made vivid, interesting, and dramatic. Television has been doing it for years. Sometimes ideas are not enough and we must dramatize them. Throw down a challenge. The thing that most motivates people is the game. Everyone desires to excel and prove their worth. If we want someone to do something, we must give them a challenge and they will often rise to meet it. Be a Leader: How to Change People Without Giving Offense or Arousing Resentment [ edit ] Begin with praise and honest appreciation. People will do things begrudgingly for criticism and an iron-fisted leader, but they will work wonders when they are praised and appreciated. Call attention to people's mistakes indirectly. No one likes to make mistakes, especially in front of others. Scolding and blaming only serves to humiliate. If we subtly and indirectly show people mistakes, they will appreciate us and be more likely to improve. Talk about your own mistakes before criticizing the other person. When something goes wrong, taking responsibility can help win others to your side. People do not like to shoulder all the blame and taking credit for mistakes helps to remove the sting from our critiques of others. Ask questions instead of giving direct orders. No one likes to take orders. If we offer suggestions, rather than orders, it will boost others confidence and allow them to learn quickly from their mistakes. Let the other person save face. Nothing diminishes the dignity of a man quite like an insult to his pride. If we don't condemn our employees in front of others and allow them to save face, they will be motivated to do better in the future and confident that they can. Praise every improvement. People love to receive praise and admiration. If we truly want someone to improve at something, we must praise their every advance. \"Abilities wither under criticism, they blossom under encouragement.\" [7] Give the other person a fine reputation to live up to. If we give people a great reputation to live up to, they will desire to embody the characteristics with which we have described them. People will work with vigor and confidence if they believe they can be better. Use encouragement. Make the fault seem easy to correct. If a desired outcome seems like a momentous task, people will give up and lose heart. But if a fault seems easy to correct, they will readily jump at the opportunity to improve. If we frame objectives as small and easy improvements, we will see dramatic increases in desire and success in our employees. Make the other person happy about doing what you suggest. People will most often respond well when they desire to do the behavior put forth. If we want to influence people and become effective leaders, we must learn to frame our desires in terms of others' desires. Letters That Produced Miraculous Results [ edit ] This section was included in the original 1936 edition but omitted from the revised 1981 edition. In this chapter, the shortest in the book, Carnegie analyzes two letters and describes how to appeal to someone with the term \"do me a favor\" as opposed to directly asking for something which does not offer the same feeling of importance to the recipient of the request. Seven Rules For Making Your Home Life Happier [ edit ] This section was included in the original 1936 edition but omitted from the revised 1981 edition. Don't nag. Don't try to make your partner over. Don't criticize. Give honest appreciation. Pay little attentions. Be courteous. Read a good book on the sexual side of marriage. Origins [ edit ] Before How to Win Friends and Influence People was released, the genre of self-help books had an ample heritage. Authors such as Napoleon Hill , Orison Swett Marden , and Samuel Smiles had enormous success with their self-help books in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dale Carnegie began his career not as a writer, but as a teacher of public speaking. He started out teaching night classes at a YMCA in New York and his classes became wildly popular and highly attended. The success of the classes in New York prompted YMCAs in Philadelphia and Baltimore to begin hosting the course as well. [8] After even greater success, Carnegie decided to begin teaching the courses on his own at hotels in London, Paris, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Because he could not find any satisfactory handbook already in publication, Carnegie originally began writing small booklets to go along with his courses. [9] After one of his 14-week courses, he was approached by publisher Leon Shimkin of the publishing house Simon & Schuster . [10] Shimkin urged Carnegie to write a book, but he was not initially persuaded. Shimken then hired a stenographer to type up what he heard in one of Carnegie's long lectures and presented the transcript to Carnegie. [11] Dale Carnegie liked the transcript so much he decided to edit and revise it into a final form. [12] He wanted it to be extremely practical and interesting to read. To market the book, Shimkin decided to send 500 copies of the book to former graduates of the Dale Carnegie Course, with a note that pointed out the utility of the book for refreshing students with the advice they had learned. [13] The 500 mailed copies brought orders for over 5,000 more copies of the book and Simon & Schuster had to increase the original print order of 1,200 quickly. [14] Shimkin also ran a full page ad in the New York Times complete with quotes by Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller on the importance of human relations. [15] Originally published in November 1936, the book reached the New York Times best-seller list by the end of the year, and did not fall off for the next two years. [13] Simon & Schuster continued to advertise the book relying heavily on testimonials as well as the testable approach the book offered. [15] Carnegie had created a new kind of book, one that was not read with passive interest, but rather a manual of active participation. Reception [ edit ] How to Win Friends and Influence People became one of the most successful books in American history. It went through 17 print editions in its first year of publishing and sold 250,000 copies in the first three months. The book has sold over 30 million copies worldwide since and annually sells in excess of 100,000 copies. A recent Library of Congress survey ranked Carnegie's volume as the seventh most influential book in American history. [16] The book met widespread popularity, but also stark criticism in many cases. Despite many of the negative comments from his critics, Carnegie's book established a new genre. Carnegie described his book as an \"action-book\" but the category he created has since become known as the self-help genre. Almost every self-help book since has borrowed some type of style or form from Carnegie's \"path-breaking best seller.\" [17] Although How to Win Friends and Influence People ascended quickly on best-seller lists, the New York Times did not review it until February 1937. They offered a balanced critique arguing that Carnegie indeed offered insightful advice in dealing with people, but that his wisdom was extremely simple and should not overrule the foundation of actual knowledge. [18] The satirical writer Sinclair Lewis waited a year to offer his scathing critique. He described Carnegie's method as teaching people to \"smile and bob and pretend to be interested in other people's hobbies precisely so that you may screw things out of them.\" [19] [20] However, despite the criticism, sales continued to soar and the book was talked about and reviewed as it rapidly became mainstream. Scholarly critique however, was little and oscillated over time. Due to the book's lay appeal, it was not significantly discussed in academic journals. In the early stages of the book's life, the few scholarly reviews that were written explained the contents of the book and attempted to describe what made the book popular. [21] As time passed however, scholarly reviews became more critical, chiding Carnegie for being insincere and manipulative. [22] Despite the lack of attention in academic circles, How to Win Friends and Influence People was written for a popular audience and Carnegie successfully captured the attention of his target. The book experienced mass consumption and appeared in many popular periodicals, including garnering 10 pages in the January 1937 edition of Reader's Digest . [23] The book continued to remain at the top of best-seller lists and was even noted in the New York Times to have been extremely successful in Nazi Germany , much to the writer's bewilderment. He wrote that Carnegie would rate \"butter higher than guns as a means of winning friends\" something \"diametrically opposite to the official German view.\" [24] How to Win Friends and Influence People continues to have success even into the 21st century. The book ranks as the 11th highest selling non-fiction book on Amazon of all time and shows no signs of slowing down. [25] In popular culture [ edit ] Warren Buffett took the Dale Carnegie course \"How to Win Friends and Influence People\" when he was 20 years old, and to this day has the diploma in his office. [26] Charles Manson used what he learned from the book in prison to manipulate women into killing on his behalf. [27] The title of Lenny Bruce's autobiography, How to Talk Dirty and Influence People is a parody of the title of this book. English rock band Terrorvision titled their second album How to Make Friends and Influence People in reference to the book. In August 2015, the book was featured on Showtime's Masters of Sex , with portions recited in a voiceover as a main character studies the text. The title of Toby Young's memoir How to Lose Friends & Alienate People is a parody of the title of this book. The memoir was also adapted into a 2008 film of the same name starring Simon Pegg . An episode from season 7 of Cheers is called \"How to Win Friends and Electrocute People\" as a play on the title of the book. Season 7 episode 9 of Supernatural is titled \"How to Win Friends and Influence Monsters\", in reference to the title of the book. Season 2 episode 3 of Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is titled \"Making Friends and Influencing People\", in reference to this book. It aired October 7th, 2014. The book is referenced in the 2016 film Imperium , in which an undercover FBI agent uses principles from the book to infiltrate an extremist group. In the November 2, 2017 episode of Young Sheldon , \"Rockets, Communists, and the Dewey Decimal System\", Sheldon reads the book and attempts to apply its advice. The book is said to have greatly influenced the life of television and film actress Donna Reed . It was given to her by her high school chemistry teacher Edward Tompkins to read as a sophomore at Denison (Iowa) High School in 1936. Upon reading it she won the lead in the school play, was voted Campus Queen and was in the top 10 of the 1938 graduating class. [28] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"How to Win Friends and Influence People in the Digital Age\" . Dalecarnegie.com . 2011 . Retrieved March 28, 2016 . Jump up ^ Walters, Ray (September 5, 1982). \"Paperback Talk\" . New York Times . Retrieved April 7, 2008 . Jump up ^ Each section is a paraphrase of the main ideas written and developed by Dale Carnegie. Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People (Gallery: New York, 1998). Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People (Gallery: New York, 1998) 52. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie. How to Win Friends and Influence People (New York: Gallery, 1998) 73. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie. How to Win Friends and Influence People (New York: Gallery, 1998) 143. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People New York: Gallery, 1998. 220. Jump up ^ Lowell Thomas, Shortcut to Distinction Introduction to How to Win Friends and Influence People . (New York: Gallery, 1998) 103. Jump up ^ Steven Watts, Self-Help Messiah (New York: Other, 2013) Jump up ^ Korda, Michael (1999). Another Life: A Memoir of Other People . Random House. p. 149. ISBN 9780679456599 . It was not for nothing that Shimkin had been the discoverer of Dale Carnegie, whose lectures he had attended with results that changed both Carnigie's life and his own: How to Win Friends and Influence People became the biggest best-seller in S&S's history. Jump up ^ Silverman, Al (2008). The Time of Their Lives: The Golden Age of Great American Book Publishers, Their Editors, and Authors . Truman Talley. pp. 252–254. ISBN 978-0312-35003-1 . Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 137–141 ^ Jump up to: a b Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 141. Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 142. ^ Jump up to: a b Display ad 42 – no title. (1936, Dec 07). New York Times (1923–Current File) Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/101624338 Jump up ^ Steven Watts, Self-Help Messiah (New York: Other, 2013) 2–4 Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 147. Jump up ^ \"Miscellaneous Brief Reviews.\" 1937. New York Times (1923–Current File), Feb 14, 104. http://search.proquest.com/docview/101971502 Jump up ^ Sinclair Lewis, quoted in Tom Sant, The Giants of Sales . (New York: AMACOM, 2006) 96. Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 152. Jump up ^ Symons, A. E. 1937. The Australian Quarterly , 9 (3). Australian Institute of Policy and Science: 115–16. doi : 10.2307/20629470 Jump up ^ Parker, Gail Thain. 1977. \"How to Win Friends and Influence People: Dale Carnegie and the Problem of Sincerity\". American Quarterly 29 (5). Johns Hopkins University Press: 506–18. doi : 10.2307/2712571 Jump up ^ Display ad 49 – no title. (1937, Jan 25). New York Times (1923–Current File) Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/102017737 Jump up ^ \"Books and Authors.\" 1940. New York Times (1923–Current File), Dec 29, 1. http://search.proquest.com/docview/105230738 Jump up ^ \"Amazon.com: Top 20 Lists in Books: Books\" . Jump up ^ Lasson, Sally Ann (February 16, 2009). \"Warren Buffet: The secret of the billionaire's success\" . The Independent . Retrieved April 8, 2013 . Jump up ^ Brady, Diane (July 22, 2013). \"Charles Manson's turning point: Dale Carnegie classes\" . Business Week . Retrieved October 23, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"75-year history of Broadway Elementary building celebrated\" . Denison Bulletin-Review . March 20, 2012 . Retrieved April 9, 2017 . External links [ edit ] How to Win Friends and Influence People : Google Books Dale Carnegie: Secrets of Success (PDF) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=How_to_Win_Friends_and_Influence_People&oldid=821766594 \" Categories : 1936 books Self-help books Books about friendship Books by Dale Carnegie Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from June 2011 Pages to import images to Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Čeština Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018, at 14:25. 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{ "text": "Natural-born-citizen clause - Wikipedia Natural-born-citizen clause From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is part of a series on the Constitution of the United States of America Preamble and Articles of the Constitution Preamble I II III IV V VI VII Amendments to the Constitution Bill of Rights I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Unratified Amendments Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Child Labor Equal Rights D.C. Voting Rights History Drafting and ratification timeline Convention Signing Federalism Republicanism Full text of the Constitution and Amendments Preamble and Articles I–VII Amendments I–X Amendments XI–XXVII Unratified Amendments United States portal U.S. Government portal Law portal Wikipedia book v t e Status as a natural-born citizen of the United States is one of the eligibility requirements established in the United States Constitution for holding the office of President or Vice President . This requirement was intended to protect the nation from foreign influence. [1] The U.S. Constitution uses but does not define the phrase \"natural born Citizen\", and various opinions have been offered over time regarding its precise meaning. The consensus of early 21st-century constitutional scholars, together with relevant case law, is that natural-born citizens include, subject to exceptions, those born in the United States. Many scholars have also concluded that those who meet the legal requirements for U.S. citizenship \"at the moment of birth\" , regardless of place of birth, are also natural-born citizens. [2] [3] Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or was born in the United States; of these there have been seven that had at least one parent who was not born on U.S. soil. [4] [5] The natural-born-citizen clause has been mentioned in passing in several decisions of the United States Supreme Court , and by some lower courts that have addressed eligibility challenges, but the Supreme Court has never directly addressed the question of a specific presidential or vice-presidential candidate's eligibility as a natural-born citizen. Many eligibility lawsuits from the 2008 , 2012 , and 2016 election cycles were dismissed in lower courts due to the challengers' difficulty in showing that they had standing to raise legal objections. Additionally, some experts have suggested that the precise meaning of the natural-born-citizen clause may never be decided by the courts because, in the end, presidential eligibility may be determined to be a non-justiciable political question that can be decided only by Congress rather than by the judicial branch of government. [6] [7] Contents [ hide ] 1 Constitutional provisions 2 History 2.1 Antecedents in Britain 2.2 Between 1776 and 1789 2.3 Constitutional Convention 2.4 Constitutionality of the natural-born-citizen clause 2.5 Proposed constitutional amendments 3 Rationale 4 Interpretations of the clause 4.1 Naturalization Acts of 1790 and 1795 4.2 Government officials' interpretations 4.2.1 1800s 4.2.2 1900s 4.3 Interpretations by the courts 4.3.1 1800s 4.3.2 1900s 4.3.3 2000s 4.4 Academic interpretations 4.4.1 1800s 4.4.2 1900s 4.4.3 2000s 4.4.3.1 Foreign soil & territories 4.4.3.2 American soil 5 Eligibility challenges 5.1 1800s 5.1.1 Chester A. Arthur 5.1.2 Christopher Schürmann 5.2 1900s 5.2.1 Charles Evans Hughes 5.2.2 Barry Goldwater 5.2.3 George Romney 5.2.4 Lowell Weicker 5.3 2000s 5.3.1 John McCain 5.3.2 Barack Obama 5.3.3 Ted Cruz 5.3.4 Marco Rubio and Bobby Jindal 5.4 Potential presidential candidates who are not eligible 5.4.1 Arnold Schwarzenegger 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links Constitutional provisions [ edit ] Part of the constitutional provision as it appeared in 1787 Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as president of the United States, under clause 5 (emphasis added): No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. [9] The Twelfth Amendment states, \"No person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States .\" The Fourteenth Amendment does not use the phrase natural-born citizen . It does provide, \"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.\" Under Article One , representatives and senators are required to be U.S. citizens , but there is no requirement that they be natural born. [10] [11] History [ edit ] Antecedents in Britain [ edit ] The use of the term \"natural born\" was not without precedent. An early recorded mention was in Calvin's Case (1608) , in terms of birth within the jurisdiction of the sovereignty of the King. [12] Statutes in Britain prior to American independence used the phrase \"natural born subject\". For example, clause III of the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708 provided: [13] [14] [15] That the Children of all natural born Subjects born out of the Ligeance of Her Majesty Her Heires and Successors shall be deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Subjects of this Kingdom to all Intents Constructions and Purposes whatsoever The Act was repealed (except for the quoted clause III regarding foreign-born children) [16] by the Tories in 1711 by the statute 10 Anne c. 5. [16] [17] Subsequently, the British Nationality Act 1730 provided: for the explaining the said recited Clause in the said Act . . . [t]hat all Children born out of the Ligeance of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, or which shall hereafter be born out of such Ligeance, whose Fathers were or shall be natural-born Subjects of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, at the Time of the Birth of such Children respectively ... are hereby declared to be natural-born Subjects of the Crown of Great Britain, to all Intents, Constructions and Purposes whatsoever. [18] Another use is in the Plantation Act 1740 : [19] [A]ll persons born out of the legience of His Majesty, His Heirs, or Successors, who have ... or shall inhabit or reside for ... seven years or more in any of His Majesty’s colonies in America ... shall be deemed, adjudged, and taken to be His Majesty’s natural-born subjects of this Kingdom. Jurist William Blackstone wrote in 1765 that \"Natural-born subjects are such as are born within the dominions of the crown of England\". [15] [20] Blackstone added that offspring who are not inhabitants may also be natural born subjects: [20] [21] But by several more modern statutes ... all children, born out of the king's ligeance, whose fathers were natural-born subjects, are now natural-born subjects themselves, to all intents and purposes, without any exception; unless their said fathers were attainted, or banished beyond sea, for high treason; or were then in the service of a prince at enmity with Great Britain. In 1775, however, Blackstone reversed his opinion and explained that the children \"are now deemed to be natural-born subjects\" rather than \"are now natural-born subjects.\" [22] Similarly, Francis Plowden (barrister) initially explained that an early English statute made foreign-born children of English parents \"in fact and law . . . true native subjects\" and that the eighteenth century British statutes made persons natural born subjects by statute law just as others were natural born subjects by the common law. [23] However, after further consideration he also reversed his opinion and concluded in 1785 that the statutes did not make the children natural born subjects—rather, there remained a \"relict of alienage in them.\" [24] Prior to Blackstone, Edward Coke offered a narrower opinion in Calvin's Case . [25] According to Coke: \"[I]f any of the King's ambassadors in foreign nations, have children there of their wives, being English women, by the common laws of England they are natural-born subjects, and yet they are born out-of the King's dominions.\" [26] The term \"natural born\" has often been used synonymously with \"native born\". [27] The English lexicographer Samuel Johnson wrote in 1756 that the word \"natural\" means \"native,\" and that the word \"native\" may mean either an \"inhabitant\" or an \"offspring\". [28] Between 1776 and 1789 [ edit ] From the Declaration of Independence (1776) to the ratification of the Constitution (1789), the thirteen states were independent of Britain, and during much of this time the Articles of Confederation tied together the country. The phrase \"natural born citizen\" was sometimes used during this period. An example occurred in 1784 when the Maryland General Assembly conferred citizenship on the (French-born) Marquis de Lafayette : [29] [30] [31] Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland—that the Marquis de laFayette and his Heirs male forever shall be and they and each of them are hereby deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Citizens of this State and shall henceforth be entitled to all the Immunities, Rights and Privileges of natural born Citizens thereof … Constitutional Convention [ edit ] The Constitution does not explain the meaning of \"natural born\". [32] On June 18, 1787, Alexander Hamilton submitted to the Convention a sketch of a plan of government. [33] The sketch provided for an executive \"Governour\" but had no eligibility requirements. [34] At the close of the Convention, Hamilton conveyed a paper to James Madison he said delineated the Constitution that he wished had been proposed by the Convention; he had stated its principles during the deliberations. Max Farrand wrote that it \"was not submitted to the Convention and has no further value than attaches to the personal opinions of Hamilton.\" [35] Article IX, section 1 of Hamilton's draft constitution provided: \"No person shall be eligible to the office of President of the United States unless he be now a Citizen of one of the States, or hereafter be born a Citizen of the United States.\" [36] On July 25, 1787, John Jay wrote to George Washington , presiding officer of the Convention: Permit me to hint, whether it would not be wise and seasonable to provide a strong check to the admission of Foreigners into the administration of our national Government, and to declare expressly that the Command in chief of the American army shall not be given to, nor devolve on, any but a natural born Citizen. [38] While the Committee of Detail originally proposed that the President must be merely a citizen, as well as a resident for 21 years, the Committee of Eleven changed \"citizen\" to \"natural born citizen\", and the residency requirement to 14 years, without recorded explanation after receiving Jay's letter. The Convention accepted the change without further recorded debate. [39] Constitutionality of the natural-born-citizen clause [ edit ] In 2012, Abdul Karim Hassan filed several unsuccessful lawsuits that claimed the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment had superseded the natural-born-citizen clause; he had argued natural-born citizenship was a form of discrimination based on national origin. [40] Proposed constitutional amendments [ edit ] More than two dozen proposed constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress to relax the restriction. [41] Two of the more well known were introduced by Representative Jonathan Bingham in 1974, with the intent to allow German-born Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (otherwise fourth in the line of succession ) to become eligible, [42] and the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment by Senator Orrin Hatch in 2003, intending to allow eligibility for Austrian-born Arnold Schwarzenegger. [41] The Bingham amendment would have also made clear the eligibility of those born abroad to U.S. parents, [42] while the Hatch one would have allowed those who have been naturalized citizens for twenty years to be eligible. [41] Rationale [ edit ] St. George Tucker , an early federal judge, wrote in his 1803 edition of William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England , perhaps the leading authority for the delegates to the Constitutional Convention for the terms used in the Constitution, that the natural born citizen clause is \"a happy means of security against foreign influence\" and that \"[t]he admission of foreigners into our councils, consequently, cannot be too much guarded against.\" [1] In a footnote, Tucker wrote that naturalized citizens have the same rights as the natural-born except \"they are forever incapable of being chosen to the office of president of the United States.\" [43] In a speech before the Senate, delegate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney gave the rationale, \"to insure experience and attachment to the country.\" [44] Professor Akhil Amar of Yale Law School claimed that there had been a perception on the part of those drafting the constitution that a member of the European aristocracy could immigrate and buy his way into power. [45] Interpretations of the clause [ edit ] Naturalization Acts of 1790 and 1795 [ edit ] Because of the large number of Framers who went on to serve in Congress, laws passed by the early sessions of Congress have often been looked to as evidence of the Framers' intent. The Naturalization Act of 1790 stated that \"the children of citizens of the United States, that may be born beyond sea, or out of the limits of the United States, shall be considered as natural born citizens: Provided, That the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons whose fathers have never been resident in the United States.\" [46] This act was repealed by the Naturalization Act of 1795 , which removed the characterization of such children as \"natural born\", stating that \"the children of citizens of the United States, born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, shall be considered as citizens of the United States\" while retaining the same residency restrictions as the 1790 act. [46] Government officials' interpretations [ edit ] 1800s [ edit ] John Bingham , an American lawyer and politician, held to the belief that natural born should be interpreted as born in the United States. In 1862, in the House of Representatives he stated: The Constitution leaves no room for doubt upon this subject. The words \"natural born citizen of the United States\" appear in it, and the other provision appears in it that, \"Congress shall have power to pass a uniform system of naturalization.\" To naturalize a person is to admit him to citizenship. Who are natural born citizens but those born within the Republic? Those born within the Republic, whether black or white, are citizens by birth—natural born citizens. [47] He reiterated his statement in 1866: Every human being born within the jurisdiction of the United States of parents not owing allegiance to any foreign sovereignty is, in the language of your Constitution itself, a natural-born citizen; but, sir, I may be allowed to say further that I deny that the Congress of the United States ever had the power, or color of power to say that any man born within the jurisdiction of the United States, not owing a foreign allegiance, is not and shall not be a citizen of the United States. Citizenship is his birthright and neither the Congress nor the States can justly or lawfully take it from him. [48] Edward Bates also held to the belief that \"natural born\" should be interpreted as \"born in the United States\". He also indicated that those born in the United States to alien parents, even if they reside elsewhere, are still considered natural born. In 1862, Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase sent a query to Attorney General Edward Bates asking whether or not \"colored men\" can be citizens of the United States. The question arose because the Coast Guard had detained a schooner commanded by a free \"colored man\" who claimed he was a citizen of the United States. If he were a U.S. citizen the boat could be released, but otherwise—the Civil War then being fought—it would be confiscated. No information about the man's birth or parentage was provided. Bates responded on November 29, 1862, with a 27-page opinion — considered of such importance that the government published it not only in the official volumes of Attorney-General opinions but also as a separate booklet [49] — concluding, I conclude that the free man of color , mentioned in your letter, if born in the United States , is a citizen of the United States. [italics in original] In the course of that opinion, Bates commented at some length on the nature of citizenship , and wrote, ... our constitution, in speaking of natural born citizens , uses no affirmative language to make them such, but only recognizes and reaffirms the universal principle, common to all nations, and as old as political society, that the people born in a country do constitute the nation, and, as individuals, are natural members of the body politic. [italics in original] In another opinion, dated September 1, 1862, [50] Bates dealt with a question from the Secretary of State, of whether a person born in the U.S. to two non-citizens, who is taken with them back to their country, could, years later, re-enter the United States as of right, as a U.S. citizen. Bates wrote: I am quite clear in the opinion that children born in the United States of alien parents, who have never been naturalized, are native-born citizens of the United States, and, of course, do not require the formality of naturalization to entitle them to the rights and privileges of such citizenship. I might sustain this opinion by a reference to the well-settled principle of the common law of England on this subject; to the writings of many of the earlier and later commentators on our Constitution and laws; ... and lastly to the dicta and decisions of many of our national and state tribunals. But all this has been well done by Assistant Vice Chancellor Sandford, in the case of Lynch vs. Clarke , and I forbear. I refer to his opinion for a full and clear statement of the principle, and of the reasons and authorities for its support. Unlike Edward Bates, U.S. Secretary of State William Learned Marcy was equivocal about whether those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens. In 1854 Marcy wrote John Y. Mason , the U.S. Minister to France: [51] In reply to the inquiry ... whether \"the children of foreign parents born in the United States , but brought to the country of which the father is a subject, and continuing to reside within the jurisdiction of their father's country, are entitled to protection as citizens of the United States\", I have to observe that it is presumed that, according to the common law, any person born in the United States, unless he be born in one of the foreign legations therein, may be considered a citizen thereof until he formally renounces his citizenship. There is not, however any United States statute containing a provision upon this subject, nor, so far as I am aware, has there been any judicial decision in regard to it. U.S. Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont , however, shared Edward Bates' opinion that those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens, and he added that they should be entitled to be president of the United States, if elected. In 1875 Pierrepont was presented with a query from the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish . A young man, named Arthur Steinkauler, [52] had been born in Missouri in 1855, a year after his father was naturalized a U.S. citizen. When he was four years old, his father returned to Germany with him and both had stayed there ever since. The father had relinquished his American citizenship and the young man was now 20 years old and about to be drafted into the Imperial German army. The question was asked \"What was this young man's situation as a native-born American citizen?\" After studying the relevant legal authorities, Pierrepont wrote: [53] Under the treaty [of 1868 with Germany], and in harmony with American doctrine, it is clear that Steinkauler the father abandoned his naturalization in America and became a German subject (his son being yet a minor), and that by virtue of German laws the son acquired German nationality. It is equally clear that the son, by birth, has American nationality, and hence he has two nationalities, one natural, the other acquired ... Young Steinkauler is a native-born American citizen. There is no law of the United States under which his father or any other person can deprive him of his birthright. He can return to America at the age of 21, and in due time, if the people elect, he can become President of the United States. ... I am of opinion that when he reaches the age of 21 years he can then elect whether he will return and take the nationality of his birth, with its duties and privileges, or retain the nationality acquired by the act of his father. 1900s [ edit ] Frederick van Dyne, the Assistant Solicitor of the U.S. Department of State (1900–1907) indicated that children of citizens born outside the United States are also considered citizens. In 1904, he published a textbook, Citizenship of the United States , in which he wrote: [54] There is no uniform rule of international law covering the subject of citizenship. Every nation determines for itself who shall, and who shall not, be its citizens. ... By the law of the United States, citizenship depends, generally, on the place of birth; nevertheless the children of citizens, born out of the jurisdiction of the United States, are also citizens. ... The Constitution of the United States, while it recognized citizenship of the United States in prescribing the qualifications of the President, Senators, and Representatives, contained no definition of citizenship until the adoption of the 14th Amendment, in 1868; nor did Congress attempt to define it until the passage of the civil rights act, in 1866. ... Prior to this time the subject of citizenship by birth was generally held to be regulated by the common law, by which all persons born within the limits and allegiance of the United States were deemed natural-born citizens. It appears to have been assumed by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Murray v. The Charming Betsy (1804) 2 Cranch (6 U.S.) 64, 119, 2 L.Ed. 208, 226, that all persons born in the United States were citizens thereof. ... In M'Creery v. Somerville (1824) 9 Wheat. (22 U.S.) 354, 6 L.Ed. 109, which concerned the title to land in the state of Maryland, it was assumed that children born in that state to an alien were native-born citizens of the United States. ... The Federal courts have almost uniformly held that birth in the United States, of itself, confers citizenship. Interpretations by the courts [ edit ] 1800s [ edit ] Although eligibility for the Presidency was not an issue in any 19th-century litigation, there have been a few cases that shed light on the definitions of natural born and native born citizen. The leading case, Lynch v. Clarke [55] of 1844, indicated that citizens born \"within the dominions and allegiance of the United States\" are citizens regardless of parental citizenship. This case dealt with a New York law (similar to laws of other states at that time) that only a U.S. citizen could inherit real estate. The plaintiff, Julia Lynch, had been born in New York while her parents, both British, were briefly visiting the U.S., and shortly thereafter all three left for Britain and never returned to the U.S. The New York Chancery Court determined that, under common law and prevailing statutes, she was a U.S. citizen by birth and nothing had deprived her of that citizenship, notwithstanding that both her parents were not U.S. citizens or that British law might also claim her through her parents' nationality . In the course of the decision, the court cited the Constitutional provision and said: Suppose a person should be elected president who was native born, but of alien parents; could there be any reasonable doubt that he was eligible under the Constitution? I think not. The position would be decisive in his favor, that by the rule of the common law, in force when the Constitution was adopted, he is a citizen. [56] And further: Upon principle, therefore, I can entertain no doubt, but that by the law of the United States, every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, is a natural born citizen. It is surprising that there has been no judicial decision upon this question. [57] The decision in Lynch was cited as persuasive or authoritative precedent in numerous subsequent cases, and reinforced the interpretation that \"natural born citizen\" meant born \"within the dominions and allegiance of the United States\" regardless of parental citizenship. For example, in an 1884 case, In re Look Tin Singg , [58] the federal court held, that despite laws preventing naturalization of Chinese visitors, Chinese persons born in the United States were citizens by birth, and remained such despite any long stay in China. Citing Lynch , Justice Stephen J. Field wrote: After an exhaustive examination of the law, the Vice-Chancellor said that he entertained no doubt that every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, was a natural-born citizen, and added that this was the general understanding of the legal profession, and the universal impression of the public mind. [59] The Lynch case was also cited as a leading precedent in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), [60] which similarly held a child born in the United States of two Chinese parents became \"at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States\". [61] 1900s [ edit ] Consistent with the earlier decisions, in 1939, the U.S. Supreme Court stated in its decision in Perkins v. Elg that a person born in America and raised in another country was a natural born citizen, and specifically stated that they could \"become President of the United States\". [62] The case was regarding a young woman, born in New York a year after her father became a naturalized U.S. citizen. However, when she was about four her parents returned to Sweden taking her with them, and they stayed in Sweden. At age 20, she contacted the American embassy in Sweden and, shortly after her 21st birthday, returned to the United States on a U.S. passport and was admitted as a U.S. citizen. Years later, while she was still in America, her father in Sweden relinquished his American citizenship, and, because of that, the Department of Labor (then the location of the Immigration & Naturalization Service ) declared her a non-citizen and tried to deport her. The young woman filed suit for a declaratory judgment that she was an American citizen by birth. She won at the trial level, and at the circuit court—where she was repeatedly described as \"a natural born citizen\" [63] — and finally in the U.S. Supreme Court, where the court decision quoted at length from the U.S. Attorney General's opinion in Steinkauler's Case (mentioned above) including the comment that a person born in America and raised in another country could yet \"become President of the United States\". [62] Some federal cases argued for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment, according to which U.S. citizens were necessarily either born or naturalized in the United States, and any citizen who was not born in the United States must have been naturalized by operation of law, even if such naturalization was \"automatic\" at birth. In this view, such a person should not be considered a natural born citizen, but rather a \"naturalized\" citizen who is not eligible for the Presidency. [64] In 1951, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit noted in Zimmer v. Acheson that \"[t]here are only two classes of citizens of the United States, native-born citizens and naturalized citizens\", quoting a dictum by Justice Gray from United States v. Wong Kim Ark and Elk v. Wilkins . [7] The court ruled that Zimmer, who was born abroad in 1905 to a U.S. citizen father and a noncitizen mother, was himself a citizen under the nationality law in force at the time of his birth, but \"his status as a citizen was that of a naturalized citizen and not a native-born citizen\". [65] In the 1956 case of Wong Kam Wo v. Dulles , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit quoted Zimmer v. Acheson and United States v. Wong Kim Ark in support of a ruling that the statute that was in effect prior to 1940 granting citizenship to foreign-born children of U.S. citizens was a naturalization law rather than a provision for nationality at birth. In 1940, however, the federal law was amended to explicitly define \"naturalization\" as conferring nationality after birth. In 1961, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Montana v. Kennedy that an individual who was born in 1906 in Italy to a U.S. citizen mother and a noncitizen father was not a U.S. citizen by birth under the nationality laws in force at the time of his birth. It observed that automatic citizenship was granted to children of U.S. citizen fathers and noncitizen mothers by an 1855 act of Congress, but the reverse situation was only addressed, non-retroactively, in 1934. [66] In 1971, the Court encountered a similar situation in Rogers v. Bellei , where the individual in question was born after 1934 and so was granted automatic U.S. citizenship, though subject to residence requirements and was subject to expatriation. The Court \"appeared to assume or imply that such persons became citizens at birth by way of naturalization\". [64] More recent cases, particularly Nguyen v. INS and Robinson v. Bowen , relaxed this view, suggesting that the Fourteenth Amendment merely establishes a \"floor\" for birthright citizenship, and this category may be expanded by Congress. [64] 2000s [ edit ] In 2009 in Ankeny v. Governor , [67] the Indiana Court of Appeals reaffirmed that persons born within the borders of the United States are \"natural born Citizens\", regardless of the citizenship of their parents. The court referred to the case of Wong Kim Ark, and provides a compilation of the arguments pertaining to this topic. A clarification to this interpretation was made in 2010, where a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held that natural born citizens can lose their citizenship if their territory of birth later ceases to be U.S. territory. The case involved a Philippine-born litigant who could not claim U.S. citizenship on the basis of his parents, who lived all their lives in the Philippines, because they were born while the Philippines was U.S. territory prior to being given its independence. The Courts for the Second, Third, and Ninth Circuits have also held that birth in the Philippines at a time when the country was a territory of the United States does not constitute birth \"in the United States\" under the Citizenship Clause, and thus did not give rise to United States citizenship. [68] In a 2012 New York case, Strunk v. N.Y. State Board of Elections , [4] the pro se plaintiff challenged Barack Obama 's presence on the presidential ballot, based on his own interpretation that \"natural born citizen\" required the president \"to have been born on United States soil and have two United States born parents\" (emphasis added). To this the Court responded, \"Article II, section 1, clause 5 does not state this. No legal authority has ever stated that the Natural Born Citizen clause means what plaintiff Strunk claims it says. ... Moreover, President Obama is the sixth U.S. President to have had one or both of his parents not born on U.S. soil\". The opinion then listed Andrew Jackson, James Buchanan, Chester A. Arthur, Woodrow Wilson, and Herbert Hoover. [4] Academic interpretations [ edit ] 1800s [ edit ] William Rawle , formerly the U.S. Attorney for Pennsylvania (1791–1799) defined natural born citizen as every person born within the United States, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. In an 1825 treatise, A View of the Constitution of the United States of America , he wrote: The citizens of each state constituted the citizens of the United States when the Constitution was adopted. ... [He] who was subsequently born the citizen of a State, became at the moment of his birth a citizen of the United States. Therefore every person born within the United States, its territories or districts, whether the parents are citizens or aliens, is a natural born citizen in the sense of the Constitution, and entitled to all the rights and privileges appertaining to that capacity. ... Under our Constitution the question is settled by its express language, and when we are informed ... no person is eligible to the office of President unless he is a natural born citizen, the principle that the place of birth creates the relative quality is established as to us. [69] James F. Wilson agreed with Rawle's opinion, but added the exclusion of visiting foreign diplomats. During an 1866 House debate, he quoted Rawle's opinion, and also referred to the \"general law relating to subjects and citizens recognized by all nations\", saying: ... and that must lead us to the conclusion that every person born in the United States is a natural-born citizen of such States, except it may be that children born on our soil to temporary sojourners or representatives of foreign Governments, are native-born citizens of the United States. [70] Supreme Court Justice Peter Vivian Daniel disagreed with this position and considered natural born citizen as every person born of citizen parents within the United States. In 1857, in a concurring opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford , [71] he quoted an English-language translation of Emerich de Vattel 's 1758 treatise The Law of Nations ( Le Droit des gens ), stating that \"The natives, or natural-born citizens, are those born in the country of parents who are citizens\". [72] This was quoted again in 1898 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller in his dissenting opinion in United States v. Wong Kim Ark . [73] However, two paragraphs later, Justice Vattel disagrees and states, \" § 214. ... there are states, as, for instance, England, where the single circumstance of being born in the country naturalizes the children of a foreigner.\" Joseph Story , an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, believed that the term native citizen is synonymous with natural born citizen, though he does not define either term. In his 1840 guidebook to the Constitution, A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States , about the natural-born-citizen clause he wrote \"It is not too much to say that no one, but a native citizen, ought ordinarily to be [e]ntrusted with an office so vital to the safety and liberties of the people.\" [74] This same wording also appeared in his 1834 work The constitutional class book: being a brief exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Designed for the use of the higher classes in common schools . [75] 1900s [ edit ] Alexander Porter Morse, the lawyer who represented Louisiana in Plessy v. Ferguson , [76] considered this connection between native born and natural born to signify that only a child of citizens should be allowed to run for President. In the Albany Law Journal , he wrote: If it was intended that anybody who was a citizen by birth should be eligible, it would only have been necessary to say, \"no person, except a native-born citizen\"; but the framers thought it wise, in view of the probable influx of European immigration, to provide that the president should at least be the child of citizens owing allegiance to the United States at the time of his birth. It may be observed in passing that the current phrase \"native-born citizen\" is well understood; but it is pleonasm and should be discarded; and the correct designation, \"native citizen\" should be substituted in all constitutional and statutory enactments, in judicial decisions and in legal discussions where accuracy and precise language are essential to intelligent discussion. [77] 2000s [ edit ] Black's Law Dictionary (9th Edition) defines \"Natural Born Citizen\" as \"A person born within the jurisdiction of a national government\". Foreign soil & territories [ edit ] In 2000, the Congressional Research Service (CRS), in one of its reports , wrote that most constitutional scholars interpret the natural born citizen clause to include citizens born outside the United States to parents who are U.S. citizens. This same CRS report also asserts that citizens born in the District of Columbia , Guam , Puerto Rico , and the U.S. Virgin Islands , are legally defined as \"natural born\" citizens and are, therefore, also eligible to be elected President. [78] This opinion was reaffirmed in a 2009 CRS report, which stated: Considering the history of the constitutional qualifications provision, the common use and meaning of the phrase \"natural-born subject\" in England and in the Colonies in the 1700s, the clause's apparent intent, the subsequent action of the first Congress in enacting the Naturalization Act of 1790 (expressly defining the term \"natural born citizen\" to include a person born abroad to parents who are United States citizens), as well as subsequent Supreme Court dicta, it appears that the most logical inferences would indicate that the phrase \"natural born Citizen\" would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship \"at birth\" or \"by birth\" . [79] The interpretation of natural born being the equivalent of a citizen at birth was repeated in a 2011 CRS report and a 2016 CRS report. The 2011 report stated: The weight of legal and historical authority indicates that the term \"natural born\" citizen would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship \"by birth\" or \"at birth,\" either by being born \"in\" the United States and under its jurisdiction, even those born to alien parents; by being born abroad to U.S. citizen-parents; or by being born in other situations meeting legal requirements for U.S. citizenship \"at birth\". Such term, however, would not include a person who was not a U.S. citizen by birth or at birth, and who was thus born an \"alien\" required to go through the legal process of \"naturalization\" to become a U.S. citizen. [3] The 2016 report similarly stated: Although the eligibility of U.S. born citizens has been settled law for more than a century, there have been legitimate legal issues raised concerning those born outside of the country to U.S. citizens. From historical material and case law, it appears that the common understanding of the term \"natural born\" in England and in the American colonies in the 1700s included both the strict common law meaning as born in the territory ( jus soli ), as well as the statutory laws adopted in England since at least 1350, which included children born abroad to British fathers ( jus sanguinis , the law of descent). Legal scholars in the field of citizenship have asserted that this common understanding and legal meaning in England and in the American colonies was incorporated into the usage and intent of the term in the U.S. Constitution to include those who are citizens at birth. [64] Gabriel J. Chin , Professor of Law at UC Davis School of Law , held the opinion that the term \"natural born\" is ambiguous and citizenship-granting authority has changed over the years. He notes that persons born outside the United States to U.S.-citizen parents have not always been born citizens. [80] [81] For example, foreign-born children of persons who became citizens between April 14, 1802 and 1854 were aliens. He also believed that children born in the Panama Canal Zone to at least one U.S. then-citizen before August 4, 1937, when Congress granted citizenship to all such persons, were born without American citizenship. Congress possesses the authority either to grant not only citizenship (as is undisputed) but the more specific status of a \"natural born\" citizen, with an affirmative answer raising the question of whether it can also act to remove that status (and thereby disqualify individuals from the Presidency through action short of stripping them of their citizenship), or to issue \"declarations\" regarding the meaning of preexisting law (in this case, U.S. citizenship law between the aforementioned dates) and having binding authority, a claim likely to violate separation of powers given the Constitution's provisions in Article III that \"[t]he judicial Power of the United States[] shall be vested in one supreme Court[] and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish\" (Section 1) and that \"[t]he judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority\" (Section 2) and the statute (currently codified at 8 U.S.C. § 1403(a) ) – which states only that \"any person [fitting the above description] is declared to be a citizen of the United States\" and neither expressly claims that its declaration (whether a grant or an interpretation) has retroactive rather than merely prospective effect (contrast the locution \"to have been a citizen of the United States [from birth]\") nor in any way mentions \"natural born\" status (instead conferring or recognizing the preexistence only of \"citizen[ship]\" generally) – in fact grants or recognizes citizenship from birth, let alone status as a natural born citizen (to whatever extent the requirements of that status exceed those for citizenship from birth). In 2009, G. Edward \"Ted\" White, Professor of Law at the University of Virginia , stated the term refers to anyone born on U.S. soil or anyone born on foreign soil to American citizen parents. [82] Unlike Chin and White, Mary McManamon, Professor of Law at Widener University School of Law , has argued in the Catholic University Law Review that, aside from children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, a natural born citizen must be born in the United States. She claims that common law provides an exception for the children of U.S. ambassadors born abroad and the children of American soldiers while engaged in hostilities. Thus, with these two limited exceptions, she equates \"natural born\" with \"native born\". [83] [84] Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard Law School agrees with Professor McManamon that \"natural born\" means \"native born\" and therefore the wording of the Constitution \"does not permit his ( Ted Cruz 's) candidacy.\" [85] Professor Robert Clinton at the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University is also of the opinion that \"natural born citizen\" means \"born in the United States.\" [86] University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner also concludes that \"natural born citizen\" means a \"person born in the (United States)\". [87] Former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals , Sol Wachtler , concludes the same. [88] Their conclusion is consistent with the position that the eighteenth century legal usage of the term \"shall be considered as natural born\" in the Naturalization Act of 1790 merely naturalized persons or granted them limited rights of the natural born. [89] American soil [ edit ] There is consensus among academics that those born on American soil, except children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, are natural born citizens, or jus soli , regardless of parental citizenship status. In a 2008 article published by the Michigan Law Review , Lawrence Solum, Professor of Law at the University of Illinois, stated that \"there is general agreement on the core of [the] meaning [of the Presidential Eligibility Clause]. Anyone born on American soil whose parents are citizens of the United States is a 'natural born citizen ' \". [90] In April 2010, Solum republished the same article as an online draft, in which he clarified his original statement so that it would not be misunderstood as excluding the children of one citizen parent. In a footnote he explained, \"based on my reading of the historical sources, there is no credible case that a person born on American soil with one American parent was clearly not a 'natural born citizen'.\" He further extended natural born citizenship to all cases of jus soli as the \"conventional view\". [91] Although Solum stated elsewhere that the two-citizen-parents arguments were not \"crazy\", he believes \"the much stronger argument suggests that if you were born on American soil that you would be considered a natural born citizen.\" [92] Ronald Rotunda , Professor of Law at Chapman University, has remarked \"There's [ sic ] some people who say that both parents need to be citizens. That's never been the law.\" [93] Polly Price, Professor of Law at Emory University, has commented \"It's a little confusing, but most scholars think it's a pretty unusual position for anyone to think the natural born citizen clause would exclude someone born in the U.S.\" [92] Chin concurred with that assessment, stating, \"there is agreement that 'natural born citizens' include those made citizens by birth under the 14th Amendment.\" [94] Similarly, Eugene Volokh , Professor of Law at UCLA, found \"quite persuasive\" the reasoning employed by the Indiana Court of Appeals , which had concluded \"that persons born within the borders of the United States are 'natural born Citizens' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents\". [95] [96] Daniel Tokaji, Professor of Law at Ohio State University, agrees the citizenship status of a U.S.-born candidate's parents is irrelevant. [97] Eligibility challenges [ edit ] Several courts have ruled that private citizens do not have standing to challenge the eligibility of candidates to appear on a presidential election ballot . [98] Alternatively, there is a statutory method by which the eligibility of the president-elect of the United States to take office may be challenged in Congress. [99] Some legal scholars assert that, even if eligibility challenges are nonjusticiable in federal courts, and are not undertaken in Congress, there are other avenues for adjudication, such as an action in state court in regard to ballot access. [6] [7] Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or born in the United States; of the former group, all except one had two parents with citizenship in what would become the U.S. ( Andrew Jackson ). Of those in the latter group, every president except two ( Chester A. Arthur and Barack Obama ) had two U.S.-citizen parents. Further, four additional U.S. Presidents had one or both of his U.S.-citizen parents not born on U.S. soil (James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover and Donald Trump). [4] [5] Some presidential candidates were not born in a U.S. state or lacked two U.S.-citizen parents. [100] In addition, one U.S. vice president ( Al Gore ) was born in Washington, D.C. , and another ( Charles Curtis ) was born in the Kansas Territory . This does not necessarily mean that these officeholders or candidates were ineligible, only that there was some controversy about their eligibility, which may have been resolved in favor of eligibility. [101] 1800s [ edit ] Chester A. Arthur [ edit ] Chester A. Arthur , who was sworn in as president when James A. Garfield died after being shot, was rumored to have been born in Canada . [102] Chester A. Arthur was born in Vermont on October 5, 1829 to a Vermont-born mother and a father from Ireland (who later became a U.S. citizen, 14 years after Chester A. Arthur was born). His mother, Malvina Stone Arthur, was a native of Berkshire , Vermont, who moved with her family to Quebec , where she met and married the future president's father, William Arthur, on April 12, 1821. After the family had settled in Fairfield , Vermont, somewhere between 1822 and 1824, William Arthur traveled with his eldest daughter to East Stanbridge, Canada, in October 1830 and commuted to Fairfield on Sundays to preach. \"It appears that he traveled regularly between the two villages, both of which were close to the Canada–US border, for about eighteen months, holding two jobs\", [103] which may well explain the confusion about Chester A. Arthur's place of birth, as perhaps did the fact that he was born in Franklin County , and thus within a day's walk of the Vermont–Quebec border. [104] Moreover, Chester A. Arthur himself added a bit of confusion into the record by sometimes reporting his birth year as 1830. [105] No evidence of his having been born in Canada was ever demonstrated by his Democratic opponents, although Arthur Hinman, an attorney who had investigated Chester A. Arthur's family history, raised the allegation as an objection during his vice-presidential campaign and, after the end of his presidency, published a book on the subject. [106] Christopher Schürmann [ edit ] Christopher Schürmann (born in New York City ) entered the Labor primaries during the 1896 presidential election . His eligibility was questioned in a New York Tribune article, because he was born to parents of German nationality. It was stated that \"various Attorney-Generals [ sic ] of the United States have expressed the opinion that a child born in this country of alien parents, who have not been naturalized, is, by the fact of birth, a native-born citizen entitled to all rights and privileges as such.\" But due to a lack of any statute on the subject, Schürmann's eligibility was \"at best an open question, and one which should have made [his] nomination under any circumstances an impossibility\", because questions concerning his eligibility could have been raised after the election. [107] 1900s [ edit ] Charles Evans Hughes [ edit ] The eligibility of Charles Evans Hughes was questioned in an article written by Breckinridge Long , one of Woodrow Wilson's campaign workers, and published on December 7, 1916 in the Chicago Legal News — a full month after the U.S. presidential election of 1916 , in which Hughes was narrowly defeated by Woodrow Wilson . Long claimed that Hughes was ineligible because his father was not yet naturalized at the time of his birth and was still a British citizen (in fact, both his parents were British citizens and never became U.S. citizens). Observing that Hughes, although born in the United States, was also (according to British law) a British subject and therefore \"enjoy[ed] a dual nationality and owe[d] a double allegiance\", Long argued that a native born citizen was not natural born without a unity of U.S. citizenship and allegiance and stated: \"Now if, by any possible construction, a person at the instant of birth, and for any period of time thereafter, owes, or may owe, allegiance to any sovereign but the United States, he is not a 'natural-born' citizen of the United States.\" [108] Barry Goldwater [ edit ] Barry Goldwater was born in Phoenix , in what was then the incorporated Arizona Territory of the United States. During his presidential campaign in 1964, there was a minor controversy over Goldwater's having been born in Arizona three years before it became a state. [102] George Romney [ edit ] George W. Romney , who ran for the Republican party presidential nomination in 1968 , was born in Mexico to U.S. parents. [109] [110] Romney's grandfather, a member of the LDS Church , had emigrated to Mexico in 1886 with his three wives and their children, after the U.S. federal government outlawed polygamy . However Romney's parents (monogamous under new church doctrine ) retained their U.S. citizenship and returned to the United States with him and his siblings in 1912. [111] Romney's eligibility for President became moot when Richard Nixon was nominated as the Republican presidential candidate. Lowell Weicker [ edit ] Lowell P. Weicker entered the race for the Republican party nomination of 1980 but dropped out before voting in the primaries began; he was also suggested as a possible vice-presidential nominee in 1976, to replace retiring Vice President Nelson Rockefeller under the Republican ticket of incumbent President Gerald Ford . However Senator Bob Dole from Kansas was later chosen as the nominee. He was born in Paris , France , to parents who were U.S. citizens. His father was an executive for E. R. Squibb & Sons and his mother was born in India, the daughter of a British general. [110] [112] 2000s [ edit ] John McCain [ edit ] John McCain was born in 1936 at Coco Solo , Naval Air Station [119] in the Panama Canal Zone . McCain's eligibility was not challenged during his 2000 campaign, but it was challenged during his 2008 campaign. McCain never released his birth certificate to the press or independent fact-checking organizations, but in 2008 one was shown to Washington Post reporter Michael Dobbs , who wrote, \"[A] senior official of the McCain campaign showed me a copy of [McCain's] birth certificate issued by the 'family hospital' in the Coco Solo submarine base.\" [115] A lawsuit filed by Fred Hollander in 2008 alleged McCain was actually born in a civilian hospital in Colón, Panama . [120] [121] Dobbs wrote that in his autobiography, Faith of My Fathers , McCain wrote that he was born \"in the Canal Zone\" at the U.S. Naval Air Station in Coco Solo, which was under the command of his grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. \"The senator's father, John S. McCain Jr., was an executive officer on a submarine, also based in Coco Solo. His mother, Roberta McCain, has said that she has vivid memories of lying in bed listening to raucous celebrations of her son's birth from the nearby officers' club. The birth was announced days later in the English-language Panamanian American newspaper.\" [126] The former unincorporated territory of the Panama Canal Zone and its related military facilities were not regarded as United States territory at the time, [127] but 8 U.S.C. § 1403 , which became law in 1937, retroactively conferred citizenship on individuals born within the Canal Zone on or after February 26, 1904, and on individuals born in the Republic of Panama on or after that date who had at least one U.S. citizen parent employed by the U.S. government or the Panama Railway Company; 8 U.S.C. § 1403 was cited in Judge William Alsup 's 2008 ruling, described below. A March 2008 paper by former Solicitor General Ted Olson and Harvard Law Professor Laurence H. Tribe opined that McCain was eligible for the Presidency. [128] In April 2008, the U.S. Senate approved a non-binding resolution recognizing McCain's status as a natural-born citizen. [129] In September 2008, U.S. District Judge William Alsup stated obiter in his ruling that it is \"highly probable\" that McCain is a natural-born citizen from birth by virtue of 8 U.S.C. § 1401 , although he acknowledged the alternative possibility that McCain became a natural-born citizen retroactively, by way of 8 U.S.C. § 1403 . [130] These views have been criticized by Chin, who argues that McCain was at birth a citizen of Panama and was only retroactively declared a born citizen under 8 U.S.C. § 1403 , because at the time of his birth and with regard to the Canal Zone the Supreme Court's Insular Cases overruled the Naturalization Act of 1795 , which would otherwise have declared McCain a U.S. citizen immediately at birth. [131] The U.S. State Department 's Foreign Affairs Manual states that children born in the Panama Canal Zone at certain times became U.S. nationals without citizenship . [132] In Rogers v. Bellei , the Supreme Court ruled that children \"born abroad of American parents\" are not citizens within the citizenship clause of the 14th Amendment but did not elaborate on their natural-born status. [133] [134] Similarly, legal scholar Lawrence Solum concluded in an article on the natural born citizen clause that the question of McCain's eligibility could not be answered with certainty, and that it would depend on the particular approach of \"constitutional construction\". [135] The urban legend fact checking website Snopes.com considers McCain's eligibility \"undetermined\". [136] Arguments over McCain's eligibility became moot after he lost the United States presidential election in 2008 . Barack Obama [ edit ] Main article: Barack Obama presidential eligibility litigation Barack Obama was born in 1961 in Honolulu , Hawaii (which had become a U.S. state in 1959). His mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was a British subject [137] [138] [139] from British Kenya . Before and after the 2008 presidential election , arguments were made that Obama was not a natural-born citizen. On June 12, 2008, the Obama presidential campaign launched a website to counter what it described as a smear campaign by his opponents, including conspiracy theories challenging his eligibility . [140] The most prominent issue raised against Obama was the claim made in several lawsuits that he was not actually born in Hawaii . The Supreme Court declined without comment to hear two lawsuits in which the plaintiffs argued it was irrelevant whether Obama was born in Hawaii. [141] Most of the cases were dismissed because of the plaintiff's lack of standing; however, several courts have given guidance on the question. In Ankeny v. Governor , a three-member Indiana Court of Appeals stated, Based upon the language of Article II, Section 1, Clause 4 and the guidance provided by Wong Kim Ark , we conclude that persons born within the borders of the United States are 'natural born Citizens' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. [142] Administrative Law Judge Michael Malihi in Georgia decided a group of eligibility challenge cases by saying, \"The Indiana Court rejected the argument that Mr. Obama was ineligible, stating that the children born within the United States are natural born citizens, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. ... This Court finds the decision and analysis of Ankeny persuasive.\" [143] Federal District Judge John A. Gibney, Jr. wrote in his decision in the case of Tisdale v. Obama : The eligibility requirements to be President of the United States are such that the individual must be a \"natural born citizen\" of the United States ... It is well settled that those born in the United States are considered natural born citizens. See, e.g. United States v. Ark [sic] ... [144] On October 31, 2008, Hawaii Health Director Chiyome Fukino issued a statement saying, I ... have personally seen and verified that the Hawai'i State Department of Health has Sen. Obama's original birth certificate on record in accordance with state policies and procedures. [98] [145] On July 27, 2009, Fukino issued an additional statement: I ... have seen the original vital records maintained on file by the Hawaii State Department of Health verifying Barack Hussein Obama was born in Hawaii and is a natural-born American citizen. [146] Attempts to prevent Obama from participating in the 2012 Democratic primary election in several states failed. [147] [148] [149] [150] Ted Cruz [ edit ] Ted Cruz announced on March 22, 2015, that he was running for the Republican Party's nomination for president in the 2016 election. [151] Cruz was born in Calgary , Canada . [152] Cruz's mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was born in Cuba, but his father eventually became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 2005. [153] This gave Cruz dual Canadian-American citizenship , as he was granted U.S. citizenship at the time of his birth by the virtue of his mother's citizenship, and Canada grants birthright citizenship to every person born in Canada. Cruz applied to formally renounce his Canadian citizenship and ceased being a citizen of Canada on May 14, 2014. [154] [155] [156] Former Solicitor General Paul Clement , [157] [158] former Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal , [157] [158] University of California, Irvine School of Law Dean Erwin Chemerinsky , [159] Professor Chin (see above ), [153] Temple University Law School Professor Peter Spiro, [160] Professor Akhil Amar, [161] Georgetown University Law Center Professor Randy Barnett , [162] Yale Law School Professor Jack Balkin , [162] and University of San Diego Professor Michael Ramsey [162] believe Cruz meets the constitutional requirements to be eligible for the presidency. Similarly, Bryan Garner , the editor of Black's Law Dictionary, believes the U.S. Supreme Court would find Cruz to be eligible, [163] and Case Western Reserve University School of Law professor Jonathan H. Adler agrees that no court will rule against Cruz's eligibility. [164] Laurence Tribe of Harvard, however, described Cruz's eligibility as \"murky and unsettled\". [165] Harvard Law Professor Cass Sunstein believes that Cruz is eligible, but agrees with Ramsey that Cruz's eligibility is not \"an easy question\". Sunstein believes concerns over standing and the political-question doctrine make it unlikely that courts would rule against Cruz. [166] Mary McManamon (see above ) writing in the Catholic University Law Review [83] believes that Cruz is not eligible because he was not born in the United States. [167] Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard, [168] Professor Robert Clinton of Arizona State University, [169] University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner , [170] former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals Sol Wachtler , [88] and Professor Victor Williams of Catholic University of America's law school [171] agree that Cruz is not eligible. Alan Grayson , a Democratic Member of Congress from Florida, does not believe Cruz is a natural-born citizen, and stated he would have filed a lawsuit if Cruz had become the Republican nominee. [172] Orly Taitz , Larry Klayman , and Mario Apuzzo, who each filed multiple lawsuits challenging Obama's eligibility, have also asserted that Cruz is not eligible. [173] [174] Cruz's eligibility was questioned by some of his primary opponents, including Donald Trump , [175] Mike Huckabee , Rick Santorum , Carly Fiorina , and Rand Paul . [176] Marco Rubio , however, believes Cruz is eligible. [177] Two November 2015 ballot challenges in New Hampshire alleging that Cruz was not a natural-born citizen were unsuccessful. [178] [179] In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont, [180] and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida. [181] [182] In January 2016, similar lawsuits were unsuccessfully filed in Texas [183] [184] [185] and Utah, [186] [187] and two similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Illinois. [188] [189] [190] [191] [192] In February, two similar unsuccessful lawsuits were filed in Pennsylvania [193] [194] [195] [196] [197] and one was filed in Arkansas; [198] [199] a similar lawsuit was filed in Alabama; [200] similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Indiana; [201] [202] and similar ballot challenges and an unsuccessful similar lawsuit were also filed in New York. [203] [204] [205] [206] In March, a similar lawsuit was filed in New York. [206] In April, a similar ballot challenge was unsuccessfully filed in New Jersey. [171] [207] No lawsuit or challenge has been successful, and in February 2016, the Illinois Board of Elections ruled in Cruz's favor, stating, \"The candidate is a natural born citizen by virtue of being born in Canada to his mother who was a U.S. citizen at the time of his birth.\" [208] The question of Cruz's eligibility became moot when he suspended his campaign on May 3, 2016. [209] Marco Rubio and Bobby Jindal [ edit ] Marco Rubio and Bobby Jindal both announced in 2015 that they were running for the Republican Party's nomination for president in the 2016 election. [210] [211] Taitz and Apuzzo each have claimed neither Rubio nor Jindal is eligible because both were born (albeit in the United States) to parents who were not U.S. citizens at the time of their respective births. [92] [173] The question of Jindal's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in November 2015. [212] Nonetheless, a lawsuit filed in December 2015 in Vermont [180] and a ballot challenge filed in February 2016 in New York [204] challenged Jindal's eligibility. A November 2015 ballot challenge in New Hampshire alleging that Rubio was not a natural-born citizen was unsuccessful. [179] In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont, [180] and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida. [181] [182] In January 2016, a similar unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Illinois. [188] [190] In February, a similar unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Arkansas; [198] [199] a similar ballot challenge was filed in New York; [204] and an unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Indiana. [201] [202] The question of Rubio's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in March 2016. [213] Potential presidential candidates who are not eligible [ edit ] Arnold Schwarzenegger [ edit ] Arnold Schwarzenegger was reported as considering challenging the prevailing interpretation of the clause. In 2003, Senator Orrin Hatch unsuccessfully put forth the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment , intending to allow eligibility for Arnold Schwarzenegger. [41] In October 2013, the New York Post reported that Schwarzenegger—who is originally from Austria and became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1983, also retaining Austrian citizenship—was exploring a future run for the American presidency. He reportedly lobbied legislators about a possible constitutional change, or filing a legal challenge to the provision. Cornell University law professor Michael C. Dorf observed that Schwarzenegger's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office, noting, \"The law is very clear, but it’s not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process\". [214] Schwarzenegger subsequently denied that he was running. [215] See also [ edit ] Government of the United States portal Law portal Jus sanguinis United States nationality law United States presidential eligibility legislation Notes [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, St. George (1803). \"St. George Tucker, Blackstone's Commentaries 1:App. 316–s25, 328–29\" . Retrieved April 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ Williams, Pete (January 19, 2016). \" ' Natural Born' Issue for Ted Cruz Is Not Settled and Not Going Away\" . NBC News . The emerging consensus of the legal experts, however, is that being 'natural born' means becoming a citizen at the moment of birth, as opposed to achieving it later through the process of naturalization.... ^ Jump up to: a b Maskell, Jack (November 14, 2011). \"Qualifications for President and the 'Natural Born' Citizenship Eligibility Requirement\" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service . p. 2 . Retrieved February 25, 2012 . In addition to historical and textual analysis, numerous holdings and references in federal (and state) cases for more than a century have clearly indicated that those born in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction (i.e., not born to foreign diplomats or occupying military forces), even to alien parents, are citizens 'at birth' or 'by birth,' and are 'natural born,' as opposed to 'naturalized,' U.S. citizens. There is no provision in the Constitution and no controlling American case law to support a contention that the citizenship of one's parents governs the eligibility of a native born U.S. citizen to be President. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Strunk v New York State Bd. of Elections :: 2012 :: New York Other Courts Decisions :: New York Case Law :: New York Law :: U.S. Law :: Justia\" . Law.justia.com . Retrieved January 16, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Pilon, Mary (June 24, 2016). \"Donald Trump's Immigrant Mother\" . The New Yorker . ^ Jump up to: a b Tokaji, Daniel (2008). \"The Justiciability of Eligibility: May Courts Decide Who Can Be President?\" . Michigan Law Review, First Impressions . 107 : 31. ^ Jump up to: a b c Gordon, Charles (1968). \"Who can be President of the United States: The Unresolved Enigma\" . Maryland Law Review . Baltimore Maryland: Maryland Law Review, Inc. University of Maryland School of Law. 28 (1): 1–32 . Retrieved October 8, 2012 . Jump up ^ Bradley, Curtis A.; Siegel, Neil (April 2015). \"CONSTRUCTED CONSTRAINT AND THE CONSTITUTIONAL TEXT\" . Duke Law Journal . 64 (7): 1243 (footnote 130). Jump up ^ A Duke Law Journal article has noted, \"Because of the placement of the commas, this clause, if read literally, suggests that only individuals alive at the time the Constitution was adopted are eligible to be president. For purposive and consequentialist reasons, however, the clause never has been read that way.\" [8] Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 2, Clause 2: Qualifications of Members Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 3, Clause 3: Qualifications of Senators Jump up ^ Coke, Edward (March 26, 2018). \"The reports of Sir Edward Coke, knt. [1572-1617].In thirteen parts. A new ed., with additional notes and references, and with abstracts of the principal points :\" . London :. Jump up ^ Great Britain , Statutes of the Realm , Vol. 9, p. 63 (London, Dawsons of Pall Mall 1822, reprinted 1962). Jump up ^ Piggott, Francis. Nationality and Naturalization , pp. 48-50 (W. Clowes and Sons, 1907). ^ Jump up to: a b McManamon, Mary. \"The Natural Born Citizen Clause as Originally Understood\" , Catholic University Law Review , v. 64, no. 2 (2015). ^ Jump up to: a b William Blackstone , Commentaries on the Laws of England , Vol. 1, p. 363 (Oxford, The Clarendon Press 1765) Jump up ^ Biglieri, Ezio; Prati, G. (2014). Enclyclopedia of Public International Law . Elsevier. p. 54 . ISBN 978-1-4832-9477-3 . Jump up ^ \"British Nationality Act, 1730\" . United Settlement . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Cohen, Elizabeth. \"Citizenship and the Law of Time in the United States\" , Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy , Vol. 8, p. 67 n. 59 (2013). ^ Jump up to: a b Blackstone, William. Commentaries on the Laws of England , Vol. 1, p. 354 (Oxford, The Clarendon Press 1765). Jump up ^ Dann, Carrie. \"Yes, Ted Cruz Was Born in Canada. So What?\" , NBC News (March 26, 2015). Jump up ^ Blackstone, William. \" Commentaries on the Laws of England \", Vol. 1, p. 373 (Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 7th ed. 1775). Jump up ^ Plowden, Francis. \" An Investigation of the Native Rights of British Subjects \", pp. 74, 161-62 (London, Baldwin, Whieldon & Debrett 1784). Jump up ^ Plowden, Francis. \" A Supplement to the Investigation of the Native Rights of British Subjects \", p. 134 (London, Baldwin, Whieldon & Debrett 1785). Jump up ^ 7 Coke Report 1a , 77 ER 377 (1608), Opinion of Edward Coke. Jump up ^ Edwards, F. B. \"Natural-Born British Subjects at Common Law\", Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation , Vol. 14, p. 318 (1914). Jump up ^ Maskell, Jack. \" Qualifications for President and the 'Natural Born' Citizenship Eligibility Requirement \", CRS Report for Congress, pp. 31-32 (2011). Jump up ^ Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary Of The English Language: In Which The Words are Deduced from Their Originals, And Illustrated in Their Different Significations By Examples from the Best Writers, To Which Are Prefixed, A History of the Language, And An English Grammar : In Two Volumes , Volume 2, pp. 180–181 (Knapton, 1756). Jump up ^ Speare, Morris. \"Lafayette, Citizen of America\" , New York Times (September 7, 1919). Jump up ^ Riley, Elihu. \"The Ancient City\": A History of Annapolis, in Maryland, 1649-1887 , p. 198 (Record Printing Office 1887). Jump up ^ Lee, Thomas. \"Is Ted Cruz a 'natural born Citizen'? Not if you're a constitutional originalist\" , Los Angeles Times (January 10, 2016). Jump up ^ Han, William. \" Beyond Presidential Eligibility: The Natural Born Citizen Clause as a Source of Birthright Citizenship \", Drake Law Review , Vol. 58, No. 2, 2010, p. 462. Jump up ^ Pryor, Jill A. \"The Natural-Born Citizen Clause and Presidential Eligibility: An Approach for Resolving Two Hundred Years of Uncertainty\". 97 Yale Law Journal 881, 889 (1988) http://yalelawjournal.org/images/pdfs/pryor_note.pdf ; Jump up ^ \"Avalon Project - Madison Debates - June 18\" . avalon.law.yale.edu . Jump up ^ 3 M. Farrand, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 619 . Jump up ^ 3 Farrand, at 629 . Jump up ^ \"Columbia Digital Library Collections\" . wwwapp.cc.columbia.edu . Jump up ^ Heard, Alexander; Nelson, Michael (1987). Presidential Selection , Duke University Press. p. 123 . Retrieved April 24, 2011. (the word born is underlined in the quoted letter [37] ) Jump up ^ Han, William. \" Beyond Presidential Eligibility: The Natural Born Citizen Clause as a Source of Birthright Citizenship \", Drake Law Review , Vol. 58, No. 2, 2010, pp. 462–463. Jump up ^ Palazzolo, Joe (September 4, 2012). \"The Other Democratic Candidate\" . The Wall Street Journal . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Kasindorf, Martin (December 2, 2004). \"Should the Constitution be amended for Arnold?\" . USA Today . ^ Jump up to: a b \"President Kissinger?\" . Time . March 4, 1974. Jump up ^ Blackstone, Commentaries , Vol.II, Ch. 10 , 1803. [ page needed ] Jump up ^ Farrand, Max. \"Charles Pinckney in the United States Senate\" . The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, Vol 3 . Retrieved October 8, 2012 . Jump up ^ Amar, Akhil (March–April 2004). \"NATURAL BORN KILLJOY Why the Constitution won't let immigrants run for president, and why that should change\" . Legal Affairs . Retrieved July 16, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875\" . rs6.loc.gov . Jump up ^ Congressional Globe 37.2 (1862), p. 1639 . Jump up ^ Congressional Globe 39.1 (1866) p. 1291 . Stated again during a House debate in 1872; cf. Congressional Globe 42.2 (1872), p. 2791 . Jump up ^ 10 Opinions of the U.S. Atty.Gen. [pages] 382–413, and separately as Opinion of Attorney General Bates on Citizenship (1863, Washington, DC, Govt. Printing Office) 27 pages. Jump up ^ \"Citizenship of children born in the United States of alien parents\", 10 Op. US Atty-Gen. 328. Jump up ^ Letter from Marcy to Mason, June 6, 1854, quoted from the manuscript, reprinted (with the emphasis shown) in John Bassett Moore, A Digest of International Law [ of the United States ], vol. 3, sec. 373, pp. 276–277 (US House of Representatives, 56th Congress, 2d Session, Document no. 551; Washington, DC, Govt. Printing Office, 1906). Jump up ^ His first name is not given in the Opinion itself but is found in the correspondence seeking the opinion, in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (US House of Representatives, 44th Congress, 1st Session, December 6, 1875) Exec. Doct. 1, part 1, page 563. Jump up ^ Steinkauler's Case , 15 Opinions of the US Attorneys-General 15 at 17–18 (June 26, 1875). Jump up ^ van Dyne, Frederick, Citizenship of the United States (1904, Rochester, NY, Lawyers Co-operative Publ'g Co.) pp. 3–12. With regard to the last sentence in the quotation, van Dyne discusses some peripheral court decisions, none dealing with conventional U.S. citizenship, but with the nationality of the child of a foreigner and a member of an independent American Indian tribe whose members were not ordinarily regarded as U.S. citizens. Jump up ^ NY Chanc.Ct., November 5, 1844; 1 Sandf.Ch. 583, 3 NY Leg.Obs. 236, 7 NY Ch. Ann. 443, 1844 WL 4804, 1844 N.Y.Misc. LEXIS 1. [1] Jump up ^ Sandf. at 656, Leg.Obs. at 246–247 Jump up ^ Sandf. at 663, Leg.Obs. at 250 Jump up ^ \"The Federal reporter : with key-number annotations ... Permanent ed. .. v.21.\" HathiTrust . Jump up ^ Fed at 909, Sawyer at 359–360 Jump up ^ U.S. v. Wong Kim Ark (1898) 169 U.S. 649, 42 L.Ed. 890, 18 S.Ct. 456. [2] Jump up ^ Similarly, in a 1999 Circuit Court decision, the U.S.-born children of two non-citizen parents were spoken of as \"natural born citizens\". Mustata v. US Dept. of Justice (6th Cir. 1999) 179 F.3d 1017 at 1019. [3] ^ Jump up to: a b Perkins v. Elg (1939) 307 U.S. 325 at 329, 83 L.Ed. 1320 at 1324, 59 S.Ct. 884 at 888. [4] Jump up ^ \" Perkins v. Elg (D.C. Cir. 1938) 69 U.S.App.D.C. 175, 99 F.2d 408\" . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Maskell, Jack (January 11, 2016). \"Qualifications for President and the \"Natural Born\" Citizenship Eligibility Requirement\" . Congressional Research Service . Jump up ^ \" Zimmer v Acheson, 191 F.2d 209 (10th Cir. 1951)\" . Jump up ^ \" Montana v. Kennedy, 366 U.S. 308 (1961)\" . Jump up ^ Ankeny v. Governor of the State of Indiana (2009), Appeals Court Decision, 11120903 Jump up ^ Nolos v. Holder (5th Cir. 2010) 611 F.3d 279, 62 ALR-Fed.2d 777, [5] ; also Sean Morrison, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: American Samoa and the Last U.S. Nationals , 41 Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly 71 (fall 2013) [6] . Jump up ^ Rawle, William (1825). A View of the Constitution of the United States of America . Philadelphia, Carey & Lea. pp. 80–81 . ISBN 978-1144771858 . Jump up ^ James F. Wilson in: Congressional Globe , House of Representatives, 39th Congress, 1st Session, Washington 1866, p. 1117 . Jump up ^ Dred Scott v. Sandford , 60 U.S. 393 , 476 (1857). Jump up ^ Book 1, § 212 Jump up ^ United States v. Wong Kim Ark , 169 U.S. 649 , 708 (1898). Jump up ^ Joseph Story (1840). A familiar exposition of the Constitution of the United States: containing a brief commentary on every clause, explaining the true nature, reasons, and objects thereof: designed for the use of school libraries and general readers: with an appendix, containing important public documents, illustrative of the Constitution . Marsh, Capen, Lyon and Webb. pp. 167 §269–271. Jump up ^ Joseph Story (1834). The constitutional class book: being a brief exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Designed for the use of the higher classes in common schools . Hilliard, Gray & Company. pp. 115 §190. Jump up ^ Plessy v. Ferguson , 163 U.S. 537 (1896). Jump up ^ A.P. Morse, \"Natural-Born Citizen of the United States: Eligibility for the Office of President\", Albany Law Journal , vol. 66 (1904–1905) Jump up ^ \"Presidential Elections in the United States: A Primer\" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service . April 17, 2000 . Retrieved January 8, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"41131059 MoC Memo What to Tell Your Constituents in Answer to Obama Eligibility - United States Nationality Law - United States Constitution\" . Scribd . Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (July 11, 2008). \"A Citizen, but 'Natural Born'?\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Chin, Gabriel J. (2008), \"Why Senator John McCain Cannot Be President: Eleven Months and a Hundred Yards Short of Citizenship\" , 107 Mich. L. Rev. First Impressions 1 Jump up ^ White, G. Edward (August 20, 2009). \"Re-examining the Constitution's Presidential Eligibility Clause\" . University of Virginia School of Law . Retrieved February 27, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b McManamon, Mary (2015), \"The Natural Born Citizens Clause as Originally Understood\" , 64 Catholic University Law Review 317 Jump up ^ McManamon, Mary Brigid (January 12, 2016). \"Law professor: Ted Cruz is not eligible to be president\" . Washington Post . Retrieved January 15, 2016 . Jump up ^ Elhauge, Einer (January 20, 2016). \"Opinion: Cruz not really 'natural born citizen ' \" . Chicago Sun-Times . Retrieved January 21, 2016 . Jump up ^ Clinton, Robert (January 27, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is Not A 'Natural Born' Citizen\" . U.S. News & World Report . Retrieved January 28, 2016 . Jump up ^ Posner, Eric (February 8, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is Not Eligible to Be President\" . Slate . ^ Jump up to: a b Wachtler, Sol (February 13, 2016). \"Constitutional history shows Cruz ineligible for White House\" . Newsday . Jump up ^ Vlahoplus, John (April 5, 2017). On the Meaning of \"Considered as Natural Born\" . Wake Forest L. Rev. Online. Jump up ^ Solum, Lawrence B. (2008), \"Originalism and the natural born citizen clause\" Archived February 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ., 107 Mich. L. Rev. First Impressions 22 Jump up ^ Lawrence B. Solum, \"Originalism and the natural born citizen clause\", revised draft version, April 18, 2010 (SSRN) , p. 1, n. 3. However, other passages of his revised draft still imply U.S. citizenship of both parents; cf. i.a. pp. 3, 9, 11. ^ Jump up to: a b c Leary, Alex (October 20, 2011). \"Birthers say Marco Rubio is not eligible to be president\" . Tampa Bay Times . Jump up ^ Kornhaber, Spencer (September 22, 2010). \"Chapman Constitutional Scholar Rebuffs Orly Taitz's Overtures\" . OC Weekly . Jump up ^ Chin, Gabriel (April 20, 2011). \"Who's really eligible to be president?\" . CNN. Jump up ^ Volokh, Eugene (November 18, 2009). \"Indiana Court of Appeals Rejects Claim That 'Because His Father Was a Citizen of the United Kingdom, President Obama Is Not a Natural Born Citizen and Therefore Constitutionally Ineligible to Assume the Office of the President ' \" . The Volokh Conspiracy . Retrieved May 3, 2011 . Jump up ^ Ankeny v. Governor of the State of Indiana , 916 NE 2d 678 (Ind. Ct. of Appeals November 12, 2009). Jump up ^ Rathgeber, Bob (September 20, 2010). \"Exclusive: Now, 'birthers' have eye on Marco Rubio\" . News-Press . ^ Jump up to: a b E.g. see Robinson v. Bowen , 567 F. Supp. 2d 1144 ( N.D. Cal. 2008); Hollander v. McCain , 2008 WL 2853250 ( D.N.H. 2008); Berg v. Obama , 08-04083 ( E.D. Pa. 2008). Jump up ^ See 3 U.S.C. ch. 1 . ^ Jump up to: a b Carl Hulse (February 28, 2008). \"McCain's Canal Zone Birth Prompts Queries About Whether That Rules Him Out\" . The New York Times . Retrieved August 12, 2012 . Jump up ^ Spiro, Peter. \"McCain's Citizenship and Constitutional Method\" , Michigan Law Review, Volume 107, p. 208 (2008). ^ Jump up to: a b \"Who Can Be President?\" , Voice of America News (July 29, 2008). Archived February 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Reeves, Thomas C. \"The Mystery of Chester Alan Arthur's Birthplace\", Vermont History 38, Montpelier: Vermont Historical Society, p. 295 Jump up ^ DeGregorio, William A. The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents , Random House : 1993, pp. 307–08, ISBN 0-517-08244-6 Jump up ^ Thomas C. Reeves, Gentleman Boss. The Life and Times of Chester Alan Arthur (Newtown 1991), p. 5. Jump up ^ Hinman, Arthur P. (1884). How a British Subject became President of the United States . Jump up ^ \"Is Mr. Schürmann eligible?\", New York Tribune , October 2, 1896, in: Anonymous (ed.), The Presidential Campaign of 1896. A Scrap-Book Chronicle , New York 1925: Funk & Wagnalls, p. 130 sq. ( Note : The year of publication is given as 1888, though the election was eight years later. However, the author's introduction is dated 1925.) Jump up ^ Breckinridge Long (1916), \"Is Mr. Charles Evans Hughes a 'Natural Born Citizen' within the Meaning of the Constitution?\" , Chicago Legal News vol. 49, pp. 146–148 (December 7, 1916). It does not appear that this issue was raised before the election day, which may indicate that the majority of voters or of legal authorities felt it was not an impediment to Hughes's eligibility. Jump up ^ Lipsky, Seth (2009). The Citizen's Constitution: An Annotated Guide . (Basic Books). p. 126. ^ Jump up to: a b Heard, Alexander and Nelson, Michael (1987). Presidential Selection . (Duke University Press) p. 127. Jump up ^ Ken Rudin (July 9, 1998). \"Citizen McCain's Panama Problem?\" . Washington Post. Jump up ^ Powell, Stewart (August 14, 1976). \"Weicker May Not Be Eligible to Serve in High Position\" , Nashua Telegraph . United Press International. Jump up ^ S.Res.511: A resolution recognizing that John Sidney McCain, III, is a natural-born citizen. , U.S. Senate, April 30, 2008, OpenCongress. Retrieved April 13, 2011 Jump up ^ \"John McCain Biography\" , Biography.com. Retrieved April 13, 2011 ^ Jump up to: a b Dobbs, Michael (May 20, 2008). \"John McCain's Birthplace\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 13, 2011 . Jump up ^ Parish, Matt (2010), \"How Old Is John McCain?\" , Politics Daily , AOL. Retrieved April 13, 2011 Jump up ^ \"Profile: John McCain\" . Online NewsHour . PBS. July 1, 2008 . Retrieved April 13, 2011 . Jump up ^ Fagan, Kevin (September 21, 2008). \"McCain: A profile in courage and adaptation\" . San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved April 13, 2011 . Jump up ^ [100] [113] [114] [115] [116] [117] [118] Jump up ^ Hollander v. McCain et al , Justia Dockets & Filings Jump up ^ Dr. Conspiracy (April 24, 2010), \"John McCain's fake birth certificate\" , Obama Conspiracy Theories . Retrieved April 13, 2011 Jump up ^ Dobbs, Michael (May 2, 2008), \"McCain's Birth Abroad Stirs Legal Debate : His Eligibility for Presidency Is Questioned\" , The Washington Post Jump up ^ Article II of Convention Between the United States and the Republic of Panama states: \"...the cities of Panama and Colon and the harbors adjacent to said cities, which are included within the boundaries of the zone above described, shall not be included within this grant\". Jump up ^ A book written by the U.S. Navy includes the same reference: Bakenhus, Reuben Edwin; Knapp, Harry Shepard; Johnson, Emory Richard (1915). The Panama Canal: Comprising Its History and Construction, and Its Relation to the Navy, International Law and Commerce . J. Wiley & sons, Incorporated. p. 192 . Jump up ^ This map clearly shows Colon is not part of the Canal Zone. Colon Hospital can be seen on the map at the North end of the island. (Source: http://www.serve.com/~CZBrats/ ) Jump up ^ [122] [123] [124] [125] Jump up ^ \"Foreign Affairs Manual 7 FAM 1110 Acquisition of U.S. Citizenship by Birth in the United States\" . United States Department of State . Retrieved December 13, 2015 . 7 FAM 1113(c)(1): \"Despite widespread popular belief, U.S. military installations abroad and U.S. diplomatic facilities are not part of the United States within the meaning of the 14th Amendment. A child born on the premises of such a facility is not subject to U.S. jurisdiction and does not acquire U.S. citizenship by reason of birth.\" Jump up ^ \"Lawyers Conclude McCain Is \"Natural Born\" , CBS News , Associated Press , March 28, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2008. Jump up ^ S.Res.511 : A resolution recognizing that John Sidney McCain, III, is a natural-born citizen ; sponsors: Sen. Claire McCaskill , Sen. Barack Obama et al. ; page S2951 notes Chairman Patrick Leahy as agreeing to Secretary Michael Chertoff 's \"assumption and understanding\" that a citizen is a natural-born citizen , if he or she was \"born of American parents\". Jump up ^ Cf. William Alsup, Robinson v. Bowen : Order denying preliminary injunction and dismissing action , September 16, 2008, p. 2; Alsup ruled that McCain was either a natural-born citizen by birth under 8 U.S.C. §1401c or retroactively under 8 U.S.C. §1403(a) . (See also: \"Judge says McCain is a 'natural-born citizen ' \" . Associated Press. September 18, 2008 . Retrieved November 16, 2008 . , and \"Constitutional Topic: Citizenship\" . U.S. Constitution Online . Retrieved November 25, 2008 .) Jump up ^ Chin, Gabriel J. (2008), \"Why Senator John McCain Cannot Be President: Eleven Months and a Hundred Yards Short of Citizenship\" , Michigan Law Review First Impressions , Vol. 107, No. 1, (Arizona Legal Studies Discussion Paper No. 08-14) Jump up ^ \"Foreign Affairs Manual 7 FAM 1120 Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions\" . United States Department of State . Retrieved December 13, 2015 . Jump up ^ SCOTUS 401 U.S. 815, 828 (1971) Jump up ^ \"Constitutional Topic: Citizenship\" . U.S. Constitution Online . Retrieved June 7, 2009 Jump up ^ Lawrence B. Solum, \"Originalism and the natural born citizen clause\", Michigan Law Review: First Impressions 107, September 2008 Archived February 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ., p. 30. Jump up ^ \"Is John McCain a natural-born citizen?\" Snopes.com , July 23, 2008. Retrieved March 27, 2011. Jump up ^ \"Obama's Kenyan Citizenship?\" . FactCheck.org. September 3, 2009 . Retrieved September 14, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"British nationality by virtue of citizenship\" . British Nationality Act 1948 . Her Majesty's Government . Retrieved September 14, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"UK and Colonies\" . Home Office . Jump up ^ \"The Truth About Barack's Birth Certificate (archived web cache)\" . Fight the Smears (Obama for America). Archived from the original on March 9, 2011. (Retrieved March 9, 2011), quoting in excerpts from: \"Does Barack Obama have Kenyan citizenship?\" . FactCheck.org (Annenberg Foundation). August 29, 2008. Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. ; see also: \"Obama hits back at Internet slanders\" . Agence France-Presse. June 12, 2008. ; in a written oath to the State of Arizona, Obama further stated that he is a natural-born citizen (cf. Candidate Nomination Paper , State of Arizona , November 30, 2007). Jump up ^ Leo C. Donofrio v. Nina Mitchell Wells ( SCOTUS 08A407 ) and Cort Wrotnowski v. Susan Bysiewicz ( SCOTUS 08A469 ) Jump up ^ Ankeny v. Governor of the State of Indiana (Ind.App., 12 NOV 2009), Appeals Court Decision, 11120903 Jump up ^ Farrar v. Obama (Office of State Administrative Hearings State of Georgia 2012). Text Jump up ^ Tisdale v. Obama (United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia 2012). Text Jump up ^ Statement by Dr. Chiyome Fukino , Department of Health, October 31, 2008 Jump up ^ \"Hawaii reasserts Obama 'natural-born' citizen\" , MSNBC, July 28, 2009 Jump up ^ Hanna, Maddie (November 18, 2011). \" ' Birther' bid to derail Obama blocked\" . Concord Monitor . Archived from the original on March 22, 2012. Jump up ^ Velasco, Eric (January 9, 2012). \"Suit to keep President Barack Obama off Alabama primary ballots dismissed by Jefferson County judge\" . Alabama: al.com. Jump up ^ Allen v. Obama (Arizona Superior Court, Pima County February 24, 2012). Text Jump up ^ Secretary of State Kemp Issues Final Decision on Challenge to President Barack Obama's Eligibility and Qualifications , (February 7, 2012), Press Office of the Georgia Secretary of State. Jump up ^ Martin, Jonathan; Haberman, Maggie (March 22, 2015). \"Ted Cruz Hopes Early Campaign Entry Will Focus Voters' Attention\" . The New York Times . Retrieved March 23, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Cruz, Rafael Edward (Ted), (1970 – )\" . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . ^ Jump up to: a b Chin, Gabriel (August 13, 2013). \"Opinion: Ted Cruz can be president, probably\" . CNN. Jump up ^ Gillman, Todd (December 28, 2013). \"Ted Cruz says he's hired lawyers to renounce Canadian citizenship\" . Dallas Morning News . Retrieved December 30, 2013 . Jump up ^ Gillman, Todd (June 10, 2014). \"No, Canada: Sen. Ted Cruz has formally shed his dual citizenship\" . The Dallas Morning News . Retrieved June 10, 2014 . Jump up ^ Blake, Aaron (August 19, 2013). \"Cruz Will Renounce Canadian Citizenship\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved August 20, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b Barnes, Robert (March 12, 2015). \"Legal experts: Cruz's Canadian birth won't keep him out of the Oval Office\" . Washington Post . ^ Jump up to: a b Neal Katyal ; Paul Clement (March 11, 2015). \"On the Meaning of 'Natural Born Citizen ' \" . Harvard Law Review . Jump up ^ Chemerinsky, Erwin (January 13, 2016). \"Ted Cruz is eligible to be president\" . Orange County Register . Jump up ^ Spiro, Peter (March 22, 2015). \"Is Ted Cruz a 'Natural Born Citizen'?\" . Opinio Juris . , Jump up ^ Amar, Akhil (January 13, 2016). \"Why Ted Cruz is eligible to be president\" . CNN . ^ Jump up to: a b c Barnett, Randy (February 6, 2016). \"Tribe v. Balkin on whether Ted Cruz is a \"natural born citizen \" \" . Washington Post . Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan (January 14, 2016). \"Memorandum: Is Ted Cruz Eligible for the Presidency?\" . The Atlantic . Jump up ^ Adler, Jonathan (January 7, 2016). \"Yes, Ted Cruz is a 'natural born citizen ' \" . Washington Post . Jump up ^ Jacobs, Ben (January 10, 2016). \"Harvard scholar: Ted Cruz's citizenship, eligibility for president 'unsettled ' \" . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Sunstein, Cass (January 12, 2016). \"Is Cruz 'Natural Born'? Well ... Maybe\" . Bloomberg View . Jump up ^ McManamon, Mary Brigid (January 12, 2016). \"Ted Cruz is not eligible to be president\" . Washington Post . Jump up ^ Elhauge, Einer (January 20, 2016). \"Ted Cruz is not eligible to run for president: A Harvard law professor close-reads the Constitution\" . Salon . Jump up ^ Clinton, Robert (January 27, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Isn't a 'Natural Born' Citizen: According to the Constitution, because Sen. Ted Cruz was not born in the United States, he is not eligible to run for president\" . U.S. News & World Report . Jump up ^ Posner, Eric (February 8, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is Not Eligible to Be President\" . Slate . ^ Jump up to: a b Adler, Jonathan (April 9, 2016). \"Law professor runs for president in order to challenge Ted Cruz's eligibility\" . Washington Post . Jump up ^ \"Grayson: I'll File A Lawsuit Against Ted Cruz If He's The Nominee\" . FOX News . November 25, 2015. ^ Jump up to: a b Nelson, Steven (March 24, 2015). \"Ted Cruz Inherits 'Birthers' With Presidential Bid\" . U.S. News & World Report . Jump up ^ Koplowitz, Howard (March 26, 2015). \"Birther 2.0: Can Ted Cruz Run For President? 'He's Even Worse Than Obama,' Citizenship Skeptic Says\" . International Business Times . Jump up ^ \"Trump, Cruz clash over eligibility, 'New York values' at GOP debate\" . Fox News . January 15, 2016. Jump up ^ Weigel, David (January 13, 2016). \"Huckabee joins the Republicans with questions about Cruz's eligibility\" . ABC News . Jump up ^ Brody, Ben (January 12, 2016). \"Few Colleagues Defend Cruz as White House Eligibility Is Questioned\" . Bloomberg News . Jump up ^ Mielke, Brad (November 13, 2015). \"Some Voters Trying to Kick Ted Cruz and Bernie Sanders Off NH Ballot\" . ABC News . ^ Jump up to: a b Tuohy, Dan (November 24, 2015). \"BLC upholds Sanders, Trump on primary ballots\" . Union Leader . ^ Jump up to: a b c Blaisdell, Eric (January 1, 2016). \"Vermonter tries to keep names off presidential ballot\" . Rutland Herald . Archived from the original on February 19, 2016. ^ Jump up to: a b Leary, Alex (January 14, 2016). \"Marco Rubio seeks to dismiss court challenge to his eligibility to be president\" . Tampa Bay Times . Archived from the original on February 19, 2016. ^ Jump up to: a b Sherman, Amy (March 4, 2016). \"Broward judge tosses case seeking to remove Marco Rubio and Ted Cruz from Florida ballot\" . Miami Herald . Jump up ^ Calkins, Laurel Brubaker (January 14, 2016). \"Cruz's 'Natural-Born Citizen' Status Tested in Birther Suit\" . Bloomberg News . Jump up ^ Koh, Elizabeth (February 23, 2016). \"Cruz asks judge to dismiss Texas lawsuit on presidential eligibility\" . The Dallas Morning News . Jump up ^ Banks, Gabrielle (April 13, 2016). \"Judge tosses birther lawsuit against Ted Cruz\" . Houston Chronicle . Jump up ^ Ben Winslow and Max Roth (January 26, 2016). \"Utah man suing Ted Cruz claiming he's not a natural-born citizen\" . KSTU . Jump up ^ Koh, Elizabeth (March 21, 2016). \"Utah judge dismisses 5th challenge this month to Cruz's presidential eligibility\" . The Dallas Morning News . ^ Jump up to: a b Kopan, Tal (January 15, 2016). \"Ted Cruz not the only one with a birther challenge\" . CNN . Jump up ^ Gregory, John (January 8, 2016). \"Cruz's Birthplace Challenged in Illinois\" . WBGZ . ^ Jump up to: a b Farias, Cristian (February 2, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is A 'Natural Born Citizen,' Board Of Election Finds\" . CNN . Jump up ^ Schleifer, Theodore (February 18, 2016). \"Case against Ted Cruz's eligibility to be heard in Illinois on Friday\" . CNN . Jump up ^ Ortiz, Fiona (March 1, 2016). \"Illinois judge dismisses Cruz eligibility complaint\" . Reuters . Jump up ^ Delano, Jon (February 24, 2016). \"Pa. Attorney Challenging Ted Cruz's Right To Run In State's Republican Primary\" . KDKA-TV . Jump up ^ Associated Press (February 25, 2016). \"Kasich, Cruz ballot paperwork challenged in Pennsylvania\" . WPXI . Jump up ^ Associated Press (March 11, 2016). \"Cruz's citizenship case may go to Pennsylvania Supreme Court\" . WHTM-TV . Jump up ^ Passarella, Gina (March 21, 2016). \"Appeal of Cruz's Ballot Eligibility Fast-Tracked\" . The Legal Intelligencer . Jump up ^ Koh, Elizabeth (March 31, 2016). \"Pennsylvania Supreme Court affirms Cruz's eligibility to be president\" . The Dallas Morning News . ^ Jump up to: a b Lanning, Curt (February 8, 2016). \"Lawsuit: Remove Cruz and Rubio from Ark. Ballot\" . KARK-TV . ^ Jump up to: a b Manley, Marci (February 29, 2016). \"Judge Dismisses Suit Requesting Cruz, Rubio Be Deemed Ineligible for Presidential Election\" . KARK-TV . Jump up ^ Koplowitz, Howard (February 5, 2016). \"Alabama residents' lawsuit claims Ted Cruz ineligible to run for president\" . The Birmingham News . ^ Jump up to: a b Cook, Tony (February 16, 2016). \"Cruz, Rubio presidential candidacies face citizenship challenges in Indiana\" . The Indianapolis Star . ^ Jump up to: a b Associated Press (February 19, 2016). \"Cruz, Rubio remain eligible for Indiana presidential ballots\" . Indianapolis Business Journal . Jump up ^ Ross, Barbara (February 18, 2016). \"New Yorkers seek court order to keep Ted Cruz off the ballot in state Republican presidential primaries because he was born in Canada\" . Daily News (New York) . ^ Jump up to: a b c Seiler, Casey (February 18, 2016). \"State BOE receives flurry of 'natural-born' objections to Rubio, Cruz\" . Times Union . Jump up ^ Seiler, Casey (March 7, 2016). \"Challenge to Cruz's 'natural born' status dismissed due to blown deadlines\" . Times Union . ^ Jump up to: a b Pinciaro, Joseph (March 15, 2016). \"Ted Cruz ballot eligibility challenged in federal court by Calverton man\" . Suffolk Times . Jump up ^ Terkel, Amanda (April 13, 2016). \"New Jersey Judge Rejects Birther Lawsuit Against Ted Cruz\" . Huffington Post . Jump up ^ Merda, Chad (February 3, 2016). \"Illinois election board: Ted Cruz is a natural-born citizen\" . Chicago Sun-Times . Chicago, Illinois. Archived from the original on February 4, 2016 . Retrieved February 4, 2016 . The candidate is a natural born citizen by virtue of being born in Canada to his mother who was a U.S. citizen at the time of his birth,\" the board said. It pointed out that Cruz \"did not have to take any steps to go through a naturalization process at some point after birth\" and therefore \"further discussion on this issue is unnecessary. Jump up ^ Katie Glueck and Shane Goldmacher (May 3, 2016). \"Ted Cruz drops out of presidential race\" . Politico . Jump up ^ Ashley Parker and Alan Rappeport (April 13, 2015). \"Marco Rubio Announces 2016 Presidential Bid\" . New York Times . Jump up ^ Fernandez, Manny (January 24, 2015). \"Bobby Jindal Announces Run for President\" . New York Times . Jump up ^ Tom LoBianco and Jeff Zeleny (November 17, 2015). \"Bobby Jindal announces he is ending presidential campaign\" . CNN . Jump up ^ Peters, Jeremy (March 15, 2016). \"Marco Rubio Suspends His Presidential Campaign\" . New York Times . Jump up ^ Smith, Emily (October 18, 2013). \"Arnold lobbies for White House run\" . New York Post . Retrieved October 19, 2013 . Jump up ^ Blake, Aaron (October 18, 2013). \"Schwarzenegger denies he's aiming for president\" . Washington Post . External links [ edit ] John Yinger, Essay on the Presidential Eligibility clause and on the origins and interpretation of natural born citizen . Jill A. Pryor, \"The Natural Born Citizen Clause and the Presidential Eligibility Clause; Resolving Two Hundred Years of Uncertainty\" , Yale Law Journal , Vol. 97, 1988, pp. 881–899. Sarah P. Herlihy, \"Amending the Natural Born Citizen Requirement: Globalization as the Impetus and the Obstacle\" , Chicago-Kent Law Review , Vol. 81, 2006, pp. 275–300. Lawrence Friedman, \"An Idea Whose Time has Come - The Curious History, Uncertain Effect, and Need for Amendment of the 'Natural Born Citizen' Requirement for the Presidency\" , St. Louis Univ. Law Journal , Vol. 52, 2007, pp. 137–150. U.S. Constitution Online, Constitutional Topic: Citizenship . Presidential Eligibility Constitution Society [ dead link ] [ hide ] v t e United States Constitution Articles Preamble I II III IV V VI VII Amendments Ratified Bill of Rights 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Others 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Pending Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Amendment Child Labor Repealed Eighteenth Amendment Unsuccessful Equal Rights District of Columbia Voting Rights List of Amendments Bill of Rights (Amendments 1–10) Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13–15) Amendment proposals in Congress Convention to propose amendments State ratifying conventions Formation History Articles of Confederation Mount Vernon Conference Annapolis Convention Philadelphia Convention Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan Connecticut Compromise Three-Fifths Compromise Committee of Detail Signing Independence Hall Syng inkstand The Federalist Papers Anti-Federalist Papers Massachusetts Compromise Virginia Ratifying Convention Hillsborough Convention Rhode Island ratification Drafting and ratification timeline Clauses Appointments Appropriations Assistance of Counsel Bills of credit Case or Controversy Citizenship Commerce Compact Compulsory Process Confrontation Congressional enforcement Contract Copyright and Patent Double Jeopardy Due Process Equal Protection Establishment Exceptions Excessive Bail Ex post facto Extradition Free Exercise Free Speech Fugitive Slave Full Faith and Credit General Welfare Guarantee Impeachment Import-Export Ineligibility Militia Natural-born citizen Necessary and Proper New States No Religious Test Oath or Affirmation Origination Petition Postal Presentment Privileges and Immunities Privileges or Immunities Recess appointment Recommendation Self-Incrimination Speech or Debate Speedy Trial State of the Union Supremacy Suspension Take Care Takings Taxing and Spending Territorial Title of Nobility Treaty Trial by Jury Vesting Vicinage War Powers List of clauses Interpretation Concurrent powers Constitutional law Criminal procedure Criminal sentencing Dormant Commerce Clause Enumerated powers Equal footing Executive privilege Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Judicial review Nondelegation doctrine Preemption Saxbe fix Separation of church and state Separation of powers Taxation power Unitary executive theory Display and legacy National Archives Charters of Freedom Rotunda Independence Mall Constitution Day Constitution Gardens National Constitution Center Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting) A More Perfect Union (film) Worldwide influence US Government Portal • Law Portal • Wikipedia book Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural-born-citizen_clause&oldid=834314896 \" Categories : Clauses of the United States Constitution United States nationality law Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2015 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with inconsistent citation formats Use mdy dates from January 2016 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Magyar Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 5 April 2018, at 01:39. 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{ "text": "Asset - Wikipedia Asset From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the finance definition. For other uses, see Asset (disambiguation) . Part of a series on Accounting Historical cost Constant purchasing power Management Tax Major types [show] Audit Budget Cost Forensic Financial Fund Governmental Management Social Tax Key concepts [show] Accounting period Accrual Constant purchasing power Economic entity Fair value Going concern Historical cost Matching principle Materiality Revenue recognition Unit of account Selected accounts [show] Assets Cash Cost of goods sold Depreciation / Amortization Equity Expenses Goodwill Liabilities Profit Revenue Accounting standards [show] Generally-accepted principles Generally-accepted auditing standards Convergence International Financial Reporting Standards International Standards on Auditing Management Accounting Principles Financial statements [show] Annual report Balance sheet Cash-flow Equity Income Management discussion Notes to the financial statements Bookkeeping [show] Bank reconciliation Debits and credits Double-entry system FIFO and LIFO Journal Ledger / General ledger T accounts Trial balance Auditing [show] Financial Internal Firms Report People and organizations [show] Accountants Accounting organizations Luca Pacioli Development [show] History Research Positive accounting Sarbanes–Oxley Act Business portal v t e In financial accounting , an asset is an economic resource . Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value and that is held by a company to produce positive economic value is an asset. Simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash (although cash itself is also considered an asset). [1] The balance sheet of a firm records the monetary [2] value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business . [1] One can classify assets into two major asset classes: tangible assets and intangible assets . Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets . [3] Current assets include inventory , while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment . [4] Intangible assets are nonphysical resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill , copyrights , trademarks , patents and computer programs , [4] and financial assets, including such items as accounts receivable , bonds and stocks . Contents 1 Formal definition 2 Characteristics 2.1 Accounting 2.2 Current assets 2.3 Long-term investments 2.4 Fixed assets 2.5 Intangible assets 2.6 Tangible assets 2.7 Comparison: current assets, liquid assets and absolute liquid assets 3 See also 4 References Formal definition [ edit ] An asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity [5] (Framework Par 49a). Characteristics [ edit ] One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board . [6] The following is a quotation from the IFRS Framework: \"An asset is a resource controlled by the enterprise as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise.\" [7] This means that: The probable present benefit involve a capacity, singly or in combination with other assets, in the case of profit oriented enterprises, to contribute directly or indirectly to future net cash flows , and, in the case of nonprofit organizations , to provide services; The entity can control access to the benefit; The transaction or event giving rise to the entity's right to, or control of, the benefit has already occurred. Employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Framework's definition of an asset. Resources that are expected to yield benefits only for a short time can also be considered not to be assets, for example in the USA the 12 month rule excludes items with a useful life of less than a year. Similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. There is a growing analytical interest in assets and asset forms in other social sciences too, especially in terms of how a variety of things (e.g. personality, personal data, ecosystems, etc.) can be turned into an asset. [8] Accounting [ edit ] In the financial accounting sense of the term, it is not necessary to be able to legally enforce the asset's benefit for qualifying a resource as being an asset, provided the entity can control its use by other means. The accounting equation is the mathematical structure of the balance sheet . It relates assets, liabilities, and owner's equity : Assets = Liabilities + Capital (which for a corporation equals owner's equity ) Liabilities = Assets − Capital Equity = Assets − Liabilities Assets are listed on the balance sheet . On a company's balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which vary from country to country. [9] Assets can be divided into e.g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools. These monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc., of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets [ edit ] Main article: Current asset Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle (whichever is longer), without disturbing the normal operations of a business. These assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets: Cash and cash equivalents – it is the most liquid asset , which includes currency , deposit accounts , and negotiable instruments (e.g., money orders, cheque, bank drafts). Short-term investments – include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences (trading securities). Receivables – usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts. Inventory – trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the balance sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value, whichever is lower. This is known as the \" lower of cost or market \" rule. Prepaid expenses – these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed (common examples are insurance or office supplies). See also adjusting entries . Marketable securities : Securities that can be converted into cash quickly at a reasonable price. The phrase net current assets (also called working capital ) is often used and refers to the total of current assets less the total of current liabilities . Long-term investments [ edit ] Often referred to simply as \"investments\". Long-term investments are to be held for many years and are not intended to be disposed of in the near future. This group usually consists of three types of investments: Investments in securities such as bonds, common stock, or long-term notes. Investments in fixed assets not used in operations (e.g., land held for sale). Investments in special funds (e.g. sinking funds or pension funds). Different forms of insurance may also be treated as long term investments. Fixed assets [ edit ] Main article: Fixed asset Also referred to as PPE (property, plant, and equipment), these are purchased for continued and long-term use in earning profit in a business. This group includes as an asset land , buildings , machinery , furniture , tools , IT equipment, e.g., laptops, and certain wasting resources e.g., timberland and minerals . They are written off against profits over their anticipated life by charging depreciation expenses (with exception of land assets). Accumulated depreciation is shown in the face of the balance sheet or in the notes. An asset is an important factor in a balance sheet. These are also called capital assets in management accounting . Intangible assets [ edit ] Main article: Intangible asset Intangible assets lack of physical substance and usually are very hard to evaluate. They include patents , copyrights , franchises , goodwill , trademarks , trade names , etc. These assets are (according to US GAAP) amortized to expense over 5 to 40 years with the exception of goodwill. Websites are treated differently in different countries and may fall under either tangible or intangible assets. Tangible assets [ edit ] Tangible assets are those that have a physical substance, such as currencies , buildings , real estate , vehicles , inventories , equipment , art collections , precious metals , rare-earth metals , Industrial metals, and crops. Depreciation is applied to tangible assets when those assets have an anticipated lifespan of more than one year. This process of depreciation is used instead of allocating the entire expense to one year. [10] Tangible assets such as art, furniture, stamps, gold, wine, toys and books have become recognized as an asset class in their own right [11] and many high-net-worth individuals will seek to include these tangible assets as part of their overall asset portfolio. This has created a need for tangible asset managers . Comparison: current assets, liquid assets and absolute liquid assets [ edit ] Current assets Liquid assets Absolute liquid assets Stocks Prepaid expenses Bills receivable Bills receivable Cash in hand Cash in hand Cash in hand Cash at bank Cash at bank Cash at bank Accrued incomes Accrued incomes Accrued incomes Loans and advances (short term) Loans and advances (short term) Loans and advances (short term) Trade investments (short term) Trade investments (short term) Trade investments (short term) See also [ edit ] Trading account assets References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b O'Sullivan, Arthur ; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action . Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 272. ISBN 0-13-063085-3 . Jump up ^ J. G. Siegel, N. Dauber & J. K. Shim, The Vest Pocket CPA , Wiley, 2005. There are different methods of assessing the monetary value of the assets recorded on the Balance Sheet. In some cases, the Historical Cost is used; such that the value of the asset when it was bought in the past is used as the monetary value. In other instances, the present fair market value of the asset is used to determine the value shown on the balance sheet. Jump up ^ J. Downes, J. E. Goodman, Dictionary of Finance & Investment Terms , Barron's Financial Guides, 2003 ^ Jump up to: a b J. Downes, J. E. Goodman, Dictionary of Finance & Investment Terms , Barron's Financial Guides, 2003; and J. G. Siegel, N. Dauber & J. K. Shim, The Vest Pocket CPA , Wiley, 2005. Jump up ^ IFRS for SMEs . London: IASB (International Accounting Standards Board). 2015. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-409-04813-1 . Jump up ^ \"IFRS\" . Iasb.org . Retrieved 8 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"IFRS\" (PDF) . Iasb.org . Retrieved 8 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Birch, Kean (2016-08-10). \"Rethinking value in the bio-economy: Finance, assetization and the management of value\" . Science, Technology, & Human Values . 42 (3): 460–490. doi : 10.1177/0162243916661633 . Jump up ^ Intermediate Accounting , Kieso, et. al Jump up ^ [ citation needed ] Jump up ^ Downes, John; Goodman, Jordan Elliot. Finance and Investment Handbook , Sixth Edition, Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 2003. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asset&oldid=849654950 \" Categories : Asset Accounting terminology Finance Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Қазақша Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 49 more Edit links This page was last edited on 10 July 2018, at 13:04 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "List of wealthiest historical figures - Wikipedia List of wealthiest historical figures From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable . Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (November 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) John D. Rockefeller is often considered the wealthiest person in modern history. [1] [2] The list of the wealthiest historical figures gathers published estimates as to the ( inflation-adjusted ) net-worth and fortunes of the wealthiest historical figures in comparison. Due to problems arising from different definitions of wealth, ways of measuring it, various economic models throughout history, as well as multiple other reasons—this article discusses the wealthiest people in the following separate historical periods: Antiquity , Middle Ages and modern period . Accordingly—because of the previously mentioned difficulties—it is not possible to determine the single richest person in all of history. For the modern period , wealth can be measured more or less objectively via inflation adjustment , e.g. comparing the nominal GDP of the United States of the respective periods, and then converting it into contemporary United States dollars. For the medieval and ancient history, comparison of wealth becomes more problematic, on one hand due to the inaccuracy or unreliability of records, on the other due to the difficulty of comparing a pre-industrial economy to a modern one, and especially in the presence of absolute monarchy , where an entire kingdom or empire is considered the ruler's personal property (this is also an issue in early modern to modern period, e.g. Davidson (2015) lists Joseph Stalin among The 10 Richest People of All Time for his \"complete control of a nation with 9.6% of global GDP\"). [3] Excluding monarchs and autocrats , the wealthiest private individual in the history of capitalism is variously identified as Jakob Fugger (died 1525), of the early modern Fugger family of merchants and bankers, [4] and early 20th-century American entrepreneurs Andrew Carnegie (died 1919) [5] and John D. Rockefeller (died 1937). Frequently, one of these few people is considered to be the richest person of all time, depending on source. While the Rothschild family rose to the status of the wealthiest family of bankers in the 19th century, their wealth was distributed among a number of family members, preventing them from appearing among the wealthiest individuals. The richest among the Rothschilds was the head of its English branch— Nathan Mayer Rothschild —the richest person of his time. [6] Bernstein and Swan in All the Money in the World (2008) mention the top three richest Americans ever —all tycoons of the Gilded Age —respectively: John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and Cornelius Vanderbilt ; Henry Ford was ranked only 12th. [7] According to Close (2016), the wealthiest woman in the history of capitalism, excluding monarchs, is L'Oréal heiress Liliane Bettencourt , whose net worth was at $40.7 billion in 2015. [8] Including monarchs, he mentions Empress Wu for Antiquity, Isabella of Castile for Middle Ages, and Catherine the Great for modern history. [9] Contents [ hide ] 1 Early modern to modern period 2 Middle Ages 3 Antiquity 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Early modern to modern period [ edit ] Listed individuals are thought to have had a net worth of at least the equivalent of 100 billion United States dollars . Therefore, it excludes figures such as Andrew W. Mellon , Richard B. Mellon , Stephen Van Rensselaer , A.T. Stewart , Heshen , J.P. Morgan , and others. Name Photograph/Portrait Lifetime Net worth (billion 2010 USD) Description Jakob Fugger 1459–1525 (66 years) 400 [4] German merchant, mining entrepreneur and banker. He expanded Fugger family's assets by making their operations European wide. At one point, Fugger & family had an almost monopolistic hold on the European copper market. [10] At his death, Jakob Fugger bequeathed to his nephew Anton Fugger company assets totaling 2,032,652 guilders . [11] Referred to as \"Fugger the Rich\". John D. Rockefeller 1839–1937 (97 years) 336 [3] On September 29, 1916, Rockefeller became the first person ever to reach a nominal personal fortune of US$1 billion (equivalent to US$16 billion in 2016). [12] Rockefeller amassed his fortune from the Standard Oil company, of which he was a founder, chairman and major shareholder. By the time of his death in 1937, estimates place his net worth in the range of US$300 billion to US$400 billion in adjusted dollars for the late 2000s (decade). When considering the real value of his wealth, Rockefeller is widely held to have been the wealthiest American, as well as the richest person in modern history. [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Andrew Carnegie 1835–1919 (84 years) 310 [3] Carnegie founded the Carnegie Steel Company , which was the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations in the United States; in 1901, Carnegie sold his company for US$480 million to J.P. Morgan , who then merged his company into U.S. Steel . [19] Capitalized at US$1.4 billion at the time, U.S. Steel was the first billion dollar company in the world. In his final years, Carnegie's net worth was US$475 million, but by the time of his death in 1919 he had donated most of his wealth to charities and other philanthropic endeavors and had only US$30 million left to his personal fortune. Carnegie's hundreds of millions accounted for about 0.60% of the U.S. annual GDP and has a real value estimated at about US$75 billion adjusted for the late 2000s (decade). [13] [14] Nicholas II of Russia 1868–1918 (50 years) 250-300 Emperor of All Russia from 1894 to 1917. Estimates of the wealth of Nicholas II remain wildly speculative. As emperor, and an autocrat, the resources under Nicholas II's command were virtually incalculable. However, the vast majority of this was officially owned by the State as Crown property. From this, supplemented by an annuity from the Treasury, he derived an annual income of 24 million roubles , from which he had to fund staff, the upkeep of imperial palaces and imperial theatres, annuities for the royal family, pensions, bequests, and other outgoings. [20] \"Before the end of the year, the Tsar was usually penniless; sometimes he reached this embarrassing state by autumn.\" [20] According to the Grand Marshall of the Court, Count Paul Benckendorff, his personal wealth only amounted to between 12.5 and 17.5 million roubles. [21] Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII 1886–1967 (81 years) 210 The last Nizam of Hyderabad State in British India . Regarded as the wealthiest person in the world during his lifetime, his portrait was on the cover of Time magazine in 1937. [22] As a semi-autonomous monarch, he had his own mint, printing his own currency, the Hyderabadi rupee , and had a private treasury that was said to contain £100m in gold and silver bullion, and a further £400m of jewels (in 2008 terms). Among them was the Jacob Diamond , valued at some £50m (in 2008 terms), [23] [24] [25] and used by the Nizam as a paperweight. [26] Henry Ford 1863–1947 (84 years) 188–199 Henry Ford was an American automotive engineer, entrepreneur, and founder of the Ford Motor Company . Through his designing of the Model T Ford and employing the assembly line means of rapid production, he was able to lower the base price of his product in order to reach a wider market. As production increased, Ford further reduced prices and increased salaries to reduce worker turnover. This resulted in a rapid increase in output, with Ford production rising from roughly 18,000 cars in 1909 to over 1 million cars in 1920. Despite Ford stating that his focus was increasing Ford Motor Company's benefit to society and to its employees, even at one point being sued by the Dodge brothers based on this premise, his company was massively profitable. His highest earnings were recorded at age 57 and he died at the age of 83 in 1947 at a net worth of US$188.1 billion (inflation-adjusted value in 2008 dollars). John Jacob Astor 1763–1848 (85 years) 120–138 [27] American businessman, merchant, opium smuggler, fur trader, and investor. In 1801, Astor's nominal wealth was some US$250,000, and by the time of his death in 1848 his fortune had grown to US$20 million, making him America's first multi-millionaire. [13] [14] [15] Cornelius Vanderbilt 1794–1877 (83 years) 105 [28] –205 [29] American business magnate and philanthropist who built his wealth in railroads and shipping. Stephen Girard 1750–1831 (81 years) 105 [30] –120 [31] French-born American banker. Before becoming a banker, he was a merchant and owned a fleet of trading ships. William Henry Vanderbilt 1821–1885 (64 years) 52-239 [32] Railroad owner. Inherited much of his wealth from his father, Cornelius Vanderbilt , [30] who initiated the Vanderbilt family 's involvement in railroad and shipping business. He doubled his father's fortune, to an amount estimated between $52 billion and $239 billion. [32] Middle Ages [ edit ] Absolute rulers or conquerors are sometimes listed for the territory they controlled rather than for their immediate personal wealth (Davidson (2015) for TIME.com listed Akbar I , Genghis Khan and Emperor Shenzong of Song for their imperial possessions, while Alan Rufus is listed for his immediate possessions within the feudal system of Norman England ). [3] Name Photograph/Portrait Lifetime Description Musa I of Mali c. 1280 – c. 1337 Mansa Musa, or Musa I of Mali is considered one of the richest men in history. Musa was the tenth emperor of the Mali Empire , one of the prosperous Sahelian kingdoms that developed along the Saharan slave trade routes in the later medieval period. Mansa Musa made his fortune by exploiting his country’s salt and gold production. [3] [33] [34] Musa is said to have brought several tonnes of gold to Mecca when he made a pilgrimage there in 1324. Reported as being inconceivably rich by contemporaries, \"There’s really no way to put an accurate number on his wealth.\" [35] William the Conqueror d. 1087 William the Conqueror became personally enormously wealthy from spoils of war during the Norman Conquest of England. [36] Basil II 958–1025 Byzantine emperor from 960 to 1025 at the time of the Eastern Roman Empire's greatest medieval territorial extent, also a time of considerable prosperity for the Empire. Alan Rufus c. 1040–1093 Alan Rufus, 1st Lord of Richmond, was a relative and companion of William the Conqueror (Duke William II of Normandy) during the Norman Conquest of England. By 1086 he had become one of the richest and most powerful men of England. [36] William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey d. 1088 Fought alongside William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings and was rewarded with considerable land holdings in England. [30] [36] [37] Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel c. 1306–1376 English nobleman and admiral. Succeeded to the Earldom of Surrey in 1347. John of Gaunt 1340–1399 Third son of King Edward III of England . Duke of Lancaster. Owned land in almost every county in England, with a household comparable to that of a monarch. [38] Antiquity [ edit ] Marcus Licinius Crassus is held to be the wealthiest person in Roman history, as he had a personal net worth equal to the treasury of Rome. [39] For Classical Antiquity , even more than for the High Middle Ages , the definition of personal wealth becomes difficult to compare with the modern period; especially in the case of divine kings , where an entire empire might be considered the personal property of a deified emperor. Name Lifetime Description Marcus Licinius Crassus c. 115 BC – 53 BC Crassus inherited a fortune of 7 million sesterces after the death of his father in 87 BC. After several years of exile, Crassus was able to rebuild his family fortune by seizing the property of executed convicts for himself. [39] Crassus also expanded his wealth by trading in slaves and by purchasing whole neighborhoods of Rome as they burned, for drastically less than market value. Crassus was known in Rome as Dives , meaning \"The Rich\". It is believed that Crassus expanded his personal fortune to 170 million sesterces, while Pliny the Elder surmised his fortune to be valued even higher, at 200 million sesterces. This would place Crassus's net worth equal to the total annual budget of the Roman treasury. Crassus has often been listed among the \"wealthiest individuals in history\", although depending on the estimate of the \"adjusted value\" of a Roman sesterce , his net worth may also be placed in the range of US$200 million to US$20 billion. [40] Augustus Caesar 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD Listed by Time Magazine with \"$4.6 trillion\" because he \"personally owned all of Egypt\". [3] Croesus died c. 546 BC The name of Croesus, a historical king of Lydia , was proverbial for wealth already in antiquity; this is probably due to his being the first ruler to issue true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation and not necessarily for his personal wealth. See also [ edit ] Forbes list of billionaires List of richest Americans in history List of wealthiest organizations List of wealthiest families List of wealthiest animals References [ edit ] Jump up ^ The Rockefellers: The Legacy Of History's Richest Man , Forbes 2014 Jump up ^ Guinness World Records claims John D. Rockefeller was the richest person. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Jacob Davidson, time.com The 10 Richest People of All Time , 30 July 2015 ^ Jump up to: a b Daniel Eckert, So wurde Jakob Fugger zum reichsten Menschen der Historie (\"This is how Jakob Fugger became the wealthiest person in history\"), Die Welt , 6 June 2016 (in German) . \"Auf heutige Verhältnisse hochgerechnet läge das Vermögen des Bauernenkels bei unglaublichen 400 Milliarden Dollar (354 Milliarden Euro). In die Nähe dieses Wertes kamen nur die Rothschilds, die in ihrer Glanzzeit im 19. Jahrhundert die mächtigste Bankiersfamilie der Welt waren\" (\"Adjusted to current-day conditions, the net worth of the farmer's grandson would be close to astonishing 400 billion dollars (354 billion Euro). Only the Rothschild family, at their peak in the 19th century the most powerful family of bankers, came close to such a figure.\" Jump up ^ listed at 372 billion US$2014 by Jacob Davidson, time.com The 10 Richest People of All Time , 30 July 2015: \"Rockefeller gets all the press, but Andrew Carnegie may be the richest American of all time. The Scottish immigrant sold his company, U.S. Steel, to J.P. Morgan for $480 million in 1901. That sum equates to about slightly over 2.1% of U.S. GDP at the time, giving Carnegie economic power equivalent to $372 billion in 2014.\" Jump up ^ GDP: A Brief but Affectionate History p. 65 Jump up ^ All the Money in the World (2008) by Bernstein and Swan, p. 17 \"Introduction\" Jump up ^ Kerry Close, The 10 Richest Women of All Time , time.com, 1 February 2016. Bettencourt ranks at #6 in this list, after five ancient rulers and monarchs of the Middle Ages and early modern period. Jump up ^ Kerry Close, The 10 Richest Women of All Time , time.com. Empress Wu ranks at #1 in this list, Catherine the Great at #3, and Isabella of Castile at #5. Jump up ^ Peter Geffcken: Fugger – Geschichte einer Familie: \"Die Handelsherren mit dem Dreizack\" . In: DAMALS 7/2004 Jump up ^ \"Anton Fugger\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). \"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?\" . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved January 5, 2018 . United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series. ^ Jump up to: a b c Staff (15 July 2007). \"The Wealthiest Americans Ever\" . New York Times . Retrieved 30 September 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Richest Americans in History\" . Forbes. 24 August 1998 . Retrieved 22 December 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The richest Americans\" . Forbes. Archived from the original on September 16, 2009 . Retrieved 22 December 2009 . Jump up ^ \"The Rockefellers\" . PBS . Retrieved 2007-05-29 . Jump up ^ \"The Richest Americans\" . Fortune magazine . Archived from the original on 2009-09-16 . Retrieved 2007-07-17 . Jump up ^ \"The Wealthiest Americans Ever\" . The New York Times . July 15, 2007 . Retrieved 2007-07-17 . Jump up ^ \"The Men Who Built America: Andrew Carnegie\" . History.com . ^ Jump up to: a b Massie, Robert K. Nicholas and Alexandra , New York, Atheneum, 1967, p64 Jump up ^ Clarke, William The Lost Fortune of the Tsars , St. Martin's Griffin; Reprint edition, 1996, p101. Jump up ^ \"The Nizam of Hyderabad\" . Time . Jump up ^ McCaffrey, Julie (3 February 2012). \"Exclusive: The last Nizam of Hyderabad was so rich he had a £50m diamond paperweight.\" Mirror.co.uk . London. Jump up ^ Bedi, Rahul (12 April 2008). \"India finally settles £1million Nizam dispute\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Jump up ^ \"Exhibitions at National Museum of India,New Delhi(India)\" . 2 April 2009. Jump up ^ Shah, Tahir. \" Alan the Red, the Brit who makes Bill Gates a pauper .\" Times Online . The Sunday Times . 7 October 2007. Web. 19 9ay 2010. Jump up ^ Hargreaves, Steve. \"The richest Americans in history\" . Jump up ^ Fortune Magazine 's \"richest Americans\" Archived 2009-09-13 at the Wayback Machine .. Fortune estimated his wealth at death at $105,000,000, or 1/87 of the nation's GDP. Jump up ^ Hargreaves, Steve. \"The richest Americans in history\" . ^ Jump up to: a b c Gus Lubin, business insider The 20 Richest People Of All Time , 2 September 2010 Jump up ^ Hargreaves, Steve. \"The richest Americans in history\" . ^ Jump up to: a b \"William Henry Vanderbilt\" . www.newnetherlandinstitute.org . Jump up ^ \"Meet Mansa Musa I of Mali – the richest human being in all history\" . 2012-10-16 . Retrieved 2016-09-17 . Jump up ^ \"10 Richest People of All Time\" . 2016-09-04 . Retrieved 2016-09-17 . Jump up ^ Jacob Davidson. \"The 10 Richest People of All Time\" . CNNMoney . . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Estimate from historian William Rubenstein via The Times, converted to dollars at average rate since ’07 (1:1.7) and adjusted for inflation.\" The 20 Richest People Of All Time , 4 September 2010. \"Although he became a monarch, we're counting the spoils of war before he took the throne, based on what he gave out to his sons Odo and Robert.\" \"he left the equivalent of $229.5 billion to his sons.\" Jump up ^ The Domesday Book: England's Heritage Then and Now , ed. Thomas Hinde (UK: Coombe Books, 1996) Jump up ^ Jonathan Sumption, Divided Houses: The Hundred Years War III (London: Faber & Faber, 2009), p. 9. ^ Jump up to: a b Wallechinsky, David & Irving Wallace. \" Richest People in History Ancient Roman Crassus \". Trivia-Library. The People's Almanac . 1975 – 1981. Web. 23 December 2009. Jump up ^ \"Often named as the richest man ever, a more accurate conversion of sesterce would put his modern figure between $200 million and $20 billion.\" Peter L. Bernstein . The 20 Richest People Of All Time Further reading [ edit ] Philip Beresford, William D. Rubinstein, The Richest of the Rich: The Wealthiest 250 People in Britain since 1066 , Harriman House, 2011. Michael Klepper, Robert Gunther, The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates—A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present , Citadel Press, 1996. [ show ] v t e Lists of people by net worth By citizenship Australia Austria Belgium Brazil Canada China (PRC) Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Egypt Finland France Germany Greece Hong Kong Hungary India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Japan Kazakhstan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Lebanon Malaysia Mexico Monaco Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Philippines Poland Portugal Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan (ROC) Thailand Turkey Uganda Ukraine UAE United Kingdom United States Venezuela Vietnam By region Arab League South Asia South East Asia Africa World Forbes lists 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Forbes 400 In history List of wealthiest historical figures List of richest Americans in history Other Bloomberg Billionaires Index Forbes Fictional 15 Financial Review Rich List (Australia) Hurun Muslims Royals Sunday Times Rich List (UK) Women Wealthiest Americans (1957) By alumni [ show ] v t e Extreme Wealth Concepts Billionaires Capital accumulation Distribution of wealth Dynastic wealth Economic inequality Geography and wealth High-net-worth individual UHNWI Millionaires National wealth Oligarchy Overaccumulation Paper wealth Plutocracy Plutonomy Wealth Wealth concentration Wealth effect Wealth management Wealth and religion Wealth tax Lists of people Female billionaires‎ Wealthiest Americans Richest royals Wealthiest families Wealthiest historical figures Forbes list of billionaires Lists of organizations Companies by profit and loss Largest companies by revenue Largest financial services companies by revenue Largest manufacturing companies by revenue Public corporations by market capitalization Wealthiest organizations Other lists Cities by number of billionaires Countries by number of billionaires Most expensive things Wealthiest animals See also Business magnate Business oligarch Philanthropy The Giving Pledge The rich get richer and the poor get poorer Upper class Nouveau riche Vieux riche Religion and poverty Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_wealthiest_historical_figures&oldid=839337633 \" Categories : History-related lists Lists of people by wealth Hidden categories: Articles with German-language external links Webarchive template wayback links Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017 All articles lacking reliable references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Gagauz Português Română Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2018, at 19:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of wealthiest historical figures", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_wealthiest_historical_figures&amp;oldid=839337633" }

{ "text": "Hypersalivation - Wikipedia Hypersalivation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Hypersalivation Classification and external resources DiseasesDB 20764 MedlinePlus 003048 eMedicine ent/629 MeSH D012798 [ edit on Wikidata ] Hypersalivation (also called ptyalism [1] or sialorrhea [2] ) is excessive production of saliva . It has also been defined as increased amount of saliva in the mouth, which may also be caused by decreased clearance of saliva. [3] Hypersalivation can contribute to drooling if there is an inability to keep the mouth closed or in difficulty in swallowing the excess saliva (dysphagia) and lead to excessive spitting . Hypersalivation also often precedes emesis (vomiting), where it accompanies nausea (a feeling of needing to vomit). [4] Contents [ hide ] 1 Causes 1.1 Excessive production 1.2 Decreased clearance 2 Treatment 3 References Causes [ edit ] Excessive production [ edit ] Conditions that can cause saliva overproduction include: [3] Rabies Pellagra (niacin or Vitamin B3 deficiency) [5] Gastroesophageal reflux disease , in such cases specifically called a water brash , and is characterized by a sour fluid or almost tasteless saliva in the mouth [6] Gastroparesis (main symptoms are nausea, vomiting, and reflux) Pregnancy Excessive starch intake Anxiety (common sign of separation anxiety in dogs) Pancreatitis Liver disease Serotonin syndrome Mouth ulcers [ medical citation needed ] Oral infections Medications that can cause overproduction of saliva include: [3] aripiprazole clozapine pilocarpine ketamine potassium chlorate risperidone rabeprazole sodium ( Aciphex ) Toxins that can cause hypersalivation include: [3] mercury copper organophosphates ( insecticide ) arsenic Decreased clearance [ edit ] Causes of decreased clearance of saliva include: [3] Infections such as tonsillitis , retropharyngeal and peritonsillar abscesses , epiglottitis and mumps . Problems with the jaw, e.g., fracture or dislocation Radiation therapy Neurologic disorders such as myasthenia gravis , Parkinson's disease , multiple system atrophy , rabies , bulbar paralysis, bilateral facial nerve palsy , and hypoglossal nerve palsy Treatment [ edit ] Hypersalivation is optimally treated by treating or avoiding the underlying cause. [3] Mouthwash and tooth brushing may have drying effects. [3] In the palliative care setting, anticholinergics and similar drugs that would normally reduce the production of saliva causing a dry mouth could be considered for symptom management: scopolamine , atropine , propantheline , hyoscine , amitriptyline , glycopyrrolate . [7] A 2008 systematic review investigated the efficacy of pharmacological interventions for patients who have too much salvia due to clozapine treatment: Astemizole compared to control [8] Summary There is no well-tested treatment for this difficult problem and no data to confidently inform clinical practice. [8] [ show ] Outcome Findings in words Findings in numbers Quality of evidence Hypersalivation No effect / not cured / not markedly improved Control: propantheline Astemizole probably is probably worse than propantheline - increasing the risk of having 'no effect'. Data are based on moderate quality evidence. RR 2.46 (1.63 to 3.72) Moderate Change in hypersalivation scores (high = good) Control: propantheline On average, people receiving astemizole scored a little lower than people treated with control for clozapine-induced hypersalivation. There was a clear difference between the groups, but, at present the meaning of this in day-to-day care is unclear. MD 0.64 lower (1.14 lower to 0.14 lower) Low Adverse effects Tachycardia Control: doxepin Astemizole may increase the risk of experiencing fast heart rate, but, at present it is not possible to be confident about the difference between the two treatments because data supporting this finding are very limited. RR 5.00 (0.25 to 99.16) Very low Constipation Control: propantheline Astemizole may reduce constipation but there is no clear difference between people given astemizole and those receiving propanthelinecontrol for clozapine-induced hypersalivation. These findings are based on data of low quality. RR 0.60 (0.26 to 1.39) Low Missing outcomes No study reported any data on outcomes such as mental state, quality of life and information relating to time in services References [ edit ] Jump up ^ thefreedictionary.com > ptyalism Citing: Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. 2007 Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. 2009 Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, 3 ed. 2007 Jump up ^ thefreedictionary.com > sialorrhea Citing: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Updated in 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Medscape > Hypersalivation By Erica Brownfield. Posted: 05/19/2004 Jump up ^ Clark], [edited by Parveen Kumar, Michael (2005). Kumar & Clark clinical medicine (6th ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier Saunders. p. 266. ISBN 0702027634 . CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ [1] Jump up ^ thefreedictionary.com > water brash Citing: Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. 2007 Jump up ^ Medical Care of the Dying, 4th Edition, 2006, Edited by G.Michael Downing MD and Wendy Wainwright, MEd ^ Jump up to: a b Syed, R; Cahill, C; Duggan, L (2008). \"Pharmacological interventions for clozapine-induced hypersalivation\" . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 3 : CD005579.pub2. doi : 10.1002/14651858.CD005579.pub2 . Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypersalivation&oldid=812113165 \" Categories : Saliva Salivary gland pathology Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list Infobox medical condition All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Suomi Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2017, at 03:00. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Hypersalivation", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Hypersalivation&amp;oldid=812113165" }

{ "text": "Brine shrimp - Wikipedia Brine shrimp From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Brine shrimp Artemia salina mating pair – female left, male right Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Subphylum: Crustacea Class: Branchiopoda Order: Anostraca Family: Artemiidae Grochowski, 1895 Genus: Artemia Leach , 1819 Species [1] Artemia franciscana Artemia monica Artemia persimilis Artemia salina Artemia sinica Artemia tibetiana Artemia urmiana Parthenogenetic Populations also called Artemia parthenogenetica (disputed) Artemia is a genus of aquatic crustaceans also known as brine shrimp . Artemia , the only genus in the family Artemiidae , has changed little externally since the Triassic period. The first historical record of the existence of Artemia dates back to the first half of the 10th century AD from Urmia Lake , Iran , with an example called by an Iranian geographer an \"aquatic dog\", [2] although the first unambiguous record is the report and drawings made by Schlösser in 1757 of animals from Lymington , England . [3] Artemia populations are found worldwide in inland saltwater lakes, but not in oceans. Artemia are able to avoid cohabiting with most types of predators, such as fish, by their ability to live in waters of very high salinity (up to 25%). [4] The ability of the Artemia to produce dormant eggs, known as cysts , has led to extensive use of Artemia in aquaculture . The cysts may be stored for long periods and hatched on demand to provide a convenient form of live feed for larval fish and crustaceans . [4] Nauplii of the brine shrimp Artemia constitute the most widely used food item, and over 2000 tonnes of dry Artemia cysts are marketed worldwide annually. In addition, the resilience of Artemia makes them ideal animals for running biological toxicity assays and it has become a model organism used to test the toxicity of chemicals. Breeds of Artemia are sold as novelty gifts under the marketing name Sea-Monkeys or Aqua Dragons . [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Description 2 Ecology and behavior 2.1 Reproduction 2.2 Parthenogenesis 2.3 Diet 3 Genetics 4 Aquaculture 5 Toxicity test 6 Threatened 7 Space experiment 8 References 9 External links Description [ edit ] The brine shrimp Artemia comprises a group of seven to nine species very likely to have diverged from an ancestral form living in the Mediterranean area about 5.5 million years ago . [6] The Laboratory of Aquaculture & Artemia Reference Center ( ARC ) at Ghent University possesses the largest known Artemia cyst collection, a cyst bank containing over 1,700 Artemia population samples collected from different locations around the world [7] . Artemia is a typical primitive arthropod with a segmented body to which is attached broad leaf-like appendages . The body usually consists of 19 segments, the first 11 of which have pairs of appendages, the next two which are often fused together carry the reproductive organs, and the last segments lead to the tail. [8] The total length is usually about 8–10 millimetres (0.31–0.39 in) for the adult male and 10–12 mm (0.39–0.47 in) for the female, but the width of both sexes, including the legs, is about 4 mm (0.16 in). The body of Artemia is divided into head, thorax , and abdomen. The entire body is covered with a thin, flexible exoskeleton of chitin to which muscles are attached internally and shed periodically. [9] In female Artemia a moult precedes every ovulation . For brine shrimp, many functions, including swimming, digestion and reproduction are not controlled through the brain; instead, local nervous system ganglia may control some regulation or synchronisation of these functions. [9] Autotomy, the voluntary shedding or dropping of parts of the body for defence, is also controlled locally along the nervous system. [8] Artemia have two types of eyes. They have two widely separated compound eyes mounted on flexible stalks. These compound eyes are the main optical sense organ in adult brine shrimps. The median eye, or the naupliar eye , is situated anteriorly in the centre of the head and is the only functional optical sense organ in the nauplii, which is functional until the adult stage. [9] Ecology and behavior [ edit ] Brine shrimp can tolerate any levels of salinity from 25 ‰ to 250‰ (25–250 g/L), [10] with an optimal range of 60‰–100‰, [10] and occupy the ecological niche that can protect them from predators. [11] Physiologically, optimal levels of salinity are about 30–35‰, but due to predators at these salt levels, brine shrimp seldom occur in natural habitats at salinities of less than 60–80‰. Locomotion is achieved by the rhythmic beating of the appendages acting in pairs. Respiration occurs on the surface of the legs through fibrous, feather-like plates (lamellar epipodites) [8] An Artemia cyst Reproduction [ edit ] Males differ from females by having the second antennae markedly enlarged, and modified into clasping organs used in mating. [12] Adult female brine shrimp ovulate approximately every 140 hours. In favourable conditions, the female brine shrimp can produce eggs that almost immediately hatch. While in extreme conditions, such as low oxygen level or salinity above 150‰, female brine shrimp produce eggs with a chorion coating which has a brown colour. These eggs, also known as cysts, are metabolically inactive and can remain in total stasis for two years while in dry oxygen-free conditions, even at temperatures below freezing. This characteristic is called cryptobiosis , meaning \"hidden life\". While in cryptobiosis, brine shrimp eggs can survive temperatures of liquid air (−190 °C or −310 °F) and a small percentage can survive above boiling temperature (105 °C or 221 °F) for up to two hours. [11] Once placed in briny (salt) water, the eggs hatch within a few hours. The nauplius larvae are less than 0.4 mm in length when they first hatch. Brine shrimp have a biological life cycle of one year. Parthenogenesis [ edit ] The effects of central fusion and terminal fusion on heterozygosity Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilisation . Thelytoky is a particular form of parthenogenesis in which the development of a female individual occurs from an unfertilised egg. Automixis is a form of thelytoky, but there are different kinds of automixis. The kind of automixis relevant here is one in which two haploid products from the same meiosis combine to form a diploid zygote . Diploid Artemia parthenogenetica reproduce by automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion (see diagram) and low but nonzero recombination. [13] Central fusion of two of the haploid products of meiosis (see diagram) tends to maintain heterozygosity in transmission of the genome from mother to offspring, and to minimise inbreeding depression . Low crossover recombination during meiosis likely restrains the transition from heterozygosity to homozygosity over successive generations. Diet [ edit ] In their first stage of development, Artemia do not feed but consume their own energy reserves stored in the cyst. [14] Wild brine shrimp eat microscopic planktonic algae . Cultured brine shrimp can also be fed particulate foods including yeast , wheat flour , soybean powder or egg yolk . [15] Genetics [ edit ] Artemia comprises sexually reproducing, diploid species and several obligate parthenogenetic Artemia populations consisting of different clones and ploidies (2n->5n) [16] . Aquaculture [ edit ] Artemia breeding ponds, San Francisco Bay Main article: Aquaculture of brine shrimp Fish farm owners search for a cost-effective, easy to use, and available food that is preferred by the fish. From cysts, brine shrimp nauplii can readily be used to feed fish and crustacean larvae just after one-day incubation . Instar I (the nauplii that just hatched and with large yolk reserves in their body) and instar II nauplii (the nauplii after first moult and with functional digestive tracts) are more widely used in aquaculture, because they are easy for operation, rich in nutrients, and small, which makes them suitable for feeding fish and crustacean larvae live or after drying. Toxicity test [ edit ] Artemia found favor as a model organism for use in toxicological assays, despite the recognition that it is too robust an organism to be a sensitive indicator species . [17] [ citation needed ] In pollution research Artemia , the brine shrimp, has had extensive use as a test organism and in some circumstances is an acceptable alternative to the toxicity testing of mammals in the laboratory. [18] The fact that millions of brine shrimp are so easily reared has been an important help in assessing the effects of a large number of environmental pollutants on the shrimps under well controlled experimental conditions. Threatened [ edit ] Artemia monica (male) Artemia monica , the variety commonly known as Mono Lake brine shrimp, can be found in Mono Lake , Mono County, California . In 1987, Dennis D. Murphy from Stanford University petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to add A. monica to the endangered species list under the Endangered Species Act (1973). The diversion of water by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power resulted in rising salinity and concentration of sodium hydroxide in Mono Lake. Despite the presence of trillions of brine shrimp in the lake, the petition contended that the increase in pH would endanger them. The threat to the lake's water levels was addressed by a revision to California State Water Resources Control Board 's policy, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service found on 7 September 1995 that the Mono Lake brine shrimp did not warrant listing. [19] Space experiment [ edit ] Scientists have taken the eggs of brine shrimp to outer space to test the impact of radiation on life. Brine shrimp cysts were flown on the U.S. Biosatellite II, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 missions, and on the Russian Bion-3 ( Cosmos 782 ), Bion-5 ( Cosmos 1129 ), Foton 10, and Foton 11 flights. Some of the Russian flights carried European Space Agency experiments. On Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 , the cysts traveled to the Moon and back. The cosmic ray passed through an egg would be detected on the photographic film in their container. Some eggs were kept on Earth as experimental controls to ensure a fair test. Also, as the take-off in a spacecraft involves a lot of shaking and acceleration , one control group of egg cysts was accelerated to seven times the force of gravity and vibrated mechanically from side to side for several minutes so that they could experience the same violence of a rocket take-off. [20] There were 400 eggs in each experimental group. All the egg cysts from the experiment were then placed in salt water to hatch under optimum conditions. As a result, a high sensitivity to cosmic radiation was observed on Artemia salina eggs; 90% of the embryos , which were induced to develop from hit eggs, died at different developmental stages. [21] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Alireza Asem; Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani; Patricio De Los Rios (2010). \"The genus Artemia Leach, 1819 (Crustacea: Branchiopoda): true and false taxonomical descriptions\" (PDF) . Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research . 38 : 501–506. Jump up ^ Alireza Asem; Amin Eimanifar (2016). \"Updating historical record on brine shrimp Artemia (Crustacea: Anostraca) from Urmia Lake (Iran) in the first half of the 10th century AD\" (PDF) . International Journal of Aquatic Science . 7 : 1–5. Jump up ^ Alireza Asem (2008). \"Historical record on brine shrimp Artemia more than one thousand years ago from Urmia Lake, Iran\" (PDF) . Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki . 9 : 113–114. ^ Jump up to: a b Martin Daintith (1996). Rotifers and Artemia for Marine Aquaculture: a Training Guide . University of Tasmania . OCLC 222006176 . Jump up ^ \"Aqua Dragons\" . Retrieved 5 September 2015 . Jump up ^ F. A. Abreu-Grobois (1987). \"A review of the genetics of Artemia \". In P. Sorgerloo, D. A. Bengtson, W. Decleir & E. Jasper. Artemia Research and its Applications. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on the Brine Shrimp Artemia , organised under the patronage of His Majesty the King of Belgium . 1 . Wetteren, Belgium: Universa Press. pp. 61–99. OCLC 17978639 . CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ De Vos, Stephanie (2014). Genomic tools and sex determination in the extremophile brine shrimp Artemia franciscana . Ghent: UGent. p. 3. ISBN 9789059897175 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Cleveland P. Hickman (1967). Biology of Invertebrates . St. Louis, Missouri: C. V. Mosby. ^ Jump up to: a b c R. J. Criel & H. T. Macrae (2002). \" Artemia morphology and structure\". In T. J. Abatzopoulos, J. A. Breardmore, J. S. Clegg & P. Sorgerloos. Artemia : Basic and Applied Biology . Kluwer Academic Publishers . pp. 1–33. ISBN 978-1-4020-0746-0 . CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter ( link ) ^ Jump up to: a b John K. Warren (2006). \"Halotolerant life in feast or famine (a source of hydrocarbons and a fixer of metals)\". Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons . Birkhäuser . pp. 617–704. ISBN 978-3-540-26011-0 . ^ Jump up to: a b Whitey Hitchcock. \"Brine shrimp\" . Clinton High School Science. Archived from the original on September 3, 2010 . Retrieved March 13, 2010 . Jump up ^ Greta E. Tyson & Michael L. Sullivan (1980). \"Scanning electron microscopy of the frontal knobs of the male brine shrimp\". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society . 99 (2): 167–172. JSTOR 3225702 . Jump up ^ O. Nougué, N. O. Rode, R. Jabbour-Zahab, A. Ségard, L.-M. Chevin, C. R. Haag & T. Lenormand (2015). \"Automixis in Artemia : solving a century-old controversy\". Journal of Evolutionary Biology . 28 (12): 2337–48. doi : 10.1111/jeb.12757 . PMID 26356354 . CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ P. Sorgeloos; P. Dhert & P. Candreva (2001). \"Use of the brine shrimp, Artemia spp., in marine fish larviculture\" (PDF) . Aquaculture . 200 : 147–159. doi : 10.1016/s0044-8486(01)00698-6 . Jump up ^ Kai Schumann (August 10, 1997). \" Artemia (Brine Shrimp) FAQ 1.1\" . Portland State University . Archived from the original on August 14, 2007 . Retrieved March 13, 2010 . Jump up ^ Maniatsi, Stefania; Baxevanis, Athanasios D.; Kappas, Ilias; Deligiannidis, Panagiotis; Triantafyllidis, Alexander; Papakostas, Spiros; Bougiouklis, Dimitrios; Abatzopoulos, Theodore J. (2011-02-01). \"Is polyploidy a persevering accident or an adaptive evolutionary pattern? The case of the brine shrimp Artemia\" . Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . 58 (2): 353–364. doi : 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.11.029 . Jump up ^ Micharl Dockey & Stephen Tonkins. \"Brine shrimp ecology\" (PDF) . British Ecological Society . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-07-08. Jump up ^ L. Lewan; M. Anderrson & P. Morales-Gomez (1992). \"The use of Artemia salina in toxicity testing\". Alternatives to Laboratory Animals . 20 : 297–301. Jump up ^ \"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Finding for a Petition to List the Mono Lake Brine Shrimp as Endangered\" . Federal Register . United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 60 (173): 46571–46572. 1995. Jump up ^ H. Planel, Y. Gaubin, R. Kaiser & B. Pianezzi (1980). The effects of cosmic rays on Artemia egg cysts . Laboratoire Medicale. Report for National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Toulouse, France: Faculté de Médcine. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ H. Bücker & G. Horneck (1975). \"The biological effectiveness of HZE-particles of cosmic radiation studied in the Apollo 16 and 17 Biostack experiments\". Acta Astronautica . 2 (3–4): 247–264. doi : 10.1016/0094-5765(75)90095-8 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artemia . \"Genus Artemia \" . Systema Naturae 2000 . The Taxonomicon. Archived from the original on March 13, 2010 . Retrieved March 13, 2010 . Richard Fox (February 13, 2004). \" Artemia Laboratory Exercise – Artemia franciscana \" . Archived from the original on April 23, 2006 . Retrieved March 13, 2010 . \"Brine Shrimp and Ecology of Great Salt Lake\" . United States Geological Survey . May 15, 2009 . Retrieved March 13, 2010 . Aqua Dragons , commercial site. [ hide ] v t e Families of class Branchiopoda Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Crustacea Anostraca Artemiidae Branchinectidae Branchipodidae Chirocephalidae Parartemiidae Streptocephalidae Tanymastigidae Thamnocephalidae Notostraca Triopsidae Triops Lepidurus Laevicaudata Lynceidae Spinicaudata Cyzicidae Leptestheriidae Limnadiidae Cyclestherida Cyclestheriidae Cladocera Ctenopoda Holopediidae Pseudopenilidae Sididae Anomopoda Bosminidae Chydoridae Daphniidae Ilyocryptidae Macrotrichidae Moinidae Onychopoda Cercopagididae Podonidae Polyphemidae Haplopoda Leptodoridae Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brine_shrimp&oldid=808683404 \" Categories : Anostraca Space-flown life Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter Articles with 'species' microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2014 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 November 2017, at 13:19. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Brine shrimp", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Brine_shrimp&amp;oldid=808683404" }

{ "text": "Animal migration tracking - Wikipedia Animal migration tracking From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Radio-collared wolf in Yellowstone National Park For years scientists have been tracking animals and the ways they migrate . One of the many goals of animal migration research has been to determine where the animals are going; however, researchers also want to know why they are going \"there\". Researchers not only look at the animals' migration but also what is between point a and point b to determine if a species is moving to new locations based on food density, a change in water temperature, and the animal's ability to adapt to these changes. Contents [ hide ] 1 Technologies for tracking 2 Radio tracking 3 Satellite tracking 4 Importance 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Technologies for tracking [ edit ] A monarch butterfly shortly after tagging at the Cape May Bird Observatory . The Observatory is one of the organisation that has a monarch identification tagging program. Plastic stickers are placed on the wing of the insect with identification information. Tracking information is used to study the migration patterns of monarchs, including how far and where they fly. In the fall of 1803, American Naturalist John James Audubon wondered whether migrating birds returned to the same place each year. So he tied a string around the leg of a bird before it flew south. The following spring, Audubon saw the bird had indeed come back. Scientists today still attach tags, such as metal bands, to track movement of animals. Metal bands require the re-capture of animals for the scientists to gather data; the data is thus limited to the animal's release and destination points. Recent technologies have helped solve this problem. Some electronic tags give off repeating signals that are picked up by radio devices or satellites while other electronic tags could include archival tags (or data loggers). Scientists can track the locations and movement of the tagged animals without recapturing them using this RFID technology or satellites. These electronic tags can provide a great deal of data. Radio tracking [ edit ] Further information: Telemetry The right one of these two brush-tailed rock-wallabies is wearing a radio tracking collar. Tracking an animal by radio telemetry involves two devices. Telemetry , in general, involves the use of a transmitter that is attached to an animal and sends out a signal in the form of radio waves , just as a radio station does. [1] A scientist might place the transmitter around an animal's ankle , neck , wing , carapace , or dorsal fin . Alternatively, they may surgically implant it as internal radio transmitters have the advantage of remaining intact and functioning longer than traditional attachments, being protected from environmental variables and wear. [2] A VHF receiver picks up the signal, just like a home radio picks up a station's signal. The receiver is usually in a truck , an ATV , or an airplane . [1] To keep track of the signal, the scientist follows the animal using the receiver. This approach of using radio tracking can be used to track the animal manually but is also used when animals are equipped with other payloads. The receiver is used to home in on the animal to get the payload back. Another form of radio tracking that can be utilized, especially in the case of small bird migration, is the use of geolocators or \"geologgers\". [3] This technology utilizes a light sensor that tracks the light-level data during regular intervals in order to determine a location based on the length of the day and the time of solar noon. [3] While there are benefits and challenges with using this method of tracking, it is one of the only practical means of tracking small birds over long distances during migration. [3] [4] Passive integrated transponders (PIT) are another method of telemetry used to track the movements of a species [3] Passive integrated transponders, or \"PIT tags\", are electronic tags that allow researchers to collect data from a specimen without the need to recapture and handle the animal. [5] Data is captured and monitored via electronic interrogation antennae, which records the time and location of the individual. [5] Pit tags are a humane method of tracking that has little risk of infection or mortality due to the limited contact necessary to monitor the specimens. They are also cost-efficient in that they can be used repeatedly should the need arise to remove the tag from the animal. [6] Satellite tracking [ edit ] Main article: GPS wildlife tracking A saltwater crocodile with GPS-based satellite transmitter for migration tracking Receivers can be placed in Earth - orbiting satellites such as ARGOS . Networks, or groups, of satellites are used to track animals. Each satellite in a network picks up electronic signals from a transmitter on an animal. Together, the signals from all satellites determine the precise location of the animal. The satellites also track the animal's path as it moves. Satellite-received transmitters fitted to animals can also provide information about the animals' physiological characteristics (e.g. temperature) and habitat use. [7] [8] Satellite tracking is especially useful because the scientists do not have to follow after the animal nor do they have to recover the tag to get the data on where the animal is going or has gone. Satellite networks have tracked the migration and territorial movements of caribou , sea turtles , [9] whales , great white sharks , seals , elephants , bald eagles , ospreys and vultures . [7] Additionally Pop-up satellite archival tags are used on marine mammals and various species of fish. There are two main systems, the above-mentioned Argos and the GPS . [10] Thanks to these systems, conservationists can find the key sites for migratory species. [10] Another form of satellite tracking would be the use of acoustic telemetry . This involves the use of electronic tags that emit sound in order for the researchers to track and monitor an animal within three dimensions, which is helpful in instances when large quantities of a species are being tracked at a time. [11] Importance [ edit ] SeaTag-GEO on a turtle carrier platform for turtle tagging Electronic tags are giving scientists a complete, accurate picture of migration patterns . For example, when scientists used radio transmitters to track one herd of caribou , they learned two important things. First, they learned that the herd moves much more than previously thought. Second, they learned that each year the herd returns to about the same place to give birth . This information would have been difficult or impossible to obtain with \"low tech\" tags. Tracking migrations is an important tool to better understand and protect species . For example, Florida manatees are an endangered species , and therefore they need protection. Radio tracking showed that Florida manatees may travel as far as Rhode Island when they migrate. This information suggests that the manatees may need protection along much of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Previously, protection efforts focused mainly in the Florida area. In the wake of the BP oil spill , efforts in tracking animals has increased in the Gulf. Most researchers who use electronic tags have only a few options: pop-up satellite tags, archival tags, or satellite tags. Historically these tags were generally expensive and could cost several thousands of dollars per tag. However, with current advancements in technology prices are now allowing researchers to tag more animals. With this increase in the number of species and individuals that can be tagged it is important to record and acknowledge the potential negative effects these devices might have. [12] [13] See also [ edit ] Acoustic tag Bird ringing Data storage tag Light level geolocator GIS and aquatic science Pop-up satellite archival tag Tracking collar Coded wire tag References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"Technology and Development at the USDA Forest Service, Satellite/GPS Telemetry for Monitoring Lesser Prairie Chickens\" . www.fs.fed.us . Retrieved 2017-03-02 . Jump up ^ Original text (in public domain):\"Internal radio transmitters have the advantage of remaining intact and functioning longer than traditional attachments. Implanted transmitters also are protected from extrinsic variables such as environmental elements and wear (Eagle et al. 1984).\" (Lander et al. 2005) http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1191&context=usdeptcommercepub (accessed 29 November 2012) ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Animal Migration Research, Jeff Kelly Lab\" . www.animalmigration.org . Retrieved 2017-03-02 . Jump up ^ Stutchbury, Bridget J. M.; Tarof, Scott A.; Done, Tyler; Gow, Elizabeth; Kramer, Patrick M.; Tautin, John; Fox, James W.; Afanasyev, Vsevolod (2009-02-13). \"Tracking Long-Distance Songbird Migration by Using Geolocators\" . Science . 323 (5916): 896–896. doi : 10.1126/science.1166664 . ISSN 0036-8075 . PMID 19213909 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"PIT Tag Information Systems (PTAGIS) | Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission\" . www.psmfc.org . Retrieved 2017-03-02 . Jump up ^ \"Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) Tags in the Study of Animal Movement | Learn Science at Scitable\" . www.nature.com . Retrieved 2017-03-02 . ^ Jump up to: a b Gavashelishvili, A.; McGrady, M. J. (2007). \"Radio-satellite telemetry of a territorial Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the Caucasus\". Vulture News . 56 : 4–13. Jump up ^ Gavashelishvili, A.; McGrady, M.; Ghasabian, M.; Bildstein, K. L. (2012). \"Movements and habitat use by immature Cinereous Vultures ( Aegypius monachus ) from the Caucasus\". Bird Study . iFirst: 1–14. doi : 10.1080/00063657.2012.728194 . Jump up ^ http://www.seaturtle.org/ ^ Jump up to: a b Northern Bald Ibis Project Jump up ^ \"Acoustic Telemetry Fisheries Research\" . www.htisonar.com . Retrieved 2017-03-02 . Jump up ^ Bell, S. C.; El Harouchi, M.; Hewson, C. M.; Burgess, M. D. (2017). \"No short- or long-term effects of geolocator attachment detected in Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca\" . Ibis . 159 (4): 734–743. doi : 10.1111/ibi.12493 . Jump up ^ Weiser, E. L.; et al. (2016). \"Effects of geolocators on hatching success, return rates, breeding movements, and change in body mass in 16 species of Arctic-breeding shorebirds\" . Movement Ecology . 4 (12). doi : 10.1111/ibi.12493 . CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. ( link ) External links [ edit ] \"Satellite Tracking.\" Space Today . Tomkiewicz, Jr, Stanley. \"Tracking animal Wild life.\" telonics. Zanoni, Mary. \"Animal ID.\" Klamath Basin. \"John James Audubon.\" Audubon. National Audubon Society, Inc. \"Satellite Tracking Migratory Birds.\" Western Ecological Research Center. \"Satellite Tracking Threatened Manatees.\" Space Today . \"Tracking Manatee Movement.\" Save The Manatee Club. \"Manatee Migration Updates.\" Journey North. Learner. Radio interview Robert and Kirk Miner remember their grandfather, Jack Miner, and talk about the Jack Miner Migratory Bird Sanctuary. Originally aired February 1, 2008. [ show ] Fisheries science and wild fisheries Fisheries science Population dynamics of fisheries Shifting baseline Fish stock Fish mortality Condition index Stock assessment Fish measurement Standard weight in fish Fish counter Data storage tag Catch per unit effort Otolith microchemical analysis Biomass Fisheries acoustics Acoustic tag Coded wire tag GIS and aquatic science Pop-up satellite archival tag EcoSCOPE Age class structure Trophic level Trophic cascades Match/mismatch hypothesis Fisheries and climate change Marine biology Aquatic ecosystems Bioeconomics EconMult Ecopath FishBase Census of Marine Life OSTM Fisheries databases Institutes Fisheries scientists Wild fisheries Ocean fisheries Diversity of fish Coastal fish Coral reef fish Demersal fish Forage fish Pelagic fish Cod fisheries Crab fisheries Eel fisheries Krill fisheries Kelp fisheries Lobster fisheries Shrimp fishery Eel ladder Fish ladder Fish screen Migration Salmon run Sardine run Shoaling and schooling Marine habitats Marine snow Water column Upwelling Humboldt current Algal blooms Dead zones Fish kill [ show ] Fisheries management , sustainability and conservation Management Fisheries management Fisheries law Monitoring control and surveillance Vessel monitoring system Fishery Resources Monitoring System Catch reporting Fisheries observer Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Magnuson–Stevens Act Pulse fishing Fisheries organizations Quotas Catch share Individual fishing quota Minimum landing size Slot limit Bycatch Discards Incidental catch Cetacean bycatch Turtle excluder device Shrimp-Turtle case EU quotas EU MLS Exclusive economic zone Sustainability Sustainable fisheries Maximum sustainable yield List of harvested aquatic animals by weight Sustainable seafood Overfishing Environmental effects of fishing Fishing down the food web Destructive fishing practices Future of Marine Animal Populations The Sunken Billions The End of the Line Conservation Marine Protected Area Marine reserve Marine conservation Marine conservation activism Salmon conservation Grey nurse shark conservation Shark sanctuary Organisations The Black Fish Marine Stewardship Council Aquaculture Stewardship Council Friend of the Sea SeaChoice Seafood Watch Ocean Conservancy Ocean Outcomes Oceana Sea Around Us Project WorldFish Center Defying Ocean's End HERMIONE PROFISH International Seafood Sustainability Foundation Sea Shepherd Conservation Society Greenpeace Related issues CalCOFI Fish slaughter Marine pollution Mercury in fish Shark finning Threatened sharks Threatened rays List of fishing topics by subject Index of fishing articles Fisheries glossary [ show ] v t e Swarming Biological swarming Agent-based model in biology Bait ball Collective animal behavior Feeding frenzy Flock Flocking Herd Herd behavior Mixed-species foraging flock Mobbing behavior Pack Pack hunter Patterns of self-organization in ants Shoaling and schooling Sort sol Symmetry breaking of escaping ants Swarming behaviour Swarming (honey bee) Swarming motility Animal migration Animal migration altitudinal tracking coded wire tag Bird migration flyways reverse migration Cell migration Fish migration diel vertical lessepsian salmon run sardine run Homing natal philopatry Insect migration butterflies monarch Sea turtle migration Swarm algorithms Agent-based models Ant colony optimization Artificial ants Boids Crowd simulation Particle swarm optimization Swarm intelligence Swarm (simulation) Collective motion Active matter Collective motion Self-propelled particles clustering Vicsek model Swarm robotics Ant robotics I-Swarm Microbotics Nanorobotics Swarm robotics Symbrion Related topics Allee effect Animal navigation Collective intelligence Decentralised system Eusociality Group size measures Microbial intelligence Mutualism Predator satiation Quorum sensing Spatial organization Stigmergy Military swarming Task allocation and partitioning of social insects Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_migration_tracking&oldid=807037308 \" Categories : Zoology Wireless locating Animal migration Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. Articles needing additional references from June 2014 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 25 October 2017, at 14:07. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Animal migration tracking", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Animal_migration_tracking&amp;oldid=807037308" }

{ "text": "The Great Book of Nature - Wikipedia The Great Book of Nature From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Great Book Of Nature The Great Book Of Nature Music by John Sposito Country of origin Italy Original language(s) English, Italian No. of episodes 54 Production Running time 26 Minutes Production company(s) Mondo TV Release Original network Rai 2 Original release June 7, 1999 ( 1999-06-07 ) – August 25, 2000 ( 2000-08-25 ) External links Website The Great Book of Nature ( Italian : Il Grande Libro della Natura ) is an Italian animated series produced by Mondo TV in 1999. It is composed of non- sequential episodes hosted by a bear, this series features various kind of creatures, such as fish, insects and birds, while depicting their different habitats - whether sea, land or sky. At the end of each episode, the audience is treated to instructive sets of questions and answers that teach young viewers about a given creature’s various kind of behaviours. [1] There are 54 different episode of it of different stories. [2] This show was telecast in India in Just Kids! on Sahara TV . This show was shown in various countries in different languages after Mondo TV went public. [3] Episodes [ edit ] The Hedgehog The Raccoon The Monkey The Bea The Rabbit The Wolf The Turtle The Red Fox The Squirrel The Brown Bear The Rat The Wild Cat The Hare The Butterfly The Bee The Dragonfly The Red Ant The Hornet The Fly The Ladybird The Duck The Magpie The Swan The Woodpecker The Crow The Sparrow The Goldfinch The Robin The Stork The Frog The Sea Turtle The Goat The Pig The Rooster The Bull Domestic Goat The Chicken The Horse The Cuttle Fish The Octopus The Crab The Fighting Fish The Golden Fish The Killer Whale The Dolphin The Dragon The Winged Horse The Cat The Dog The Bulldog The Greyhound The Poodle The Cocker Spaniel References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Mondo TV S.P.A - Library The Great Book Of Nature\" . Mondo TV Italy 1999. Jump up ^ \"The Great Book Of Nature\" . Mondo TV Youtube. Jump up ^ \"Italy's Mondo TV Goes Public\" . AWN News. 16 June 2000. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Great_Book_of_Nature&oldid=853981165 \" Categories : Italian animated television series 1999 Italian television series debuts 2000 Italian television series endings Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 8 August 2018, at 04:53 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Great Book of Nature", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Great_Book_of_Nature&amp;oldid=853981165" }

{ "text": "Key (music) - Wikipedia Key (music) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the instrument part, see Key (instrument) . For the YouTube product, see Music Key . \"Major Key\" redirects here. For the DJ Khaled album, see Major Key (album) . In music theory , the key of a piece is the group of pitches, or scale , that forms the basis of a music composition in classical , Western art, and Western pop music. The group features a tonic note and its corresponding chords , also called a tonic or tonic chord , which provides a subjective sense of arrival and rest, and also has a unique relationship to the other pitches of the same group, their corresponding chords, and pitches and chords outside the group. [1] Notes and chords other than the tonic in a piece create varying degrees of tension, resolved when the tonic note or chord returns. The key may be in the major or minor mode, though musicians assume major in a statement like, \"This piece is in C.\" Popular songs are usually in a key, and so is classical music during the common practice period , around 1650–1900. Longer pieces in the classical repertoire may have sections in contrasting keys . Contents [ hide ] 1 Overview 2 Keys and tonality 3 Instruments in a key 4 Key coloration 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Overview [ edit ] Methods that establish the key for a particular piece can be complicated to explain and vary over music history. [ citation needed ] However, the chords most often used in a piece in a particular key are those that contain the notes in the corresponding scale , and conventional progressions of these chords, particularly cadences , orient the listener around the tonic. The key signature is not always a reliable guide to the key of a written piece. It does not discriminate between a major key and its relative minor; the piece may modulate to a different key; if the modulation is brief, it may not involve a change of key signature, being indicated instead with accidentals . Occasionally, a piece in a mode such as Mixolydian or Dorian is written with a major or minor key signature appropriate to the tonic, and accidentals throughout the piece. Pieces in modes not corresponding to major or minor keys may sometimes be referred to as being in the key of the tonic. A piece using some other type of harmony , resolving e.g. to A, might be described as \"in A\" to indicate that A is the tonal center of the piece. An instrument is \"in a key,\" an unrelated usage that means the pitches considered \"natural\" for that instrument. For example, modern trumpets are usually in the key of B ♭ , since the notes produced without using the valves correspond to the harmonic series whose fundamental pitch is B ♭ . (Such instruments are called transposing when their written notes differ from concert pitch .) A key relationship is the relationship between keys, measured by common tone and nearness on the circle of fifths . See closely related key . Keys and tonality [ edit ] Perfect authentic cadence (V-I [here in V 7 -I form] with roots in the bass and tonic in the highest voice of the final chord): ii-V 7 -I progression in C Play ( help · info ) . The key usually identifies the tonic note and/or chord: the note and/or major or minor triad that represents the final point of rest for a piece, or the focal point of a section. Though the key of a piece may be named in the title (e.g., Symphony in C major), or inferred from the key signature , the establishment of key is brought about via functional harmony , a sequence of chords leading to one or more cadences , and/or melodic motion (such as movement from the leading-tone to the tonic). For example, the key of G includes the following pitches: G, A, B, C, D, E, and F ♯ ; and its corresponding tonic chord is G—B—D. Most often at the beginning and end of traditional pieces during the common practice period, the tonic, sometimes with its corresponding tonic chord, begins and ends a piece in a designated key. A key may be major or minor. Music can be described as being in the Dorian mode , or Phrygian , etc., and is thus usually thought of as in a specific mode rather than a key. Languages other than English may use other key naming systems . People sometimes confuse key with scale . A scale is an ordered set of notes typically used in a key, while the key is the \"center of gravity\" established by particular chord progressions . [2] Notes and chords within a key generally come from the major or minor scale associated with the tonic triad, but may also include borrowed chords , altered chords , secondary dominants , and the like. All these notes and chords, however, are used in conventional patterns that establish the primacy of the tonic note and triad. Cadences are particularly important in the establishment of key. Even cadences that do not include the tonic note or triad, such as half cadences and deceptive cadences , serve to establish key because those chord sequences imply a unique diatonic context . Short pieces may stay in a single key throughout. A typical pattern for a simple song might be as follows: a phrase ends with a cadence on the tonic, a second phrase ends with a half cadence, then a final, longer, phrase ends with an authentic cadence on the tonic. More elaborate pieces may establish the main key, then modulate to another key, or a series of keys, then back to the original key. In the Baroque it was common to repeat an entire phrase of music, called a ritornello , in each key once it was established. In Classical sonata form , the second key was typically marked with a contrasting theme . Another key may be treated as a temporary tonic, called tonicization . In common practice period compositions, and most of the Western popular music of the 20th century, pieces always begin and end in the same key, even if (as in some Romantic-era music) the key is deliberately left ambiguous at first. Some arrangements of popular songs, however, modulate sometime during the song (often in a repeat of the final chorus ) and thus end in a different key. This is an example of modulation . It should be noted that the key of the piece ... contributes an indefinable something to the evocative quality. This is very difficult to put into concrete terms, but slow movements in A-flat major do have something in common, as do fast movements in C minor, concerto allegros in D major, etc. There has been disagreement on this point. It has been argued, since standards of pitch level have changed over the centuries, that today we actually hear pieces written two centuries ago in a different (usually higher) key than that intended by the composer. It has been argued that the performer's concept of particular key is actually created by factors such as the 'feel' of the key or tonal center on the keyboard or its appearance in notation. Many musicians, however, tend toward an empirical acceptance of specific moods associated with specific keys, regardless of changes in pitch standards and other factors. — John D. White (1976) [3] Emphasis added. In rock and popular music some pieces change back and forth, or modulate, between two keys. Examples of this include Fleetwood Mac 's Dreams and The Rolling Stones ' Under My Thumb . \"This phenomenon occurs when a feature that allows multiple interpretations of key (usually a diatonic set as pitch source) is accompanied by other, more precise evidence in support of each possible interpretation (such as the use of one note as the root of the initiating harmony and persistent use of another note as pitch of melodic resolution and root of the final harmony of each phrase).\" [4] Instruments in a key [ edit ] Certain musical instruments play in a certain key, or have their music written in a certain key. Instruments that do not play in the key of C are known as transposing instruments . [5] The most common kind of clarinet , for example, is said to play in the key of B ♭ . This means that a scale written in C major in sheet music actually sounds as a B ♭ major scale when played on the B-flat clarinet—that is, notes sound a whole tone lower than written. Likewise, the horn , normally in the key of F, sounds notes a perfect fifth lower than written. Similarly, some instruments are \"built\" in a certain key. For example, a brass instrument built in B ♭ plays a fundamental note of B ♭ , and can play notes in the harmonic series starting on B ♭ without using valves, fingerholes, or slides to alter the length of the vibrating column of air. An instrument built in a certain key often, but not always, uses music written in the same key (see trombone for an exception). However, some instruments, such as the diatonic harmonica and the harp , are in fact designed to play in only one key at a time: accidentals are difficult or impossible to play. The highland bagpipes are built in B ♭ major, though the music is written in D major with implied accidentals. In Western musical composition, the key of a piece has important ramifications for its composition: As noted earlier, certain instruments are designed for a certain key, as playing in that key can be physically easier or harder. Thus the choice of key can be an important one when composing for an orchestra, as one must take these elements into consideration. In the life of the professional clarinettist, for example, it is common to carry two instruments tuned a semitone apart (B ♭ and A) to cope with the needs of composers: Mozart 's well-known clarinet concerto is in A major. To play it on a B ♭ instrument is difficult, and to rewrite all the orchestral parts to B ♭ major would be an enormous effort. Even so, it is not unheard of for a piece published in B ♭ to include notes a semitone (or more) below the range of the common B ♭ clarinet. The piece must then be played on a more exotic instrument, or transposed by hand (or at sight) for the slightly larger A clarinet. There are clarinets with an extended range, with a longer bore and additional keys. Besides this though, the timbre of almost any instrument is not exactly the same for all notes played on that instrument. For this reason a piece that might be in the key of C might sound or \"feel\" somewhat different (besides being in a different pitch) to an observer if it is transposed to the key of A. In addition, since many composers often utilized the piano while composing, the key chosen can possibly have an effect over the composing. This is because the physical fingering is different for each key, which may lend itself to choosing to play and thus eventually write certain notes or chord progressions compared to others, or this may be done on purpose to make the fingering more efficient if the final piece is intended for piano. In music that does not use equal temperament , chords played in different keys are qualitatively different. Key coloration [ edit ] Key coloration is the difference between the intervals of different keys in a single non-equal tempered tuning, and the overall sound and \"feel\" the key created by the tuning of its intervals. Historical irregular musical temperaments usually have the narrowest fifths between the diatonic notes (\"naturals\") producing purer thirds , and wider fifths among the chromatic notes (\"sharps and flats\"). Each key then has a slightly different intonation , hence different keys have distinct characters. Such \"key coloration\" was an essential part of much eighteenth- and nineteenth-century music and was described in treatises of the period. For example, in tunings with a wolf fifth , the key on the lowest note of the fifth sounds dramatically different from other keys (and is often avoided). In Pythagorean tuning on C (C, E+, G: 4, 5, 6), the major triad on C is just while the major triad on E ♯ +++ (F ♮ ) is noticeably out of tune (E ♯ +++, A+, C: ​ 4 1 ⁄ 8 , 5, 6) due to E ♯ +++ (521.44 cents) being a Pythagorean comma (23.46 cents) larger sharp compared to F ♮ . Modern music lacks key coloration because it uses equal temperament , in which all keys have the same pattern of intonation, differing only in pitch. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.studybass.com/lessons/harmony/keys-in-music/ Jump up ^ Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969), 450. Jump up ^ White, John D. (1976) The Analysis of Music , p. 94. ISBN 0-13-033233-X . Jump up ^ Ken Stephenson, What to Listen for in Rock: A Stylistic Analysis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 48. ISBN 978-0-300-09239-4 . Jump up ^ Kent Wheeler Kennan, The Technique of Orchestration , second edition (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970), 1952; ISBN 0-13-900316-9 . Further reading [ edit ] Innig, Renate (1970). System der Funktionsbezeichnung in den Harmonielehren seit Hugo Riemann . Düsseldorf: Gesellschaft zur Förderung der systematischen Musikwissenschaft. Rahn, John (1980). Basic Atonal Theory . New York: Longman; London and Toronto: Prentice Hall International. ISBN 0-02-873160-3 . Reprinted 1987, New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan. Steblin, Rita (1983). A History of Key Characteristics in the 18th and Early 19th Centuries . UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor . External links [ edit ] Christian Schubart's \"Affective Key Characteristic\" Characteristics of Musical Keys - from various sources. Key coloration http://www.rollingball.com/A01c.htm http://campus.murraystate.edu/staff/scott.thile/research/unequal/index.htm show v t e Diatonic scales and keys Flats Sharps Major minor Major minor 0 C a C a 1 F d G e 2 B ♭ g D b 3 E ♭ c A f ♯ 4 A ♭ f E c ♯ 5 D ♭ b ♭ B g ♯ 6 G ♭ e ♭ F ♯ d ♯ 7 C ♭ a ♭ C ♯ a ♯ 8 F ♭ d ♭ G ♯ e ♯ The table indicates the number of sharps or flats in each scale. Minor scales are written in lower case. show v t e Musical key Circle of fifths Closely related Diatonic scale Homotonal Major and minor Modulation Music in all keys Parallel Relative Signature Names and translations Tonic Transposing Instrument show v t e Tonality Cadence Circle of fifths Consonance and dissonance Diatonic scale Diatonic function Secondary function Figured bass Just intonation Key Major and minor Modulation Neotonality Ostinato Otonality and Utonality Parallel key Polytonality Progressive tonality Schenkerian analysis Sonata form Tonality diamond Tonicization Voice leading Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Key_(music)&oldid=849662407 \" Categories : Musical keys Musical tuning Tonality Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013 Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 10 July 2018, at 14:08 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Key (music)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Key_(music)&amp;oldid=849662407" }

{ "text": "Ode to Joy - Wikipedia Ode to Joy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about Schiller's poem. For the \"Ode to Joy\" theme by Beethoven, see Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven) . For other uses, see Ode to Joy (disambiguation) . Ode to Joy by Friedrich Schiller Autographed manuscript, circa 1785 Original title An die Freude Written 1785 Country Germany Language German Form Ode Publisher Thalia Publication date 1786, 1808 \" Ode to Joy \" (German: \"An die Freude\" [an diː ˈfʁɔʏdə] ), is an ode written in the summer of 1785 by German poet, playwright, and historian Friedrich Schiller and published the following year in Thalia . A slightly revised version appeared in 1808, changing two lines of the first and omitting the last stanza. \"Ode to Joy\" is best known for its use by Ludwig van Beethoven in the final (fourth) movement of his Ninth Symphony , completed in 1824. Beethoven's text is not based entirely on Schiller's poem, and introduces a few new sections. His tune [1] (but not Schiller's words) was adopted as the Anthem of Europe by the Council of Europe in 1972 and subsequently by the European Union . Contents 1 The poem 1.1 Lyrics 1.1.1 Revisions 1.1.2 Ode to Freedom 2 Use of Beethoven's setting 3 Other musical settings 4 References 5 External links The poem [ edit ] Schillerhaus ( de ) in Gohlis Schiller wrote the first version of the poem when he was staying in Gohlis , Leipzig . In the year 1785 from the beginning of May till mid September, he stayed with his publisher Georg Joachim Göschen in Leipzig and wrote \"An die Freude\" along with his play Don Carlos . [2] Schiller later made some revisions to the poem which was then republished posthumously in 1808 , and it was this latter version that forms the basis for Beethoven's setting. Despite the lasting popularity of the ode, Schiller himself regarded it as a failure later in his life, going so far as to call it \"detached from reality\" and \"of value maybe for us two, but not for the world, nor for the art of poetry\" in an 1800 letter to his long-time friend and patron Christian Gottfried Körner (whose friendship had originally inspired him to write the ode). [3] Lyrics [ edit ] \" An die Freude \" \"Ode to Joy\" Freude, schöner Götterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium, Wir betreten feuertrunken, Himmlische, dein Heiligtum! Deine Zauber binden wieder Was die Mode streng geteilt*; Alle Menschen werden Brüder* Wo dein sanfter Flügel weilt. Wem der große Wurf gelungen Eines Freundes Freund zu sein; Wer ein holdes Weib errungen Mische seinen Jubel ein! Ja, wer auch nur eine Seele Sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund! Und wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle Weinend sich aus diesem Bund! Freude trinken alle Wesen An den Brüsten der Natur; Alle Guten, alle Bösen Folgen ihrer Rosenspur. Küsse gab sie uns und Reben, Einen Freund, geprüft im Tod; Wollust ward dem Wurm gegeben und der Cherub steht vor Gott. Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen Durch des Himmels prächt'gen Plan Laufet, Brüder, eure Bahn, Freudig, wie ein Held zum siegen. Seid umschlungen, Millionen! Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt! Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt Muß ein lieber Vater wohnen. Ihr stürzt nieder, Millionen? Ahnest du den Schöpfer, Welt? Such' ihn über'm Sternenzelt! Über Sternen muß er wohnen. Joy, beautiful spark of Divinity, Daughter from Elysium , We enter, drunk with fire, Heavenly One, thy sanctuary! Your magic binds again What convention strictly divides;* All people become brothers,* Where your gentle wing abides. Who has succeeded in the great attempt, To be a friend's friend, Whoever has won a lovely woman, Add his to the jubilation! Indeed, who calls even one soul Theirs upon this world! And whoever never managed, shall steal himself Weeping away from this union! All creatures drink of joy At nature's breast. Just and unjust Alike taste of her gift; She gave us kisses and the fruit of the vine, A tried friend to the end. [Even] the worm has been granted sensuality, And the cherub stands before God! Gladly, as His heavenly bodies fly On their courses through the heavens, Thus, brothers, you should run your race, Joyful, like a hero going to conquest. You millions, be embraced. This kiss is for all the world! Brothers, above the starry canopy There must dwell a loving Father. Do you fall in worship, you millions? World, do you know your creator? Seek him in the heavens Above the stars must He dwell. Revisions [ edit ] The lines marked with * have been revised as follows: Original Revised Translation of original Translation of revision Comment was der Mode Schwerd geteilt Was die Mode streng geteilt what the sword of custom divided What custom strictly divided The original meaning of Mode was \"custom, contemporary taste\". [4] Bettler werden Fürstenbrüder Alle Menschen werden Brüder beggars become brothers of princes All people become brothers Ode to Freedom [ edit ] Academic speculation remains as to whether Schiller originally wrote an Ode to Freedom (Ode an die Freiheit) and changed it to an Ode to Joy. [5] [6] \"... [T]he thought lies near that it was the early form of the poem, when it was still an 'Ode to Freedom' (not 'to Joy'), which first aroused enthusiastic admiration for it in Beethoven's mind\". [7] Use of Beethoven's setting [ edit ] The ode to joy has been used as the anthem of Europe. Over the years, Beethoven's \"Ode to Joy\" has remained a protest anthem and a celebration of music. From demonstrators in Chile singing during demonstration against the Pinochet dictatorship, Chinese student broadcast at Tiananmen Square , the concert conducted by Leonard Bernstein after the fall of the Berlin Wall and Daiku (Number Nine) concerts in Japan every December and one after the 2011 tsunami . [8] It has recently inspired impromptu performances at public spaces by musicians in many countries worldwide, including Choir Without Borders's 2009 performance at a railway station [9] in Leipzig, to mark the 20th and 25th anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall, Hong Kong Festival Orchestra 's 2013 performance at a Hong Kong mall, and performance in Sabadell, Spain. [10] A 2013 documentary, Following the Ninth , directed by Kerry Candaele, follows its continuing popularity. [8] [11] It was played after Emmanuel Macron 's victory in the 2017 French Presidential elections , when Macron gave his victory speech at the Louvre . [12] Pianist Igor Levit played the piece at the Royal Albert Hall during the 2017 Proms . [13] The song's Christian context was one of the main reasons for Nichiren Shōshū Buddhism to excommunicate the Soka Gakkai organization for their use of the hymn at their meetings. [14] Other musical settings [ edit ] Other musical settings of the poem include: Christian Gottfried Körner (1786) Carl Friedrich Zelter (1792), for choir and accompaniment, later rewritten for different instrumentations. Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1796) Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson (1796) Johann Friedrich Hugo von Dalberg (1799) Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg (1803) Schubert's \"An die Freude\", D 189 [rendering on electronic piano] Problems playing this file? See media help . Franz Schubert 's song \"An die Freude\", D 189, for voice, unison choir and piano. Composed in May 1815, Schubert's setting was first published in 1829 as Op. post. 111 No. 1. The 19th century Gesamt-Ausgabe included it as a lied in Series XX, Volume 2 (No. 66) . The New Schubert Edition groups it with the part songs in Series III (Volume 3). [15] Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1865), for solo singers, choir and orchestra in a Russian translation Pietro Mascagni cantata \"Alla gioia\" (1882), Italian text by Andrea Maffei \" Seid umschlungen, Millionen! \" (1892), waltz by Johann Strauss II Z. Randall Stroope (2002), for choir and four-hand piano Victoria Poleva (2009), for soprano, mixed choir and symphony orchestra References [ edit ] Jump up ^ The usual name of the Hymn tune is \"Hymn to Joy\" \"Hymnary – Hymn to Joy\" . Retrieved 11 October 2013 . Jump up ^ History of the Schiller House Jump up ^ The German text can be found at http://www.wissen-im-netz.info/literatur/schiller/briefe/koerner/1800/571.htm Jump up ^ Duden – Das Herkunftswörterbuch . Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut. 1963. p. 446. ISBN 3-411-00907-1 . The word was derived via French from ultimately Latin wikt:modus . Duden cites as first meanings \" Brauch, Sitte, Tages-, Zeitgeschmack \". The primary modern meaning has shifted more towards \"fashion\". Jump up ^ W. Kubacki, \"Das Werk Juliusz Slowackis und seine Bedeutung für die polnische Literatur\", Zeitschrift für Slawistik , Volume 5, Issue 1 (Jan 1960) Jump up ^ Das \"Alle Menschen werden Brüder\", das Schiller in seiner Ode an die Freude (eigentlich Ode an die Freiheit) formuliert,... - Alexander Görlach, \" Der Glaube an die Freiheit \", Debatte , 4 August 2010 Jump up ^ Thayer, A. W. (1817-97), rev and ed. Elliot Forbes . Thayer's Life of Beethoven . (2 vols. 1967,1991) Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 895. ^ Jump up to: a b Daniel M. Gold (October 31, 2013). \"The Ode Heard Round the World: Following the Ninth Explores Beethoven's Legacy\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 28 Sep 2014 . Jump up ^ Video of a \"flash mob\" – \"Ode to Joy\" sung at Leipzig railway station (8 November 2009) on YouTube Jump up ^ Megan Garber (9 July 2012). \"Ode to Joy: 50 String Instruments That Will Melt Your Heart\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved 2014-09-28 . Jump up ^ \"Beethoven's Flash Mobs\" . billmoyers.com . November 14, 2013. Jump up ^ Nougayrède, Natalie (8 May 2017). \"Macron's victory march to Europe's anthem said more than words\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 16 July 2017 . Jump up ^ \"EU anthem played at Proms' first night\" . BBC News . BBC. 14 July 2017 . Retrieved 16 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Excommunication , daisakuikeda.org (undated) Jump up ^ Otto Erich Deutsch et al. Schubert Thematic Catalogue , German edition 1978 (Bärenreiter), pp. 128–129 External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ode an die Freude . Works related to Ode to Joy at Wikisource German Wikisource has original text related to this article: An die Freude (Schiller) (1786) German Wikisource has original text related to this article: An die Freude (Beethoven) An die Freude text and translations at The LiederNet Archive German and English text , Schiller Institute show v t e Ludwig van Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 Musical settings \" Ode to Joy \" \" The Hymn of Joy \" \" A Song of Joy \" \" Anthem of Europe \" \" Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia \" \" Visan om solen, månen och planeterna \" Other \" Road to Joy \" \" Will You Be There \" Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM Copying Beethoven 9 Beet Stretch show v t e Songs by Franz Schubert Part songs \" Schwertlied \", D 170 \" An die Freude \", D 189 \"Ständchen\", D 920 Lieder \" Der Taucher \", D 77 \" Gretchen am Spinnrade \", D 118 \" Rastlose Liebe \", D 130 \" Der Mondabend \", D 141 \" Amphiaraos \", D 166 \" Die Bürgschaft \", D 246 \" Heidenröslein \", D 257 \" Vaterlandslied \", D 287 \" Hermann und Thusnelda \", D 322 \" Der Erlkönig \", D 328 \" Der König in Thule \", D 367 \" Der Wanderer \", D 489 \"Wiegenlied\", D 498 \" Der Tod und das Mädchen \", D 531 \" An die Musik \", D 547 \" Die Forelle \", D 550 \" Prometheus \", D 674 \" Willkommen und Abschied \", D 767 \" Der Zwerg \", D 771 \" Auf dem Wasser zu singen \", D 774 \" Du bist die Ruh' , D 776 \" Lachen und Weinen \", D 777 \" Nacht und Träume \", D 827 \" Ave Maria \", D 839 \" Im Frühling \", D 882 \"Ständchen\", D 889 \" An Sylvia \", D 891 \" Der Doppelgänger \", D 957 No. 13 \" Der Hirt auf dem Felsen \", D 965 Cycles Schubert's song cycles , including: Die schöne Müllerin , D 795 Winterreise , D 911 Schwanengesang , D 957 Multiple Mignon \" Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt \" Romanze Sehnsucht Ständchen Trinklied \" Wandrers Nachtlied \" List of compositions by Franz Schubert List of compositions by Franz Schubert by genre Schubert opus/Deutsch number concordance Authority control WorldCat Identities GND : 4590404-2 LCCN : n86113990 VIAF : 187059293 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ode_to_Joy&oldid=852946094 \" Categories : Poetry by Friedrich Schiller 1785 poems Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven 1824 compositions Hidden categories: Articles containing German-language text Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Interlanguage link template link number Articles with hAudio microformats Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lumbaart Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Papiamentu Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 42 more Edit links This page was last edited on 1 August 2018, at 12:09 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Gospel of John - Wikipedia Gospel of John From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Books of the New Testament Gospels Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Acts of the Apostles Epistles Romans 1 Corinthians · 2 Corinthians Galatians · Ephesians Philippians · Colossians 1 Thessalonians · 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy · 2 Timothy Titus · Philemon Hebrews · James 1 Peter · 2 Peter 1 John · 2 John · 3 John Jude Apocalypse Revelation New Testament manuscripts v t e This article is about the book in the New Testament. For the film, see The Gospel of John (film) . Not to be confused with First Epistle of John . Part of a series of articles on John in the Bible Johannine literature Gospel Epistles First Second Third Revelation Events Authorship Apostle Beloved disciple Evangelist Patmos Presbyter Related literature Apocryphon Acts Signs Gospel See also Johannine Christianity Logos Holy Spirit in Johannine literature John's vision of the Son of Man New Testament people named John v t e The Gospel According to John is the fourth of the canonical gospels . [1] [Notes 1] The work is anonymous, although it identifies an unnamed \"disciple whom Jesus loved\" as the source of its traditions. [2] It is closely related in style and content to the three Johannine epistles , and most scholars treat the four books, along with the Book of Revelation , as a single corpus of Johannine literature , albeit not from the same author. [3] C. K. Barrett , [4] [Notes 2] and later Raymond E. Brown , [6] suggested that a tradition developed around the \" Johannine Community \", and that this tradition gave rise to the gospel. [7] The discovery of a large number of papyrus fragments of manuscripts with Johannine themes has led more scholars to recognize that the texts were among the most influential in the early Church. [8] The discourses contained in this gospel seem to be concerned with issues of the church–synagogue debate at the time of composition. [9] It is notable that in John, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism , rather than as part of a wider Christian community. [Notes 3] Though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of mutual opposition between the two religions. [10] Contents 1 Composition and setting 1.1 The Johannine literature 1.2 Composition 1.3 Sources 2 Structure and content 3 Theology 3.1 Christology 3.2 Logos 3.3 Cross 3.4 Sacraments 3.4.1 Frequency of allusion 3.4.2 Importance to the evangelist 3.5 Individualism 3.6 John the Baptist 3.7 Gnostic elements 4 Comparison with other writings 4.1 Material 4.2 Theological emphasis 4.3 Chronology 4.4 Literary style 4.5 Discrepancies 4.6 Historical reliability 5 Representations 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Footnotes 7.3 Bibliography 8 External links Composition and setting [ edit ] Further information: Authorship of the Johannine works A Syriac Christian rendition of St. John the Evangelist, from the Rabbula Gospels . The Johannine literature [ edit ] The Gospel of John, the three Johannine epistles , and the Book of Revelation , exhibit marked similarities, although more so between the gospel and the epistles (especially the gospel and 1 John) than between those and Revelation. [11] Most scholars therefore treat the five as a single corpus of Johannine literature , albeit not from the same author. [3] Composition [ edit ] The gospel of John went through two to three stages, or \"editions\", before reaching its current form around AD 90–110. [12] [13] It arose in a Jewish Christian community probably located in Ephesus in modern Turkey, although other possibilities include Antioch (Syria), Palestine, and Alexandria (Egypt). [14] It speaks of an unnamed \"disciple whom Jesus loved\" as the source of its traditions, but does not say specifically that he is its author. [2] Christian tradition identified this disciple as the apostle John , but for a variety of reasons the majority of scholars have abandoned this view or hold it only tenuously. [15] [Notes 4] Sources [ edit ] The scholarly consensus in the second half of the 20th century was that John was independent of the synoptic gospels ( Matthew , Mark , and Luke ), but this agreement broke down in the last decade of the century and there are now many who believe that John did know some version of Mark and possibly Luke, as he shares with them some items of vocabulary and clusters of incidents arranged in the same order. [16] [17] Key terms from the synoptics, however, are absent or nearly so, implying that if the author did know those gospels he felt free to write independently. [17] Many incidents in John, such as the wedding in Cana and the encounter with the Samaritan woman at the well, are not paralleled in the synoptics, and most scholars believe he drew these from an independent source called the \" signs gospel \", and the speeches of Jesus from a second \"discourse\" source. [18] [17] Most scholars agree that the prologue to John employs an early hymn. [19] The gospel makes extensive use of the Jewish scriptures. [18] John quotes from them directly, references important figures from them, and uses narratives from them as the basis for several of the discourses. But the author was also familiar with non-Jewish sources: the Logos of the prologue (the Word that is with God from the beginning of creation) derives from both the Jewish concept of Lady Wisdom and from the Greek philosophers, while John 6 alludes not only to the exodus but also to Greco-Roman mystery cults, while John 4 alludes to Samaritan messianic beliefs. [20] Structure and content [ edit ] Jesus giving the Farewell Discourse to his 11 remaining disciples, from the Maestà of Duccio , 1308–1311. Further information: Prologue to John , Book of Signs , and John 21 The majority of scholars see four sections in this gospel: a prologue (1:1-18); an account of the ministry, often called the \" Book of Signs \" (1:19-12:50); the account of Jesus' final night with his disciples and the passion and resurrection, sometimes called the \"book of glory\" (13:1-20:31); and an epilogue which did not form part of the original text (Chapter 21). [21] [22] The prologue informs readers of the true identity of Jesus: he is the Word of God through whom the world was created and who took on human form. [23] John 1:10-12 outlines the story to follow: Jesus came to the Jews and the Jews rejected him, but \"to all who received him (the circle of Christian believers), who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God.\" [24] Jesus is baptised, calls his disciples, and begins his earthly ministry. [25] He travels from place to place informing his hearers about God the Father, offering eternal life to all who will believe, and performing miracles which are signs of the authenticity of his teachings. [25] [26] This creates tensions with the religious authorities (manifested as early as 5:17-18), who decide that he must be eliminated. [25] Jesus prepares the disciples for their coming lives without his physical presence, and prays for them and for himself. [26] The scene is thus prepared for the narrative of his passion, death and resurrection. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel: \"that [the reader] may believe that Jesus is the Christ , the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name.\" [27] Chapter 21 tells of Jesus' post-resurrection appearance to his disciples in Galilee, the miraculous catch of fish , the prophecy of the crucifixion of Peter , the restoration of Peter , and the fate of the Beloved Disciple . [27] The structure is highly schematic: there are seven \"signs\" culminating in the raising of Lazarus (foreshadowing the resurrection of Jesus ), and seven \"I am\" sayings and discourses, culminating in Thomas's proclamation of the risen Jesus as \"my Lord and my God\" (the same title, dominus et deus , claimed by the Emperor Domitian , an indication of the date of composition). [28] Theology [ edit ] The Rylands Papyrus the oldest known New Testament fragment, dated from its handwriting to about 125. Christology [ edit ] Further information: Christology John's \"high Christology\" depicts Jesus as divine, preexistent, and identified with the one God. [29] talking openly about his divine role and echoing Yahweh 's \" I Am that I Am \" with seven \" I Am \" declarations of his own. [Notes 5] Logos [ edit ] Main article: Logos (Christianity) In the prologue, John identifies Jesus as the Logos (Word). In Ancient Greek philosophy , the term logos meant the principle of cosmic reason. In this sense, it was similar to the Hebrew concept of Wisdom , God's companion and intimate helper in creation. The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo merged these two themes when he described the Logos as God's creator of and mediator with the material world. The evangelist adapted Philo's description of the Logos, applying it to Jesus, the incarnation of the Logos. [30] Cross [ edit ] The portrayal of Jesus' death in John is unique among the four Gospels. It does not appear to rely on the kinds of atonement theology indicative of vicarious sacrifice (cf. Mk 10:45, Rom 3:25) but rather presents the death of Jesus as his glorification and return to the father. Likewise, the three \"passion predictions\" of the Synoptic Gospels (Mk 8:31, 9:31, 10:33–34 and pars.) are replaced instead in John with three instances of Jesus explaining how he will be exalted or \"lifted up\"(Jn 3:14, 8:28, 12:32). The verb for \"lifted up\" reflects the double entendre at work in John's theology of the cross, for Jesus is both physically elevated from the earth at the crucifixion but also, at the same time, exalted and glorified. [31] Sacraments [ edit ] Further information: Sacrament Among the most controversial areas of interpretation of John is its sacramental theology. Scholars' views have fallen along a wide spectrum ranging from anti-sacramental and non-sacramental, to sacramental, to ultra-sacramental and hyper-sacramental. Scholars disagree both on whether and how frequently John refers to the sacraments at all, and on the degree of importance he places upon them. Individual scholars' answers to one of these questions do not always correspond to their answer to the other. [32] Frequency of allusion [ edit ] According to Rudolf Bultmann , there are three sacramental allusions: one to baptism ( 3:5 ), one to the Eucharist ( 6:51–58 ), and one to both ( 19:34 ). He believed these passages to be later interpolations, though most scholars now reject this assessment. Some scholars on the weaker-sacramental side of the spectrum deny that there are any sacramental allusions in these passages or in the gospel as a whole, while others see sacramental symbolism applied to other subjects in these and other passages. Oscar Cullmann and Bruce Vawter , a Protestant and a Catholic respectively, and both on the stronger-sacramental end of the spectrum, have found sacramental allusions in most chapters. Cullmann found references to baptism and the Eucharist throughout the gospel, and Vawter found additional references to matrimony in 2:1–11 , anointing of the sick in 12:1–11 , and penance in 20:22–23 . Towards the center of the spectrum, Raymond Brown is more cautious than Cullmann and Vawter but more lenient than Bultmann and his school, identifying several passages as containing sacramental allusions and rating them according to his assessment of their degree of certainty. [32] Importance to the evangelist [ edit ] Most scholars on the stronger-sacramental end of the spectrum assess the sacraments as being of great importance to the evangelist. However, perhaps counterintuitively, some scholars who find fewer sacramental references, such as Udo Schnelle , view the references that they find as highly important as well. Schnelle in particular views John's sacramentalism as a counter to Docetist anti-sacramentalism. On the other hand, though he agrees that there are anti-Docetic passages, James Dunn views the absence of a Eucharistic institution narrative as evidence for an anti-sacramentalism in John, meant to warn against a conception of eternal life as dependent on physical ritual. [32] Individualism [ edit ] In comparison to the synoptic gospels, the Fourth Gospel is markedly individualistic, in the sense that it places emphasis more on the individual's relation to Jesus than on the corporate nature of the Church. [32] [33] This is largely accomplished through the consistently singular grammatical structure of various aphoristic sayings of Jesus throughout the gospel. [32] [Notes 6] According to Richard Bauckham , emphasis on believers coming into a new group upon their conversion is conspicuously absent from John. [32] There is also a theme of \"personal coinherence\", that is, the intimate personal relationship between the believer and Jesus in which the believer \"abides\" in Jesus and Jesus in the believer. [33] [32] [Notes 7] According to C. F. D. Moule , the individualistic tendencies of the Fourth Gospel could potentially give rise to a realized eschatology achieved on the level of the individual believer; this realized eschatology is not, however, to replace \"orthodox\", futurist eschatological expectations, but is to be \"only [their] correlative.\" [34] Some have argued that the Beloved Disciple is meant to be all followers of Jesus, inviting all into such a personal relationship with Christ. Beyond this, the emphasis on the individual's relationship with Jesus in the Gospel has suggested its usefulness for contemplation on the life of Christ. [35] John the Baptist [ edit ] Further information: John the Baptist John's account of the Baptist is different from that of the synoptic gospels. In this gospel, John is not called \"the Baptist.\" [36] The Baptist's ministry overlaps with that of Jesus ; his baptism of Jesus is not explicitly mentioned, but his witness to Jesus is unambiguous. [36] The evangelist almost certainly knew the story of John's baptism of Jesus and he makes a vital theological use of it. [37] He subordinates the Baptist to Jesus, perhaps in response to members of the Baptist's sect who regarded the Jesus movement as an offshoot of their movement. [38] In John's gospel, Jesus and his disciples go to Judea early in Jesus' ministry before John the Baptist was imprisoned and executed by Herod. He leads a ministry of baptism larger than John's own. The Jesus Seminar rated this account as black, containing no historically accurate information. [39] According to the biblical historians at the Jesus Seminar, John likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus. [40] Gnostic elements [ edit ] Further information: Christian Gnosticism Although not commonly understood as Gnostic , many scholars, including Bultmann, have forcefully argued that the Gospel of John has elements in common with Gnosticism . [38] Christian Gnosticism did not fully develop until the mid-2nd century, and so 2nd-century Proto-Orthodox Christians concentrated much effort in examining and refuting it. [41] To say John's gospel contained elements of Gnosticism is to assume that Gnosticism had developed to a level that required the author to respond to it. [42] Bultmann, for example, argued that the opening theme of the Gospel of John, the pre-existing Logos, was actually a Gnostic theme. Other scholars, e.g. Raymond E. Brown have argued that the pre-existing Logos theme arises from the more ancient Jewish writings in the eighth chapter of the Book of Proverbs , and was fully developed as a theme in Hellenistic Judaism by Philo Judaeus . [43] Comparisons to Gnosticism are based not in what the author says, but in the language he uses to say it, notably, use of the concepts of Logos and Light. [44] Other scholars, e.g. Raymond E. Brown , have argued that the ancient Jewish Qumran community also used the concept of Light versus Darkness. The arguments of Bultmann and his school were seriously compromised by the mid-20th-century discoveries of the Nag Hammadi library of genuine Gnostic writings (which are dissimilar to the Gospel of John) as well as the Qumran library of Jewish writings (which are often similar to the Gospel of John). [45] Gnostics read John but interpreted it differently from the way non-Gnostics did. [46] Gnosticism taught that salvation came from gnosis , secret knowledge, and Gnostics did not see Jesus as a savior but a revealer of knowledge. [47] Barnabas Lindars asserts that the gospel teaches that salvation can only be achieved through revealed wisdom, specifically belief in (literally belief into ) Jesus. [48] Raymond Brown contends that \"The Johannine picture of a savior who came from an alien world above, who said that neither he nor those who accepted him were of this world, [49] and who promised to return to take them to a heavenly dwelling [50] could be fitted into the gnostic world picture (even if God's love for the world in 3:16 could not).\" [51] It has been suggested that similarities between John's gospel and Gnosticism may spring from common roots in Jewish Apocalyptic literature . [52] Comparison with other writings [ edit ] The Gospel of John is significantly different from the synoptic gospels , with major variations in material, theological emphasis, chronology, and literary style. [53] There are also some discrepancies between John and the Synoptics, some amounting to contradictions. [53] The gospel forms the core of an emerging canon of Johannine works, the Johannine corpus, consisting of the gospel, the three Johannine letters, and the Apocalypse, all coming from the same theological background and opposed to the \"Petrine corpus.\" Material [ edit ] John lacks scenes from the Synoptics such as Jesus' baptism, [54] the calling of the Twelve, exorcisms, parables, the Transfiguration, and the Last Supper. Conversely, it includes scenes not found in the Synoptics, including Jesus turning water into wine at the wedding at Cana, the resurrection of Lazarus, Jesus washing the feet of his disciples, and multiple visits to Jerusalem. [53] In the fourth gospel, Jesus' mother Mary , while frequently mentioned, is never identified by name. [55] [56] John does assert that Jesus was known as the \"son of Joseph \" in 6:42 . For John, Jesus' town of origin is irrelevant, for he comes from beyond this world, from God the Father . [57] While John makes no direct mention of Jesus' baptism, [54] [53] he does quote John the Baptist 's description of the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove , as happens at Jesus' baptism in the Synoptics. Major synoptic speeches of Jesus are absent, including the Sermon on the Mount and the Olivet Discourse , [58] and the exorcisms of demons are never mentioned as in the Synoptics. [54] [59] John never lists all of the Twelve Disciples and names at least one disciple, Nathanael , whose name is not found in the Synoptics. Thomas is given a personality beyond a mere name, described as \" Doubting Thomas \". [60] Theological emphasis [ edit ] Jesus is identified with the Word (\" Logos \"), and the Word is identified with theos (\"god\" in Greek); [61] no such identification is made in the Synoptics. [62] In Mark, Jesus urges his disciples to keep his divinity secret, but in John he is very open in discussing it, even referring to himself as \"I AM\", the title God gives himself in Exodus at his self-revelation to Moses . In the Synoptics, the chief theme is the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven (the latter specifically in Matthew), while John's theme is Jesus as the source of eternal life and the Kingdom is only mentioned twice. [53] [59] In contrast to the synoptic expectation of the Kingdom (using the term parousia , meaning \"coming\"), John presents a more individualistic, realized eschatology . [63] [64] [Notes 8] Chronology [ edit ] In the Synoptics, the ministry of Jesus takes a single year, but in John it takes three, as evidenced by references to three Passovers. Events are not all in the same order: the date of the crucifixion is different, as is the time of Jesus' anointing in Bethany and the cleansing of the temple occurs in the beginning of Jesus' ministry rather than near its end. [53] Literary style [ edit ] In the Synoptics, quotations from Jesus are usually in the form of short, pithy sayings; in John, longer quotations are often given. The vocabulary is also different, and filled with theological import: in John, Jesus does not work \"miracles\" ( Greek : δῠνάμεις , translit. dynámeis , sing. δύνᾰμῐς , dýnamis ), but \"signs\" (Greek: σημεῖᾰ , translit. sēmeia , sing. σημεῖον , sēmeion ) which unveil his divine identity. [53] Most scholars consider John not to contain any parables . [66] Rather it contains metaphorical stories or allegories , such as those of the Good Shepherd and of the True Vine , in which each individual element corresponds to a specific person, group, or thing. Some scholars, however, find some such parables as the short story of the childbearing woman ( 16:21 ) or the dying grain ( 12:24 ). [Notes 9] Discrepancies [ edit ] According to the Synoptics, the arrest of Jesus was a reaction to the cleansing of the temple, while according to John it was triggered by the raising of Lazarus. [53] The Pharisees , portrayed as more uniformly legalistic and opposed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels, are instead portrayed as sharply divided; they debate frequently in John's accounts. Some, such as Nicodemus , even go so far as to be at least partially sympathetic to Jesus. This is believed to be a more accurate historical depiction of the Pharisees, who made debate one of the tenets of their system of belief. [67] Historical reliability [ edit ] Further information: Historicity of the Bible The teachings of Jesus found in the synoptic gospels are very different from those recorded in John, and since the 19th century scholars have almost unanimously accepted that these Johannine discourses are less likely than the synoptic parables to be historical, and were likely written for theological purposes. [68] By the same token, scholars usually agree that John is not entirely without historical value: certain sayings in John are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts, his representation of the topography around Jerusalem is often superior to that of the synoptics, his testimony that Jesus was executed before, rather than on, Passover, might well be more accurate, and his presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically plausible than their synoptic parallels. [69] Representations [ edit ] Bede translating the Gospel of John on his deathbed , by James Doyle Penrose , 1902. The gospel has been depicted in live narrations and dramatized in productions, skits , plays , and Passion Plays , as well as in film . The most recent such portrayal is the 2014 film 'The Gospel of John', directed by David Batty and narrated by David Harewood and Brian Cox , with Selva Rasalingam as Jesus. The 2003 film The Gospel of John , was directed by Philip Saville , narrated by Christopher Plummer , with Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus. Parts of the gospel have been set to music. One such setting is Steve Warner 's power anthem \"Come and See\", written for the 20th anniversary of the Alliance for Catholic Education and including lyrical fragments taken from the Book of Signs . Additionally, some composers have made settings of the Passion as portrayed in the gospel, most notably the one composed by Johann Sebastian Bach , although some verses are borrowed from Matthew . [70] See also [ edit ] Authorship of the Johannine works Chronology of Jesus Free Grace theology Gospel harmony Last Gospel Egerton Gospel List of Bible verses not included in modern translations List of Gospels Textual variants in the Gospel of John References [ edit ] Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Greek : Τὸ κατὰ Ἰωάννην εὐαγγέλιον , translit. Tò katà Iōánnēn euangélion ; also called the Gospel of John, the Fourth Gospel, or simply John. Jump up ^ The use of first person plural in John, specially in the letters, is the base of these theories. Barrett quotes on that sense Robinson, who in 1965 asserted \"the gospel is composed in Judea and under the pressure of controversy with \"the jews\" [ sic ] of that area. But in its present form it is an appeal to those outside the Church, to win to the faith that Greek speaking Diaspora Judaism to which the author now finds himself belonging\". [5] Jump up ^ Chilton & Neusner 2006 , p. 5: \"by their own word what they (the writers of the New Testament) set forth in the New Testament must qualify as a Judaism. ... [T]o distinguish between the religious world of the New Testament and an alien Judaism denies the authors of the New Testament books their most fiercely held claim and renders incomprehensible much of what they said.\" Jump up ^ For the circumstances which led to the formation of the tradition, and the reasons why the majority of modern scholars reject it, see Lindars, Edwards & Court 2000 , pp. 41–42 Jump up ^ [30] \"I am the bread of life \" [6:35] \"I am the light of the world \" [8:12] \"I am the gate for the sheep\" [10:7] \"I am the good shepherd \" [10:11] \"I am the resurrection and the life\" [11:25] \"I am the way and the truth and the life \" [14:6] \"I am the true vine \" [15:1] Jump up ^ Bauckham (2015) contrasts John's consistent use of the third person singular (\"The one who ...\"; \"If anyone ...\"; \"Everyone who ...\"; \"Whoever ...\"; \"No one ...\") with the alternative third person plural constructions he could have used instead (\"Those who ...\"; \"\"All those who ...\"; etc.). He also notes that the sole exception occurs in the prologue, serving a narrative purpose, whereas the later aphorisms serve a \"paraenetic function\". Jump up ^ See John 6:56 , 10:14–15 , 10:38 , and 14:10, 17, 20, and 23 . Jump up ^ Realized eschatology is a Christian eschatological theory popularized by C. H. Dodd (1884–1973). It holds that the eschatological passages in the New Testament do not refer to future events, but instead to the ministry of Jesus and his lasting legacy. [65] In other words, it holds that Christian eschatological expectations have already been realized or fulfilled. Jump up ^ See Zimmermann 2015 , pp. 333–60. Footnotes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Burkett 2002 , p. 215. ^ Jump up to: a b Burkett 2002 , p. 214. ^ Jump up to: a b Harris 2006 , p. 479. Jump up ^ Barrett 1978 , p. 133. Jump up ^ Barrett 1978 , p. 137. Jump up ^ Brown 1966 , p. 43. Jump up ^ Ehrman 2009 . Jump up ^ De Santos Otero 1993 , p. 97. Jump up ^ Lindars 1990 , p. 53. Jump up ^ Lindars 1990 , p. 59. Jump up ^ Van der Watt 2008 , p. 1. Jump up ^ Edwards 2015 , p. ix. Jump up ^ Lincoln 2005 , p. 18. Jump up ^ Aune 2003 , p. 243. Jump up ^ Lindars, Edwards & Court 2000 , p. 41. Jump up ^ Lincoln 2005 , pp. 29–30. ^ Jump up to: a b c Fredriksen 2008 , p. unpaginated. ^ Jump up to: a b Reinhartz 2011 , p. 168. Jump up ^ Perkins 1993 , p. 109. Jump up ^ Reinhartz 2011 , p. 171. See also: Jonathan Bourgel, \" John 4 : 4-42: Defining A Modus Vivendi Between Jews And The Samaritans\", Journal of Theological Studies 69 (2018), pp. 39-65 ( https://www.academia.edu/37029909/Bourgel_-_JTS_-_John_4_4-42_The_terms_of_a_modus_vivendi_between_Jews_and_the_Samaritans ).. Jump up ^ Moloney 1998 , p. 23. Jump up ^ Bauckham 2007 , p. 271. Jump up ^ Aune 2003 , p. 245. Jump up ^ Aune 2003 , p. 246. ^ Jump up to: a b c Van der Watt 2008 , p. 10. ^ Jump up to: a b Kruse 2004 , p. 17. ^ Jump up to: a b Edwards 2015 , p. 171. Jump up ^ Witherington 2004 , p. 83. Jump up ^ Hurtado 2005 , p. 51. ^ Jump up to: a b Harris 2006 , pp. 302–10. Jump up ^ Robert Kysar, \"John: The Maverick Gospel\" (Louisville: Westminster John Knox), 1976, pp. 49–54 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Bauckham 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Moule 1962 , p. 172. Jump up ^ Moule 1962 , p. 174. Jump up ^ Shea, SJ, Henry J. (Summer 2017). \"The Beloved Disciple and the Spiritual Exercises\". Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits . 49 (2). ^ Jump up to: a b Cross & Livingstone 2005 . Jump up ^ Barrett 1978 , p. 16. ^ Jump up to: a b Harris 2006 . Jump up ^ Funk & Jesus Seminar 1998 , pp. 365–440. Jump up ^ Funk & Jesus Seminar 1998 , p. 268. Jump up ^ Olson 1999 , p. 36. Jump up ^ Kysar 2005 , pp. 88ff. Jump up ^ Brown 1997 . Jump up ^ Van den Broek & Vermaseren 1981 , pp. 467ff. Jump up ^ Combs 1987 . Jump up ^ Most 2005 , pp. 121ff. Jump up ^ Skarsaune 2008 , pp. 247ff. Jump up ^ Lindars 1990 , p. 62. Jump up ^ John 17:14 Jump up ^ John 14:2–3 Jump up ^ Brown 1997 , p. 375. Jump up ^ Kovacs 1995 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Burge 2014 , pp. 236–37. ^ Jump up to: a b c Funk, Hoover & Jesus Seminar 1993 , pp. 1–30. Jump up ^ Williamson 2004 , p. 265. Jump up ^ Michaels 1971 , p. 733. Jump up ^ Fredriksen 2008 . Jump up ^ Pagels 2003 . ^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 2006 , p. 184. Jump up ^ Walvoord, John F. (1985). The Bible Knowledge Commentary . Wheaton, IL: Victor Books. p. 313. Jump up ^ Ehrman 2005 . Jump up ^ Carson, D. A. (1991). The Pillar New Testament Commentary: The Gospel According to John . Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eardmans Publishing Co. p. 117. Jump up ^ Moule 1962 , pp. 172–74. Jump up ^ Sander 2015 . Jump up ^ Ladd & Hagner 1993 , p. 56. Jump up ^ Barry 1911 . Jump up ^ Neusner 2003 , p. 8. Jump up ^ Sanders 1995 , pp. 57, 70–71. Jump up ^ Theissen & Merz 1998 , pp. 36–37. Jump up ^ Ambrose 2005 . Bibliography [ edit ] Aune, David E. (2003). \"John, Gospel of\". The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric . Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664219178 . Barrett, C. K. (1978). The Gospel According to St. John: An Introduction with Commentary and Notes on the Greek Text (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Westminster John Knox Press . ISBN 978-0-664-22180-5 . Bauckham, Richard (2007). The Testimony of the Beloved Disciple: Narrative, History, and Theology in the Gospel of John . Baker. ISBN 978-0-8010-3485-5 . —— (2015). Gospel of Glory: Major Themes in Johannine Theology . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1-4412-2708-9 . Blomberg, Craig (2011). The Historical Reliability of John's Gospel . InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-3871-6 . Bourgel, Jonathan (2018). \"John 4 : 4-42: Defining A Modus Vivendi Between Jews And The Samaritans\". Journal of Theological Studies . 69 (1): 39–65. Brown, Raymond E. (1966). The Gospel According to John, Volume 1 . Anchor Bible series. 29 . Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-01517-2 . Brown, Raymond E. (1997). An Introduction to the New Testament . New York: Anchor Bible. ISBN 0-385-24767-2 . Burge, Gary M. (2014). \"Gospel of John\" . In Evans, Craig A. The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-72224-3 . Burkett, Delbert (2002). An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00720-7 . Carson, D. A.; Moo, Douglas J. (2009). An Introduction to the New Testament . HarperCollins Christian Publishing. ISBN 978-0-310-53955-1 . Chilton, Bruce; Neusner, Jacob (2006). Judaism in the New Testament: Practices and Beliefs . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-81497-8 . Combs, William W. (1987). \"Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and New Testament Interpretation\" . Grace Theological Journal . 8 (2): 195–212. Culpepper, R. Alan (2011). The Gospel and Letters of John . Abingdon Press. Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A., eds. (2005). \"John, Gospel of St.\" . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3 . Denaux, Adelbert (1992). \"The Q-Logion Mt 11, 27 / Lk 10, 22 and the Gospel of John\" . In Denaux, Adelbert. John and the Synoptics . Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium. 101 . Leuven University Press. pp. 113–47. ISBN 978-90-6186-498-1 . Dunn, James D. G., ed. (1992). Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways – A.D. 70 to 135 . Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4498-9 . Alexander, Philip S. (1992). 'The Parting of the Ways' from the Perspective of Rabbinic Judaism . ISBN 978-0-8028-4498-9 . Dunn, James D. G. (1992). The Question of Anti-Semitism in the New Testament Writings of the Period . ISBN 978-0-8028-4498-9 . Edwards, Ruth B. (2015). Discovering John: Content, Interpretation, Reception . Discovering Biblical Texts. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-7240-1 . Ehrman, Bart D. (1996). The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture . Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199746286 . Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why . HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 . Ehrman, Bart D. (2009). Jesus, Interrupted . HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-117393-6 . Fredriksen, Paula (2008). From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16410-7 . Harris, Stephen L. (2006). Understanding the Bible (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-296548-3 . Hendricks, Obrey M., Jr. (2007). \"The Gospel According to John\" . In Coogan, Michael D.; Brettler, Marc Z.; Newsom, Carol A.; Perkins, Pheme. The New Oxford Annotated Bible (3rd ed.). Peabody, Massachusetts : Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59856-032-9 . Hurtado, Larry W. (2005). How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God?: Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2861-3 . Kostenberger, Andreas J. (2015). A Theology of John's Gospel and Letters: The Word, the Christ, the Son of God . Zondervan. ISBN 9780310523260 . Kovacs, Judith L. (1995). \"Now Shall the Ruler of This World Be Driven Out: Jesus' Death as Cosmic Battle in John 12:20–36\". Journal of Biblical Literature . 114 (2): 227–47. doi : 10.2307/3266937 . JSTOR 3266937 . Kysar, Robert (2005). Voyages with John: Charting the Fourth Gospel . Baylor University Press. ISBN 978-1-932792-43-0 . Kysar, Robert (2007). \"The Dehistoricizing of the Gospel of John\" . In Anderson, Paul N.; Just, Felix; Thatcher, Tom. John, Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of Critical Views . Society of Biblical Literature Symposium series. 44 . Society of Biblical Literature . ISBN 978-1-58983-293-0 . Ladd, George Eldon ; Hagner, Donald Alfred (1993). A Theology of the New Testament . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-0680-5 . Lincoln, Andrew (2005). Gospel According to St John: Black's New Testament Commentaries . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-8822-9 . Lindars, Barnabas (1990). John . New Testament Guides. 4 . A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-85075-255-4 . Lindars, Barnabas; Edwards, Ruth; Court, John M. (2000). The Johannine Literature . A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-84127-081-4 . Metzger, B. M.; Ehrman, B. D. (1985). The Text of New Testament . Рипол Классик. ISBN 978-5-88500-901-0 . Michaels, J. Ramsey (1971). \"Verification of Jesus' Self-Revelation in His passion and Resurrection (18:1–21:25)\". The Gospel of John . Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4674-2330-4 . Moloney, Francis J. (1998). The Gospel of John . Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814658062 . Most, Glenn W. (2005). Doubting Thomas . Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01914-0 . Moule, C. F. D. (July 1962). \"The Individualism of the Fourth Gospel\". Novum Testamentum, . 5 (2/3): 171–90. doi : 10.2307/1560025 . JSTOR 1560025 . Neusner, Jacob (2003). Invitation to the Talmud: A Teaching Book . South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism. 169 . Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-155-6 . Olson, Roger E. (1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform . Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0 . Perkins, Pheme (1993). Gnosticism and the New Testament . Fortress Press. Pagels, Elaine H. (2003). Beyond Belief: The Secret Gospel of Thomas . New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50156-8 . Porter, Stanley E. (2015). John, His Gospel, and Jesus: In Pursuit of the Johannine Voice . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-7170-1 . Van den Broek, Roelof ; Vermaseren, Maarten Jozef (1981). Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions . Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. 91 . Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-06376-1 . Reinhartz, Adele (2017). \"The Gospel According to John\". In Levine, Amy-Jill; Brettler, Marc Z. The Jewish Annotated New Testament . Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190461850 . Sanders, E. P. (1995). The Historical Figure of Jesus . Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-14-192822-7 . Senior, Donald (1991). The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of John . Passion of Jesus Series. 4 . Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5462-0 . Skarsaune, Oskar (2008). In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Christianity . InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2670-4 . Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998) [1996]. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide . Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0863-8 . Thompson, Marianne Maye (2006). \"The Gospel According to John\" . In Barton, Stephen C. The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels . Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80766-1 . Tuckett, Christopher M. (2003). \"Introduction to the Gospels\". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible . Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110 . Van der Watt, Jan (2008). An Introduction to the Johannine Gospel and Letters . Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780567521743 . Williamson, Lamar, Jr. (2004). Preaching the Gospel of John: Proclaiming the Living Word . Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22533-9 . Witherington, Ben (2004). The New Testament Story . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2765-4 . Zimmermann, Ruben (2015). Puzzling the Parables of Jesus: Methods and Interpretation . Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-6532-7 . External links [ edit ] Online translations of the Gospel of John: Over 200 versions in over 70 languages at Bible Gateway The Unbound Bible from Biola University David Robert Palmer, Translation from the Greek Text of the Gospel with textual variants The Egerton Gospel text; compare with Gospel of John Gospel of John Gospel Preceded by Gospel of Luke New Testament Books of the Bible Succeeded by Acts of the Apostles Portals Access related topics Religion portal Christianity portal Bible portal Find out more on Wikipedia's Sister projects Media from Commons Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Learning resources from Wikiversity show v t e Jesus Historicity Chronology of Jesus Genealogy of Jesus Historical Jesus Quest for the historical Jesus portraits sources Josephus on Jesus Tacitus mention Mara bar Serapion letter Historicity Gospels race and appearance Life events Birth Nativity Mary Joseph Flight into Egypt Childhood Unknown years 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Jerusalem Jordan River Judea Kidron Samaria Sea of Galilee Solomon's Porch Sychar People Andrew Annas Caiaphas Herod Antipas Jesus Christ John the Baptist Joseph of Arimathea Judas Iscariot Mother of Jesus Lazarus Malchus Martha Mary Magdalene Mary, sister of Martha Nathanael Nicodemus Philip Pontius Pilate Simon of Cyrene Simon Peter Simon the Leper Thomas Zebedee Groups Angels Pharisees Sadducees Samaritans Sanhedrin \"I AM\" sayings Bread of Life Light of the World Gate for the Sheep Good Shepherd Resurrectio et Vita Via et veritas et vita True Vine Other Events Bread of Life Discourse Crucifixion of Jesus Ecce homo Farewell Discourse Feast of Dedication Feeding the 5000 Foot washing Healing a blind man Healing a paralytic Healing a sick son Jesus wept Last Supper Marriage at Cana Noli me tangere Raising of Lazarus That they all may be one Ut unum sint Via et veritas et vita Walking on water Sources Greek Text Latin Vulgate Wycliffe Version King James Version American Standard 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{ "text": "History of bread - Wikipedia History of bread From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Slab stele from mastaba tomb of Itjer at Giza . 4th Dynasty , 2543-2435 BC. Itjer is seated at a table with slices of bread, shown vertical by convention. Egyptian Museum, Turin Bread was central to the formation of early human societies. From the western half of Asia, where wheat was domesticated , cultivation spread north and west, to Europe and North Africa. This in turn led to the formation of towns, as opposed to the nomadic lifestyle, and gave rise to more and more sophisticated forms of societal organization. Similar developments occurred in eastern Asia, centered on rice, and in the Americas with maize. Contents [ hide ] 1 Antiquity 2 Middle Ages 3 To the 19th century 4 Industrialization 5 See also 6 Notes Antiquity [ edit ] Conical loaves of bread as grave goods exactly as laid out in the Great Tomb, North Necropolis, Gebelein , 5th Dynasty (Old Kingdom), 2435-2305 BC. Excavations by Ernesto Schiaparelli , 1911. Egyptian Museum, Turin, S. 14051-14055 There is extensive evidence of breadmaking in Ancient Egypt in the form of artistic depictions, remains of structures and items used in bread making, and remains of the dough and bread itself. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] The most common source of leavening in antiquity was to retain a piece of dough (with sugar and water in) from the previous day to utilize as a form of sourdough starter . [7] Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce \"a lighter kind of bread than other peoples.\" Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape must and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The idea of a free-standing oven that could be pre-heated, with a door for access, appears to have been Greek. [8] Even in antiquity there were a wide variety of breads. In ancient times the Greek bread was barley bread: Solon declared that wheaten bread might only be baked for feast days. By the 5th century BC bread could be purchased in Athens from a baker's shop, and in Rome, Greek bakers appeared in the 2nd century BC, as Hellenized Asia Minor was added to Roman dominion as the province of Asia ; [9] the foreign bakers of bread were permitted to form a collegium . In the Deipnosophistae , the author Athenaeus (c.A.D.170 – c. 230) describes some of the bread, cakes, and pastries available in the Classical world. [10] Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom-shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flours used to produce bread could also vary, as noted by Diphilus when he declared \"bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of barley , is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior.\" In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted.\" [11] The essentiality of bread in the diet was reflected in the name for the rest of the meal: ópson , \"condiment\", i.e. bread's accompaniment, whatever it might be. [12] Middle Ages [ edit ] Peasants sharing bread, from the Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio , France, 14th century. ( Bibliothèque nationale ) In medieval Europe , bread served not only as a staple food but also as part of the table service. In the standard table setting of the day the trencher , a piece of stale bread roughly 6 inches by 4 inches (15 cm by 10 cm), was served as an absorbent plate. At the completion of a meal the trencher could then be eaten, given to the poor, or fed to the dogs. It was not until the 15th century that trenchers made of wood started to replace the bread variety. [13] To the 19th century [ edit ] Up to the 19th century, bread in Europe was often adulterated with hazardous materials, including chalk, sawdust, alum, plaster, clay and ammonium carbonate. This gradually came to an end with government action, such as the 1860 and 1899 Food Adulteration Acts in Britain. [14] America had a more difficult time ending these processes of adulteration however, as various states had varying policies regarding bread making. [15] In the late 19th century, the British empire encouraged a noticeable increase in import of bread from the colonies. This was regarded as British bread despite its origins, and institutes such as the Imperial Economic Committee encouraged the consumption and trade of foods such as bread from across the empire as they viewed it as cementing Britain's position in its colonies further. Advancements in refrigeration technology and techniques also encouraged an increase in the import of bread, as it could be preserved a lot longer than before and could be transported over longer distances. Bread was transported and stored using refrigeration more than most other foods, particularly in North America, as it was a staple food in most diets, more so than other staple foods like meat. [16] Industrialization [ edit ] The industrialization of bread-baking was a formative step in the creation of the modern world. [17] Otto Frederick Rohwedder is considered to be the father of sliced bread . In 1912 Rohwedder started work on inventing a machine that sliced bread, but bakeries were reluctant to use it since they were concerned the sliced bread would go stale. It was not until 1928, when Rohwedder invented a machine that both sliced and wrapped the bread, that sliced bread caught on. A bakery in Chillicothe, Missouri was the first to use this machine to produce sliced bread. An automated bakery with industrial robots palletizing bread, Germany For generations, white bread was the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark (whole grain) bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century, with whole grain bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while white bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition. [18] A major change was the development in 1961 of the Chorleywood Bread Process . This used the intense mechanical working of dough, and control of gases touching dough, to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf at the expense of taste and nutrition. [19] The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of inferior grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories. In total contrast, traditional breadmaking is extremely time-consuming, as the dough is mixed with yeast and requires several cycles of kneading and resting in order to become ready for baking, and to produce the desired flavor and texture. More recently, and especially in smaller retail bakeries, chemical additives are used that both speed up mixing time and reduce necessary fermentation time, so that a batch of bread may be mixed, made up, risen, and baked in fewer than three hours. Dough that does not require fermentation because of chemical additives is called \"quick bread\" by commercial bakers. Common additives include reducing agents such as L-cysteine or sodium metabisulfite , and oxidants such as potassium bromate or ascorbic acid . [20] [21] Often these chemicals are added to dough in the form of a prepackaged base, which also contains most or all of the dough's non-flour ingredients. Using such bases and sophisticated chemistry, it has been possible for commercial bakers to make imitations of artisan and sourdough breads, traditionally made by semi-skilled laborers working in smaller shops. Since 1986, [22] domestic breadmakers that automate the process of making bread have become popular in the home. See also [ edit ] Food portal Food history Cultural significance of bread Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Samuel, Delwen (1989). \"Chapter 12: Their staff of life: Initial investigations on ancient Egyptian bread baking\". In KEMP, B. J. Amarna Reports (PDF) . 5 . London: Egypt Exploration Society. pp. 1253–1290. ISBN 978-0-85698-109-8 . Jump up ^ Gonzalez Carretero, Lara (9 February 2017). \"3,500-year-old bread and beer from the New Kingdom, Egypt\" . Retrieved 17 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Samuel, D. (1994). \"An archaeological study of baking and bread in New Kingdom Egypt (doctoral thesis)\" . Jump up ^ Samuel, Delwen (2000). \"Chapter 22: Brewing and baking\". In Nicholson, P. T.; Shaw, I. Ancient Egyptian materials and technology (PDF) . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 537–576. ISBN 9780521452571 . Jump up ^ Samuel, D. (1996). \"Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Baking and Brewing Methods by Correlative Microscopy\". Science . 273 (5274): 488–490. doi : 10.1126/science.273.5274.488 . Jump up ^ Samuel, Delwen (2002). \"Bread in archaeology\". Civilisations (49): 27–36. doi : 10.4000/civilisations.1353 . Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 68f. Jump up ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p.202 Jump up ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p.204 gives a date of 168 for \"a considerable influx of craftsmen bakers ( pistores ) of Greek origin into Rome\". Jump up ^ Chrysippus of Tyana gives a list of thirty kinds, without commentary (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 202). Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 91 Jump up ^ Changes in diet are reflected in the modern significance of opson as fish (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 202); in Italy the contorni are now the accompaniment to meat rather than bread. Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 227 Jump up ^ \"The fight against food adulteration\" . Rsc.org . Retrieved 9 February 2017 . Jump up ^ MS., City Clerk's Office, Record Book, 1814-1820, pp. 3, 5. Jump up ^ The Trade Marks Journal. Jump up ^ It occupies a section in Sigfried Giedion , [1948] 1969. Mechanization Takes Command (New York Oxford University Press). Jump up ^ Christianne L.H. Hupkens, Ronald A. Knibbe and Maris J. Drop, for example analyzed social class variation in the intake of fat and fibre, including white bread consumption, in Maastricht, Liège and Aachen, \"Social Class Differences in Women's Fat and Fibre Consumption: A Cross-National Study\" 1995 ; the literature on class perceptions and diet is enormous. Jump up ^ Criticisms of the Chorleywood bread process Archived 22 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Pyler, Ernst John (1958). Our Daily Bread . Siebel. p. 703. Jump up ^ Elkassabany, M.; Hoseney, R.C.; Seib, P.A. (1980). \"Ascorbic Acid as an Oxidant in Wheat Flour Dough. I. Conversion to Dehydroascorbic Acid\" (PDF) . Cereal Chem . 57 (2): 85–87. Jump up ^ Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1995), The Knowledge-Creating Company , Oxford University Press. [ hide ] v t e Bread Types Brown bread Chapati Flatbread Injera Multigrain bread Naan Paratha Pitta Quick Rye bread Salt-rising Sandwich bread Soda bread Sourdough Texas toast Unleavened White bread Whole wheat Ingredients Baker's yeast Barm Calcium propanoate Eggs Fat Flour Flour treatment agent Leavening agent Milk Salt Sugar Water Equipment Oven Bread machine Bread pan Dough scraper Farinograph Lame Peel Stand mixer Weighing scales Processes Autolysis Baking Biga Chorleywood bread process Kneading Leavening Maillard reaction No-knead bread Proofing Pre-ferment Pre-slicing Sponge and dough Steaming Straight dough Vienna process Uses Bread crumbs Bread bowl Bread pudding Croutons French toast Stuffing Sandwiches Toast Other Breadmaking Baker percentage Bread in Europe History of bread List articles American breads Brand name breads Bread dishes Bread rolls British breads Buns Indian breads Pakistani breads Quick breads Sweet breads Toast dishes Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&oldid=830182539 \" Categories : Breads History of food and drink Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from May 2014 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Español Euskara Français 한국어 Português Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2018, at 07:49. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "History of bread", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&amp;oldid=830182539" }

{ "text": "Gastrocnemius muscle - Wikipedia Gastrocnemius muscle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Gastrocnemius muscle Details Pronunciation / ˌ ɡ æ s t r ɒ k ˈ n iː m i ə s / or / ˌ ɡ æ s t r ə k ˈ n iː m i ə s / Origin superior to articular surfaces of lateral condyle of femur and medial condyle of femur Insertion tendo calcaneus (achilles tendon) into mid-posterior calcaneus Artery sural arteries Nerve tibial nerve from the sciatic , specifically, nerve roots S1–S2 Actions plantar flexes foot , flexes knee Antagonist Tibialis anterior muscle Identifiers TA A04.7.02.044 FMA 22541 Anatomical terms of muscle [ edit on Wikidata ] The gastrocnemius muscle (plural gastrocnemii ) is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of humans . It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel , a two joint muscle. The muscle is named via Latin , from Greek γαστήρ \"stomach\" and κνήμη ( knḗmē ) \"leg\"; meaning \"stomach of leg\" (referring to the bulging shape of the calf). Contents [ hide ] 1 Structure 1.1 Variation 2 Function 2.1 Motor pathway 3 Clinical significance 4 History 5 Additional images 6 References 7 External links Structure [ edit ] The gastrocnemius is located with the soleus in the posterior (back) compartment of the leg. The lateral head originates from the lateral condyle of the femur, while the medial head originates from the medial condyle of the femur . Its other end forms a common tendon with the soleus muscle ; this tendon is known as the calcaneal tendon or Achilles Tendon and inserts onto the posterior surface of the calcaneus , or heel bone. Further, it is considered a superficial muscle as it is located directly under skin, so its shape is clearly visible in a normal human being. Deep to the gastrocnemius (farther from the skin) is the soleus muscle. Some anatomists consider both to be a single muscle, the triceps surae or \"three-headed [muscle] of the calf\", since they share a common insertion via the Achilles tendon. The plantaris muscle and a portion of its tendon run between the two muscles, which is involved in \"locking\" the knee from the standing position. Since the anterior compartment of the leg is lateral to the tibia, the bulge of muscle medial to the tibia on the anterior side is actually the posterior compartment. The soleus is superficial to the mid-shaft of the tibia. Variation [ edit ] 10% to 30% of individuals have a sesamoid bone called the \" fabella \" in the lateral (outer) head of gastrocnemius muscle. Function [ edit ] Along with the soleus muscle , the gastrocnemius forms half of the calf muscle . Its function is plantar flexing the foot at the ankle joint and flexing the leg at the knee joint. The gastrocnemius is primarily involved in running, jumping and other \"fast\" movements of leg, and to a lesser degree in walking and standing. This specialization is connected to the predominance of white muscle fibers (type II fast twitch) present in the gastrocnemius, as opposed to the soleus, which has more red muscle fibers (type I slow twitch) and is the primary active muscle when standing still, as determined by EMG studies. [1] [2] Motor pathway [ edit ] The plan to use the gastrocnemius in running, jumping, knee and plantar flexing is created in the precentral gyrus in the cerebrum of the brain. [3] Once a plan is produced, the signal is sent to and down an upper motor neuron. The signal is passed through the internal capsule and decussates, or crosses, in the medulla oblongata, specifically in the lateral corticospinal tract. [4] The signal continues down through the anterior horn of the spinal cord where the upper motor neuron synapses with the lower motor neuron. Signal propagation continues down the anterior rami (Lumbar 4-5 and Sacral 1-5) of the sacral plexus. The sciatic nerve branches off of the sacral plexus in which the tibial and common fibular nerves are wrapped in one sheath. The tibial nerve eventually separates from the sciatic nerve and innervates the gastrocnemius muscle. Thus, completing the plan the brain had originally started with, so that the actions of running, standing, and jumping could be executed. Clinical significance [ edit ] The gastrocnemius muscle is prone to spasms , which are painful, involuntary contractions of the muscle that may last several minutes. [5] A severe ankle dorsiflexion force may result in an injury of the muscle, commonly referred to as a \"torn\" or \"strained\" calf muscle, which is acutely painful and disabling. Ultrasound of medial gastrocnemius strain The gastrocnemius muscle may also become inflamed due to overuse. Anti-inflammatory medications and physical therapy (heat, massage, and stretching) may be useful. Anatomical abnormalities involving the medial head of gastrocnemius muscle result in popliteal artery entrapment syndrome . History [ edit ] In a 1967 EMG study, Herman and Bragin concluded that its most important role was plantar flexing in large contractions and in rapid development of tension. [2] Additional images [ edit ] Nerves, arteries and veins surrounding the gastrocnemius and soleus. Muscle layer under the gastrocnemius Cross section of the lower leg, showing the gastrocnemius at the back. Gastrocnemius muscle References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Clinically Oriented Anatomy . pp. 598–600. ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hamilton, Nancy; Luttgens, Kathryn (2001). Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill . ISBN 978-0-07-248910-1 . Jump up ^ Freberg, Laura (2015-01-01). Discovering Behavioral Neuroscience: An Introduction to Biological Psychology . Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781305687738 . Jump up ^ Saladin, Kenneth (2015). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function . McGraw-Hill Education. Jump up ^ \"Nighttime Leg Cramps\" . WebMD . August 19, 2010 . Retrieved March 7, 2012 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastrocnemius muscle . Anatomy photo:14:st-0405 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center [ hide ] v t e Muscles of the hip and human leg Iliac region Iliopsoas psoas major / psoas minor iliacus Buttocks Gluteal muscles maximus medius minimus tensor fasciae latae lateral rotator group : quadratus femoris inferior gemellus superior gemellus internal obturator external obturator piriformis Thigh / compartments Anterior sartorius quadriceps rectus femoris vastus lateralis vastus intermedius vastus medialis articularis genus Posterior hamstring biceps femoris semitendinosus semimembranosus Medial pectineus external obturator gracilis adductor longus brevis magnus minimus Fascia Femoral sheath Femoral canal Femoral ring Adductor canal Adductor hiatus Muscular lacuna fascia lata Iliotibial tract Lateral intermuscular septum of thigh Medial intermuscular septum of thigh Cribriform fascia Leg / compartments Anterior tibialis anterior extensor hallucis longus extensor digitorum longus peroneus tertius Posterior superficial triceps surae gastrocnemius soleus accessory soleus Achilles tendon plantaris deep tarsal tunnel flexor hallucis longus flexor digitorum longus tibialis posterior popliteus Lateral peroneus muscles longus brevis Fascia Pes anserinus Intermuscular septa anterior posterior transverse Foot Dorsal extensor hallucis brevis extensor digitorum brevis Plantar 1st layer abductor hallucis flexor digitorum brevis abductor digiti minimi 2nd layer quadratus plantae lumbrical muscle 3rd layer flexor hallucis brevis adductor hallucis flexor digiti minimi brevis 4th layer dorsal interossei plantar interossei Fascia Plantar fascia retinacula Peroneal Inferior extensor Superior extensor Flexor Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gastrocnemius_muscle&oldid=835315986 \" Categories : Calf muscles Knee flexors Plantar flexors Muscles of the lower limb Hidden categories: Pages with unresolved properties Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Scots Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 7 April 2018, at 23:08. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Gastrocnemius muscle", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gastrocnemius_muscle&amp;oldid=835315986" }

{ "text": "Bastille - Wikipedia Bastille From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the building in Paris. For the fall of the Bastille in the French Revolution, see Storming of the Bastille . For a list of commanders of the Bastille, see Governor of the Bastille . For other uses, see Bastille (disambiguation) . Bastille Paris, France East view of the Bastille Bastille Coordinates 48°51′12″N 2°22′09″E  /  48.853333°N 2.369167°E  / 48.853333; 2.369167 Coordinates : 48°51′12″N 2°22′09″E  /  48.853333°N 2.369167°E  / 48.853333; 2.369167 Type Medieval fortress, prison Site information Condition Destroyed, limited stonework survives Site history Built 1370–1380s Built by Charles V of France Demolished 1789–90 Events Hundred Years' War Wars of Religion Fronde French Revolution The Bastille ( / b æ ˈ s t iː l / ; French: [bastij] ) was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine . It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France . It was stormed by a crowd on 14 July 1789, in the French Revolution , becoming an important symbol for the French Republican movement , and was later demolished and replaced by the Place de la Bastille . The Bastille was built to defend the eastern approach to the city of Paris from the English threat in the Hundred Years' War . Initial work began in 1357, but the main construction occurred from 1370 onwards, creating a strong fortress with eight towers that protected the strategic gateway of the Porte Saint-Antoine on the eastern edge of Paris. The innovative design proved influential in both France and England and was widely copied. The Bastille figured prominently in France's domestic conflicts, including the fighting between the rival factions of the Burgundians and the Armagnacs in the 15th century, and the Wars of Religion in the 16th. The fortress was declared a state prison in 1417; this role was expanded first under the English occupiers of the 1420s and 1430s, and then under Louis XI in the 1460s. The defences of the Bastille were fortified in response to the English and Imperial threat during the 1550s, with a bastion constructed to the east of the fortress. The Bastille played a key role in the rebellion of the Fronde and the battle of the faubourg Saint-Antoine , which was fought beneath its walls in 1652. Louis XIV used the Bastille as a prison for upper-class members of French society who had opposed or angered him including, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , French Protestants . From 1659 onwards, the Bastille functioned primarily as a state penitentiary; by 1789, 5,279 prisoners had passed through its gates. Under Louis XV and XVI , the Bastille was used to detain prisoners from more varied backgrounds, and to support the operations of the Parisian police, especially in enforcing government censorship of the printed media. Although inmates were kept in relatively good conditions, criticism of the Bastille grew during the 18th century, fueled by autobiographies written by former prisoners. Reforms were implemented and prisoner numbers were considerably reduced. In 1789 the royal government's financial crisis and the formation of the National Assembly gave rise to a swelling of republican sentiments among city-dwellers. On 14 July the Bastille was stormed by a revolutionary crowd, primarily residents of the faubourg Saint-Antoine who sought to commandeer the valuable gunpowder held within the fortress. Seven remaining prisoners were found and released and the Bastille's governor, Bernard-René de Launay , was killed by the crowd. The Bastille was demolished by order of the Committee of the Hôtel de Ville . Souvenirs of the fortress were transported around France and displayed as icons of the overthrow of despotism . Over the next century, the site and historical legacy of the Bastille featured prominently in French revolutions , political protests and popular fiction, and it remained an important symbol for the French Republican movement . Almost nothing is left of the Bastille except some remains of its stone foundation that were relocated to the side of Boulevard Henri IV. Historians were critical of the Bastille in the early 19th century, and believe the fortress to have been a relatively well-administered institution, but deeply implicated in the system of French policing and political control during the 18th century. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 1.1 14th century 1.2 15th century 1.3 16th century 1.4 Early 17th century 1.5 Reign of Louis XIV and the Regency (1661–1723) 1.6 Reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI (1723–1789) 1.6.1 Architecture and organisation 1.6.2 Use of the prison 1.6.3 Prison regime 1.6.4 Criticism and reform 1.7 The French Revolution 1.7.1 Storming of the Bastille 1.7.2 Destruction 1.8 19th–20th century political and cultural legacy 2 Remains 3 Historiography 4 See also 5 Notes 5.1 Footnotes 5.2 Citations 6 References 7 External links History [ edit ] 14th century [ edit ] Historical reconstruction showing the moat below the walls of Paris (left), the Bastille and the Porte Saint-Antoine (right) in 1420 The Bastille was built in response to a threat to Paris during the Hundred Years' War between England and France. [1] Prior to the Bastille, the main royal castle in Paris was the Louvre , in the west of the capital, but the city had expanded by the middle of the 14th century and the eastern side was now exposed to an English attack. [1] The situation worsened after the imprisonment of John II in England following the French defeat at the battle of Poitiers , and in his absence the Provost of Paris , Étienne Marcel , took steps to improve the capital's defences. [2] In 1357, Marcel expanded the city walls and protected the Porte Saint-Antoine with two high stone towers and a 78-foot-wide (24 m) ditch. [3] [A] A fortified gateway of this sort was called a \"bastille\", and was one of two created in Paris, the other being built outside the Porte Saint-Denis . [5] Marcel was subsequently removed from his post and executed in 1358. [6] In 1369, Charles V became concerned about the weakness of the eastern side of the city to English attacks and raids by mercenaries. [7] Charles instructed Hugh Aubriot, the new provost, to build a much larger fortification on the same site as Marcel's bastille. [6] Work began in 1370 with another pair of towers being built behind the first bastille, followed by two towers to the north, and finally two towers to the south. [8] The fortress was probably not finished by the time Charles died in 1380, and was completed by his son, Charles VI . [8] The resulting structure became known simply as the Bastille, with the eight irregularly built towers and linking curtain walls forming a structure 223 feet (68 m) wide and 121 feet (37 m) deep, the walls and towers 78 feet (24 m) high and 10 feet (3.0 m) thick at their bases. [9] Built to the same height, the roofs of the towers and the tops of the walls formed a broad, crenellated walkway all the way around the fortress. [10] Each of the six newer towers had underground \"cachots\", or dungeons , at its base, and curved \"calotte\", literally \"shell\", rooms in their roofs. [11] Garrisoned by a captain, a knight, eight squires and ten crossbowmen, the Bastille was encircled with ditches fed by the River Seine , and faced with stone. [12] The fortress had four sets of drawbridges, which allowed the Rue Saint-Antoine to pass eastwards through the Bastille's gates while giving easy access to the city walls on the north and south sides. [13] The Bastille overlooked the Saint-Antoine gate, which by 1380 was a strong, square building with turrets and protected by two drawbridges of its own. [14] Charles V chose to live close to the Bastille for his own safety and created a royal complex to the south of the fortress called the Hôtel St. Paul, stretching from the Porte Saint-Paul up to the Rue Saint-Antoine. [15] [B] Historian Sidney Toy has described the Bastille as \"one of the most powerful fortifications\" of the period, and the most important fortification in late medieval Paris. [16] The Bastille's design was highly innovative: it rejected both the 13th-century tradition of more weakly fortified quadrangular castles , and the contemporary fashion set at Vincennes , where tall towers were positioned around a lower wall, overlooked by an even taller keep in the centre. [10] In particular, building the towers and the walls of the Bastille at the same height allowed the rapid movement of forces around the castle, as well as giving more space to move and position cannons on the wider walkways. [17] The Bastille design was copied at Pierrefonds and Tarascon in France, while its architectural influence extended as far as Nunney Castle in south-west England. [18] A 1750 plan of the Bastille's eight medieval towers showing the calottes in the roofs and the infamous cachots and within the foundations. 15th century [ edit ] Parisian defences in 14th century: A – the Louvre ; B – Palais de Roi; C – Hôtel des Tournelles; D – Porte Saint-Antoine ; E – Hôtel St Paul; F – the Bastille During the 15th century the French kings continued to face threats both from the English and from the rival factions of the Burgundians and the Armagnacs . [19] The Bastille was strategically vital during the period, both because of its role as a royal fortress and safe-haven inside the capital, and because it controlled a critical route in and out of Paris. [20] In 1418, for example, the future Charles VII took refuge in the Bastille during the Burgundian-led \"Massacre of the Armagnacs\" in Paris, before successfully fleeing the city through the Porte Saint-Antoine. [21] The Bastille was occasionally used to hold prisoners, including its creator, Hugues Aubriot, who was the first person to be imprisoned there. In 1417, in addition to being a royal fortress, it formally became a state prison. [22] [C] Despite the improved Parisian defences, Henry V of England captured Paris in 1420 and the Bastille was seized and garrisoned by the English for the next sixteen years. [22] Henry V appointed Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter , as the new captain of the Bastille. [22] The English made more use of the Bastille as a prison; in 1430 there was a minor rebellion when some prisoners overpowered a sleeping guard and attempted to seize control of the fortress; this incident includes the first reference to a dedicated gaoler at the Bastille. [24] Paris was finally recaptured by Charles VII of France in 1436. When the French king re-entered the city, his enemies in Paris fortified themselves in the Bastille; after a siege, they eventually ran out of food, surrendered and were allowed to leave the city after the payment of a ransom. [25] The castle remained a key Parisian fortress, but was successfully seized by the Burgundians in 1464, when they convinced royal troops to surrender: once taken, this allowed their faction to make a surprise attack into Paris, almost resulting in the capture of the king. [26] The Bastille was being used to hold prisoners once again by the reign of Louis XI , who began to use it extensively as a state penitentiary. [27] An early escapee from the Bastille during this period was Antoine de Chabannes, Count of Dammartin and a member of the League of the Public Weal , who was imprisoned by Louis and escaped by boat in 1465. [28] The captains of the Bastille during this period were primarily officers and royal functionaries; Philippe de Melun was the first captain to receive a salary in 1462, being awarded 1,200 livres a year. [29] [D] Despite being a state prison, the Bastille retained the other traditional functions of a royal castle, and was used to accommodate visiting dignitaries, hosting some lavish entertainments given by Louis XI and Francis I . [31] 16th century [ edit ] A depiction of the Bastille and neighbouring Paris in 1575, showing the new bastions , the new Porte Saint-Antoine, the Arsenal complex and the open countryside beyond the city defences During the 16th century the area around the Bastille developed further. Early modern Paris continued to grow, and by the end of the century it had around 250,000 inhabitants and was one of the most populous cities in Europe, though still largely contained within its old city walls – open countryside remained beyond the Bastille. [32] The Arsenal , a large military-industrial complex tasked with the production of cannons and other weapons for the royal armies, was established to the south of the Bastille by Francis I , and substantially expanded under Charles IX . [33] An arms depot was later built above the Porte Saint-Antoine, all making the Bastille part of a major military centre. [34] During the 1550s, Henry II became concerned about the threat of an English or Holy Roman Empire attack on Paris, and strengthened the defences of the Bastille in response. [35] The southern gateway into the Bastille became the principal entrance to the castle in 1553, the other three gateways being closed. [22] A bastion , a large earthwork projecting eastwards from the Bastille, was built to provide additional protective fire for the Bastille and the Arsenal; the bastion was reached from the fortress across a stone abutment using a connecting drawbridge that was installed in the Bastille's Comté tower. [36] In 1573 the Porte Saint-Antoine was also altered – the drawbridges were replaced with a fixed bridge, and the medieval gatehouse was replaced with a triumphal arch . [37] The Bastille in 1647, illustrating the bastion, the stone abutment linking to the fortress and the new southern entrance built during the 1550s The Bastille was involved in the numerous wars of religion fought between Protestant and Catholic factions with support from foreign allies during the second half of the 16th century. Religious and political tensions in Paris initially exploded in the Day of the Barricades on 12 May 1588, when hard-line Catholics rose up in revolt against the relatively moderate Henry III . After a day's fighting had occurred across the capital, Henry III fled and the Bastille surrendered to Henry , the Duke of Guise and leader of the Catholic League , who appointed Bussy-Leclerc as his new captain. [38] Henry III responded by having the Duke and his brother murdered later that year, whereupon Bussy-Leclerc used the Bastille as a base to mount a raid on the Parlement de Paris , arresting the president and other magistrates, whom he suspected of having royalist sympathies, and detaining them in the Bastille. [39] They were not released until the intervention of Charles , the Duke of Mayenne , and the payment of substantial ransoms. [40] Bussy-Leclerc remained in control of the Bastille until December 1592, when, following further political instability, he was forced to surrender the castle to Charles and flee the city. [41] It took Henry IV several years to retake Paris. By the time he succeeded in 1594, the area around the Bastille formed the main stronghold for the Catholic League and their foreign allies, including Spanish and Flemish troops. [42] The Bastille itself was controlled by a League captain called du Bourg. [43] Henry entered Paris early on the morning of 23 March, through the Porte-Neuve rather than the Saint-Antoine and seized the capital, including the Arsenal complex that neighboured the Bastille. [44] The Bastille was now an isolated League stronghold, with the remaining members of the League and their allies clustering around it for safety. [45] After several days of tension, an agreement was finally reached for this rump element to leave safely, and on 27 March du Bourg surrendered the Bastille and left the city himself. [46] Early 17th century [ edit ] A contemporary depiction of the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine beneath the walls of the Bastille in 1652 The Bastille continued to be used as a prison and a royal fortress under both Henry IV and his son, Louis XIII . When Henry clamped down on a Spanish-backed plot among the senior French nobility in 1602, for example, he detained the ringleader Charles Gontaut, the Duke of Biron , in the Bastille, and had him executed in the courtyard. [47] Louis XIII's chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu , is credited with beginning the modern transformation of the Bastille into a more formal organ of the French state, further increasing its structured use as a state prison. [48] Richelieu broke with Henry IV's tradition of the Bastille's captain being a member of the French aristocracy, typically a Marshal of France such as François de Bassompierre , Charles d'Albert or Nicolas de L'Hospital , and instead appointed Père Joseph 's brother to run the facility. [49] [E] The first surviving documentary records of prisoners at the Bastille also date from this period. [51] In 1648, the Fronde insurrection broke out in Paris, prompted by high taxes, increased food prices and disease. [52] The Parlement of Paris , the Regency government of Anne of Austria and rebellious noble factions fought for several years to take control of the city and wider power. On 26 August, during the period known as the First Fronde, Anne ordered the arrest of some of the leaders of the Parlement of Paris; violence flared as a result, and the 27 August became known as another Day of the Barricades . [53] The governor of the Bastille loaded and readied his guns to fire on the Hôtel de Ville , controlled by the parliament, although the decision was eventually taken not to shoot. [54] Barricades were erected across the city and the royal government fled in September, leaving a garrison of 22 men behind in the Bastille. [55] On 11 January 1649, the Fronde decided to take the Bastille, giving the task to Elbeuf, one of their leaders. [56] Elbeuf's attack required only a token effort: five or six shots were fired at the Bastille, before it promptly surrendered on the 13 January. [57] Pierre Broussel , one of the Fronde leaders, appointed his son as the governor and the Fronde retained it even after the ceasefire that March. [58] The Bastille and the eastern side of Paris in 1649 During the Second Fronde, between 1650 and 1653, Louis , the Prince of Condé, controlled much of Paris alongside the Parlement, while Broussel, through his son, continued to control the Bastille. In July 1652, the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine took place just outside the Bastille. Condé had sallied out of Paris to prevent the advance of the royalist forces under the command of Turenne . [59] Condé's forces became trapped against the city walls and the Porte Saint-Antoine, which the Parlement refused to open; he was coming under increasingly heavy fire from the Royalist artillery and the situation looked bleak. [60] In a famous incident, La Grande Mademoiselle , the daughter of Gaston , the Duke of Orléans, convinced her father to issue an order for the Parisian forces to act, before she then entered the Bastille and personally ensured that the commander turned the fortress's cannon on Turenne's army, causing significant casualties and enabling Condé's army's safe withdrawal. [61] Later in 1652, Condé was finally forced to surrender Paris to the royalist forces in October, effectively bringing the Fronde to an end: the Bastille returned to royal control. [52] Reign of Louis XIV and the Regency (1661–1723) [ edit ] The Bastille and Porte Saint-Antoine from the north-east, 1715–19 The area around the Bastille was transformed in the reign of Louis XIV. Paris' growing population reached 400,000 during the period, causing the city to spill out past the Bastille and the old city into the arable farmland beyond, forming more thinly populated \" faubourgs \", or suburbs. [62] Influenced by the events of the Fronde, Louis XIV rebuilt the area around the Bastille, erecting a new archway at the Porte Saint-Antoine in 1660, and then ten years later pulling down the city walls and their supporting fortifications to replace them with an avenue of trees, later called Louis XIV's boulevard, which passed around the Bastille. [63] The Bastille's bastion survived the redevelopment, becoming a garden for the use of the prisoners. [64] Louis XIV made extensive use of the Bastille as a prison, with 2,320 individuals being detained there during his reign, approximately 43 a year. [65] Louis used the Bastille to hold not just suspected rebels or plotters but also those who had simply irritated him in some way, such as differing with him on matters of religion. [66] The typical offences that inmates were accused of were espionage, counterfeiting and embezzlement from the state; a number of financial officials were detained in this way under Louis, most famously including Nicolas Fouquet , his supporters Henry de Guénegaud , Jeannin and Lorenzo de Tonti . [67] In 1685 Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes , which had previously granted various rights to French Protestants; the subsequent royal crackdown was driven by the king's strongly anti-Protestant views. [68] The Bastille was used to investigate and break up Protestant networks by imprisoning and questioning the more recalcitrant members of the community, in particular upper-class Calvinists ; some 254 Protestants were imprisoned in the Bastille during Louis's reign. [69] By Louis's reign, Bastille prisoners were detained using a \" lettre de cachet \", \"a letter under royal seal\", issued by the king and countersigned by a minister, ordering a named person to be held. [70] Louis, closely involved in this aspect of government, personally decided who should be imprisoned at the Bastille. [65] The arrest itself involved an element of ceremony: the individual would be tapped on the shoulder with a white baton and formally detained in the name of the king. [71] Detention in the Bastille was typically ordered for an indefinite period and there was considerable secrecy over who had been detained and why: the legend of the \" Man in the Iron Mask \", a mysterious prisoner who finally died in 1703, symbolises this period of the Bastille. [72] Although in practice many were held at the Bastille as a form of punishment, legally a prisoner in the Bastille was only being detained for preventative or investigative reasons: the prison was not officially supposed to be a punitive measure in its own right. [73] The average length of imprisonment in the Bastille under Louis XIV was approximately three years. [74] The Bastille in 1734, showing the Louis XIV boulevard and the growing \" faubourg \" beyond the Porte Saint-Antoine Under Louis, only between 20 and 50 prisoners were usually held at the Bastille at any one time, although as many as 111 were held for a short period in 1703. [70] These prisoners were mainly from the upper classes, and those who could afford to pay for additional luxuries lived in good conditions, wearing their own clothes, living in rooms decorated with tapestries and carpets or taking exercise around the castle garden and along the walls. [73] By the late 17th century, there was a rather disorganised library for the use of inmates in the Bastille, although its origins remain unclear. [75] [F] Louis reformed the administrative structure of the Bastille, creating the post of governor, although this post was still often referred to as the captain-governor. [77] During Louis's reign the policing of marginal groups in Paris was greatly increased: the wider criminal justice system was reformed, controls over printing and publishing extended, new criminal codes were issued and the post of the Parisian lieutenant general of police was created in 1667, all of which would enable the Bastille's later role in support of the Parisian police during the 18th century. [78] By 1711, a 60-strong French military garrison had been established at the Bastille. [79] It continued to be an expensive institution to run, particularly when the prison was full, such as during 1691 when numbers were inflated by the campaign against French Protestants and the annual cost of running the Bastille rose to 232,818 livres. [80] [G] Between 1715 – the year of Louis's death – and 1723, power transferred to the Régence ; the regent, Philippe d'Orléans , maintained the prison but the absolutist rigour of Louis XIV's system began to weaken somewhat. [82] Although Protestants ceased to be kept in the Bastille, the political uncertainties and plots of the period kept the prison busy and 1,459 were imprisoned there under the Regency, an average of around 182 a year. [83] During the Cellamare Conspiracy , the alleged enemies of the Regency were imprisoned in the Bastille, including Marguerite De Launay . [84] While in the Bastille, de Launay fell in love with a fellow prisoner, the Chevalier de Ménil; she also infamously received an invitation of marriage from the Chevalier de Maisonrouge, the governor's deputy, who had fallen in love with her himself. [84] Reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI (1723–1789) [ edit ] Architecture and organisation [ edit ] A cross-section of the Bastille viewed from the south in 1750 By the late 18th century, the Bastille had come to separate the more aristocratic quarter of Le Marais in the old city from the working class district of the faubourg Saint-Antoine that lay beyond the Louis XIV boulevard. [65] The Marais was a fashionable area, frequented by foreign visitors and tourists, but few went beyond the Bastille into the faubourg. [85] The faubourg was characterised by its built-up, densely populated areas, particularly in the north, and its numerous workshops producing soft furnishings. [86] Paris as a whole had continued to grow, reaching slightly less than 800,000 inhabitants by the reign of Louis XVI, and many of the residents around the faubourg had migrated to Paris from the countryside relatively recently. [87] The Bastille had its own street address, being officially known as No. 232, rue Saint-Antoine. [88] Structurally, the late-18th century Bastille was not greatly changed from its 14th-century predecessor. [89] The eight stone towers had gradually acquired individual names: running from the north-east side of the external gate, these were La Chapelle, Trésor, Comté, Bazinière, Bertaudière, Liberté, Puits and Coin. [90] La Chapelle contained the Bastille's chapel, decorated with a painting of Saint Peter in chains. [91] Trésor took its name from the reign of Henry IV, when it had contained the royal treasury. [92] The origins of the name of Comté tower are unclear; one theory is that the name refers to the County of Paris. [93] Bazinière was named after Bertrand de La Bazinière, a royal treasurer who was imprisoned there in 1663. [92] Bertaudière was named after a medieval mason who died building the structure in the 14th century. [94] Liberté tower took its name either from a protest in 1380, when Parisians shouted the phrase outside the castle, or because it was used to house prisoners who had more freedom to walk around the castle than the typical prisoner. [95] Puits tower contained the castle well, while Coin formed the corner of the Rue Saint-Antoine. [94] Plan of the Bastille in the 18th century. A – La Chapelle Tower; B – Trésor Tower; C – Comté Tower; D – Bazinière Tower; E -Bertaudière Tower; F – Liberté Tower; G – Puits Tower; H – Coin Tower; I – Courtyard of the Well; J – Office wing; K – Large Courtyard The main castle courtyard, accessed through the southern gateway, was 120 feet long by 72 feet wide (37 m by 22 m), and was divided from the smaller northern yard by a three-office wing, built around 1716 and renovated in 1761 in a modern, 18th-century style. [96] The office wing held the council room that was used for interrogating prisoners, the Bastille's library, and servants' quarters. [97] The upper stories included rooms for the senior Bastille staff, and chambers for distinguished prisoners. [98] An elevated building on one side of the courtyard held the Bastille's archives. [99] A clock was installed by Antoine de Sartine , the lieutenant general of police between 1759 and 1774, on the side of the office wing, depicting two chained prisoners. [100] New kitchens and baths were built just outside the main gate to the Bastille in 1786. [90] The ditch around the Bastille, now largely dry, supported a 36-foot (11 m) high stone wall with a wooden walkway for the use of the guards, known as \"la ronde\", or the round. [101] An outer court had grown up around the south-west side of the Bastille, adjacent to the Arsenal. This was open to the public and lined with small shops rented out by the governor for almost 10,000 livres a year, complete with a lodge for the Bastille gatekeeper; it was illuminated at night to light the adjacent street. [102] The Bastille was run by the governor, sometimes called the captain-governor, who lived in a 17th-century house alongside the fortress. [103] The governor was supported by various officers, in particular his deputy, the lieutenant de roi , or lieutenant of the king, who was responsible for general security and the protection of state secrets; the major, responsible for managing the Bastille's financial affairs and the police archives; and the capitaine des portes , who ran the entrance to the Bastille. [103] Four warders divided up the eight towers between them. [104] From an administrative perspective, the prison was generally well run during the period. [103] These staff were supported by an official surgeon, a chaplain and could, on occasion, call upon the services of a local midwife to assist pregnant prisoners. [105] [H] A small garrison of \" invalides \" was appointed in 1749 to guard the interior and exterior of the fortress; these were retired soldiers and were regarded locally, as Simon Schama describes, as \"amiable layabouts\" rather than professional soldiers. [107] Use of the prison [ edit ] Jansenist convulsionnaires exercising in the outer court The role of the Bastille as a prison changed considerably during the reigns of Louis XV and XVI. One trend was a decline in the number of prisoners sent to the Bastille, with 1,194 imprisoned there during the reign of Louis XV and only 306 under Louis XVI up until the Revolution, annual averages of around 23 and 20 respectively. [65] [I] A second trend was a slow shift away from the Bastille's 17th-century role of detaining primarily upper-class prisoners, towards a situation in which the Bastille was essentially a location for imprisoning socially undesirable individuals of all backgrounds – including aristocrats breaking social conventions, criminals, pornographers, thugs – and was used to support police operations, particularly those involving censorship, across Paris. [108] Despite these changes, the Bastille remained a state prison, subject to special authorities, answering to the monarch of the day and surrounded by a considerable and threatening reputation. [109] Under Louis XV, around 250 Catholic convulsionnaires , often called Jansenists , were detained in the Bastille for their religious beliefs. [110] Many of these prisoners were women and came from a wider range of social backgrounds than the upper-class Calvinists detained under Louis XIV; historian Monique Cottret argues that the decline of the Bastille's social \"mystique\" originates from this phase of detentions. [111] By Louis XVI, the background of those entering the Bastille and the type of offences they were detained over had changed markedly. Between 1774 and 1789, the detentions included 54 people accused of robbery; 31 of involvement in the 1775 Famine Revolt; 11 detained for assault; 62 illegal editors, printers and writers – but relatively few detained over the grander affairs of state. [74] Many prisoners still continued to come from the upper classes, particularly in those cases termed \"désordres des familles\", or disorders of the family. These cases typically involving members of the aristocracy who had, as historian Richard Andrews notes, \"rejected parental authority, disgraced the family reputation, manifested mental derangement, squandered capital or violated professional codes.\" [112] Their families – often their parents, but sometimes husbands and wives taking action against their spouses – could apply for individuals to be detained at one of the royal prisons, resulting in an average imprisonment of between six months and four years. [113] Such a detention could be preferable to facing a scandal or a public trial over their misdemeanours, and the secrecy that surrounded detention at the Bastille allowed personal and family reputations to be quietly protected. [114] The Bastille was considered one of the best prisons for an upper-class prisoner to be detained at, because of the standard of the facilities for the wealthy. [115] In the aftermath of the notorious \" Affair of the Diamond Necklace \" of 1786, involving the Queen and accusations of fraud, all the eleven suspects were held in the Bastille, significantly increasing the notoriety surrounding the institution. [116] The Bastille and the Porte Saint-Antoine, seen from the east Increasingly, however, the Bastille became part of the system of wider policing in Paris. Although appointed by the king, the governor reported to the lieutenant general of police: the first of these, Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie , made only occasional visits to the Bastille, but his successor, Marquis d'Argenson , and subsequent officers used the facility extensively and took a close interest in inspections of the prison. [117] The lieutenant general reported in turn to the secretary of the \" Maison du Roi \", largely responsible for order in the capital; in practice together they controlled the issuing of the \"lettres\" in the king's name. [118] The Bastille was unusual among Parisian prisons in that it acted on behalf of the king – prisoners could therefore be imprisoned secretly, for longer, and without normal judicial processes being applied, making it a useful facility for the police authorities. [119] The Bastille was a preferred location for holding prisoners who needed extensive questioning or where a case required the analysis of extensive documents. [120] The Bastille was also used to store the Parisian police archives; public order equipment such as chains and flags; and illegal goods, seized by order of the crown using a version of the \"lettre de cachet\", such as banned books and illicit printing presses. [121] Throughout this period, but particularly in the middle of the 18th century, the Bastille was used by the police to suppress the trade in illegal and seditious books in France. [122] In the 1750s, 40% of those sent to the Bastille were arrested for their role in manufacturing or dealing in banned material; in the 1760s, the equivalent figure was 35%. [122] [J] Seditious writers were also often held in the Bastille, although many of the more famous writers held in the Bastille during the period were formally imprisoned for more anti-social, rather than strictly political, offences. [124] In particular, many of those writers detained under Louis XVI were imprisoned for their role in producing illegal pornography, rather than political critiques of the regime. [74] The writer Laurent Angliviel de la Beaumelle , the philosopher André Morellet and the historian Jean-François Marmontel , for example, were formally detained not for their more obviously political writings, but for libellous remarks or for personal insults against leading members of Parisian society. [125] Prison regime [ edit ] A sketch of the main courtyard in 1785 [K] Contrary to its later image, conditions for prisoners in the Bastille by the mid-18th century were in fact relatively benign, particularly by the standards of other prisons of the time. [127] The typical prisoner was held in one of the octagonal rooms in the mid-levels of the towers. [128] The calottes, the rooms just under the roof that formed the upper storey of the Bastille, were considered the least pleasant quarters, being more exposed to the elements and usually either too hot or too cold. [129] The cachots, the underground dungeons, had not been used for many years except for holding recaptured escapees. [129] Prisoners' rooms each had a stove or a fireplace, basic furniture, curtains and in most cases a window. A typical criticism of the rooms was that they were shabby and basic rather than uncomfortable. [130] [L] Like the calottes, the main courtyard, used for exercise, was often criticised by prisoners as being unpleasant at the height of summer or winter, although the garden in the bastion and the castle walls were also used for recreation. [132] The governor received money from the Crown to support the prisoners, with the amount varying on rank: the governor received 19 livres a day for each political prisoner – with conseiller -grade nobles receiving 15 livres – and, at the other end of the scale, three livres a day for each commoner. [133] Even for the commoners, this sum was around twice the daily wage of a labourer and provided for an adequate diet, while the upper classes ate very well: even critics of the Bastille recounted many excellent meals, often taken with the governor himself. [134] [M] Prisoners who were being punished for misbehaviour, however, could have their diet restricted as a punishment. [136] The medical treatment provided by the Bastille for prisoners was excellent by the standards of the 18th century; the prison also contained a number of inmates suffering from mental illnesses and took, by the standards of the day, a very progressive attitude to their care. [137] The council chamber, sketched in 1785 Although potentially dangerous objects and money were confiscated and stored when a prisoner first entered the Bastille, most wealthy prisoners continued to bring in additional luxuries, including pet dogs or cats to control the local vermin. [138] The Marquis de Sade, for example, arrived with an elaborate wardrobe, paintings, tapestries, a selection of perfume, and a collection of 133 books. [133] Card games and billiards were played among the prisoners, and alcohol and tobacco were permitted. [139] Servants could sometimes accompany their masters into the Bastille, as in the cases of the 1746 detention of the family of Lord Morton and their entire household as British spies: the family's domestic life continued on inside the prison relatively normally. [140] The prisoners' library had grown during the 18th century, mainly through ad hoc purchases and various confiscations by the Crown, until by 1787 it included 389 volumes. [141] The length of time that a typical prisoner was kept at the Bastille continued to decline, and by Louis XVI's reign the average length of detention was only two months. [74] Prisoners would still be expected to sign a document on their release, promising not to talk about the Bastille or their time within it, but by the 1780s this agreement was frequently broken. [103] Prisoners leaving the Bastille could be granted pensions on their release by the Crown, either as a form of compensation or as a way of ensuring future good behaviour – Voltaire was granted 1,200 livres a year, for example, while Latude received an annual pension of 400 livres. [142] [N] Criticism and reform [ edit ] Dragons destroy the Bastille on the title page of Bucquoy's Die Bastille oder die Hölle der Lebenden . During the 18th century, the Bastille was extensively critiqued by French writers as a symbol of ministerial despotism ; this criticism would ultimately result in reforms and plans for its abolition. [144] The first major criticism emerged from Constantin de Renneville, who had been imprisoned in the Bastille for 11 years and published his accounts of the experience in 1715 in his book L'Inquisition françois . [145] Renneville presented a dramatic account of his detention, explaining that despite being innocent he had been abused and left to rot in one of the Bastille's cachot dungeons, kept enchained next to a corpse. [146] More criticism followed in 1719 when the Abbé Jean de Bucquoy, who had escaped from the Bastille ten years previously, published an account of his adventures from the safety of Hanover ; he gave a similar account to Renneville's and termed the Bastille the \"hell of the living\". [147] Voltaire added to the notorious reputation of the Bastille when he wrote about the case of the \" Man in the Iron Mask \" in 1751, and later criticised the way he himself was treated while detained in the Bastille, labelling the fortress a \"palace of revenge\". [148] [O] In the 1780s, prison reform became a popular topic for French writers and the Bastille was increasingly critiqued as a symbol of arbitrary despotism. [150] Two authors were particularly influential during this period. The first was Simon-Nicholas Linguet , who was arrested and detained at the Bastille in 1780, after publishing a critique of Maréchal Duras . [151] Upon his release, he published his Mémoires sur la Bastille in 1783, a damning critique of the institution. [152] Linguet criticised the physical conditions in which he was kept, sometimes inaccurately, but went further in capturing in detail the more psychological effects of the prison regime upon the inmate. [153] [P] Linguet also encouraged Louis XVI to destroy the Bastille, publishing an engraving depicting the king announcing to the prisoners \"may you be free and live!\", a phrase borrowed from Voltaire. [144] Linguet's work was followed by another prominent autobiography, Henri Latude 's Le despotisme dévoilé . [154] Latude was a soldier who was imprisoned in the Bastille following a sequence of complex misadventures, including the sending of a letter bomb to Madame de Pompadour , the King's mistress. [154] Latude became famous for managing to escape from the Bastille by means of climbing up the chimney of his cell and then descending the walls with a home-made rope ladder, before being recaptured afterwards in Amsterdam by French agents. [155] Latude was released in 1777, but was rearrested following his publication of a book entitled Memoirs of Vengeance. [156] Pamphlets and magazines publicised Latude's case until he was finally released again in 1784. [157] Latude became a popular figure with the \" Académie française \", or French Academy, and his autobiography, although inaccurate in places, did much to reinforce the public perception of the Bastille as a despotic institution. [158] [Q] Linguet's Mémoires sur la Bastille , depicting the fictional destruction of the Bastille by Louis XVI Modern historians of this period, such as Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink, Simon Schama and Monique Cottret, concur that the actual treatment of prisoners in Bastille was much better than the public impression left through these writings. [160] Nonetheless, fuelled by the secrecy that still surrounded the Bastille, official as well as public concern about the prison and the system that supported it also began to mount, prompting reforms. [161] As early as 1775, Louis XVI's minister Malesherbes had authorised all prisoners to be given newspapers to read, and to be allowed to write and to correspond with their family and friends. [162] In the 1780s Breteuil , the Secretary of State of the Maison du Roi , began a substantial reform of the system of lettres de cachet that sent prisoners to the Bastille: such letters were now required to list the length of time a prisoner would be detained for, and the offence for which they were being held. [163] Meanwhile, in 1784, the architect Alexandre Brogniard proposed that the Bastille be demolished and converted into a circular, public space with colonnades . [157] Director-General of Finance Jacques Necker , having examined the costs of running the Bastille, amounting to well over 127,000 livres in 1774, for example, proposed closing the institution on the grounds of economy alone. [164] [R] Similarly, Puget, the Bastille's lieutenant de roi , submitted reports in 1788 suggesting that the authorities close the prison, demolish the fortress and sell the real estate off. [165] In June 1789, the Académie royale d'architecture proposed a similar scheme to Brogniard's, in which the Bastille would be transformed into an open public area, with a tall column at the centre surrounded by fountains, dedicated to Louis XVI as the \"restorer of public freedom\". [157] The number of prisoners held in the Bastille at any one time declined sharply towards the end of Louis's reign; the prison contained ten prisoners in September 1782 and, despite a mild increase at the beginning of 1788, by July 1789 only seven prisoners remained in custody. [166] Before any official scheme to close the prison could be enacted, however, disturbances across Paris brought a more violent end to the Bastille. [157] The French Revolution [ edit ] Storming of the Bastille [ edit ] Main article: Storming of the Bastille An eye witness painting of the siege of the Bastille by Claude Cholat [S] By July 1789, revolutionary sentiment was rising in Paris. The Estates-General was convened in May and members of the Third Estate proclaimed the Tennis Court Oath in June, calling for the king to grant a written constitution. Violence between loyal royal forces, mutinous members of the royal Gardes Françaises and local crowds broke out at Vendôme on 12 July, leading to widespread fighting and the withdrawal of royal forces from the centre of Paris. [168] Revolutionary crowds began to arm themselves during 13 July, looting royal stores, gunsmiths and armourers' shops for weapons and gunpowder. [168] The commander of the Bastille at the time was Bernard-René de Launay , a conscientious but minor military officer. [169] Tensions surrounding the Bastille had been rising for several weeks. Only seven prisoners remained in the fortress, - the Marquis de Sade had been transferred to the asylum of Charenton , after addressing the public from his walks on top of the towers and, once this was forbidden, shouting from the window of his cell. [170] Sade had claimed that the authorities planned to massacre the prisoners in the castle, which resulted in the governor removing him to an alternative site in early July. [169] At de Launay's request, an additional force of 32 soldiers from the Swiss Salis-Samade regiment had been assigned to the Bastille on 7 July, adding to the existing 82 invalides pensioners who formed the regular garrison. [169] De Launay had taken various precautions, raising the drawbridge in the Comté tower and destroying the stone abutment that linked the Bastille to its bastion to prevent anyone from gaining access from that side of the fortress. [171] The shops in the entranceway to the Bastille had been closed and the gates locked. The Bastille was defended by 30 small artillery pieces, but nonetheless, by 14 July de Launay was very concerned about the Bastille's situation. [169] The Bastille, already hugely unpopular with the revolutionary crowds, was now the only remaining royalist stronghold in central Paris, in addition to which he was protecting a recently arrived stock of 250 barrels of valuable gunpowder. [169] To make matters worse, the Bastille had only two days' supply of food and no source of water, making it impossible to withstand a long siege. [169] [T] A plan of the Bastille and surrounding buildings made immediately after 1789; the red dot marks the perspective of Claude Cholat's painting of the siege. On the morning of 14 July around 900 people formed outside the Bastille, primarily working-class members of the nearby faubourg Saint-Antoine, but also including some mutinous soldiers and local traders. [172] The crowd had gathered in an attempt to commandeer the gunpowder stocks known to be held in the Bastille, and at 10:00 am de Launay let in two of their leaders to negotiate with him. [173] Just after midday, another negotiator was let in to discuss the situation, but no compromise could be reached: the revolutionary representatives now wanted both the guns and the gunpowder in the Bastille to be handed over, but de Launay refused to do so unless he received authorisation from his leadership in Versailles . [174] By this point it was clear that the governor lacked the experience or the skills to defuse the situation. [175] Just as negotiations were about to recommence at around 1:30 pm, chaos broke out as the impatient and angry crowd stormed the outer courtyard of the Bastille, pushing toward the main gate. [176] Confused firing broke out in the confined space and chaotic fighting began in earnest between de Launay's forces and the revolutionary crowd as the two sides exchanged fire. [177] At around 3:30 pm, more mutinous royal forces arrived to reinforce the crowd, bringing with them trained infantry officers and several cannons. [178] After discovering that their weapons were too light to damage the main walls of the fortress, the revolutionary crowd began to fire their cannons at the wooden gate of the Bastille. [179] By now around 83 of the crowd had been killed and another 15 mortally wounded; only one of the Invalides had been killed in return. [180] De Launay had limited options: if he allowed the Revolutionaries to destroy his main gate, he would have to turn the cannon directly inside the Bastille's courtyard on the crowds, causing great loss of life and preventing any peaceful resolution of the episode. [179] De Launay could not withstand a long siege, and he was dissuaded by his officers from committing mass suicide by detonating his supplies of powder. [181] Instead, de Launay attempted to negotiate a surrender, threatening to blow up the Bastille if his demands were not met. [180] In the midst of this attempt, the Bastille's drawbridge suddenly came down and the revolutionary crowd stormed in, popular mythh believes that Stanislas Marie Maillard was the first revolutionry to enter to the fortress. [182] De Launay was dragged outside into the streets and killed by the crowd, and three officers and three soldiers were killed during the course of the afternoon by the crowd. [183] The soldiers of the Swiss Salis-Samade Regiment, however, were not wearing their uniform coats and were mistaken for Bastille prisoners; they were left unharmed by the crowds until they were escorted away by French Guards and other regular soldiers among the attackers. [184] The valuable powder and guns were seized and a search begun for the other prisoners in the Bastille. [180] Destruction [ edit ] The demolition of the walls of the Bastille, July 1789 Within hours of its capture, the Bastille began to be used as a powerful symbol to give legitimacy to the revolutionary movement in France. [185] The faubourg Saint-Antoine's revolutionary reputation was firmly established by their storming of the Bastille and a formal list began to be drawn up of the \"vainqueurs\" who had taken part so as to honor both the fallen and the survivors. [186] Although the crowd had initially gone to the Bastille searching for gunpowder, historian Simon Schama observes how the captured prison \"gave a shape and an image to all the vices against which the Revolution defined itself\". [187] Indeed, the more despotic and evil the Bastille was portrayed by the pro-revolutionary press, the more necessary and justified the actions of the Revolution became. [187] Consequently, the late governor, de Launay, was rapidly vilified as a brutal despot. [188] The fortress itself was described by the revolutionary press as a \"place of slavery and horror\", containing \"machines of death\", \"grim underground dungeons\" and \"disgusting caves\" where prisoners were left to rot for up to 50 years. [189] As a result, in the days after 14 July, the fortress was searched for evidence of torture: old pieces of armour and bits of a printing press were taken out and presented as evidence of elaborate torture equipment. [190] Latude returned to the Bastille, where he was given the rope ladder and equipment with which he had escaped from the prison many years before. [190] The former prison warders escorted visitors around the Bastille in the weeks after its capture, giving colourful accounts of the events in the castle. [191] Stories and pictures about the rescue of the fictional Count de Lorges – supposedly a mistreated prisoner of the Bastille incarcerated by Louis XV – and the similarly imaginary discovery of the skeleton of the \"Man in the Iron Mask\" in the dungeons, were widely circulated as fact across Paris. [192] In the coming months, over 150 broadside publications used the storming of the Bastille as a theme, while the events formed the basis for a number of theatrical plays. [193] Despite a thorough search, the revolutionaries discovered only seven prisoners in the Bastille, rather fewer than had been anticipated. [194] Of these, only one – de Whyte de Malleville, an elderly and white-bearded man – closely resembled the public image of a Bastille prisoner; despite being mentally ill, he was paraded through the streets, where he waved happily to the crowds. [190] Of the remaining six liberated prisoners, four were convicted forgers who quickly vanished into the Paris streets; one was the Count de Solages , who had been imprisoned on the request of his family for sexual misdemeanours; the sixth was a man called Tavernier, who also proved to be mentally ill and, along with Whyte, was in due course reincarcerated in the Charenton asylum . [195] [U] A model of the Bastille made by Pierre-François Palloy from one of the stones of the fortress At first the revolutionary movement was uncertain whether to destroy the prison, to reoccupy it as a fortress with members of the volunteer guard militia, or to preserve it intact as a permanent revolutionary monument. [196] The revolutionary leader Mirabeau eventually settled the matter by symbolically starting the destruction of the battlements himself, after which a panel of five experts was appointed by the Permanent Committee of the Hôtel de Ville to manage the demolition of the castle. [191] [V] One of these experts was Pierre-François Palloy , a bourgeois entrepreneur who claimed vainqueur status for his role during the taking of the Bastille, and he rapidly assumed control over the entire process. [198] Palloy's team worked quickly and by November most of the fortress had been destroyed. [199] The ruins of the Bastille rapidly became iconic across France. [190] Palloy had an altar set up on the site in February 1790, formed out of iron chains and restraints from the prison. [199] Old bones, probably of 15th century soldiers, were discovered during the clearance work in April and, presented as the skeletons of former prisoners, were exhumed and ceremonially reburied in Saint-Paul's cemetery. [200] In the summer, a huge ball was held by Palloy on the site for the National Guardsmen visiting Paris for the 14 July celebrations. [200] A memorabilia industry surrounding the fall of the Bastille was already flourishing and as the work on the demolition project finally dried up, Palloy started producing and selling memorabilia of the Bastille. [201] [W] Palloy's products, which he called \"relics of freedom\", celebrated the national unity that the events of July 1789 had generated across all classes of French citizenry, and included a very wide range of items. [203] [X] Palloy also sent models of the Bastille, carved from the fortress's stones, as gifts to the French provinces at his own expense to spread the revolutionary message. [204] In 1793 a large revolutionary fountain featuring a statue of Isis was built on the former site of the fortress, which became known as the Place de la Bastille . [205] 19th–20th century political and cultural legacy [ edit ] The foundations of the Liberté Tower of the Bastille, rediscovered during excavations for the Métro in 1899 [206] The Bastille remained a powerful and evocative symbol for French republicans throughout the 19th century. [207] Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the French First Republic that emerged from the Revolution in 1799, and subsequently attempted to marginalise the Bastille as a symbol. [208] Napoleon was unhappy with the revolutionary connotations of the Place de la Bastille, and initially considered building his Arc de Triomphe on the site instead. [209] This proved an unpopular option and so instead he planned the construction of a huge, bronze statue of an imperial elephant. [209] The project was delayed, eventually indefinitely, and all that was constructed was a large plaster version of the bronze statue, which stood on the former site of the Bastille between 1814 and 1846, when the decaying structure was finally removed. [209] After the restoration of the French Bourbon monarchy in 1815, the Bastille became an underground symbol for Republicans. [208] The July Revolution in 1830, used images such as the Bastille to legitimise their new regime and in 1833, the former site of the Bastille was used to build the July Column to commemorate the revolution. [210] The short-lived Second Republic was symbolically declared in 1848 on the former revolutionary site. [211] The storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, had been celebrated annually since 1790, initially through quasi-religious rituals, and then later during the Revolution with grand, secular events including the burning of replica Bastilles. [212] Under Napoleon the events became less revolutionary, focusing instead on military parades and national unity in the face of foreign threats. [213] During the 1870s, the 14 July celebrations became a rallying point for Republicans opposed to the early monarchist leadership of the Third Republic ; when the moderate Republican Jules Grévy became president in 1879, his new government turned the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille into a national holiday. [214] The anniversary remained contentious, with hard-line Republicans continuing to use the occasion to protest against the new political order and right-wing conservatives protesting about the imposition of the holiday. [215] The July Column itself remained contentious and Republican radicals unsuccessfully tried to blow it up in 1871. [216] Meanwhile, the legacy of the Bastille proved popular among French novelists. Alexandre Dumas , for example, used the Bastille and the legend of the \"Man in the Iron Mask\" extensively in his d'Artagnan Romances ; in these novels the Bastille is presented as both picturesque and tragic, a suitable setting for heroic action. [217] By contrast, in many of Dumas's other works, such as Ange Pitou , the Bastille takes on a much darker appearance, being described as a place in which a prisoner is \"forgotten, bankrupted, buried, destroyed\". [218] In England, Charles Dickens took a similar perspective when he drew on popular histories of the Bastille in writing A Tale of Two Cities , in which Doctor Manette is \"buried alive\" in the prison for 18 years; many historical figures associated with the Bastille are reinvented as fictional individuals in the novel, such as Claude Cholat, reproduced by Dickens as \"Ernest Defarge\". [219] Victor Hugo 's 1862 novel Les Miserables , set just after the Revolution, gave Napoleon's plaster Bastille elephant a permanent place in literary history. In 1889 the continued popularity of the Bastille with the public was illustrated by the decision to build a replica in stone and wood for the Exposition Universelle world fair in Paris, manned by actors in period costumes. [220] Due in part to the diffusion of national and Republican ideas across France during the second half of the Third Republic, the Bastille lost an element of its prominence as a symbol by the 20th century. [221] Nonetheless, the Place de la Bastille continued to be the traditional location for left wing rallies, particularly in the 1930s, the symbol of the Bastille was widely evoked by the French Resistance during the Second World War and until the 1950s Bastille Day remained the single most significant French national holiday. [222] Remains [ edit ] Remaining stones of the Bastille are still visible now on Boulevard Henri IV. Due to its destruction after 1789, very little remains of the Bastille in the 21st century. [103] During the excavations for the Métro underground train system in 1899, the foundations of the Liberté Tower were uncovered and moved to the corner of the Boulevard Henri IV and the Quai de Celestins, where they can still be seen today. [223] The Pont de la Concorde contains stones reused from the Bastille. [224] Some relics of the Bastille survive: the Carnavalet Museum holds objects including one of the stone models of the Bastille made by Palloy and the rope ladder used by Latude to escape from the prison roof in the 18th century, while the mechanism and bells of the prison clock are exhibited in Musée Européen d'Art Campanaire at L'Isle-Jourdain . [225] The key to the Bastille was given to George Washington in 1790 by Lafayette and is displayed in the historic house of Mount Vernon . [226] The Bastille's archives are now held by the Bibliothèque nationale de France . [227] The Place de la Bastille still occupies most of the location of the Bastille, and the Opéra Bastille was built on the square in 1989 to commemorate the bicentennial anniversary of the storming of the prison. [216] The surrounding area has largely been redeveloped from its 19th-century industrial past. The ditch that originally linked the defences of the fortress to the River Seine had been dug out at the start of the 19th century to form the industrial harbour of the Bassin de l'Arsenal , linked to the Canal Saint Martin , but is now a marina for pleasure boats, while the Promenade Plantée links the square with redeveloped parklands to the east. [228] Historiography [ edit ] Journal of Antoine-Jérôme de Losme, the Bastille major, describing the days before the fall of the Bastille in 1789 A number of histories of the Bastille were published immediately after July 1789, usually with dramatic titles promising the uncovering of secrets from the prison. [229] By the 1830s and 1840s, popular histories written by Pierre Joigneaux and by the trio of Auguste Maquet , Auguste Arnould and Jules-Édouard Alboize de Pujol presented the years of the Bastille between 1358 and 1789 as a single, long period of royal tyranny and oppression, epitomised by the fortress; their works featured imaginative 19th-century reconstructions of the medieval torture of prisoners. [230] As living memories of the Revolution faded, the destruction of the Bastille meant that later historians had to rely primarily on memoires and documentary materials in analysing the fortress and the 5,279 prisoners who had come through the Bastille between 1659 and 1789. [231] The Bastille's archives, recording the operation of the prison, had been scattered in the confusion after the seizure; with some effort, the Paris Assembly gathered around 600,000 of them in the following weeks, which form the basis of the modern archive. [232] After being safely stored and ignored for many years, these archives were rediscovered by the French historian François Ravaisson, who catalogued and used them for research between 1866 and 1904. [233] At the end of the 19th century the historian Frantz Funck-Brentano used the archives to undertake detailed research into the operation of the Bastille, focusing on the upper class prisoners in the Bastille, disproving many of the 18th-century myths about the institution and portraying the prison in a favourable light. [234] Modern historians today consider Funck-Brentano's work slightly biased by his anti-Republican views, but his histories of the Bastille were highly influential and were largely responsible for establishing that the Bastille was a well-run, relatively benign institution. [235] Historian Fernand Bournon used the same archive material to produce the Histoire de la Bastille in 1893, considered by modern historians to be one of the best and most balanced 19th-century histories of the Bastille. [236] These works inspired the writing of a sequence of more popular histories of the Bastille in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including Auguste Coeuret's anniversary history of the Bastille, which typically focused on a handful of themes and stories involving the more glamorous prisoners from the upper classes of French society. [237] One of the major debates on the actual taking of the Bastille in 1789 has been the nature of the crowds that stormed the building. Hippolyte Taine argued in the late 19th century that the crowd consisted of unemployed vagrants, who acted without real thought; by contrast, the post-war left-wing intellectual George Rudé argued that the crowd was dominated by relatively prosperous artisan workers. [238] The matter was reexamined by Jacques Godechot in the post-war years; Godechot showing convincingly that, in addition to some local artisans and traders, at least half the crowd that gathered that day were, like the inhabitants of the surrounding faubourg, recent immigrants to Paris from the provinces. [239] Godechot used this to characterise the taking of the Bastille as a genuinely national event of wider importance to French society. [240] In the 1970s French sociologists , particularly those interested in critical theory , re-examined this historical legacy. [229] The Annales School conducted extensive research into how order was maintained in pre-revolutionary France, focusing on the operation of the police, concepts of deviancy and religion. [229] Histories of the Bastille since then have focused on the prison's role in policing, censorship and popular culture, in particular how these impacted on the working classes. [229] Research in West Germany during the 1980s examined the cultural interpretation of the Bastille against the wider context of the French Revolution; Hanse Lüsebrink and Rolf Reichardt's work, explaining how the Bastille came to be regarded as a symbol of despotism, was among the most prominent. [241] This body of work influenced historian Simon Schama 's 1989 book on the Revolution, which incorporated cultural interpretation of the Bastille with a controversial critique of the violence surrounding the storming of the Bastille. [242] The Bibliothèque nationale de France held a major exhibition on the legacy of the Bastille between 2010 and 2011, resulting in a substantial edited volume summarising the current academic perspectives on the fortress. [243] See also [ edit ] List of castles in France Architecture portal Criminal justice portal France portal Paris portal Notes [ edit ] Footnotes [ edit ] Jump up ^ An alternative opinion, held by Fernand Bournon, is that the first bastille was a completely different construction, possibly made just of earth, and that all of the later bastille was built under Charles V and his son. [4] Jump up ^ The Bastille can be seen in the background of Jean Fouquet 's 15th-century depiction of Charles V 's entrance into Paris. Jump up ^ Hugues Aubriot was subsequently taken from the Bastille to the For-l'Évêque , where he was then executed on charges of heresy. [23] Jump up ^ Converting medieval financial figures to modern equivalents is notoriously challenging. For comparison, 1,200 livres was around 0.8% of the French Crown's annual income from royal taxes in 1460. [30] Jump up ^ In practice, Henry IV 's nobles appointed lieuentants to actually run the fortress. [50] Jump up ^ Andrew Trout suggests that the castle's library was originally a gift from Louis XIV ; Martine Lefévre notes early records of the books of dead prisoners being lent out by the staff as a possible origin for the library, or alternatively that the library originated as a gift from Vinache, a rich Neapolitan . [76] Jump up ^ Converting 17th century financial sums into modern equivalents is extremely challenging; for comparison, 232,818 livres was around 1,000 times the annual wages of a typical labourer of the period. [81] Jump up ^ The Bastille's surgeon was also responsible for shaving the prisoners, as inmates were not permitted sharp objects such as razors. [106] Jump up ^ Using slightly different accounting methods, Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink suggests fractionally lower totals for prisoner numbers between 1660–1789. [74] Jump up ^ Jane McLeod suggests that the breaching of censorship rules by licensed printers was rarely dealt with by regular courts, being seen as an infraction against the Crown, and dealt with by royal officials. [123] Jump up ^ This picture, by Jean-Honoré Fragonard , shows a number of elegantly dressed women; it is uncertain on what occasion the drawing was made, or what they were doing in Bastille at the time. [126] Jump up ^ Prisoners described the standard issue furniture as including \"a bed of green serge with curtains of the same; a straw mat and a mattress; a table or two, two pitchers, a candleholder and a tin goblet; two or three chairs, a fork, a spoon and everything need to light a fire; by special favour, weak little tongs and two large stones for an andiron .\" Linguet complained of only initially having \"two mattresses half eaten by the worms, a matted elbow chair... a tottering table, a water pitcher, two pots of Dutch ware and two flagstones to support the fire\". [131] Jump up ^ Linguet noted that \"there are tables less lacking; I confess it; mine was among them.\" Morellet reported that each day he received \"a bottle of decent wine, an excellent one-pound loaf of bread; for dinner, a soup, some beef, an entrée and a desert; in the evening, some roast and a salad.\" The abbé Marmontel recorded dinners including \"an excellent soup, a succulent slice of beef, a boiled leg of capon, dripping with fat and falling off the bone; a small plate of fried artichokes in a marinade, one of spinach, a very nice \"cresonne\" pear, fresh grapes, a bottle of old Burgundy wine, and the best Mocha coffee. At the other end of the scale, lesser prisoners might get only \"a pound of bread and a bottle of bad wine a day; for dinner...broth and two meat dishes; for supper...a slice of roast, some stew, and some salad\". [135] Jump up ^ Comparing 18th century sums of money with modern equivalents is notoriously difficult; for comparison, Latude's pension was around one and a third times that of a labourer's annual wage, while Voltaire's was very considerably more. [143] Jump up ^ Voltaire is usually considered to have exaggerated his hardships, as he received a string of visitors each day and in fact voluntarily stayed on within the Bastille after he was officially released in order to complete some business affairs. He also campaigned to have others sent to the Bastille. [149] Jump up ^ The accuracy of all of Linguet's records on the physical conditions have been questioned by modern historians, for example Simon Schama. [151] Jump up ^ Latude's inaccuracies include his referring to a new fur coat as \"half-rotted rags\", for example. Jacques Berchtold observes that Latude's writing also introduced the idea of the hero of the story actively resisting the despotic institution – in this case through escape – in contrast to earlier works which had portrayed the hero merely as the passive victim of oppression. [159] Jump up ^ Comparing 18th century sums of money with modern equivalents is notoriously difficult; for comparison, the Bastille's 127,000 livres running costs in 1774 were around 420 times a Parisian labourer's annual wages, or alternatively roughly half the cost of clothing and equipping the Queen in 1785. [143] Jump up ^ Claude Cholat was a wine merchant living in Paris on the rue Noyer at the start of 1789. Cholat fought on the side of the Revolutionaries during the storming of the Bastille, manning one of their cannon during the battle. Afterwards, Cholat produced a famous amateur gouache painting showing the events of the day; produced in primitive, naïve style, it combines all the events of the day into a single graphical representation. [167] Jump up ^ It is unclear why the Bastille's well was not functioning at this time. Jump up ^ Jacques-François-Xavier de Whyte, often called Major Whyte, had originally been imprisoned for sexual misdemeanours – by 1789 he believed himself to be Julius Caesar , accounting for his positive reaction to being paraded through the streets. Tavernier had been accused of attempting to assassinate Louis XV. The four forgers were later recaptured and imprisoned in the Bicêtre . [195] Jump up ^ Palloy actually began some limited demolition work on the evening of the 14 July, before any formal authorisation had been given. [197] Jump up ^ The extent to which Palloy was motivated by money, revolutionary zeal or both is unclear; Simon Schama is inclined to portray him as a businessman first, Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink and Rolf Reichardt depict him as a slightly obsessed revolutionary. [202] Jump up ^ Palloy 's products included a working model of the fortress; royal and revolutionary portraits; miscellaneous objects such as inkwells and paperweights, made from recycled parts of the Bastille; Latude's biography and other carefully selected items. [203] Citations [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Lansdale, p. 216. Jump up ^ Bournon, p. 1. Jump up ^ Viollet, p. 172; Coueret, p. 2; Lansdale, p. 216. Jump up ^ Bournon, p. 3. Jump up ^ Coueret, p. 2. ^ Jump up to: a b Viollet, p. 172; Landsdale, p. 218. Jump up ^ Viollet, p. 172; Landsdale, p. 218; Muzerelle (2010a), p. 14. ^ Jump up to: a b Coueret, p. 3, Bournon, p. 6. Jump up ^ Viollet, p. 172; Schama, p 331; Muzerelle (2010a), p.14. ^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, p. 208. Jump up ^ Coueret, p. 52. Jump up ^ La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011; Funck-Brentano, p. 62; Bournon, p. 48. Jump up ^ Viollet, p. 172. Jump up ^ Coueret, p. 36. Jump up ^ Lansdale, p. 221. Jump up ^ Toy, p. 215; Anderson, p. 208. Jump up ^ Anderson pp. 208, 283. Jump up ^ Anderson, pp. 208–09. Jump up ^ Lansdale, pp.219–220. Jump up ^ Bournon, p.7. Jump up ^ Lansdale, p.220; Bournon, p.7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Coueret, p.4. Jump up ^ Coueret, pp.4, 46. Jump up ^ Bournon, pp.7, 48. Jump up ^ Le Bas, p.191. Jump up ^ Lansdale, p.220. Jump up ^ La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011; Lansdale, p.220; Bournon, p.49. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.13; Bournon, p.11. Jump up ^ Bournon, pp.49, 51. Jump up ^ Curry, p.82. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.63. Jump up ^ Munck, p.168. Jump up ^ Lansdale, p.285. Jump up ^ Muzerelle (2010a), p.14. Jump up ^ Funck-Bretano, p.61; Muzerelle (2010a), p.14. Jump up ^ Coueret, pp.45, 57. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.37. Jump up ^ Knecht, p.449. Jump up ^ Knecht, pp.451–2. Jump up ^ Knecht, p.452. Jump up ^ Knecht, p.459. Jump up ^ Freer, p.358. Jump up ^ Freer, pp.248, 356. Jump up ^ Freer, pp.354–6. Jump up ^ Freer, pp.356, 357–8. Jump up ^ Freer, pp.364, 379. Jump up ^ Knecht, p.486. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.64; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.6. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.64; Bournon, p.49. Jump up ^ Bournon, p.49. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.65. ^ Jump up to: a b Munck, p.212. Jump up ^ Sturdy, p.27. Jump up ^ Lansdale, p.324. Jump up ^ Munck, p.212; Le Bas, p.191. Jump up ^ Treasure, p.141. Jump up ^ Treasure, p.141; Le Bas, p.191. Jump up ^ Treasure, p.171; Le Bas, p.191. Jump up ^ Treasure, p.198. Jump up ^ Sainte-Aulaire, p.195; Hazan, p.14. Jump up ^ Sainte-Aulaire, p.195; Hazan, p.14; Treasure, p.198. Jump up ^ Trout, p.12. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.37; Hazan, pp.14–5; La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.61. ^ Jump up to: a b c d La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.6. Jump up ^ Trout, pp.140–1. Jump up ^ Collins, p.103. Jump up ^ Cottret, p.73; Trout, p.142. ^ Jump up to: a b Trout, p.142. Jump up ^ Trout, p.143. Jump up ^ Trout, p.141; Bély, pp.124–5, citing Petitfils (2003). ^ Jump up to: a b Trout, p.141. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lüsebrink, p.51. Jump up ^ Lefévre, p.156. Jump up ^ Trout, p.141, Lefévre, p.156. Jump up ^ Bournon, pp.49, 52. Jump up ^ Dutray-Lecoin (2010b), p.24; Collins, p.149; McLeod, p.5. Jump up ^ Bournon, p.53. Jump up ^ Bournon, pp.50–1. Jump up ^ Andrews, p.66. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, pp.72–3. Jump up ^ La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011; Schama, p.331. ^ Jump up to: a b Funck-Brentano, p.73. Jump up ^ Garrioch, p.22. Jump up ^ Garrioch, p.22; Roche, p.17. Jump up ^ Roche, p.17. Jump up ^ Schama, p.330. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.58. ^ Jump up to: a b Chevallier, p.148. Jump up ^ Coueret, pp.45–6. ^ Jump up to: a b Coueret, p.46. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.47; Funck-Brentano, pp.59–60. ^ Jump up to: a b Coueret, p.47. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.47; Funck-Brentano, p.60. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.48; Bournon, p.27. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.48. Jump up ^ Coueret, pp.48–9. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.49. Jump up ^ Reichardt, p.226; Coueret, p.51. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.57; Funck-Brentano, p.62. Jump up ^ Schama, p.330; Coueret, p.58; Bournon, pp.25–6. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dutray-Lecoin (2010a), p.136. Jump up ^ Bournon, p.71. Jump up ^ Bournon, pp.66, 68. Jump up ^ Linguet, p.78. Jump up ^ Schama, p.339; Bournon, p.73. Jump up ^ Denis, p.38; Dutray-Lecoin (2010b), p.24. Jump up ^ Dutray-Lecoin (2010b), p.24. Jump up ^ Schama, p.331; Lacam, p.79. Jump up ^ Cottret, pp.75–6. Jump up ^ Andrews, p.270; Prade, p.25. Jump up ^ Andrews, p.270; Farge, p.89. Jump up ^ Trout, pp.141, 143. Jump up ^ Gillispie, p.249. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.25–6. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.72; Dutray-Lecoin (2010a), p.136. Jump up ^ Denis, p.37; La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011. Jump up ^ Denis, p.37. Jump up ^ Denis, pp.38–9. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.81; La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011. ^ Jump up to: a b Birn, p.51. Jump up ^ McLeod, p.6 Jump up ^ Schama, p.331; Funck-Brentano, p.148. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, pp.156–9. Jump up ^ Dutray-Lecoin (2010c), p.148. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.331–2; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.29–32. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.331–2. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.331. Jump up ^ Schama, p.332; Linguet, p.69; Coeuret, p.54-5. Jump up ^ Linguet, p.69; Coeuret, p.54-5, citing Charpentier (1789). Jump up ^ Bournon, p.30. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.332. Jump up ^ Schama, p.333; Andress, p.xiii; Chevallier, p.151. Jump up ^ Chevallier, pp.151–2, citing Morellet, p.97, Marmontel, pp.133–5 and Coueret, p.20. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.107; Chevallier, p.152. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.31; Sérieux and Libert (1914), cited Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.31. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.332, 335. Jump up ^ Schama, p.333. Jump up ^ Farge, p.153. Jump up ^ Lefévre, p.157. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.99. ^ Jump up to: a b Andress, p.xiii. ^ Jump up to: a b Reichardt, p.226. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.10; Renneville (1719). Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.11. Jump up ^ Coueret, p.13; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.12; Bucquoy (1719). Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.14–5, 26. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.26–7. Jump up ^ Schama, p.333; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.19. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.334. Jump up ^ Schama, p.334; Linguet (2005). Jump up ^ Schama, pp.334–5. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.335. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.336–7. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.337–8. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Schama, p.338. Jump up ^ Schama, p.338; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.31; Latude (1790). Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.31; Berchtold, pp.143–5. Jump up ^ Schama, p.334; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.27. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.27. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, pp.78–9. Jump up ^ Gillispie, p.247; Funck-Brentano, p.78. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, pp.81–2. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.83. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, p.79. Jump up ^ Schama, p.340-2, fig.6. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.327. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Schama, p.339. Jump up ^ Schama, p.339 Jump up ^ Coueret, p.57. Jump up ^ Schama, p.340. Jump up ^ Schama, p.340; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.58. Jump up ^ Schama, p.340-1. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.42. Jump up ^ Schama, p.341. Jump up ^ Schama, p.341; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.43. Jump up ^ Schama, p.341-2. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.342. ^ Jump up to: a b c Schama, p.343. Jump up ^ Schama, p.342; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.43. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.342–3. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.44. Jump up ^ Schama, p.343; Crowdy, p.8. Jump up ^ Reichardt, p.240; Schama, p.345; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.86. Jump up ^ Hazan, p.122; Schama, p.347. ^ Jump up to: a b Reichardt, p.240; Schama, p.345. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.64. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.74, 77. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Schama, p.345. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.348. Jump up ^ Reichardt, pp.241–2. Jump up ^ Reichardt, p.226; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.98–9. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.344–5; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.67. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.345; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.106–7. Jump up ^ Schama, p.347. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.120. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.347–8. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.349. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.350. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.351–2; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.80–1. Jump up ^ Schama, pp.351–3; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.120–1. ^ Jump up to: a b Schama, p.351. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.120–1. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.168. Jump up ^ Amalvi, p.184. Jump up ^ Amalvi, p.181. ^ Jump up to: a b Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.220. ^ Jump up to: a b c Schama, p.3. Jump up ^ Burton, p.40; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.222. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.227. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.155–6. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.156–7. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.229. Jump up ^ McPhee, p.259; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.231. ^ Jump up to: a b Burton, p.40. Jump up ^ Sacquin, pp.186–7. Jump up ^ Sacquin, p.186. Jump up ^ Glancy, pp.18, 33; Sacquin, p.186. Jump up ^ Giret, p.191. Jump up ^ Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.235. Jump up ^ Nora, p.118; Ayers, p.188; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, pp.232–5. Jump up ^ Hazan, p.11; Amalvi, p.184. Jump up ^ Ayers, p.391. Jump up ^ Modèle réduit de la Bastille , Carnavalet Museum , accessed 2 September 2011; Berchtold, p.145; Dutray-Lecoin (2010a), p.136. Jump up ^ Bastille Key , George Washington's Mount Vernon and Historic Gardens , accessed 2 September 2011. Jump up ^ Archives de la Bastille Archived September 9, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 2 September 2011. Jump up ^ Berens, p.237-8. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Muzerelle (2010b), p.170. Jump up ^ Amalvi, p.181; Joigneaux (1838); Maquet, Arnould and Alboize Du Pujol (1844). Jump up ^ Dutray-Lecoin (2010a), p.136; La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011. Jump up ^ La Bastille ou « l’Enfer des vivants »? , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 8 August 2011.; Funck-Brentano, pp.52–4. Jump up ^ Funck-Brentano, pp.55–6; Muzerelle (2010b), p.170. Jump up ^ Muzerelle (2010b), p.170; Funck-Bretano (1899). Jump up ^ Muzerelle (2010b), p.170; Amalvi, p.183. Jump up ^ Muzerelle (2010b), p.170; Bournon (1898). Jump up ^ Muzerelle (2010b), p.170; Lüsebrink and Reichardt, p.207; Coeuret (1890). Jump up ^ Kennedy, p.313; Rudé (1959); Taine (1878). Jump up ^ Godechot (1965); Schama, p.762; Kennedy, p.313. Jump up ^ Kennedy, p.313. Jump up ^ Crook, pp.245–6; Lüsebrink and Reichardt (1997). Jump up ^ Colley, pp.12–3; Schama (2004). Jump up ^ The \"Bastille\" or \"Living in Hell\" Archived November 12, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . , Bibliothèque nationale de France , accessed 29 August 2011; Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). References [ edit ] Alpaugh, Micah. \"A Self-Defining Bourgeoisie in the Early French Revolution: The Milice bourgeoise, the Bastille Days of 1789, and Their Aftermath,\" Journal of Social History 47, no. 3 (Spring 2014), 696-720. Amalvi, Christian. \"La Bastille dans l'historiographie républicaine du XIXe siècle\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Anderson, William (1980). Castles of Europe: From Charlemagne to the Renaissance . London: Ferndale. ISBN 0-905746-20-1 . Andress, David (2004). The French Revolution and the People . New York: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-540-6 . Andrews, Richard Mowery (1994). Law, Magistracy, and Crime in Old Regime Paris, 1735–1789: Volume 1, The system of Criminal Justice . Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36169-9 . Ayers, Andrew (2004). The Architecture of Paris: an Architectural Guide . Stuttgart, Germany: Axel Menges. ISBN 978-3-930698-96-7 . Bély, Lucien (2005). Louis XIV: le plus grand roi du monde . Paris: Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-87747-772-7 . (in French) Berchtold, Jacques (2010). \"L'embastillement dans les mémoires des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Berens, Carol (2011). Redeveloping Industrial Sites: A Guide For Architects, Planners, and Developers . Hoboken, US: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-39824-1 . Birn, Raymond (1989). \"Malesherbes and the Call For a Free Press\", in Darnton and Roche (eds) (1989). Bournon, Fernand (1898). La Bastille: histoire et description des bâtiments, administration, régime de la prison, événements historiques. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. OCLC 422090746 . (in French) Bucquoy, Jean Albert de (1719). Die sogenannte Hölle der Lebendigen: d.i. die weltberufene Bastille zu Paris. nl: Friends of the Author. OCLC 166115978 . (in German) Charpentier, François (1789). La Bastille dévoilée, ou, Recueil de pièces authentiques pour servir a son histoire. Paris: Chez Desenne. OCLC 54462067 . (in French) Chevallier, Jim (2005). \"Appendices B and C\", in Linguet (2005). Coeuret, August (1890). La Bastille 1370–1789: historie, description, attaque et prise. Paris: Rothschild. OCLC 65031248 . (in French) Colley, Linda (1989). \"Last Farewells\". London Review of Books 11: no. 12, pp. 12–13. Collins, James B. (1995). The State in Early Modern France . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38724-8 . Cottret, Monique (2010). \"Les affaires de religion à la Bastille\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Crook, Malcolm (1999). \"Review: The Bastille: a History of a Symbol of Despotism and Freedom\". French History 13: no. 2, pp. 245–6. Crowdy, Terry (2004). French Revolutionary Infantry 1789–1802 . Botley, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-660-7 . Curry, Anne (2002). The Hundred Years' War: 1337–1453 . Botley, UK: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-269-2 . Daileader, Philip and Philip Whalen (eds) (2010). French Historians 1900–2000: New Historical Writing in Twentieth-Century France . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9867-7 . Darnton, Robert and Daniel Roche (eds) (1989). Revolution in Print: the Press in France, 1775–1800 . Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06431-7 . Denis, Vincent (2010). \"La police de Paris et la Bastille au XVIIIe siècle\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Dutray-Lecoin, Élise (2010a). \"La vie quotidienne à la Bastille\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Dutray-Lecoin, Élise (2010b). \"Le système pénitentiaire parisien sous l'Ancien Régime\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Dutray-Lecoin, Élise (2010c). \"175: La Bastille vue par un artiste\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Dutray-Lecoin, Élise and Danielle Muzerelle (eds) (2010). La Bastille ou 'l'enfer des vivants' à travers les archives de la Bastille. Paris: Bibliothèque nationale de France. ISBN 978-2-7177-2467-7 . Farge, Arlette (1993). Fragile Lives: Violence, Power and Solidarity in Eighteenth-Century Paris . London: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-674-31637-9 . Farge, Arlette (2010). \"Le désordre social et politique, la main due roi s'y oppose\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Freer, Martha Walker (1860). History of the Reign of Henry IV. London: Hurst and Blackett. OCLC 605733923 . Funck-Brentano, Frantz (1899). Legends of the Bastille. London: Downey. OCLC 657054286 . Garrioch, David (2004). The Making of Revolutionary Paris . Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24327-9 . Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1980). Science and Polity in France: the End of the Old Regime . Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11849-9 . Giret, Noëlle (2010). \"La Bastille ou le 'palais de la vengeance'\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Glancy, Ruth F (2006). Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities: a Sourcebook . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28759-3 . Godechot, Jacques Léon (1965). La prise de la Bastille: 14 juillet 1789 . Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 1736415 . Hazan, Eric (2011). The Invention of Paris: A History in Footsteps . London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-705-4 . Joigneaux, Pierre (1838). Histoire générale de la Bastille. Paris: Pierre Joigneaux. OCLC 457621707 . Kennedy, Emmet (2010). \"Jacques Godechot (1907–1989)\", in Daileader and Whalen (eds) (2010). Knecht, Robert Jean (2001). The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483–1610 . Oxford: Blackwell Press. ISBN 978-0-631-22729-8 . Lacam, Emmanuel (2010). \"Les convulsionnaires\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Lansdale, Maria Hornor (1898). Paris: Its Sites, Monuments and History. Philadelphia, US: H.T. Coates. OCLC 224022 . Latude, Henri (1790). Le despotisme dévoilé; ou, Mémoires de Henry Masers de Latude, détenu pendant trente-cinq ans dans divers prisons d'état. Paris: Frais de M. de Latude. OCLC 33300147 . (in French) Le Bas, M (1840). France. Annales historiques. Paris: F. Didot frères. OCLC 656850085 . (in French) Lefèvre, Martine (2010). \"La bibliothèque de la Bastille\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Linguet, Simon-Nicolas-Henry (2005). Memoirs of the Bastille . North Hollywood, US: CJ Books. ISBN 978-1-4116-4697-1 . Lüsebrink, Hans-Jürgen (2010). \"Les grandes affairs politiques\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Lüsebrink, Hans-Jürgen and Rolf Reichardt (1997). The Bastille: a History of a Symbol of Despotism and Freedom . Durham, US: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1894-1 . Maquet, Auguste, A. Arnould and Jules-Édouard Alboize Du Pujol (1844). Histoire de la Bastille depuis sa fondation (1374) jusqu'à sa destruction (1789). Paris: Administration de Librairie. OCLC 13144605 . (in French) Marmontel, Jean-François (1891). Memoires de Marmontel. Paris: Librairie des bibliophiles. OCLC 2599671 . (in French) McLeod, Jane (2011). Licensing Loyalty: Printers, Patrons, and the State in Early Modern France . University Park, US: Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 978-0-271-03768-4 . McPhee, Peter (1992). A Social History of France 1780–1880 . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-01615-5 . Morellet, André (1822). Mémoires inédits de l'abbé Morellet, de l'Académie française: sur le dix-huitième siècle et sur la révolution. Paris: Ladvocat. OCLC 65244643 . (in French) Munck, Thomas (1990). Seventeenth Century Europe: 1598–1700. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-28641-8 . Muzerelle, Danielle (2010a). \"La Bastille et le quartier de l'Arsenal\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Muzerelle, Danielle (2010b). \"La Bastille après le 14 Juillet\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Nora, Pierre (1998). Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past . New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10926-0 . Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2003). Le Masque de fer: entre histoire et légende . Paris, Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-02171-9 . (in French) Prade, Catherine (2010). \"Les prisons de Paris\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Reichardt, Rolf (1980). \"Prints: Images of the Bastille\", in Darnton and Roche (eds) (1989). Renneville, de Constantin (1719). L'Inquisition françoise ou l'histoire de la Bastille. Amsterdam: np. OCLC 601482963 . (in French) Roche, Daniel (1987). The People of Paris: an Essay in Popular Culture in the 18th Century . Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06031-9 . Rudé, George (1958). The Crowd in the French Revolution. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 401387 . Sacquin, Michèle (2010). \"La Bastille romanesque: entre idéologie et pittoresque\", in Dutray-Lecoin and Muzerelle (eds) (2010). (in French) Sainte-Aulaire, Louis Clair de Beaupoil Le Comte de (1827). Histoire de la Fronde, Tome 3. Paris: Baudouin frères. OCLC 562330561 . (in French) Schama, Simon (2004). Citizens: a Chronicle of the French Revolution . London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-101727-3 . Sérieux, Paul and Lucien Libert (1914). Le Régime des aliénés en France au XVIIIe siècle. Paris: Masson. OCLC 34916953 . (in French) Sturdy, David J (1998). Louis XIV . Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-21428-9 . Taine, Hippolyte (1878). The French Revolution. New York: H. Holt. OCLC 593770 . Toy, Sidney (1985). Castles: Their Construction and History . New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-24898-1 (reissue of Castles: a short history of fortification from 1600 B.C. to A.D. 1600 ; London: Heinemann, 1939). Treasure, Geoffrey (1997). Mazarin: the Crisis of Absolutism in France . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16211-1 . Trout, Andrew P. (1996). City on the Seine: Paris in the Time of Richelieu and Louis XIV . New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-12933-0 . Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène-Emmanuel (1875). Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle. Paris: Morel. OCLC 565869554 . (in French) External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bastille . Video accompanying 2011 exhibition at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (in French) Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 131315093 GND : 4102871-5 BNF : cb11942452h (data) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bastille&oldid=835829700 \" Categories : Buildings and structures completed in 1383 1383 establishments in France 1789 disestablishments in France Castles in Île-de-France Defunct prisons in Paris Destroyed landmarks in France Former buildings and structures in Paris Fortifications of Paris Political history of the Ancien Régime French Revolution Buildings and structures demolished in 1789 Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Pages using deprecated image syntax Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with French-language external links Articles with German-language external links Good articles Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Nouormand Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Саха тыла Scots Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 62 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2018, at 01:14. 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{ "text": "Texture (music) - Wikipedia Texture (music) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Introduction to Sousa 's \" Washington Post March ,\" mm. 1–7 Play ( help · info ) features octave doubling ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 133) and a homorhythmic texture. In music , texture is how the tempo , melodic , and harmonic materials are combined in a composition , thus determining the overall quality of the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range , or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see Common types below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section, or another brass. The thickness also is changed by the amount and the richness of the instruments playing the piece. The thickness varies from light to thick. A piece's texture may be changed by the number and character of parts playing at once, the timbre of the instruments or voices playing these parts and the harmony, tempo , and rhythms used ( Benward & Saker 2003 , [ page needed ] ). The types categorized by number and relationship of parts are analyzed and determined through the labeling of primary textural elements: primary melody (PM), secondary melody (SM), parallel supporting melody (PSM), static support (SS), harmonic support (HS), rhythmic support (RS), and harmonic and rhythmic support (HRS) ( Isaac & Russell 2003 , p. 136). Contents [ hide ] 1 Common types 2 Additional types 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Common types [ edit ] In musical terms, particularly in the fields of music history and music analysis, some common terms for different types of texture are: Type Description Visual Audio Monophonic Monophonic texture includes a single melodic line with no accompaniment. ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 136). PSMs often double or parallel the PM they support ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 137). \" Pop Goes the Weasel \" melody ( Kliewer 1975 , pp. 270–301). Pop Goes the Weasel Tune for Pop Goes the Weasel Problems playing this file? See media help . Biphonic Two distinct lines, the lower sustaining a drone (constant pitch) while the other line creates a more elaborate melody above it. Pedal tones or ostinati would be an example of a SS ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 137). Pedal tone in Bach's Prelude no. 6 in D Minor, BWV 851, from The Well Tempered Clavier , Book I, mm. 1–2. All pedal tone notes are consonant except for the last three of the first measure ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 99). Pedal tone Bach File:Pedal tone Bach - BWV 851, m.1-2.mid Pedal tone in Bach's Prelude no. 6 in D Minor, BWV 851, from The Well Tempered Clavier , Book I, mm. 1–2. Problems playing this file? See media help . Polyphonic or Counterpoint or Contrapuntal Multiple melodic voices which are to a considerable extent independent from or in imitation with one another. Characteristic texture of the Renaissance music , also prevalent during the Baroque period ( Benward & Saker 2003 , pp. 1999,199,158,137, 136,129,110,90,59,35,11,9,0) [ verification needed ] ). Polyphonic textures may contain several PMs ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 137). A bar from J.S. Bach 's \" Fugue No.17 in A flat\", BWV 862, from Das Wohltemperirte Clavier (Part I), a famous example of contrapuntal polyphony . Play ( help · info ) Book 1 – Fugue No. 21 in B-flat major (BWV 866) performed on a Flemish harpsichord by Martha Goldstein Problems playing this file? See media help . Homophonic The most common texture in Western music: melody and accompaniment. Multiple voices of which one, the melody, stands out prominently and the others form a background of harmonic accompaniment. If all the parts have much the same rhythm, the homophonic texture can also be described as homorhythmic. Characteristic texture of the Classical period and continued to predominate in Romantic music while in the 20th century, \"popular music is nearly all homophonic,\" and, \"much of jazz is also\" though, \"the simultaneous improvisations of some jazz musicians creates a true polyphony\" ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 136). Homophonic textures usually contain only one PM ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 137). HS and RS are often combined, thus labeled HRS ( Benward & Saker 2003 , p. 137). Homophony in Tallis' \" If Ye Love Me \", composed in 1549. The voices move together using the same rhythm, and the relationship between them creates chords: the excerpt begins and ends with an F major triad . Tallis' \"If ye love me\" Beginning of Tallis' \"If ye love me,\" notated above. Problems playing this file? See media help . Homorhythmic Multiple voices with similar rhythmic material in all parts. Also known as \"chordal\". May be considered a condition of homophony or distinguished from it. see above Heterophonic Two or more voices simultaneously performing variations of the same melody. Many classical pieces feature different kinds of texture within a short space of time. An example is the Scherzo from Schubert’s piano sonata in B major, D575 . The first four bars are monophonic , with both hands performing the same melody an octave apart: Schubert Sonata in B scherzo bars 1–4 Schubert Piano Sonata in B major scherzo bars 1–4 Bars 5–10 are homophonic , with all voices coinciding rhythmically: Schubert Sonata in B scherzo bars 5–10 Schubert Piano Sonata in B scherzo bars 5–10 Bars 11–20 are polyphonic . There are three parts, the top two moving in parallel (interval of a tenth). The lowest part imitates the rhythm of the upper two at the distance of three beats. The passage climaxes abruptly with a bar’s silence: Schubert Sonata in B scherzo bars 11–20 Schubert Piano Sonata in B major Scherzo bars 11–20 After the silence, the polyphonic texture expands from three to four independent parts moving simultaneously in bars 21-4. The upper two parts are imitative , the lowest part consists of a repeated note ( pedal point ) and the remaining part weaves an independent melodic line: Schubert Sonata in B scherzo bars 21–24 Schubert Piano Sonata in B majore Scherzo bars 21–24 The final four bars revert to homophony , bringing the section to a close; Schubert Sonata in B scherzo bars 25–28 Schubert Sonata in B major Scherzo bars 25–28 A complete performance can be heard by following this link: Listen Additional types [ edit ] Although in music instruction certain styles or repertoires of music are often identified with one of these descriptions this is basically added music [ clarification needed ] (for example, Gregorian chant is described as monophonic, Bach Chorales are described as homophonic and fugues as polyphonic), many composers use more than one type of texture in the same piece of music. A simultaneity is more than one complete musical texture occurring at the same time, rather than in succession. A more recent type of texture first used by György Ligeti is micropolyphony . Other textures include polythematic, polyrhythmic, onomatopoeic, compound, and mixed or composite textures ( Corozine 2002 , p. 34). See also [ edit ] Style brisé References [ edit ] Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice , seventh edition, vol. 1. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0 . Corozine, Vince (2002). Arranging Music for the Real World: Classical and Commercial Aspects . Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. ISBN 0-7866-4961-5 . OCLC 50470629 . Hanning, Barbara Russano , Concise History of Western Music , based on Donald Jay Grout & Claudia V. Palisca's A History of Western Music , Fifth Edition. Published by W. W. Norton & Company , New York, Copyright 1998. ISBN 0-393-97168-6 . Isaac, and Russell (2003). [ full citation needed ] . [ verification needed ] Kliewer, Vernon (1975). \"Melody: Linear Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music\". In Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music , edited by Gary Wittlich, pp. 270–301. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5 . Kokoras, Panayiotis (2005). Towards a Holophonic Musical Texture . In Proceedings of the ICMC2005 – International Computer Music Conference , [ page needed ] . Barcelona: International Computer Music Conference. Further reading [ edit ] Anon.: \"Monophony\", Grove Music Online , edited by Deane L. Root (accessed 1 August 2015) (subscription required) . Copland, Aaron. (1957). What to Listen for in Music , revised edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Demuth, Norman. 1964. Musical Forms and Textures: A Reference Guide , second edition. London: Barrie and Rockliff. Frobenius, Wolf, Peter Cooke, Caroline Bithell, and Izaly Zemtsovsky: \"Polyphony', Grove Music Online . edited by Deane Root (accessed 1 August 2015) (subscription required) . Hyer, Brian: \"Homophony\", Grove Music Online , edited by Deane Root (accessed 1 August 2015) (subscription required) . Keys, Ivor. 1961. The Texture of Music: From Purcell to Brahms . London: D. Dobson. Mailman, Joshua B. 2014. \" Trajectory, Material, Process, and Flow in Robert Morris’s String Quartet Arc \". Perspectives of New Music 52, no. 2: 249–83. White, John David. 1995. Theories of Musical Texture in Western History . Perspectives in Music Criticism and Theory 1; Garland Reference Library of the Humanities 1678. New York: Garland Publishers. External links [ edit ] A Guide to Musical Texture with multimedia [ hide ] v t e Musical textures Monophony Homorhythm and Homophony Heterophony Polyphony and Counterpoint Micropolyphony Authority control GND : 4185693-4 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Texture_(music)&oldid=842352558 \" Categories : Musical texture Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2015 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from August 2015 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2017 Articles needing more detailed references Pages containing links to subscription-only content Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français हिन्दी עברית Latina Македонски Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська 中文 12 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2018, at 22:12. 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{ "text": "Common raven - Wikipedia Common raven From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A large, black, passerine bird of the Northern Hemisphere \"Corvus corax\" redirects here. For the German band, see Corvus Corax (band) . For the butterfly called \"common raven\", see Papilio castor . Common raven Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Corvidae Genus: Corvus Species: C. corax Binomial name Corvus corax Linnaeus , 1758 Subspecies 8–11, see Classification Common raven range The common raven ( Corvus corax ), also known as the northern raven , is a large all-black passerine bird. Found across the Northern Hemisphere, it is the most widely distributed of all corvids . There are at least eight subspecies with little variation in appearance, although recent research has demonstrated significant genetic differences among populations from various regions. It is one of the two largest corvids, alongside the thick-billed raven , and is possibly the heaviest passerine bird; at maturity, the common raven averages 63 centimetres (25 inches) in length and 1.2 kilograms (2.6 pounds) in mass. Common ravens can live up to 21 years in the wild, [2] a lifespan surpassed among passerines by only a few Australasian species such as the satin bowerbird [3] and probably the lyrebirds . Young birds may travel in flocks but later mate for life , with each mated pair defending a territory . Common ravens have coexisted with humans for thousands of years and in some areas have been so numerous that people have regarded them as pests . Part of their success as a species is due to their omnivorous diet; they are extremely versatile and opportunistic in finding sources of nutrition, feeding on carrion , insects, cereal grains, berries, fruit, small animals, and food waste. Some notable feats of problem-solving provide evidence that the common raven is unusually intelligent . [4] Over the centuries, it has been the subject of mythology, folklore, art, and literature . In many cultures, including the indigenous cultures of Scandinavia , ancient Ireland and Wales, Bhutan, the northwest coast of North America , and Siberia and northeast Asia, the common raven has been revered as a spiritual figure or godlike creature. [5] Contents 1 Taxonomy 1.1 Classification 1.2 Evolutionary history 2 Description 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behaviour 4.1 Predation 4.2 Breeding 4.3 Feeding 4.4 Intelligence 4.5 Play 5 Relationship with humans 5.1 Conservation and management 5.2 Cultural depictions 5.2.1 Mythology 6 References 6.1 Cited texts 7 Further reading 8 External links Taxonomy [ edit ] The common raven was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae , and it still bears its original name of Corvus corax . [6] It is the type species of the genus Corvus , derived from the Latin word for \"raven\". [7] The specific epithet, corax /κοραξ, is the Ancient Greek word for \"raven\" or \"crow\". [8] The modern English word raven has cognates in all other Germanic languages , including Old Norse (and subsequently modern Icelandic ) hrafn [9] and Old High German (h)raban , [9] all which descend from Proto-Germanic *khrabanas . [10] An old Scottish word corby or corbie , akin to the French corbeau , has been used for both this bird and the carrion crow . [11] Obsolete collective nouns for a group of ravens (or at least the common raven) include \"unkindness\" [12] and \"conspiracy\". [13] In practice, most English-speakers use the more generic \"flock\". Classification [ edit ] The closest relatives of the common raven are the brown-necked raven ( C. ruficollis ), the pied crow ( C. albus ) of Africa, and the Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) of the North American southwest. [14] While some authorities have recognized as many as 11 subspecies , [15] others recognize only eight: [16] Subspecies Image Distribution Notes C. c. corax From Europe eastwards to Lake Baikal , south to the Caucasus region and northern Iran It has a relatively short, arched bill. The population in southwestern Europe (including the Balearic Islands , Corsica and Sardinia ) has an even more arched bill and shorter wings than \"typical\" nominate, leading some authorities to recognize it as a separate subspecies, C. c. hispanus . [15] C. c. varius Iceland and the Faroe Islands It is less glossy than C. c. principalis or nominate corax , is intermediate in size, and the bases of its neck feathers are whitish (not visible at a distance). An extinct white and black color morph found only on the Faroes is known as the pied raven . C. c. subcorax From Greece eastwards to northwestern India, Central Asia and western China, though not the Himalayan region It is larger than the nominate form, but has relatively short throat feathers ( hackles ). Its plumage is generally all black, though its neck and breast have a brownish tone similar to that of the brown-necked raven; this is more evident when the plumage is worn. The bases of its neck feathers, although somewhat variable in colour, are often almost whitish. The name C. c. laurencei (also spelt lawrencii or laurencii ) is sometimes used instead of C. c. subcorax . [15] It is based on the population from Sindh described by Hume in 1873 [17] and is sometimes preferred since the type specimen of subcorax collected by Nikolai Severtzov is possibly a brown-necked raven . [18] The population restricted to the Sindh district of Pakistan and adjoining regions of northwestern India is sometimes known as the Punjab raven. [19] [20] C. c. tingitanus North Africa and the Canary Islands It is the smallest subspecies, with the shortest throat hackles and a distinctly oily plumage gloss. Its bill is short but markedly stout, and the culmen is strongly arched. Canary Islands ravens are browner than the North African ravens, leading some authorities to treat them as separate subspecies, with the latter maintaining the name C. c. tingitanus and the former known as C. c. canariensis . [15] C. c. tibetanus Himalayas It is the largest and glossiest subspecies, with the longest throat hackles. Its bill is large but less imposing than that of C. c. principalis , and the bases of its neck feathers are grey. C. c. kamtschaticus Northeastern Asia Intergrades into the nominate subspecies in the Baikal region. It is intermediate in size between C. c. principalis and C. c. corax and has a distinctly larger and thicker bill than does the nominate race. C. c. principalis , the northern raven Northern North America and Greenland It has a large body and the largest bill, its plumage is strongly glossed, and its throat hackles are well developed. C. c. sinuatus , the western raven South-central North America and Central America It is smaller, with a smaller and narrower bill than C. c. principalis . Populations in far southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico (including the Revillagigedo Islands ) are the smallest in North America. They are sometimes included in C. c. sinuatus , while other authorities recognize them as a distinct subspecies, C. c. clarionensis , the southwestern raven . [15] Evolutionary history [ edit ] The common raven evolved in the Old World and crossed the Bering land bridge into North America. [21] Recent genetic studies, which examined the DNA of common ravens from across the world, have determined that the birds fall into at least two clades : a California clade, found only in the southwestern United States, and a Holarctic clade, found across the rest of the Northern Hemisphere. Birds from both clades look alike, but the groups are genetically distinct and began to diverge about two million years ago. [22] [23] The findings indicate that based on mitochondrial DNA , common ravens from the rest of the United States are more closely related to those in Europe and Asia than to those in the California clade, and that common ravens in the California clade are more closely related to the Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) than to those in the Holarctic clade. [22] Ravens in the Holarctic clade are more closely related to the pied crow ( C. albus ) than they are to the California clade. [24] Thus, the common raven species as traditionally delimited is considered to be paraphyletic . [24] One explanation for these genetic findings is that common ravens settled in California at least two million years ago and became separated from their relatives in Europe and Asia during an ice age . One million years ago, a group from the California clade evolved into a new species, the Chihuahuan raven. Other members of the Holarctic clade arrived later in a separate migration from Asia, perhaps at the same time as humans. [25] A 2011 study suggested that there are no restrictions on gene flow between the Californian and Holarctic common raven groups, and that the lineages can remerge, effectively reversing a potential speciation. [26] A recent study of raven mitochondrial DNA showed that the isolated population from the Canary Islands is distinct from other populations. [27] The study did not include any individuals from the North African population, [27] and its position is therefore unclear, though its morphology is very close to the population of the Canaries (to the extent that the two are often considered part of a single subspecies). [16] Description [ edit ] For physiology, see Common raven physiology . In sunlight, the plumage can display a blue or purple sheen which is a result of iridescence . A mature common raven ranges between 54 and 67 cm (21\" and 26\") long, with a wingspan of 115 to 150 cm (45–51\"). [28] [29] [30] [31] Recorded weights range from 0.69 to 2 kg (1.5 to 4.4 lb), [32] [33] thus making the common raven one of the heaviest passerines . Birds from colder regions such as the Himalayas and Greenland are generally larger with slightly larger bills, while those from warmer regions are smaller with proportionally smaller bills. [34] Representative of the size variation in the species, ravens from California weighed an average of 784 g (1.728 lb), those from Alaska weighed an average of 1,135 g (2.502 lb) and those from Nova Scotia weighed an average of 1,230 g (2.71 lb). [35] [36] [37] The bill is large and slightly curved, with a culmen length of 5.7 to 8.5 cm (2.2 to 3.3 in), easily one of the largest bills amongst passerines (perhaps only the thick-billed raven has a noticeably larger bill). It has a longish, strongly graduated tail, at 20 to 26.3 cm (7.9 to 10.4 in), and mostly black iridescent plumage, and a dark brown iris . The throat feathers are elongated and pointed and the bases of the neck feathers are pale brownish-grey. The legs and feet are good-sized, with a tarsus length of 6 to 7.2 cm (2.4 to 2.8 in). [38] [39] Juvenile plumage is similar but duller with a blue-grey iris. [40] Apart from its greater size, the common raven differs from its cousins, the crows , by having a larger and heavier black beak, shaggy feathers around the throat and above the beak, and a wedge-shaped tail. [41] Flying ravens are distinguished from crows by their tail shape, larger wing area, and more stable soaring style, which generally involves less wing flapping. Despite their bulk, ravens are easily as agile in flight as their smaller cousins. In flight the feathers produce a creaking sound that has been likened to the rustle of silk. [19] The voice of ravens is also quite distinct, its usual call being a deep croak of a much more sonorous quality than a crow's call. In North America, the Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) is fairly similar to the relatively small common ravens of the American southwest and is best distinguished by the still relatively smaller size of its bill, beard and body and relatively longer tail. All-black carrion crow ( C. corone ) in Europe may suggest a raven due to their largish bill but are still distinctly smaller and have the wing and tail shapes typical of crows. [42] In the Faroe Islands , a now extinct colour-morph of this species existed, known as the pied raven . [43] White ravens are occasionally found in the wild. Birds in British Columbia lack the pink eyes of an albino, and are instead leucistic , a condition where an animal lacks any of several different types of pigment, not simply melanin . [44] Play media Vocalising Common ravens have a wide range of vocalizations which are of interest to ornithologists . Gwinner carried out important studies in the early 1960s, recording and photographing his findings in great detail. [45] Fifteen to 30 categories of vocalization have been recorded for this species, most of which are used for social interaction. Calls recorded include alarm calls, chase calls, and flight calls. The species has a distinctive, deep, resonant prruk-prruk-prruk call, which to experienced listeners is unlike that of any other corvid. Its very wide and complex vocabulary includes a high, knocking toc-toc-toc , a dry, grating kraa , a low guttural rattle and some calls of an almost musical nature. [45] Like other corvids, ravens can mimic sounds from their environment, including human speech. Non-vocal sounds produced by the common raven include wing whistles and bill snapping. Clapping or clicking has been observed more often in females than in males. If a member of a pair is lost, its mate reproduces the calls of its lost partner to encourage its return. [46] Distribution and habitat [ edit ] Two juveniles in Iceland Common ravens can thrive in varied climates; indeed this species has the largest range of any member of the genus, [47] [48] and one of the largest of any passerine. [49] They range throughout the Holarctic from Arctic and temperate habitats in North America and Eurasia to the deserts of North Africa, and to islands in the Pacific Ocean. In the British Isles, they are more common in Scotland, Wales, northern England and the west of Ireland. [41] In Tibet , they have been recorded at altitudes up to 5,000 m (16,400 ft), and as high as 6,350 m (20,600 ft) on Mount Everest . [48] [50] The population sometimes known as the Punjab raven—described as Corvus corax laurencei (also spelt lawrencii or laurencii ) by Allan Octavian Hume but more often considered synonymous with subcorax [17] —is restricted to the Sindh district of Pakistan and adjoining regions of northwestern India. [19] [20] They are generally resident within their range for the whole year. In his 1950 work, Grønlands Fugle [ Birds of Greenland ], noted ornithologist Finn Salomonsen indicated that common ravens did not overwinter in the Arctic. [51] However, in Arctic Canada and Alaska, they are found year-round. [52] [53] [54] Young birds may disperse locally. [55] Most common ravens prefer wooded areas with large expanses of open land nearby, or coastal regions for their nesting sites and feeding grounds. In some areas of dense human population, such as California in the United States, they take advantage of a plentiful food supply and have seen a surge in their numbers. [56] On coasts, individuals of this species are often evenly distributed and prefer to build their nest sites along sea cliffs. [57] Common ravens are often located in coastal regions because these areas provide easy access to water and a variety of food sources. [57] Also, coastal regions have stable weather patterns without extreme cold or hot temperatures. In general, common ravens live in a wide array of environments but prefer heavily contoured landscapes. When the environment changes in vast degrees, these birds will respond with a stress response. The hormone known as corticosterone is activated by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis . [58] Corticosterone is activated when the bird is exposed to stress, such as migrating great distances. Behaviour [ edit ] Group of ravens gathered around dead member Common ravens usually travel in mated pairs, although young birds may form flocks . Relationships between common ravens are often quarrelsome, yet they demonstrate considerable devotion to their families. [59] Predation [ edit ] Owing to its size, gregariousness and its defensive abilities, the common raven has few natural predators. Predators of its eggs include owls , martens , and sometimes eagles . Ravens are quite vigorous at defending their young and are usually successful at driving off perceived threats. They attack potential predators by flying at them and lunging with their large bills. Humans are occasionally attacked if they get close to a raven nest, though serious injuries are unlikely. There are a few records of predation by large birds of prey. Their attackers in America have reportedly included great horned owls , northern goshawks , bald eagles , golden eagles and red-tailed hawks , it is possible that the two hawks only have attacked young ravens, as had a peregrine falcon who in one instance swooped at a newly fledged raven but was successfully chased off by the parent ravens. [60] [61] [62] [63] In Eurasia , their reported predators include, in addition to golden eagles, Eurasian eagle-owls , white-tailed eagles , Steller's sea-eagles , eastern imperial eagles and gyrfalcons . [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] Because they are potentially hazardous prey for raptorial birds, raptors must usually take them by surprise and most attacks are on fledgling ravens. More rarely still, large mammalian predators such as lynxes , coyotes and cougars have also attacked ravens. This principally occurs at a nest site and when other prey for the carnivores are scarce. Ravens are highly wary around novel carrion sites and, in North America, have been recorded waiting for the presence of American crows and blue jays before approaching to eat. [69] Breeding [ edit ] Young on a nest – Hvítserkur, Iceland Eggs of Corvus corax Juveniles begin to court at a very early age, but may not bond for another two or three years. Aerial acrobatics, demonstrations of intelligence, and ability to provide food are key behaviors of courting. Once paired, they tend to nest together for life, usually in the same location. [59] Instances of non-monogamy have been observed in common ravens, by males visiting a female's nest when her mate is away. [70] Breeding pairs must have a territory of their own before they begin nest-building and reproduction, and thus aggressively defend a territory and its food resources. Nesting territories vary in size according to the density of food resources in the area. [32] The nest is a deep bowl made of large sticks and twigs, bound with an inner layer of roots, mud, and bark and lined with a softer material, such as deer fur. The nest is usually placed in a large tree or on a cliff ledge, or less frequently in old buildings or utility poles. [71] Females lay between three and seven pale bluish-green, brown-blotched eggs. [41] Incubation is about 18 to 21 days, by the female only. However, the male may stand or crouch over the young, sheltering but not actually brooding them. [72] Young fledge at 35 to 42 days, and are fed by both parents. They stay with their parents for another six months after fledging. [73] In most of their range, egg laying begins in late February. In colder climates, it is later, e.g. April in Greenland and Tibet . In Pakistan, egg-laying takes place in December. [48] Eggs and hatchlings are preyed on, rarely, by large hawks and eagles , large owls , martens and canids . The adults, which are very rarely preyed upon, are often successful in defending their young from these predators, due to their numbers, large size and cunning. [69] They have been observed dropping stones on potential predators that venture close to their nests. [74] Common ravens can be very long-lived, especially in captive or protected conditions; individuals at the Tower of London have lived for more than 40 years. [32] Lifespans in the wild are considerably shorter at typically 10 to 15 years. The longest known lifespan of a banded wild common raven was 23 years, 3 months. [75] Feeding [ edit ] Feeding Common ravens are omnivorous and highly opportunistic : their diet may vary widely with location, season and serendipity . [76] For example, those foraging on tundra on the Arctic North Slope of Alaska obtained about half their energy needs from predation , mainly of microtine rodents , and half by scavenging, mainly of caribou and ptarmigan carcasses. [77] In some places they are mainly scavengers , feeding on carrion as well as the associated maggots and carrion beetles . With large-bodied carrion, which they are not equipped to tear through as well as birds such as hook-billed vultures , they must wait for the prey to be torn open by another predator or flayed by other means. [78] Plant food includes cereal grains, berries and fruit. They prey on small invertebrates , amphibians, reptiles, small mammals and birds. [79] Ravens may also consume the undigested portions of animal feces, and human food waste. They store surplus food items, especially those containing fat, and will learn to hide such food out of the sight of other common ravens. [55] Ravens also raid the food caches of other species, such as the Arctic fox . [80] They sometimes associate with another canine, the grey wolf , as a kleptoparasite , following to scavenge wolf-kills in winter. [81] Ravens are regular predators at bird nests, brazenly picking off eggs, nestlings and sometimes adult birds when they spot an opportunity. They are considered perhaps the primary natural threat to the nesting success of the critically endangered California condor , since they readily take condor eggs and are very common in the areas where the species is being re-introduced. [82] Flock feeding at a garbage dump Common ravens nesting near sources of human garbage included a higher percentage of food waste in their diet, birds nesting near roads consumed more road-killed vertebrates , and those nesting far from these sources of food ate more arthropods and plant material. Fledging success was higher for those using human garbage as a food source. [83] In contrast, a 1984–1986 study of common raven diet in an agricultural region of south-western Idaho found that cereal grains were the principal constituent of pellets , though small mammals, grasshoppers, cattle carrion and birds were also eaten. [84] One behavior is recruitment, where juvenile ravens call other ravens to a food bonanza, usually a carcass, with a series of loud yells. In Ravens in Winter, Bernd Heinrich posited that this behavior evolved to allow the juveniles to outnumber the resident adults, thus allowing them to feed on the carcass without being chased away. [85] A more mundane explanation is that individuals co-operate in sharing information about carcasses of large mammals because they are too big for just a few birds to exploit. [70] Experiments with baits however show that such recruitment behaviour is independent of the size of the bait. [86] Furthermore, there has been research suggesting that the common raven is involved in seed dispersal. In the wild, the common raven chooses the best habitat and disperses seeds in locations best suited for its survival. [57] Intelligence [ edit ] See also: Bird intelligence and Corvidae § Intelligence Crows, ravens, magpies, and jays are not just feathered machines, rigidly programmed by their genetics. Instead, they are beings that, within the constraints of their molecular inheritance, make complex decisions and show every sign of enjoying a rich awareness. — Candace Savage [87] The brains of common ravens count among the largest of any bird species. Specifically, their hyperpallium is large, for a bird. They display ability in problem-solving, as well as other cognitive processes such as imitation and insight . [87] Dilapidated NIKE Missile radar dome in Alaska with an evening roost Linguist Derek Bickerton , building on the work of biologist Bernd Heinrich , has argued that ravens are one of only four known animals (the others being bees , ants , and humans) who have demonstrated displacement , the capacity to communicate about objects or events that are distant in space or time from the communication. Young, unmated common ravens roost together at night, but usually forage alone during the day. However, when one discovers a large carcass guarded by a pair of adult ravens, the unmated raven will return to the roost and communicate the find. The following day, a flock of unmated ravens will fly to the carcass and chase off the adults. Bickerton argues that the advent of linguistic displacement was perhaps the most important event in the evolution of human language, and that ravens are the only other vertebrate to share this with humans. [88] One experiment designed to evaluate insight and problem-solving ability involved a piece of meat attached to a string hanging from a perch. To reach the food, the bird needed to stand on the perch, pull the string up a little at a time, and step on the loops to gradually shorten the string. Four of five common ravens eventually succeeded, and \"the transition from no success (ignoring the food or merely yanking at the string) to constant reliable access (pulling up the meat) occurred with no demonstrable trial-and-error learning.\" This supports the hypothesis that common ravens are 'inventors', implying that they can solve problems. Many of the feats of common ravens were formerly argued to be stereotyped innate behaviour, but it now has been established that their aptitudes for solving problems individually and learning from each other reflect a flexible capacity for intelligent insight unusual among non-human animals. [89] Another experiment proved that some could deceive intentionally at least to other common ravens. [90] Common ravens have been observed calling wolves to the site of dead animals. The wolves open the carcass, leaving the scraps more accessible to the birds. [87] They watch where other common ravens bury their food and remember the locations of each other's food caches, so they can steal from them. This type of theft occurs so regularly that common ravens will fly extra distances from a food source to find better hiding places for food. [91] They have also been observed pretending to make a cache without actually depositing the food, presumably to confuse onlookers. [92] Common ravens are known to steal and cache shiny objects such as pebbles, pieces of metal, and golf balls. One theory is that they hoard shiny objects to impress other ravens. [93] Other research indicates that juveniles are deeply curious about all new things, and that common ravens retain an attraction to bright, round objects based on their similarity to bird eggs. Mature birds lose their intense interest in the unusual, and become highly neophobic . [94] Play [ edit ] There has been increasing recognition of the extent to which birds engage in play . Juvenile common ravens are among the most playful of bird species. They have been observed to slide down snowbanks, apparently purely for fun. They even engage in games with other species, such as playing catch-me-if-you-can with wolves, otters and dogs. [95] Common ravens are known for spectacular aerobatic displays, such as flying in loops or interlocking talons with each other in flight. [96] [97] They are also one of only a few wild animals who make their own toys. They have been observed breaking off twigs to play with socially. [98] Relationship with humans [ edit ] Conservation and management [ edit ] Compared to many smaller Corvus species (such as American crow ), ravens prefer undisturbed montane or forest habitat or rural areas over urban areas. [99] In other areas, their numbers have increased dramatically and they have become agricultural pests . Common ravens can cause damage to crops, such as nuts and grain, or can harm livestock, particularly by killing young goat kids, lambs and calves. [100] Ravens generally attack the faces of young livestock, but the more common raven behaviour of scavenging may be misidentified as predation by ranchers. [101] In the western Mojave Desert , human settlement and land development have led to an estimated 16-fold increase in the common raven population over 25 years. Towns, landfills, sewage treatment plants and artificial ponds create sources of food and water for scavenging birds. Ravens also find nesting sites in utility poles and ornamental trees, and are attracted to roadkill on highways. The explosion in the common raven population in the Mojave has raised concerns for the desert tortoise , a threatened species . Common ravens prey upon juvenile tortoises, which have soft shells and move slowly. [56] Plans to control the population have included shooting and trapping birds, as well as contacting landfill operators to ask that they reduce the amount of exposed garbage. [102] A hunting bounty as a method of control was historically used in Finland from the mid-18th century until 1923. [103] Culling has taken place to a limited extent in Alaska , where the population increase in common ravens is threatening the vulnerable Steller's eider ( Polysticta stelleri ). [104] Cultural depictions [ edit ] Bill Reid 's sculpture The Raven and The First Men , showing part of a Haida creation myth. Museum of Anthropology, University of British Columbia . See also: Cultural depictions of ravens Across its range in the Northern Hemisphere, and throughout human history, the common raven has been a powerful symbol and a popular subject of mythology and folklore. In some Western traditions , ravens have long been considered to be birds of ill omen, death and evil in general, in part because of the negative symbolism of their all- black plumage and the eating of carrion . [105] In Sweden, ravens are known as the ghosts of murdered people, and in Germany as the souls of the damned. In Danish folklore , valravne that ate a king's heart gained human knowledge, could perform great malicious acts, could lead people astray, had superhuman powers, and were \"terrible animals\". [106] As in traditional mythology and folklore, the common raven features frequently in more modern writings such as the works of William Shakespeare , and, perhaps most famously, in the poem \" The Raven \" by Edgar Allan Poe . Ravens have appeared in the works of Charles Dickens , [107] J. R. R. Tolkien , [108] Stephen King , [109] George R. R. Martin [110] and Joan Aiken [111] [112] [113] [114] among others. It continues to be used as a symbol in areas where it once had mythological status: as the national bird of Bhutan [115] ( Kings of Bhutan wear the Raven Crown ), official bird of the Yukon territory, [116] and on the coat of arms of the Isle of Man (once a Viking colony). [117] In Persia and Arabia the raven was held as a bird of bad omen but a 14th-century Arabic work reports use of the raven in falconry. [118] The modern unisex given name Raven is derived from the English word \"raven\". As a masculine name, Raven parallels the Old Norse Hrafn , [119] and Old English *Hræfn , which were both bynames and personal names . [120] Mythology [ edit ] Main article: Raven in mythology A valkyrie speaks with a raven in a 19th-century illustration of the Old Norse poem Hrafnsmál (\"raven song\") by Frederick Sandys In Tlingit and Haida cultures , raven was both a trickster and creator god . Related beliefs are widespread among the peoples of Siberia and northeast Asia. [121] The Kamchatka Peninsula , for example, was supposed to have been created by the raven god Kutkh . [122] There are several references to common ravens in the Old Testament of the Bible and it is an aspect of Mahakala in Bhutanese mythology. [115] In Norse mythology , Huginn (from the Old Norse for \"thought\") and Muninn (Old Norse for \"memory\" or \"mind\") are a pair of ravens that fly all over the world, Midgard , and bring the god Odin information. Additionally among the Norse, raven banner standards were carried by such figures as the Jarls of Orkney , [123] King Cnut the Great of England, Norway and Denmark, [124] and Harald Hardrada . [125] In the British Isles, ravens also were symbolic to the Celts . In Irish mythology , the goddess Morrígan alighted on the hero Cú Chulainn 's shoulder in the form of a raven after his death. [126] In Welsh mythology they were associated with the Welsh god Bran the Blessed , whose name translates to \"raven.\" According to the Mabinogion , Bran's head was buried in the White Hill of London as a talisman against invasion. [127] A legend developed that England would not fall to a foreign invader as long as there were ravens at the Tower of London ; although this is often thought to be an ancient belief, the official Tower of London historian, Geoff Parnell, believes that this is actually a romantic Victorian invention. [128] In the Jewish , Christian and Islamic traditions, the raven was the first animal to be released from Noah's Ark . \"So it came to pass, at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made. Then he sent out a raven, which kept going to and fro until the waters had dried up from the earth. He also sent out from himself a dove, to see if the waters had receded from the face of the ground.\" [129] The raven is mentioned a dozen times in the Bible. In the New Testament Jesus tells a parable using the raven to show how people should rely on God for their needs and not riches ( Luke 12:24 ). [130] The raven is also mentioned in Quran at the story of Cain and Abel . Adam 's firstborn son Cain kills his brother Abel but he doesn't know what to do with the corpse: \"Then Allah sent a raven scratching up the ground, to show him how to hide his brother's naked corpse. He said: Woe unto me! Am I not able to be as this raven and so hide my brother's naked corpse? And he became repentant.\" [131] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ BirdLife International (2012). \" Corvus corax \" . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 26 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Wasser, D. E.; Sherman, P.W. (2010). \"Avian longevities and their interpretation under evolutionary theories of senescence\". Journal of Zoology . 280 (2): 103–155. doi : 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00671.x . Jump up ^ Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme Satin Bowerbird Jump up ^ http://www.abc.es/ciencia/abci-cuervos-pueden-inteligentes-como-nino-tres-anos-201604262232_noticia.html Jump up ^ Jones, Noragh (1995). Power of Raven, Wisdom of Serpent . Floris Books. ISBN 0-940262-66-5 . Jump up ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. 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Archived from the original on January 2, 2010 . Retrieved 2007-02-12 . Jump up ^ Kristensen, Evald Tang. (1980) Danske Sagn: Som De Har Lyd I Folkemunde , Nyt Nordisk Forlag Arnold Busck, Copenhagen. ISBN 87-17-02791-8 . p. 132. Jump up ^ Dickens, Charles (1841) Barnaby Rudge online Jump up ^ Tolkien, J. R. R. (1985). The Hobbit . Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-33207-5 . Jump up ^ King, Stephen (1976). The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger . ISBN 0-8488-0780-4 Jump up ^ Martin, George (1996). A Song of Ice and Fire . Jump up ^ Aiken, Joan (1974). Tales of Arabel's Raven . Cape. p. 160. ISBN 0-224-01059-X . Jump up ^ Aiken, Joan (1980). Arabel and Mortimer . Cape. p. 144. ISBN 0-224-01765-9 . Jump up ^ Aiken, Joan (1983). Mortimer's Cross . Cape. p. 141. ISBN 0-224-02108-7 . Jump up ^ Aiken, Joan (1985). Mortimer Says Nothing and other stories . Cape. p. 181. ISBN 0-224-02335-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b Bhutan Tourism Corporation. \"The Himalaya Kingdom\" . Retrieved 2007-05-17 . Jump up ^ \"Yukon Territorial Bird\" . Government of Yukon. Archived from the original on February 12, 2012 . Retrieved 2007-05-16 . Jump up ^ Isle of Man Government. \"Island Facts – Isle of Man Government\" . Archived from the original on 2007-05-10 . Retrieved 2007-05-19 . Jump up ^ Phillott, D.C. (1907). \"Note on the common raven-Corvus corax\" . Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal . 3 : 115–116. Jump up ^ Hanks, Patrick ; Hardcastle, Kate; Hodges, Flavia (2006). A Dictionary of First Names . Oxford Paperback Reference (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-19-861060-1 . Jump up ^ Reaney, Percy Hilde; Wilson, Richard Middlewood (2006). A Dictionary of English Surnames (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 2594. ISBN 0-203-99355-1 . Jump up ^ Bogoras, W. (1902). \"The Folklore of Northeastern Asia, as Compared with That of Northwestern America\". American Anthropologist . 4 (4): 577–683. doi : 10.1525/aa.1902.4.4.02a00020 . Jump up ^ Worth, D.D. (1961). Kamchadal Texts Collected by W. Jochelson , 's-Gravenhage, Mouton. Jump up ^ Pálsson, Hermann; Edwards, Paul (1978). Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney . London: Hogarth Press. ISBN 0-7012-0431-1 . Jump up ^ Campbell, Alistair; Keynes, Simon (1998). Encomium Emmae Reginae . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62655-2 . Jump up ^ Sturluson, Snorri (2005). King Harald's Saga: Harald Hardradi of Norway: From Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla . Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044183-2 . Jump up ^ Jones, M. \"The Death of Cu Chulainn\" . Academy for Ancient Texts . Retrieved 2007-05-19 . Jump up ^ Ford, Patrick K. (1977). \"Branwen daughter of Llŷr\". The Mabinogi and Other Medieval Welsh Tales . Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03414-7 . Jump up ^ Kennedy, Maev (15 November 2004). \"Tower's raven mythology may be a Victorian flight of fantasy\" . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 5 December 2008 . Jump up ^ Genesis 8:6–8 (New King James Version) . biblegateway.com Jump up ^ Luke 12:24 (New Living Translation) . Biblegateway.com. Retrieved on 2012-12-19. Jump up ^ (بَعَثَ اللّهُ غُرَابًا يَبْحَثُ فِي الأَرْضِ لِيُرِيَهُ كَيْفَ يُوَارِي سَوْءةَ أَخِيهِ قَالَ يَا وَيْلَتَا أَعَجَزْتُ أَنْ أَكُونَ مِثْلَ هَذَا الْغُرَابِ فَأُوَارِيَ سَوْءةَ أَخِي فَأَصْبَحَ مِنَ النَّادِمِينَ) Qur'an 5:31, translation: Pickthall, Marmaduke The Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation , Amana Publications, 1st edition (1996) ISBN 978-0915957224 Cited texts [ edit ] Goodwin D. (1983). Crows of the World . Queensland University Press, St Lucia, Qld. ISBN 0-7022-1015-3 . Marzluff, John M.; Angell, Tony (2005). In the Company of Crows and Ravens . New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-10076-0 . Savage, Candace (1995). Bird Brains: The Intelligence of Crows, Ravens, Magpies and Jays . Toronto: Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 1-55054-189-7 . Further reading [ edit ] Heinrich, B. (1999). Mind of the Raven: Investigations and Adventures with Wolf-Birds. New York: Cliff Street Books. ISBN 978-0-06-093063-9 External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Corvus corax . Wikispecies has information related to Corvus corax RSPB: Raven Common Raven Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology \"Common raven media\" . Internet Bird Collection . Ageing and sexing (PDF; 3.1 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Common Raven images at ARKive Corvus corax at Encyclopedia of Life Common Raven – Corvus corax – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter (includes CBC/BBS range maps) Common raven photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University) Raven recordings at naturesongs.com show v t e Extant species of family Corvidae Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Subclass: Neornithes Superorder: Neognathae Order: Passeriformes show Family Corvidae Choughs Pyrrhocorax Alpine chough ( P. graculus ) Red-billed chough ( P. pyrrhocorax ) Treepies Crypsirina Hooded treepie ( C. cucullata ) Black racket-tailed treepie ( C. temia ) Dendrocitta Andaman treepie ( D. bayleyi ) Bornean treepie ( D. cinerascens ) Grey treepie ( D. formosae ) Black-faced treepie ( D. frontalis ) White-bellied treepie ( D. leucogastra ) Sumatran treepie ( D. occipitalis ) Rufous treepie ( D. vagabunda ) Platysmurus Black magpie ( P. leucopterus ) Bornean black magpie ( P. l. aterrimus ) Temnurus Ratchet-tailed treepie ( T. temnurus ) Oriental magpies Cissa Common green magpie ( C. chinensis ) Indochinese green magpie ( C. hypoleuca ) Bornean green magpie ( C. jefferyi ) Javan green magpie ( C. thalassina ) Urocissa Taiwan blue magpie ( U. caerulea ) Red-billed blue magpie ( U. erythrorhyncha ) Yellow-billed blue magpie ( U. flavirostris ) Sri Lanka blue magpie ( U. ornata ) White-winged magpie ( U. whiteheadi ) Old World jays Garrulus Eurasian jay ( G. glandarius ) Lanceolated jay ( G. lanceolatus ) Lidth's jay ( G. lidthi ) Podoces (Ground jays) Biddulph's ground jay ( P. biddulphi ) Henderson's ground jay ( P. hendersoni ) Pander's ground jay ( P. panderi ) Persian ground jay ( P. pleskei ) Ptilostomus Piapiac ( P. afer ) Stresemann's bushcrow Zavattariornis Stresemann's bushcrow ( Z. stresemanni ) hide Family Corvidae (continued) Nutcrackers Nucifraga Spotted nutcracker ( N. caryocatactes ) Clark's nutcracker ( N. columbiana ) Holarctic magpies Pica Black-billed magpie ( P. hudsonia ) Yellow-billed magpie ( P. nuttalli ) Eurasian magpie ( P. pica ) Oriental magpie ( P. sericea ) Maghreb magpie ( P. mauritanica ) Asir magpie ( P. asirensis ) Black-rumped magpie ( P. bottanensis ) True crows ( crows , ravens , jackdaws and rooks ) Corvus Australian and Melanesian species Little crow ( C. bennetti ) Australian raven ( C. coronoides ) Bismarck crow ( C. insularis ) Brown-headed crow ( C. fuscicapillus ) Bougainville crow ( C. meeki ) Little raven ( C. mellori ) New Caledonian crow ( C. moneduloides ) Torresian crow ( C. orru ) Forest raven ( C. tasmanicus ) Grey crow ( C. tristis ) Long-billed crow ( C. validus ) White-billed crow ( C. woodfordi ) Pacific island species Hawaiian crow ( C. hawaiiensis ) Mariana crow ( C. kubaryi ) Tropical Asian species Daurian jackdaw ( C. dauuricus ) Slender-billed crow ( C. enca ) Flores crow ( C. florensis ) Large-billed crow ( C. macrorhynchos ) Eastern jungle crow ( C. levaillantii ) Indian jungle crow ( C. culminatus ) House crow ( C. splendens ) Collared crow ( C. torquatus ) Piping crow ( C. typicus ) Banggai crow ( C. unicolor ) Violet crow ( C. violaceus ) Eurasian and North African species Mesopotamian crow ( C. capellanus ) Hooded crow ( C. cornix ) Carrion crow ( C. corone ) Rook ( C. frugilegus ) Jackdaw ( C. monedula ) Eastern carrion crow ( C. orientalis ) Fan-tailed raven ( C. rhipidurus ) Brown-necked raven ( C. ruficollis ) Holarctic species Common raven ( C. corax ) North and Central American species American crow ( C. brachyrhynchos ) Northwestern crow ( C. caurinus ) Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) Tamaulipas crow ( C. imparatus ) Jamaican crow ( C. jamaicensis ) White-necked crow ( C. leucognaphalus ) Cuban crow ( C. nasicus ) Fish crow ( C. ossifragus ) Palm crow ( C. palmarum ) Sinaloan crow ( C. sinaloae ) Tropical African species White-necked raven ( C. albicollis ) Pied crow ( C. albus ) Cape crow ( C. capensis ) Thick-billed raven ( C. crassirostris ) Somali crow ( C. edithae ) show Family Corvidae (continued) Azure-winged magpies Cyanopica Iberian magpie ( C. cooki ) Azure-winged magpie ( C. cyanus ) Grey jays Perisoreus Grey jay ( P. canadensis ) Siberian jay ( P. infaustus ) Sichuan jay ( P. internigrans ) New World jays Aphelocoma (Scrub jays) California scrub jay ( A. californica ) Island scrub jay ( A. insularis ) Woodhouse's scrub jay ( A. woodhouseii ) Florida scrub jay ( A. coerulescens ) Transvolcanic jay ( A. ultramarina ) Unicolored jay ( A. unicolor ) Mexican jay ( A. wollweberi ) Calocitta (Magpie-Jays) Black-throated magpie-jay ( C. colliei ) White-throated Magpie-jay ( C. formosa ) Cyanocitta Blue jay ( C. cristata ) Steller's jay ( C. stelleri ) Cyanocorax Black-chested jay ( C. affinis ) Purplish-backed jay ( C. beecheii ) Azure jay ( C. caeruleus ) Cayenne jay ( C. cayanus ) Plush-crested jay ( C. chrysops ) Curl-crested jay ( C. cristatellus ) Purplish jay ( C. cyanomelas ) White-naped jay ( C. cyanopogon ) Tufted jay ( C. dickeyi ) Azure-naped jay ( C. heilprini ) Bushy-crested jay ( C. melanocyaneus ) Brown jay ( C. morio ) White-tailed jay ( C. mystacalis ) San Blas jay ( C. sanblasianus ) Violaceous jay ( C. violaceus ) Green jay ( C. ynca ) Yucatan jay ( C. yucatanicus ) Cyanolyca Silvery-throated jay ( C. argentigula ) Black-collared jay ( C. armillata ) Azure-hooded jay ( C. cucullata ) White-throated jay ( C. mirabilis ) Dwarf jay ( C. nana ) Beautiful jay ( C. pulchra ) Black-throated jay ( C. pumilo ) Turquoise jay ( C. turcosa ) White-collared jay ( C. viridicyana ) Gymnorhinus Pinyon jay ( G. cyanocephalus ) Taxon identifiers Wikidata : Q25357 Wikispecies : Corvus corax ABA : comrav ADW : Corvus_corax ARKive : corvus-corax Avibase: B9B272F40EE1570F BirdLife : 22706068 BTO : RAVEN eBird : comrav EoL : 1177364 EPPO : CORVCR Fauna Europaea : 97146 Fossilworks : 133788 GBIF : 2482492 IBC : common-raven-corvus-corax iNaturalist : 8010 IRMNG: 10195300 ITIS : 179725 IUCN : 22706068 NBN : NHMSYS0000530313 NCBI : 56781 WoRMS : 159389 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_raven&oldid=853486512 \" Categories : IUCN Red List least concern species Corvus (genus) Holarctic birds Ravens Talking birds Territorial symbols of Yukon Birds described in 1758 Fauna of the San Francisco Bay Area Hidden categories: CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Articles with 'species' microformats Featured articles Taxonbars with 20+ taxon IDs Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload 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{ "text": "Hardy–Weinberg principle - Wikipedia Hardy–Weinberg principle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Hardy–Weinberg proportions for two alleles : the horizontal axis shows the two allele frequencies p and q and the vertical axis shows the expected genotype frequencies . Each line shows one of the three possible genotypes. The Hardy–Weinberg principle , also known as the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, model, theorem , or law , states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences. These influences include mate choice , mutation , selection , genetic drift , gene flow and meiotic drive . In the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles denoted A and a with frequencies f (A) = p and f (a) = q , respectively, the expected genotype frequencies under random mating are f (AA) = p 2 for the AA homozygotes , f (aa) = q 2 for the aa homozygotes, and f (Aa) = 2 pq for the heterozygotes . In the absence of selection, mutation, genetic drift, or other forces, allele frequencies p and q are constant between generations, so equilibrium is reached. The principle is named after G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg , who first demonstrated it mathematically. Hardy's paper was focused on debunking the then-commonly held view that a dominant allele would automatically tend to increase in frequency; today, confusion between dominance and selection is less common. Today, tests for Hardy-Weinberg genotype frequencies are used primarily to test for population stratification and other forms of non-random mating. Contents [ hide ] 1 Derivation 2 Deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium 3 Sex linkage 4 Generalizations 4.1 Generalization for more than two alleles 4.2 Generalization for polyploidy 4.3 Complete generalization 5 Applications 5.1 Application to cases of complete dominance 6 Significance tests for deviation 6.1 Example χ 2 {\\displaystyle \\chi ^{2}} test for deviation 6.2 Fisher's exact test (probability test) 7 Inbreeding coefficient 8 History 8.1 Derivation of Hardy's equations 8.2 Numerical example 9 Graphical representation 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links Derivation [ edit ] Consider a population of monoecious diploids , where each organism produces male and female gametes at equal frequency, and has two alleles at each gene locus. Organisms reproduce by random union of gametes (the “gene pool” population model). A locus in this population has two alleles, A and a, that occur with initial frequencies f 0 (A) = p and f 0 (a) = q , respectively. [1] The allele frequencies at each generation are obtained by pooling together the alleles from each genotype of the same generation according to the expected contribution from the homozygote and heterozygote genotypes, which are 1 and 1/2, respectively: f t ( A ) = f t ( AA ) + 1 2 f t ( Aa ) {\\displaystyle f_{t}({\\text{A}})=f_{t}({\\text{AA}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})} ( 1 ) f t ( a ) = f t ( aa ) + 1 2 f t ( Aa ) {\\displaystyle f_{t}({\\text{a}})=f_{t}({\\text{aa}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})} ( 2 ) Length of p , q corresponds to allele frequencies (here p = 0.6, q = 0.4 ). Then area of rectangle represents genotype frequencies (thus AA : Aa : aa = 0.36 : 0.48 : 0.16 ). The different ways to form genotypes for the next generation can be shown in a Punnett square , where the proportion of each genotype is equal to the product of the row and column allele frequencies from the current generation. Table 1: Punnett square for Hardy–Weinberg Females A ( p ) a ( q ) Males A ( p ) AA ( p 2 ) Aa ( pq ) a ( q ) Aa ( qp ) aa ( q 2 ) The sum of the entries is p 2 + 2 pq + q 2 = 1 , as the genotype frequencies must sum to one. Note again that as p + q = 1 , the binomial expansion of ( p + q ) 2 = p 2 + 2 pq + q 2 = 1 gives the same relationships. Summing the elements of the Punnett square or the binomial expansion, we obtain the expected genotype proportions among the offspring after a single generation: f 1 ( AA ) = p 2 = f 0 ( A ) 2 {\\displaystyle f_{1}({\\text{AA}})=p^{2}=f_{0}({\\text{A}})^{2}} ( 3 ) f 1 ( Aa ) = p q + q p = 2 p q = 2 f 0 ( A ) f 0 ( a ) {\\displaystyle f_{1}({\\text{Aa}})=pq+qp=2pq=2f_{0}({\\text{A}})f_{0}({\\text{a}})} ( 4 ) f 1 ( aa ) = q 2 = f 0 ( a ) 2 {\\displaystyle f_{1}({\\text{aa}})=q^{2}=f_{0}({\\text{a}})^{2}} ( 5 ) These frequencies define the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. It should be mentioned that the genotype frequencies after the first generation need not equal the genotype frequencies from the initial generation, e.g. f 1 (AA) ≠ f 0 (AA) . However, the genotype frequencies for all future times will equal the Hardy–Weinberg frequencies, e.g. f t (AA) = f 1 (AA) for t > 1 . This follows since the genotype frequencies of the next generation depend only on the allele frequencies of the current generation which, as calculated by equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), are preserved from the initial generation: f 1 ( A ) = f 1 ( AA ) + 1 2 f 1 ( Aa ) = p 2 + p q = p ( p + q ) = p = f 0 ( A ) f 1 ( a ) = f 1 ( aa ) + 1 2 f 1 ( Aa ) = q 2 + p q = q ( p + q ) = q = f 0 ( a ) {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}f_{1}({\\text{A}})&=f_{1}({\\text{AA}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{1}({\\text{Aa}})=p^{2}+pq=p(p+q)=p=f_{0}({\\text{A}})\\\\f_{1}({\\text{a}})&=f_{1}({\\text{aa}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{1}({\\text{Aa}})=q^{2}+pq=q(p+q)=q=f_{0}({\\text{a}})\\end{aligned}}} For the more general case of dioecious diploids [organisms are either male or female] that reproduce by random mating of individuals, it is necessary to calculate the genotype frequencies from the nine possible matings between each parental genotype ( AA , Aa , and aa ) in either sex, weighted by the expected genotype contributions of each such mating. [2] Equivalently, one considers the six unique diploid-diploid combinations: [ ( AA , AA ) , ( AA , Aa ) , ( AA , aa ) , ( Aa , Aa ) , ( Aa , aa ) , ( aa , aa ) ] {\\displaystyle \\left[({\\text{AA}},{\\text{AA}}),({\\text{AA}},{\\text{Aa}}),({\\text{AA}},{\\text{aa}}),({\\text{Aa}},{\\text{Aa}}),({\\text{Aa}},{\\text{aa}}),({\\text{aa}},{\\text{aa}})\\right]} and constructs a Punnett square for each, so as to calculate its contribution to the next generation's genotypes. These contributions are weighted according to the probability of each diploid-diploid combination, which follows a multinomial distribution with k = 3 . For example, the probability of the mating combination (AA,aa) is 2 f t (AA) f t (aa) and it can only result in the Aa genotype: [0,1,0] . Overall, the resulting genotype frequencies are calculated as: [ f t + 1 ( AA ) , f t + 1 ( Aa ) , f t + 1 ( aa ) ] = = f t ( AA ) f t ( AA ) [ 1 , 0 , 0 ] + 2 f t ( AA ) f t ( Aa ) [ 1 2 , 1 2 , 0 ] + 2 f t ( AA ) f t ( aa ) [ 0 , 1 , 0 ] + f t ( Aa ) f t ( Aa ) [ 1 4 , 1 2 , 1 4 ] + 2 f t ( Aa ) f t ( aa ) [ 0 , 1 2 , 1 2 ] + f t ( aa ) f t ( aa ) [ 0 , 0 , 1 ] = [ ( f t ( AA ) + 1 2 f t ( Aa ) ) 2 , 2 ( f t ( AA ) + 1 2 f t ( Aa ) ) ( f t ( aa ) + 1 2 f t ( Aa ) ) , ( f t ( aa ) + 1 2 f t ( Aa ) ) 2 ] = [ f t ( A ) 2 , 2 f t ( A ) f t ( a ) , f t ( a ) 2 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&\\left[f_{t+1}({\\text{AA}}),f_{t+1}({\\text{Aa}}),f_{t+1}({\\text{aa}})\\right]=\\\\&\\qquad =f_{t}({\\text{AA}})f_{t}({\\text{AA}})\\left[1,0,0\\right]+2f_{t}({\\text{AA}})f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})\\left[{\\tfrac {1}{2}},{\\tfrac {1}{2}},0\\right]+2f_{t}({\\text{AA}})f_{t}({\\text{aa}})\\left[0,1,0\\right]\\\\&\\qquad \\qquad +f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})\\left[{\\tfrac {1}{4}},{\\tfrac {1}{2}},{\\tfrac {1}{4}}\\right]+2f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})f_{t}({\\text{aa}})\\left[0,{\\tfrac {1}{2}},{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\right]+f_{t}({\\text{aa}})f_{t}({\\text{aa}})\\left[0,0,1\\right]\\\\&\\qquad =\\left[\\left(f_{t}({\\text{AA}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})\\right)^{2},2\\left(f_{t}({\\text{AA}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})\\right)\\left(f_{t}({\\text{aa}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})\\right),\\left(f_{t}({\\text{aa}})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}f_{t}({\\text{Aa}})\\right)^{2}\\right]\\\\&\\qquad =\\left[f_{t}({\\text{A}})^{2},2f_{t}({\\text{A}})f_{t}({\\text{a}}),f_{t}({\\text{a}})^{2}\\right]\\end{aligned}}} As before, one can show that the allele frequencies at time t +1 equal those at time t , and so, are constant in time. Similarly, the genotype frequencies depend only on the allele frequencies, and so, after time t =1 are also constant in time. If in either monoecious or dioecious organisms, either the allele or genotype proportions are initially unequal in either sex, it can be shown that constant proportions are obtained after one generation of random mating. If dioecious organisms are heterogametic and the gene locus is located on the X chromosome , it can be shown that if the allele frequencies are initially unequal in the two sexes [ e.g ., XX females and XY males, as in humans], f ′(a) in the heterogametic sex ‘chases’ f (a) in the homogametic sex of the previous generation, until an equilibrium is reached at the weighted average of the two initial frequencies. Deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium [ edit ] The seven assumptions underlying Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium are as follows: [3] organisms are diploid only sexual reproduction occurs generations are nonoverlapping mating is random population size is infinitely large allele frequencies are equal in the sexes there is no migration, mutation or selection Violations of the Hardy–Weinberg assumptions can cause deviations from expectation . How this affects the population depends on the assumptions that are violated. Random mating . The HWP states the population will have the given genotypic frequencies (called Hardy–Weinberg proportions) after a single generation of random mating within the population. When the random mating assumption is violated, the population will not have Hardy–Weinberg proportions. A common cause of non-random mating is inbreeding , which causes an increase in homozygosity for all genes. If a population violates one of the following four assumptions, the population may continue to have Hardy–Weinberg proportions each generation, but the allele frequencies will change over time. Selection , in general, causes allele frequencies to change, often quite rapidly. While directional selection eventually leads to the loss of all alleles except the favored one (unless one allele is dominant, in which case recessive alleles can survive at low frequencies), some forms of selection, such as balancing selection , lead to equilibrium without loss of alleles. Mutation will have a very subtle effect on allele frequencies. Mutation rates are of the order 10 −4 to 10 −8 , and the change in allele frequency will be, at most, the same order. Recurrent mutation will maintain alleles in the population, even if there is strong selection against them. Migration genetically links two or more populations together. In general, allele frequencies will become more homogeneous among the populations. Some models for migration inherently include nonrandom mating ( Wahlund effect , for example). For those models, the Hardy–Weinberg proportions will normally not be valid. Small population size can cause a random change in allele frequencies. This is due to a sampling effect, and is called genetic drift . Sampling effects are most important when the allele is present in a small number of copies. Sex linkage [ edit ] Where the A gene is sex linked , the heterogametic sex ( e.g. , mammalian males; avian females) have only one copy of the gene (and are termed hemizygous), while the homogametic sex ( e.g. , human females) have two copies. The genotype frequencies at equilibrium are p and q for the heterogametic sex but p 2 , 2 pq and q 2 for the homogametic sex. For example, in humans red–green colorblindness is an X-linked recessive trait. In western European males, the trait affects about 1 in 12, ( q = 0.083) whereas it affects about 1 in 200 females (0.005, compared to q 2 = 0.007), very close to Hardy–Weinberg proportions. If a population is brought together with males and females with a different allele frequency in each subpopulation (males or females), the allele frequency of the male population in the next generation will follow that of the female population because each son receives its X chromosome from its mother. The population converges on equilibrium very quickly. Generalizations [ edit ] The simple derivation above can be generalized for more than two alleles and polyploidy . Generalization for more than two alleles [ edit ] Punnett square for three-allele case (left) and four-allele case (right). White areas are homozygotes. Colored areas are heterozygotes. Consider an extra allele frequency, r . The two-allele case is the binomial expansion of ( p + q ) 2 , and thus the three-allele case is the trinomial expansion of ( p + q + r ) 2 . ( p + q + r ) 2 = p 2 + q 2 + r 2 + 2 p q + 2 p r + 2 q r {\\displaystyle (p+q+r)^{2}=p^{2}+q^{2}+r^{2}+2pq+2pr+2qr\\,} More generally, consider the alleles A 1 , ..., A n given by the allele frequencies p 1 to p n ; ( p 1 + ⋯ + p n ) 2 {\\displaystyle (p_{1}+\\cdots +p_{n})^{2}\\,} giving for all homozygotes : f ( A i A i ) = p i 2 {\\displaystyle f(A_{i}A_{i})=p_{i}^{2}\\,} and for all heterozygotes : f ( A i A j ) = 2 p i p j {\\displaystyle f(A_{i}A_{j})=2p_{i}p_{j}\\,} Generalization for polyploidy [ edit ] The Hardy–Weinberg principle may also be generalized to polyploid systems, that is, for organisms that have more than two copies of each chromosome. Consider again only two alleles. The diploid case is the binomial expansion of: ( p + q ) 2 {\\displaystyle (p+q)^{2}\\,} and therefore the polyploid case is the polynomial expansion of: ( p + q ) c {\\displaystyle (p+q)^{c}\\,} where c is the ploidy , for example with tetraploid ( c = 4): Table 2: Expected genotype frequencies for tetraploidy Genotype Frequency AAAA p 4 {\\displaystyle p^{4}} AAAa 4 p 3 q {\\displaystyle 4p^{3}q} AAaa 6 p 2 q 2 {\\displaystyle 6p^{2}q^{2}} Aaaa 4 p q 3 {\\displaystyle 4pq^{3}} aaaa q 4 {\\displaystyle q^{4}} Depending on whether the organism is a 'true' tetraploid or an amphidiploid will determine how long it will take for the population to reach Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Complete generalization [ edit ] For n {\\displaystyle n} distinct alleles in c {\\displaystyle c} -ploids, the genotype frequencies in the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium are given by individual terms in the multinomial expansion of ( p 1 + ⋯ + p n ) c {\\displaystyle (p_{1}+\\cdots +p_{n})^{c}} : ( p 1 + ⋯ + p n ) c = ∑ k 1 , … , k n ∈ N : k 1 + ⋯ + k n = c ( c k 1 , … , k n ) p 1 k 1 ⋯ p n k n {\\displaystyle (p_{1}+\\cdots +p_{n})^{c}=\\sum _{k_{1},\\ldots ,k_{n}\\ \\in \\mathbb {N} :k_{1}+\\cdots +k_{n}=c}{c \\choose k_{1},\\ldots ,k_{n}}p_{1}^{k_{1}}\\cdots p_{n}^{k_{n}}} Applications [ edit ] The Hardy–Weinberg principle may be applied in two ways, either a population is assumed to be in Hardy–Weinberg proportions, in which the genotype frequencies can be calculated, or if the genotype frequencies of all three genotypes are known, they can be tested for deviations that are statistically significant . Application to cases of complete dominance [ edit ] Suppose that the phenotypes of AA and Aa are indistinguishable, i.e. , there is complete dominance . Assuming that the Hardy–Weinberg principle applies to the population, then q {\\displaystyle q} can still be calculated from f (aa): q = f ( aa ) {\\displaystyle q={\\sqrt {f({\\text{aa}})}}} and p {\\displaystyle p} can be calculated from q {\\displaystyle q} . And thus an estimate of f (AA) and f (Aa) derived from p 2 {\\displaystyle p^{2}} and 2 p q {\\displaystyle 2pq} respectively. Note however, such a population cannot be tested for equilibrium using the significance tests below because it is assumed a priori . Significance tests for deviation [ edit ] Testing deviation from the HWP is generally performed using Pearson's chi-squared test , using the observed genotype frequencies obtained from the data and the expected genotype frequencies obtained using the HWP. For systems where there are large numbers of alleles, this may result in data with many empty possible genotypes and low genotype counts, because there are often not enough individuals present in the sample to adequately represent all genotype classes. If this is the case, then the asymptotic assumption of the chi-squared distribution , will no longer hold, and it may be necessary to use a form of Fisher's exact test , which requires a computer to solve. More recently a number of MCMC methods of testing for deviations from HWP have been proposed (Guo & Thompson, 1992; Wigginton et al. 2005) Example χ 2 {\\displaystyle \\chi ^{2}} test for deviation [ edit ] This data is from E.B. Ford (1971) on the Scarlet tiger moth , for which the phenotypes of a sample of the population were recorded. Genotype-phenotype distinction is assumed to be negligibly small. The null hypothesis is that the population is in Hardy–Weinberg proportions, and the alternative hypothesis is that the population is not in Hardy–Weinberg proportions. Table 3: Example Hardy–Weinberg principle calculation Phenotype White-spotted (AA) Intermediate (Aa) Little spotting (aa) Total Number 1469 138 5 1612 From this, allele frequencies can be calculated: p = 2 × o b s ( AA ) + o b s ( Aa ) 2 × ( o b s ( AA ) + o b s ( Aa ) + o b s ( aa ) ) = 1469 × 2 + 138 2 × ( 1469 + 138 + 5 ) = 3076 3224 = 0.954 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}p&={2\\times \\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{AA}})+\\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{Aa}}) \\over 2\\times (\\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{AA}})+\\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{Aa}})+\\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{aa}}))}\\\\\\\\&={1469\\times 2+138 \\over 2\\times (1469+138+5)}\\\\\\\\&={3076 \\over 3224}\\\\\\\\&=0.954\\end{aligned}}} and q = 1 − p = 1 − 0.954 = 0.046 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}q&=1-p\\\\&=1-0.954\\\\&=0.046\\end{aligned}}} So the Hardy–Weinberg expectation is: E x p ( AA ) = p 2 n = 0.954 2 × 1612 = 1467.4 E x p ( Aa ) = 2 p q n = 2 × 0.954 × 0.046 × 1612 = 141.2 E x p ( aa ) = q 2 n = 0.046 2 × 1612 = 3.4 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathrm {Exp} ({\\text{AA}})&=p^{2}n=0.954^{2}\\times 1612=1467.4\\\\\\mathrm {Exp} ({\\text{Aa}})&=2pqn=2\\times 0.954\\times 0.046\\times 1612=141.2\\\\\\mathrm {Exp} ({\\text{aa}})&=q^{2}n=0.046^{2}\\times 1612=3.4\\end{aligned}}} Pearson's chi-squared test states: χ 2 = ∑ ( O − E ) 2 E = ( 1469 − 1467.4 ) 2 1467.4 + ( 138 − 141.2 ) 2 141.2 + ( 5 − 3.4 ) 2 3.4 = 0.001 + 0.073 + 0.756 = 0.83 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\chi ^{2}&=\\sum {(O-E)^{2} \\over E}\\\\&={(1469-1467.4)^{2} \\over 1467.4}+{(138-141.2)^{2} \\over 141.2}+{(5-3.4)^{2} \\over 3.4}\\\\&=0.001+0.073+0.756\\\\&=0.83\\end{aligned}}} There is 1 degree of freedom (degrees of freedom for test for Hardy–Weinberg proportions are # genotypes − # alleles). The 5% significance level for 1 degree of freedom is 3.84, and since the χ 2 value is less than this, the null hypothesis that the population is in Hardy–Weinberg frequencies is not rejected. Fisher's exact test (probability test) [ edit ] Fisher's exact test can be applied to testing for Hardy–Weinberg proportions. Since the test is conditional on the allele frequencies, p and q , the problem can be viewed as testing for the proper number of heterozygotes. In this way, the hypothesis of Hardy–Weinberg proportions is rejected if the number of heterozygotes is too large or too small. The conditional probabilities for the heterozygote, given the allele frequencies are given in Emigh (1980) as prob ⁡ [ n 12 | n 1 ] = ( n n 11 , n 12 , n 22 ) ( 2 n n 1 , n 2 ) 2 n 12 , {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {prob} [n_{12}|n_{1}]={\\frac {\\binom {n}{n_{11},n_{12},n_{22}}}{\\binom {2n}{n_{1},n_{2}}}}2^{n_{12}},} where n 11 , n 12 , n 22 are the observed numbers of the three genotypes, AA, Aa, and aa, respectively, and n 1 is the number of A alleles, where n 1 = 2 n 11 + n 12 {\\displaystyle n_{1}=2n_{11}+n_{12}} . An example Using one of the examples from Emigh (1980), [4] we can consider the case where n = 100, and p = 0.34. The possible observed heterozygotes and their exact significance level is given in Table 4. Table 4: Example of Fisher's exact test for n = 100, p = 0.34. [4] Number of heterozygotes Significance level 0 0.000 2 0.000 4 0.000 6 0.000 8 0.000 10 0.000 12 0.000 14 0.000 16 0.000 18 0.001 20 0.007 22 0.034 34 0.067 24 0.151 32 0.291 26 0.474 30 0.730 28 1.000 Using this table, one must look up the significance level of the test based on the observed number of heterozygotes. For example, if one observed 20 heterozygotes, the significance level for the test is 0.007. As is typical for Fisher's exact test for small samples, the gradation of significance levels is quite coarse. However, a table like this has to be created for every experiment, since the tables are dependent on both n and p . Inbreeding coefficient [ edit ] The inbreeding coefficient, F (see also F -statistics ), is one minus the observed frequency of heterozygotes over that expected from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. F = E ⁡ ( f ( Aa ) ) − O ⁡ ( f ( Aa ) ) E ⁡ ( f ( Aa ) ) = 1 − O ⁡ ( f ( Aa ) ) E ⁡ ( f ( Aa ) ) , {\\displaystyle F={\\frac {\\operatorname {E} {(f({\\text{Aa}}))}-\\operatorname {O} (f({\\text{Aa}}))}{\\operatorname {E} (f({\\text{Aa}}))}}=1-{\\frac {\\operatorname {O} (f({\\text{Aa}}))}{\\operatorname {E} (f({\\text{Aa}}))}},} where the expected value from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is given by E ⁡ ( f ( Aa ) ) = 2 p q {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {E} (f({\\text{Aa}}))=2pq} For example, for Ford's data above; F = 1 − 138 141.2 = 0.023. {\\displaystyle F=1-{138 \\over 141.2}=0.023.} For two alleles, the chi-squared goodness of fit test for Hardy–Weinberg proportions is equivalent to the test for inbreeding, F = 0. The inbreeding coefficient is unstable as the expected value approaches zero, and thus not useful for rare and very common alleles. For: E = 0, O > 0, F = −∞ and E = 0, O = 0, F is undefined. History [ edit ] Mendelian genetics were rediscovered in 1900. However, it remained somewhat controversial for several years as it was not then known how it could cause continuous characteristics. Udny Yule (1902) argued against Mendelism because he thought that dominant alleles would increase in the population. [5] The American William E. Castle (1903) showed that without selection , the genotype frequencies would remain stable. [6] Karl Pearson (1903) found one equilibrium position with values of p = q = 0.5. [7] Reginald Punnett , unable to counter Yule's point, introduced the problem to G. H. Hardy , a British mathematician , with whom he played cricket . Hardy was a pure mathematician and held applied mathematics in some contempt; his view of biologists' use of mathematics comes across in his 1908 paper where he describes this as \"very simple\": [8] To the Editor of Science: I am reluctant to intrude in a discussion concerning matters of which I have no expert knowledge, and I should have expected the very simple point which I wish to make to have been familiar to biologists. However, some remarks of Mr. Udny Yule, to which Mr. R. C. Punnett has called my attention, suggest that it may still be worth making... Suppose that Aa is a pair of Mendelian characters, A being dominant, and that in any given generation the number of pure dominants (AA), heterozygotes (Aa), and pure recessives (aa) are as p :2 q : r . Finally, suppose that the numbers are fairly large, so that mating may be regarded as random, that the sexes are evenly distributed among the three varieties, and that all are equally fertile. A little mathematics of the multiplication-table type is enough to show that in the next generation the numbers will be as ( p + q ) 2 :2( p + q )( q + r ):( q + r ) 2 , or as p 1 :2 q 1 : r 1 , say. The interesting question is: in what circumstances will this distribution be the same as that in the generation before? It is easy to see that the condition for this is q 2 = pr . And since q 1 2 = p 1 r 1 , whatever the values of p , q , and r may be, the distribution will in any case continue unchanged after the second generation The principle was thus known as Hardy's law in the English-speaking world until 1943, when Curt Stern pointed out that it had first been formulated independently in 1908 by the German physician Wilhelm Weinberg . [9] [10] William Castle in 1903 also derived the ratios for the special case of equal allele frequencies, and it is sometimes (but rarely) called the Hardy–Weinberg–Castle Law. Derivation of Hardy's equations [ edit ] Hardy's statement begins with a recurrence relation for the frequencies p , 2q , and r . These recurrence relations follow from fundamental concepts in probability, specifically independence , and conditional probability . For example, consider the probability of an offspring from the generation t {\\displaystyle \\textstyle t} being homozygous dominant. Alleles are inherited independently from each parent. A dominant allele can be inherited from a homozygous dominant parent with probability 1, or from a heterozygous parent with probability 0.5. To represent this reasoning in an equation, let A t {\\displaystyle \\textstyle A_{t}} represent inheritance of a dominant allele from a parent. Furthermore, let A A t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle AA_{t-1}} and A a t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle Aa_{t-1}} represent potential parental genotypes in the preceding generation. p t = P ( A t , A t ) = P ( A t ) 2 = ( P ( A t | A A t − 1 ) P ( A A t − 1 ) + P ( A t | A a t − 1 ) P ( A a t − 1 ) ) 2 = ( ( 1 ) p t − 1 + ( 0.5 ) 2 q t − 1 ) 2 = ( p t − 1 + q t − 1 ) 2 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}p_{t}&=P(A_{t},A_{t})=P(A_{t})^{2}\\\\&=\\left(P(A_{t}|AA_{t-1})P(AA_{t-1})+P(A_{t}|Aa_{t-1})P(Aa_{t-1})\\right)^{2}\\\\&=\\left((1)p_{t-1}+(0.5)2q_{t-1}\\right)^{2}\\\\&=\\left(p_{t-1}+q_{t-1}\\right)^{2}\\end{aligned}}} The same reasoning, applied to the other genotypes yields the two remaining recurrence relations. Equilibrium occurs when each proportion is constant between subsequent generations. More formally, a population is at equilibrium at generation t {\\displaystyle \\textstyle t} when 0 = p t − p t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle 0=p_{t}-p_{t-1}} , 0 = q t − q t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle 0=q_{t}-q_{t-1}} , and 0 = r t − r t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle 0=r_{t}-r_{t-1}} By solving these equations necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium to occur can be determined. Again, consider the frequency of homozygous dominant animals. Equilibrium implies 0 = p t − p t − 1 = p t − 1 2 + 2 p t − 1 q t − 1 + q t − 1 2 − p t − 1 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}0&=p_{t}-p_{t-1}\\\\&=p_{t-1}^{2}+2p_{t-1}q_{t-1}+q_{t-1}^{2}-p_{t-1}\\end{aligned}}} First consider the case, where p t − 1 = 0 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle p_{t-1}=0} , and note that it implies that q t − 1 = 0 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle q_{t-1}=0} and r t − 1 = 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle r_{t-1}=1} . Now consider the remaining case, where p t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle p_{t-1}} ≠ 0 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle 0} 0 = p t − 1 ( p t − 1 + 2 q t − 1 + q t − 1 2 / p t − 1 − 1 ) = q t − 1 2 / p t − 1 − r t − 1 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}0&=p_{t-1}(p_{t-1}+2q_{t-1}+q_{t-1}^{2}/p_{t-1}-1)\\\\&=q_{t-1}^{2}/p_{t-1}-r_{t-1}\\end{aligned}}} Where the final equality holds because the allele proportions must sum to one. In both cases, q t − 1 2 = p t − 1 r t − 1 {\\displaystyle \\textstyle q_{t-1}^{2}=p_{t-1}r_{t-1}} . It can be shown that the other two equilibrium conditions imply the same equation. Together, the solutions of the three equilibrium equations imply sufficiency of Hardy's condition for equilibrium. Since the condition always holds for the second generation, all succeeding generations have the same proportions. Numerical example [ edit ] An example computation of the genotype distribution given by Hardy's original equations is instructive. The phenotype distribution from Table 3 above will be used to compute Hardy's initial genotype distribution. Note that the p and q values used by Hardy are not the same as those used above. sum = o b s ( AA ) + 2 × o b s ( Aa ) + o b s ( aa ) = 1469 + 2 × 138 + 5 = 1750 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}{\\text{sum}}&={\\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{AA}})+2\\times \\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{Aa}})+\\mathrm {obs} ({\\text{aa}})}={1469+2\\times 138+5}\\\\&=1750\\end{aligned}}} p = 1469 1750 = 0.83943 2 q = 2 × 138 1750 = 0.15771 r = 5 1750 = 0.00286 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}p&={1469 \\over 1750}=0.83943\\\\2q&={2\\times 138 \\over 1750}=0.15771\\\\r&={5 \\over 1750}=0.00286\\end{aligned}}} As checks on the distribution, compute p + 2 q + r = 0.83943 + 0.15771 + 0.00286 = 1.00000 {\\displaystyle p+2q+r=0.83943+0.15771+0.00286=1.00000\\,} and E 0 = q 2 − p r = 0.00382. {\\displaystyle E_{0}=q^{2}-pr=0.00382.\\,} For the next generation, Hardy's equations give q = 0.15771 2 = 0.07886 p 1 = ( p + q ) 2 = 0.84325 2 q 1 = 2 ( p + q ) ( q + r ) = 0.15007 r 1 = ( q + r ) 2 = 0.00668. {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}q&={0.15771 \\over 2}=0.07886\\\\\\\\p_{1}&=(p+q)^{2}=0.84325\\\\2q_{1}&=2(p+q)(q+r)=0.15007\\\\r_{1}&=(q+r)^{2}=0.00668.\\end{aligned}}} Again as checks on the distribution, compute p 1 + 2 q 1 + r 1 = 0.84325 + 0.15007 + 0.00668 = 1.00000 {\\displaystyle p_{1}+2q_{1}+r_{1}=0.84325+0.15007+0.00668=1.00000\\,} and E 1 = q 1 2 − p 1 r 1 = 0.00000 {\\displaystyle E_{1}=q_{1}^{2}-p_{1}r_{1}=0.00000\\,} which are the expected values. The reader may demonstrate that subsequent use of the second-generation values for a third generation will yield identical results. Graphical representation [ edit ] A de Finetti diagram representing a distribution of genotype frequencies It is possible to represent the distribution of genotype frequencies for a bi-allelic locus within a population graphically using a de Finetti diagram . This uses a triangular plot (also known as trilinear, triaxial or ternary plot ) to represent the distribution of the three genotype frequencies in relation to each other. It differs from many other such plots in that the direction of one of the axes has been reversed. [11] The curved line in the diagram is the Hardy–Weinberg parabola and represents the state where alleles are in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. It is possible to represent the effects of natural selection and its effect on allele frequency on such graphs. [12] The de Finetti diagram has been developed and used extensively by A. W. F. Edwards in his book Foundations of Mathematical Genetics . [13] See also [ edit ] Regression toward the mean Multinomial distribution (Hardy–Weinberg is a trinomial distribution with probabilities ( θ 2 , 2 θ ( 1 − θ ) , ( 1 − θ ) 2 ) {\\displaystyle (\\theta ^{2},2\\theta (1-\\theta ),(1-\\theta )^{2})} ) References [ edit ] Jump up ^ The term frequency usually refers to a number or count, but in this context, it is synonymous with probability . Jump up ^ Carr, Dr. Steven M. \"Hardy-Weinberg in dioecious organisms\" . www.mun.ca . Jump up ^ Hartl DL, Clarke AG (2007) Principles of population genetics. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer ^ Jump up to: a b Emigh, Ted H. (1980). \"A Comparison of Tests for Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium\". Biometrics . 36 (4): 627–642. doi : 10.2307/2556115 . JSTOR 2556115 . Jump up ^ Yule, 1902 Jump up ^ Castle, 1903 Jump up ^ Pearson, 1903 Jump up ^ Hardy, 1908 Jump up ^ Crow, James F. (1999). \"Hardy, Weinberg and language impediments\" . Genetics . 152 (3): 821–825. PMC 1460671 . PMID 10388804 . Jump up ^ Stern, Curt (1962). \"Wilhelm Weinberg\". Genetics . 47 : 1–5. Jump up ^ Cannings, C.; Edwards, A.W.F. (1968). \"Natural selection and the de Finetti diagram\". Annals of Human Genetics . 31 : 421–428. doi : 10.1111/j.1469-1809.1968.tb00575.x . Jump up ^ See e.g. Ineichen & Batschelet 1975 Jump up ^ Edwards, 1977 Bibliography [ edit ] Castle, W. E. (1903). \"The laws of Galton and Mendel and some laws governing race improvement by selection\". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . 35 : 233–242. Crow, Jf (Jul 1999). \"Hardy, Weinberg and language impediments\" . Genetics . 152 (3): 821–5. ISSN 0016-6731 . PMC 1460671 . PMID 10388804 . Edwards, A.W.F. 1977. Foundations of Mathematical Genetics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2nd ed., 2000). ISBN 0-521-77544-2 Emigh, T.H. (1980). \"A comparison of tests for Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium\". Biometrics . 36 (4): 627–642. doi : 10.2307/2556115 . JSTOR 2556115 . Ford, E.B. (1971). Ecological Genetics , London. Guo, Sw; Thompson, Elizabeth A. (Jun 1992). \"Performing the exact test of Hardy–Weinberg proportion for multiple alleles\". Biometrics . Biometrics, Vol. 48, No. 2. 48 (2): 361–72. doi : 10.2307/2532296 . ISSN 0006-341X . JSTOR 2532296 . PMID 1637966 . Hardy, G. H. (Jul 1908). \"Mendelian Proportions in a Mixed Population\" (PDF) . Science . 28 (706): 49–50. doi : 10.1126/science.28.706.49 . ISSN 0036-8075 . PMID 17779291 . Ineichen, Robert; Batschelet, Eduard (1975). \"Genetic selection and de Finetti diagrams\". Journal of Mathematical Biology . 2 : 33. doi : 10.1007/BF00276014 . Masel, Joanna (2012). \"Rethinking Hardy–Weinberg and genetic drift in undergraduate biology\". BioEssays . 34 (8): 701–10. doi : 10.1002/bies.201100178 . PMID 22576789 . Pearson, K. (1903). \"Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution. XI. On the influence of natural selection on the variability and correlation of organs\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A . 200 (321–330): 1–66. doi : 10.1098/rsta.1903.0001 . Stern, C. (1943). \"The Hardy–Weinberg law\". Science . 97 (2510): 137–138. doi : 10.1126/science.97.2510.137 . JSTOR 1670409 . PMID 17788516 . Weinberg, W. (1908). \"Über den Nachweis der Vererbung beim Menschen\". Jahreshefte des Vereins für vaterländische Naturkunde in Württemberg . 64 : 368–382. Wigginton, Je; Cutler, Dj; Abecasis, Gr (May 2005). \"A Note on Exact Tests of Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium\" . American Journal of Human Genetics . 76 (5): 887–93. doi : 10.1086/429864 . ISSN 0002-9297 . PMC 1199378 . PMID 15789306 . Yule, G. U. (1902). \"Mendel's laws and their probable relation to intra-racial heredity\". New Phytol . 1 (193–207): 222–238. doi : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1902.tb07336.x . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hardy–Weinberg law . EvolutionSolution (at bottom of page) Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium Calculator genetics Population Genetics Simulator HARDY C implementation of Guo & Thompson 1992 Source code (C/C++/Fortran/R) for Wigginton et al. 2005 Online de Finetti Diagram Generator and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium tests Online Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium tests and drawing of de Finetti diagrams Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium Calculator [ hide ] v t e Population genetics Key concepts Hardy-Weinberg law Genetic linkage Identity by descent Linkage disequilibrium Fisher's fundamental theorem Neutral theory Shifting balance theory Price equation Coefficient of relationship Fitness Heritability Selection Natural Sexual Artificial Ecological Effects of selection on genomic variation Genetic hitchhiking Background selection Genetic drift Small population size Population bottleneck Founder effect Coalescence Balding–Nichols model Founders R. A. Fisher J. B. S. Haldane Sewall Wright Related topics Evolution Microevolution Evolutionary game theory Fitness landscape Genetic genealogy Quantitative genetics Index of evolutionary biology articles Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hardy–Weinberg_principle&oldid=803424320 \" Categories : Population genetics Classical genetics Statistical genetics Sexual selection Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from May 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Кыргызча Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 October 2017, at 13:12. 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{ "text": "Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast - Wikipedia Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast\" Single by Wayne Newton from the album Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast B-side \"Echo Valley 2-6809\" (U.S.) \"Walking in the Sand\" (Intl.) Released April 8, 1972 Genre Pop Length 3 : 18 Label Chelsea Records 0100 Songwriter(s) Peter Callander , Geoff Stephens Producer(s) Wes Farrell Wayne Newton singles chronology \"I Ain't That Easy to Lose\" (1971) \" Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast \" (1972) \" Can't You Hear the Song? \" (1972) \"I Ain't That Easy to Lose\" (1971) \" Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast \" (1972) \" Can't You Hear the Song? \" (1972) \" Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast \" is a song written by Peter Callander and Geoff Stephens and performed by Wayne Newton . It sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA in July 1972. [1] The song reached number 3 on the adult contemporary chart , and number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . [2] The song spent one week at number 1 on the Cashbox chart on August 5, 1972, [3] one week at number 1 in Canada , and spent three weeks at number 1 in Australia . The song appeared on Newton's 1972 album, Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast . [4] The song was produced by Wes Farrell and arranged by Mike Melvoin . [5] The song was ranked number 10 on Billboard magazine's Top Hot 100 songs of 1972 . [6] The song also was ranked number 7 on the Kent Music Report 's 25 songs of 1972 . Contents [ hide ] 1 Chart performance 1.1 Weekly charts 1.2 Year-end charts 2 Other versions 3 References 4 External links Chart performance [ edit ] Weekly charts [ edit ] Chart (1972) Peak position Australia 1 Canada 1 US Billboard Hot 100 [7] 4 US Billboard Adult Contemporary 3 US Billboard Country [8] 55 US Cash Box Top 100 [9] 1 Year-end charts [ edit ] Chart (1972) Rank Australia 7 Canada [10] 5 US Billboard Hot 100 [11] 10 US Cash Box Top 100 [12] 4 Other versions [ edit ] Daniel Boone released the original version of the song as his debut single in 1971 . It reached #1 in New Zealand and #17 on the UK Singles Chart . [13] It was featured on his 1971 album, Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast . [14] nl:Herman van Keeken made a Dutch version of this song in 1971, called \"Pappie loop toch niet zo snel\". Henson Cargill released a version as the B-side of his February 1972 single, \"I Can't Face the Bed Alone\". [15] It was featured on his 1972 album, On the Road . [16] Frank Ifield released a version on June 15, 1972 in Australia . [17] Ace Cannon released a version on his 1973 album, Baby Dont Get Hooked on Me . [18] Roy Clark released a version on his 1973 album, Come Live with Me . [19] Tony Christie [20] The Ray Conniff singers [21] Sven Libaek Orchestra [22] Lou Pride [23] Charlie Rich [24] The Sensations [25] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Murrells, Joseph (1978). The Book of Golden Discs (2nd ed.). London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 317. ISBN 0-214-20512-6 . Jump up ^ \"Daddy, Don't You Walk So Fast (song by Wayne Newton)\" . Musicvf.com . 1972-04-22 . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ Cash Box Top 100 Singles, August 5, 1972 Jump up ^ \"Wayne Newton - Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast (Vinyl, LP, Album)\" . Discogs.com . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Wayne Newton - Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast / Echo Valley 2-6809 - Chelsea - USA - 78-0100\" . 45cat.com . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on February 16, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2016 . Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN 0-89820-089-X Jump up ^ \"Daddy, Don't You Walk So Fast (song by Wayne Newton)\" . Musicvf.com . 1972-04-22 . Retrieved 2017-01-03 . Jump up ^ Cash Box Top 100 Singles, August 5, 1972 Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on September 16, 2011 . Retrieved July 12, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Top 100 Hits of 1972/Top 100 Songs of 1972\" . Musicoutfitters.com . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"The CASH BOX Year-End Charts, December 30, 1972\" . tropicalglen.com . Retrieved 2017-01-03 . Jump up ^ \"Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast (song by Daniel Boone)\" . Musicvf.com . 1971-08-14 . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Daniel Boone - Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast (Vinyl, LP)\" . Discogs.com . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Henson Cargill - I Can't Face The Bed Alone / Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast - Mega - USA - 615-0060\" . 45cat.com . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"On the Road - Henson Cargill | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Frank Ifield - Daddy, Don't You Walk So Fast / Beautiful Love - MAM - Australia - MAM-9914\" . 45cat.com . 1972-06-15 . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Baby Dont Get Hooked on Me - Ace Cannon | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ Greg Adams. \"Come Live With Me - Roy Clark | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"The Very Best of Tony Christie - Tony Christie | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Complete Ray Conniff And His Orchestra, Vol. 1 - Ray Conniff | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Nadia's Theme - Sven Libaek Orchestra | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"The Best of Charlie Rich [Epic] - Charlie Rich | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . 1939-07-12 . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ \"Ain't No More Love in This House - Lou Pride | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . Jump up ^ Steve Leggett (2004-10-12). \"Trojan Seventies - Various Artists | Songs, Reviews, Credits\" . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016-06-03 . External links [ edit ] Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics [ hide ] v t e Wayne Newton Singles \" Danke Schoen \" \" Shirl Girl \" \" Red Roses for a Blue Lady \" \" (I'll Be With You) In Apple Blossom Time \" \" Summer Wind \" \" Remember When (We Made These Memories) \" \" Summer Colors \" \" Love of the Common People \" \" Dreams of the Everyday Housewife \" \" Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast \" \" Can't You Hear the Song? \" \" Years \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daddy_Don%27t_You_Walk_So_Fast&oldid=783665756 \" Categories : 1971 songs 1971 singles 1972 singles Songs written by Peter Callander Songs written by Geoff Stephens Wayne Newton songs Henson Cargill songs Roy Clark songs Charlie Rich songs RPM Top Singles number-one singles Number-one singles in Australia Number-one singles in New Zealand Debut singles Song recordings produced by Wes Farrell Hidden categories: Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 3 June 2017, at 21:27. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Daddy_Don%27t_You_Walk_So_Fast&amp;oldid=783665756" }

{ "text": "Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio) - Wikipedia Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Death of the Virgin Italian: Morte della vergine , Italian: Transito della Madonna Artist Caravaggio Year 1604-1606, [1] 1602 [2] [3] Medium Oil on canvas Dimensions 369 cm × 245 cm (145 in × 96 in) Location Louvre , Paris Death of the Virgin (1606) is a painting completed by the Italian Baroque master Caravaggio . It is a near contemporary with Caravaggio's Madonna with Saint Anne now at the Musée du Louvre . Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Description 2.1 Composition 2.2 Use of light and shadow 3 Treatment of the subject 4 Influence 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History [ edit ] When he painted The Death of the Virgin (c. 1601-6), Caravaggio had been working in Rome for fifteen years. [4] The painting was commissioned by Laerzio Cherubini , a papal lawyer, for his chapel in the Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala in Trastevere , Rome , the painting could not have been finished before 1605-1606. [4] The depiction of the Death of the Virgin caused a contemporary stir, and was rejected as unfit by the parish. Giulio Mancini thought Caravaggio modelled a prostitute, possibly his mistress, as the Virgin. [a] Giovanni Baglione [b] and Gian Pietro Bellori [c] attributed the rejection to the appearance of the Virgin. The breach of decorum led to a rejection of the painting by the fathers of Santa Maria della Scala and its replacement by a picture by Carlo Saraceni , a close follower of Caravaggio. [8] Upon the recommendation by Peter Paul Rubens , who praised it as one of Caravaggio's best works, the painting was bought by Vincenzo Gonzaga , Duke of Mantua . Giovanni Magni, the duke's ambassador, briefly exhibited the painting in his house on the Via del Corso , between 1 and 7 April 1607. [9] Copying was absolutely forbidden. [10] The duke's collection was to be sold to Charles I of England in 1627. After his execution the English Commonwealth put his collection up for sale in 1649, and the painting was bought by Everhard Jabach , who in 1671 sold it to Louis XIV for the French Royal Collection, which after the French Revolution became the property of the state. [5] Today it hangs in the Louvre . Prior to leaving Rome, it was shown at the Academy of Painters for under two weeks. However, by then, Caravaggio had fled Rome, never to publicly return. During one of his frequent brawls in Rome, the mercurial and impulsive Caravaggio killed a man, Ranuccio Tomassoni, during a sword fight after a tennis game. Carlo Saraceni, Death of the Virgin , 459 x 273 cm, Santa Maria della Scala, Rome Description [ edit ] External video Smarthistory - Caravaggio's Death of the Virgin [11] The painting recalls Caravaggio's Entombment in the Vatican in scope, sobriety, and the photographic naturalism. The figures are nearly life-sized. Mary lies reclined, clad in a simple red dress. The lolling head, the hanging arm, the swollen, spread feet depict a raw and realistic view of the Virgin's mortal remains. Caravaggio completely abandons the iconography traditionally used to indicate the holiness of the Virgin. In this cast-off body, nothing of the respectful representation found in devotional paintings remains. [4] Composition [ edit ] The composition is arranged around the Virgin, the painting's central theme. Surrounding the Virgin are overcome Mary Magdalen and apostles . Others shuffle in behind them. The compact mass of the assemblage and the posturing of the figures guide the viewer's eye toward the abandoned body. He expresses the greater grief of the former not by a more emotive face, but by hiding their faces. Caravaggio, master of stark and dark canvases, is not interested in a mannerist exercise that captures a range of emotions. In some ways this is a silent grief, this is no wake for wailers. The sobbing occurs in faceless emotional silence. The holiness of the Virgin is discerned by her thread-like halo. Suppressing all anecdotal detail, Caravaggio invests this subdued scene with extraordinary monumentality through the sole presence of these figures and the intensity of their emotions. The theatrical drape of blood-red cloth looms in the upper portion of the canvas; a common motif in deposition painting, here used to heighten the scene's dramatic effect. [4] Use of light and shadow [ edit ] The painter makes use of the nuances of light and shadow to model the volumes of the objects, figures, and clothing. But above all he accentuates, through this process, the physical presence of the Virgin, struck by a dazzling light. The artist creates the illusion of depth through a series of lighter areas: from the back of Mary Magdalene's neck in the foreground, the eye penetrates further into the painting, passing from Mary's face to the hands and heads of the apostles. [4] Treatment of the subject [ edit ] This painting was completed at a time when the dogma of the Assumption of Mary was not yet formally enunciated ex cathedra by the pope, but had been gaining ground for some centuries. Pope Pius XII, in his Apostolic constitution, Munificentissimus Deus (1950), which dogmatically defined the Assumption, left open the question of whether or not Mary actually underwent death in connection with her departure, but alludes to the fact of her death at least five times. The New Testament does not mention the matter at all. How she passed from this world is and was therefore not a matter of Catholic dogma, although by the 17th century, the conventional belief among Catholics was that she was assumed alive, as shown in the great majority of contemporary paintings of the subject. By then most believed that she felt no pain or disease, and that she was assumed in healthy if aged body and soul prior to \"death\". However, during a General Audience on 25 June 1997, Pope John Paul II affirmed that Mary did indeed experience natural death prior to her assumption into Heaven. [12] Caravaggio's painting is the last major Catholic work of art in which Mary is clearly dead. Caravaggio does not depict an assumption but her death. The figure, like that in nearly all Renaissance and Baroque Assumptions, looks much younger than a woman some 50 or more years old; [d] medieval depictions of the death were often more realistic in this respect. Influence [ edit ] This painting illustrates the iconographic and formal revolution that Caravaggio instigated in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Distancing himself from the precious, affected mannerist vogue, the artist inaugurated a frank, robust, energetic style. He took on the task of translating people's reality and emotions without worrying about the conventions of representations of the sacred. His impact on the evolution of pictorial conceptions in the 17th century was considerable. [4] See also [ edit ] Other Madonnas by Caravaggio: Madonna of Loreto Madonna and Child with St. Anne (Dei Palafrenieri) Madonna of the Rosary Other images of the Death of the Virgin: Death of the Virgin (Anonymous) Death of the Virgin (Mantegna) Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"One can see how much wrong the moderns do: if they decide to depict the Virgin, Our Lady, they portray her like some filthy whore from the slums.\", 59v, 152r-v, 160v [5] Jump up ^ \"For the Madonna della Scala in Trastevere, Caravaggio painted the Death of the Madonna . But because he so disrespectfully (con poco decoro) made the Madonna swollen-up and with bare legs, it was removed, and bought by the Duke of Mantua to be placed in his splendid gallery.\" [6] Jump up ^ \"The same fate (of being refused) met the Death of the Virgin in the church of the Scala, removed because the Virgin had been made to look too much like the swollen corpse of an ordinary dead woman.\" [7] Jump up ^ By the conventional chronology, Mary was about 48 at Pentecost , her last appearance in scripture. She was generally thought to have lived on for some years after this, though there was no generally accepted tradition for how long. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Parks, N. Randolph (July 1985). \"On Caravaggio's 'Dormition of the Virgin' and Its Setting\" . The Burlington Magazine . 127 (988): 438–448 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Askew, Pamela (1990). Caravaggio's Death of the Virgin . Princeton New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691039836 . Jump up ^ Langdon, Helen (2000). Caravaggio: A Life . Westview Press. ISBN 9780813337944 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Alfandari, Agnes. \"Death of the Virgin\" . Louvre . Retrieved 17 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b Friedlaender, Walter (1955). Caravaggio Studies (1974 ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 195–197. ISBN 0691003084 . Jump up ^ Baglione, Giovanni (1642). Le Vite De' Pittori, Scultori Et Architetti (in Italian). Rome: Nella stamperia d'Andrea Fei. p. 138. Jump up ^ Bellori, Giovanni Pietro (1672). Vite de'Pittori, Scultori et Architetti Moderni , Parte Prima . Rome: Mascardi. p. 213. Jump up ^ Hibbard, Howard (1985). Caravaggio . Oxford: Westview Press. pp. 198–206. ISBN 9780064301282 . Jump up ^ Graham-Dixon, Andrew (2011). Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 9780241954645 . Jump up ^ Vodret, Rossella; Belinda Granata (2012). \"Not Only Caravaggio\". In Rossella Vodret. Caravaggio's Rome: 1600-1630 . Essays. Milan: Skira Editore S.p.A. p. 64. ISBN 9788857213873 . Jump up ^ \"Caravaggio's Death of the Virgin\" . Smarthistory at Khan Academy . Retrieved December 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ General Audience - 25 June 1997, sections 3 and 4 External links [ edit ] Media related to The Death of the Virgin by Caravaggio at Wikimedia Commons [ show ] v t e Works by Caravaggio 1593–1594 Boy Peeling Fruit (c. 1592) Young Sick Bacchus (c. 1593) Boy with a Basket of Fruit The Fortune Teller (Buona ventura) (c. 1594) Cardsharps ( I bari ) (c. 1594) 1595–1599 Del Monte paintings The Musicians (c. 1595) Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy (c. 1595) Boy Bitten by a Lizard (c. 1596) The Lute Player (c. 1596) Bacchus (c. 1596) Penitent Magdalene (c. 1597) Rest on the Flight into Egypt (c. 1597) Medusa (c. 1597) Portrait of a Courtesan (Fillide Melandroni) (c. 1597) Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto (c. 1597) Saint Catherine of Alexandria (c. 1598) The Sacrifice of Isaac (Princeton version) (c. 1598) John the Baptist (c. 1598) Martha and Mary Magdalene (c. 1598) Portrait of Maffeo Barberini (1598) Basket of Fruit (c. 1599) Judith Beheading Holofernes (c. 1599) David and Goliath (c. 1599) Narcissus (c. 1599) 1600–1606 Most famous painter in Rome The Calling of Saint Matthew (1599–1600) The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (1599–1600) The Conversion of Saint Paul (1600) The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (1601) The Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus (1601) Supper at Emmaus (London) (1601) The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew Amor Victorious (1602) Saint Matthew and the Angel (1602) The Inspiration of Saint Matthew (1602) The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (c. 1602) The Taking of Christ (1602) The Entombment of Christ (c. 1603) Madonna of Loreto (Madonna dei Pellegrini, Pilgrims' Madonna) (c. 1604) The Crowning with Thorns (Prato) (1604) The Death of the Virgin (1604) Saint Francis in Meditation (c. 1603) Christ on the Mount of Olives (1605) Ecce Homo (c. 1605) Saint Jerome in Meditation (c. 1605) Saint Jerome Writing (Borghese) (c. 1605) Portrait of Pope Paul V (1605) Still Life with Fruit (1605) Madonna and Child with St. Anne (Madonna de Palafrenieri, Grooms' Madonna) (1606) 1606–1608 Naples and Malta Mary Magdalen in Ecstasy (1606) Saint Francis in Prayer (Cremona) (1606) Supper at Emmaus (Milan) (1606) The Seven Works of Mercy (1606) The Crucifixion of Saint Andrew (1607) David with the Head of Goliath (Vienna) (1607) Madonna of the Rosary (1607) The Crowning with Thorns (Vienna) (1607) The Flagellation of Christ (c. 1607) Christ at the Column (c. 1607) Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (London) (c. 1607) Saint Jerome Writing (Valletta) (1607) Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page (1607–1608) Portrait of Fra Antionio Martelli (1608) The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (1608) Sleeping Cupid (1608) 1608–1610 Sicily and Naples The Annunciation (1608) Burial of St. Lucy (1608) The Raising of Lazarus (1609) Adoration of the Shepherds (1609) Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence (1609) Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid) (1609) Denial of Saint Peter (1610) The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (1610) David with the Head of Goliath (Rome) (1610) Paintings attributed to Caravaggio Authority control BNF : cb12199256t (data) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Death_of_the_Virgin_(Caravaggio)&oldid=808394457 \" Categories : 1600s paintings Paintings by Caravaggio Paintings of the Louvre Paintings of the Virgin Mary Paintings about death Christian art about death Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Español Euskara Français Hrvatski Italiano Latina Lietuvių Polski Português Русский Slovenčina ไทย Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 2 November 2017, at 16:24. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Death_of_the_Virgin_(Caravaggio)&amp;oldid=808394457" }

{ "text": "List of past Coronation Street characters - Wikipedia List of past Coronation Street characters From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Coronation Street is a British television soap opera. It was first broadcast on 9 December 1960. The following is a list of all the former characters and the actors who portrayed them in alphabetical order. Contents A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z See also A [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Gary Adams Samuel Kane 2001 Joan Akers Anna Cropper 1962 Naveen Alahan Parvez Qadir 2002, 2003 Ranjiv Alahan Raad Rawi 2001 Madhav Sharma 2004 Sunita Alahan Shobna Gulati 2001–2006, 2009–2013 Umed Alahan Harish Patel 2009 Urmila Alahan Souad Faress 2001 Jamila Massey 2004 Mrs Allen Caroline Strong 2000, 2003 Sid Altree Michael J. Jackson 2012, 2013, 2014 Chris Anderton Oliver Walker 2017 Ben Andrews Burn Gorman 1998 Christine Appleby Christine Hargreaves 1960–1961, 1962–1963 Colin Appleby Lawrence James 1962 Keith Appleyard Ian Redford 2005–2006 Sandra Arden Kathy Jamieson 1990, 1991 Tim Arden John Flanagan 1990 Lucy Armitage Charmayne Golaub 1988–1989 Shirley Armitage Lisa Lewis 1983–1989 Brad Armstrong Caleb Flanagan 1997 Carl Armstrong Jim Millea 1994, 1996 Jamie Armstrong Joseph Gilgun 1994–1997 Katy Armstrong Georgia May Foote 2010–2015 Owen Armstrong Ian Puleston-Davies 2010–2015 Tricia Armstrong Tracy Brabin 1994–1997 John Arnley Paul Warriner 2002–2003 Vinny Ashford Ian Kelsey 2016, 2017 Ted Ashley Jerold Wells 1964 Harry Ashton Keith Marsh 1988 Luke Ashton John O'Neill 2001–2002 Dr. Aston Aleksander Browne 1963, 1964, 1965 Ruth Audsley Maggie Fox 2001 B [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Eric Babbage Timothy West 2013 Gary Bailey Warren Clarke 1968 Harry Bailey Ray Mort 1960–1961, 1962, 1964 Janice Baker Jane Hollowood 1994 Carol Baldwin Lynne Pearson 2005–2006 Danny Baldwin Bradley Walsh 2004–2006 Frank \"Frankie\" Baldwin Sam Kydd 1980–1982 Frankie Baldwin Debra Stephenson 2004–2006 Jamie Baldwin Rupert Hill 2004–2008, 2011 Linda Baldwin Jacqueline Pirie 1998–2001 Mike Baldwin Johnny Briggs 1976–2006 Viv Baldwin Patricia Brake 2005, 2006 Warren Baldwin Danny Young 2004–2006 Wally Bannister Bernard Cribbins 2003 Vivian Barford Paula Tilbrook 1991, 1993 David Barlow Alan Rothwell 1960–1961, 1963, 1964–1968 Deirdre Barlow Anne Kirkbride 1972, 1973–1993, 1994–2014 Frank Barlow Frank Pemberton 1960–1964, 1967, 1971 Ida Barlow Noel Dyson 1960–1961 Irma Barlow Sandra Gough 1964–1968, 1969, 1970–1971 Janet Barlow Judith Barker 1969, 1971, 1973–1974, 1975, 1977 Lucy Barlow Katy Carmichael 2002–2003 Susan Barlow Katie Heannau 1965–1970 Wendy Jane Walker 1970–1971, 1973, 1974, 1985–1987 Suzy Paterson 1979–1980, 1981 Joanna Foster 2001 Susie Barlow Uncredited 2018 Valerie Barlow Anne Reid 1961, 1962–1971 Colin Barnes Ian Embleton 1993, 1998, 1999, 2000 Dave Barnes Russell Dixon 1978–1979 Des Barnes Philip Middlemiss 1990–1998 Karen Barnes Catherine Neilson 1978–1979 Natalie Barnes Denise Welch 1997–2000 Steph Barnes Amelia Bullmore 1990–1991, 1992, 1995 Kasia Barowicz Irena Rodic 2007 Kathy Barrett Cheryl Prime 1982 Dave Barton David Beckett 1990 Peggy Barton Lois Dane 1974 Reg Barton Brian Peck 1968 Jeff Bateman Peter Dean 1980 Harry Bates William Simons 1972 Ted Bates William Wymar 1965 Terry Bates John Barratt 1972, 1973, 1977 Janice Battersby Vicky Entwistle 1997–2011 Les Battersby Bruce Jones 1997–2007 Cilla Battersby-Brown Wendi Peters 2003–2007, 2014 Simon Beatty Peter Gowen 1991, 1992 Andrea Beckett Hayley Tamaddon 2013–2015 Neil Beckett William Travis 2014 Mrs Bennett Claire Rushbrook 1999 Ian Bentley Jonathan Guy Lewis 1999 Sharon Bentley Tracie Bennett 1982, 1983–1984, 1999 Sir Julius Berlin Leonard Sachs 1974 Lorraine Binks Linda Cunningham 1971, 1972, 1973 Suzie Birchall Cheryl Murray 1977–1979, 1983 Emily Bishop Eileen Derbyshire 1961–2016 Ernest Bishop Stephen Hancock 1967, 1969–1971, 1972–1978 Bill Blakely Alan Gerrard 1969 Natasha Blakeman Rachel Leskovac 2008–2010 Denise Bolton Valerie Grieves 1966 Fred Bolton Donald Morley 1974 Tony Bolton Terence McCarthy 1974 Mrs Bolton Frances Cox 1980 Mario Bonarti Frank Coda 1961 Rose Bonetti Lila Kaye 1966 Dave Bonsall Kieran Cunningham 2010 Jerry Booth Graham Haberfield 1962–1968, 1971–1975 Myra Booth Susan Jameson 1963–1964, 1968 Rodney Bostock Colin Prockter 1995 Wilf Bottomley Bud Ralston 1971, 1978, 1983 Sgt Bowden James Beck 1964–1967 Jamie Bowman James Atherton 2015–2016 Charlie Bracewell Peter Bayliss 1989 Malcolm Bradford Ian Kershaw 1998 Derek Hicks 1998 Alan Bradley Mark Eden 1986–1989 Frank Bradley Tommy Boyle 1970 Bob Bradshaw David Roper 2000 Terry Bradshaw Bob Mason 1976 Vernon Bradshaw Antony Bessick 2001, 2002 Phil Braithwaite Brian Dean 1961 Craig Brennan Mark Simpkin 2000 Don Brennan Geoffrey Hinsliff 1987–1997 DC Dave Brett Paul Gabriel 2002, 2003 PC Brewer Chris Jack 2010, 2013, 2014, 2016 DI Sam Brewster Norman Jones 1973, 1978, 1979 Percy Bridge Jack Smethurst 1967 Vicki Bright Clare Sutcliffe 1972 Darren Briscoe Andy Hill 1976–1977 Luke Britton Dean Fagan 2014–2018 Steph Britton Tisha Merry 2013–2017, 2018 Sarah Brookes Zulema Dene 1992 Hazel Broughton Fiona McArthur 1993 Joe Broughton John Wheatley 1993–1994 Jonathan Broughton Tom Lewis 1993 Billy Brown Jay Martin 2005 Debs Brownlow Gabrielle Glaister 2000 Lorraine Brownlow Holly Newman 1997, 1998–1999 Ted Brownlow Barrie Cookson 1977 Finlay Bryant Ramone Quinn 2007–2008 Teresa Bryant Karen Henthorn 2007, 2008, 2009–2010 Sam Bryce Amy Dolan 2018 Leah Buckley Molly McGlynn 2017 Alice Burgess Avis Bunnage 1961 Freda Burgess Ali Briggs 2005, 2006, 2009–2010 Ronnie Burgess Ian Burns 1981 PC Burke Giles Ford 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 Carole Burns Irene Skillington 1988 Danny Burrows Ian Liston 1974 Amy Burton Fanny Carby 1987–1988 Bernard Butler Gorden Kaye 1969–1970 Sandra Butler Patricia Fuller 1969–1970 Walter Byford Vincent Worth 1999 C [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Minnie Caldwell Margot Bryant 1960–1976 Colin Callen Jim Moir 2017 DS Phil Campbell Gary Cargill 2006, 2007, 2008 Lynette Campion Colette Stevenson 1991 DC Cannon Andrew Readman 1995–1996 Carlos Malcolm Hebden 1974–1975 Julie Carp Katy Cavanagh 2008–2015 Paula Carp Sharon Duce 2009 DS Max Carr Joe Duttine 2010 PC Carson Amy Searles 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018 Casey Carswell Zoe Henry 2007 Avril Carter Jean Rimmer 1983 Joe Carter Jonathan Wrather 2002–2003 Matt Carter Oliver Mellor 2010–2013 Andy Carver Oliver Farnworth 2014–2017 Mark Casey Stuart Wolfenden 1989–1991 Tom Casey Edward Clayton 1989–1990 Yvonne Casey Yvonne O'Grady 2004, 2006, 2007, 2010 DCI Castle Hugh Cross 1967–1968, 1970 Fiona Cavanagh Sharon Muircroft 1988 Nick Cavanagh George Irving 1988 DC Simon Cavanagh John Griffin 2000 Alf Chadwick Eddie King 1964–1965, 1968 Jesse Chadwick John Thomson 2008, 2009–2010 Minnie Chandra Poppy Jhakra 2008–2009 Fred Chapman Harry Littlewood 1971 Harold Chapman Frank Crompton 1972, 1976, 1978, 1980 Toby Chapman Andrew Dowbiggin 2016–2017 Yvonne Chappell Alex Marshall 1971 Charlie James Coupe 1974 Les Charlton Graham Fellows 1982 Will Chatterton Leon Ockenden 2016, 2017 Ivan Cheveski Ernst Walder 1960–1961, 1962–1963, 1966, 1967 Linda Cheveski Anne Cunningham 1960–1961, 1962–1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1984 Martin Cheveski Jonathan Caplan 1980 Paul Cheveski Victoria Elton 1961, 1962 Marcus Saville 1966, 1967 Nigel Greaves 1972 Jasmine Choong Lucille Soong 1969 Alex Christie Gavin Richards 1994 Cilla Christie Cleo Sylvestre 1966 Christina Sarah-Jayne Steed 2009 Josie Clarke Ellie Haddington 1995–1996 Olive Clarke Joan Scott 1993 Andrea Clayton Caroline O'Neill 1985, 2000, 2001 Connie Clayton Susan Brown 1985 Irene Skillington 2000 Harry Clayton Johnny Leeze 1985 Jimmy Clayton David Crellin 2005 Louise Clayton Janet Rawson 1980 Paul Clayton Lee Booth 2000, 2001 Tom Hudson 2007–2008 Ronnie Clayton Emma Stansfield 2005–2006 Sue Clayton Jane Hazlegrove 1985 Caroline Clegg Elaine Donnelly 1982 Sarah Thurstan 1995, 2002 Gordon Clegg Bill Kenwright 1968–1969, 1974–1975, 1976, 1982, 1995, 2012 Geoffrey Leesley 2002, 2004 Les Clegg John Sharp 1968 Ramsay Clegg Andrew Sachs 2009 Eugene Clelland Fine Time Fontayne 2014 Kayla Clifton Mollie Winnard 2018 Neil Clifton Ben Cartwright 2017, 2018 Bernard Clough Jeffrey Longmore 1981–1982 Ida Clough Helene Palmer 1978, 1979–1980, 1981–1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1995, 1996–1997, 1998 Muriel Clough Angela Catherall 1978 Lynn Clucus Jane Cunliffe 2010 Dawn Coghill Emma Hartley-Miller 2010 Dr Cole Laurence Kennedy 1998 Chris Collins Matthew Marsden 1997–1998 Gill Collins Rachel Ambler 1982, 1984 Naomi Collins Andrea Lowe 2009 Diggory Compton Eric Potts 2005–2006 Aidan Connor Shayne Ward 2015–2018 Barry Connor Frank Grimes 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015 Helen Connor Sorcha Cusack 2008 Dearbhla Molloy 2009, 2015 Liam Connor Rob James-Collier 2006–2008 Paul Connor Sean Gallagher 2006–2007 Paul Connor Jr. Unknown 2008 Jim Conran Cyril Appleton 1978 PC Jimmy Conway Colin Edwynn 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1976 Albert Cook Barry Stanton 1967 Arthur Cook Graham Weston 1967 Mrs Cook Jessie Evans 1967 Maggie Cooke Irene Sutcliffe 1968–1975 Ron Cooke Eric Lander 1972, 1974 Helen Cooper Deborah Chad 2000, 2001 Joan Corrie Maureen O'Reilly 1966 Michael Courtney John Kelly 1961 Archie Crabtree John Stratton 1972 Norman Crabtree Stan Stennett 1976 Kelly Crabtree Tupele Dorgu 2004–2010 Detective Sargeant Crichton James Vaughan 1989 Aiden Critchley Dean Ashton 2002–2003 Ben Critchley Allan Surtees 1981 Bob Critchley Glenn Cunningham 2002, 2003 Robert Croft Martin Shaw 1967–1968 Roger Crompton Donald Gee 1994 Hayley Cropper Julie Hesmondhalgh 1998–2007, 2008–2014 Neil Crossley Geoffrey Matthews 1963, 1966 Sheila Crossley Eileen Mayers 1961, 1962–1963, 1966, 1969, 1974 Enid Crump June Broughton 2010 Jeff Cullen Steven Houghton 2011 Tony Cunliffe Jack Carr 1984 James Cunningham James Roache 2010, 2011 Lawrence Cunningham Linus Roache 2010 Sheila Cunningham Rebecca Lamb 2002 Susan Cunningham Patricia Shakesby 1960–1961 Nathan Curtis Christopher Harper 2016–2018 Lara Cutler Niamh Blackshaw 2017 D [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Arthur Dabner Michael Sheard 1989 Lisa Dalton Ruth Alexandra Rubin 2008–2009 Wiki Dankowska Wanda Opalinska 2007–2009 Ian Davenport Philip Bretherton 2004–2005 Justine Davenport Sophie James 2004–2005 Gordon Davies Calvin Malone 1961 Gwen Davies Annie Hulley 1999–2000 Joan Davies June Barry 1961, 1963–1964 Dorothy White 1978 Matt Davis Christopher Colquhoun 2009–2010 Joe Dawson Peter Schofield 1978, 1980 Tommy Deakin Paddy Joyce 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974 Trevor Dean Steve Jackson 2010, 2011 Renee Delafonte Wendy Marshall 1973 Carol Delaney Niamh Daly 1997–2000 Lily Dempsey Thelma Ruby 1996 Janet Dent Linda Clark 2012 Marcus Dent Charlie Condou 2007–2008, 2011–2014 Ron Dent Stephen Greif 2012 Vince Denton Mike Hayward 1975 Constantin de Goguel 1977 Derek David Hounslow 2007 Maya Desai Indira Joshi 2000 Nita Desai Rebecca Sarker 1999–2000 Ravi Desai Saeed Jaffrey 1999 Vikram Desai Chris Bisson 1999–2002 Ritchie de Vries Robin Askwith 2013–2014 Arthur Dewhurst Robin Wentworth 1961 Harold Dewhurst Stuart Saunders 1971 Julie Dewhurst Su Elliott 1991–1992 Sonny Dhillon Pal Aron 2006–2007 George Dickenson Stan Jay 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968 Tony Ditchburn Barry Stanton 1981 George Dixon Stephen MacKenna 1997 Darren Dobbs James McMartin 1999 Jackie Dobbs Margi Clarke 1998–1999, 2008, 2009, 2010 Molly Dobbs Vicky Binns 2005–2010 Dobber Dobson John Donnelly 1998 Norman Dobson Alan Holden 1961 Jimmy Dockerson Robert Beck 2008, 2009 Maurice Dodds Gilbert Wynne 1981 Renee Dodds Christine Cox 1990 Joe Donnelli Shane Rimmer 1967, 1968, 1970 Rob Donovan Marc Baylis 2012–2014, 2015–2016, 2017 Martin Downes Louis Selwyn 1974 Jo Doyle Neve Taylor 2001 Stuart Draper George Innes 1974 Clifford Duckworth Dave King 1994–1995 Elsie Duckworth Ursula Jones 1995 Jack Duckworth Bill Tarmey 1979, 1981–2010 Lisa Duckworth Caroline Milmoe 1992–1993 Terry Duckworth Nigel Pivaro 1983–1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001–2002, 2008, 2012 Tommy Duckworth Darryl Edwards 1992–1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 Joseph Aston 2000 Chris Fountain 2011–2013 Vera Duckworth Liz Dawn 1974, 1976–2008, 2010 Sharon Duffy Susan Littler 1972 Mrs Dumbarton Diana Coupland 1961, 1962 Eddie Duncan Del Henney 1971 Alison Dunkley Maggie Saunders 1995–1996 Brian Dunkley Benny Young 1995–1996 Cyrille Durand Pierre Martin 2003 Laurie Dyson Andrew Dunn 2003 Winnie Dyson June Ellis 1991 E [ edit ] Character Actor Duration George Eastham Kevin McGowan 2011 Eve Elliott Melanie Kilburn 2000–2002 Fred Elliott John Savident 1994, 1995–1996, 1997–2006 Carole Evans Debbie Arnold 2012 F [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Samantha Failsworth Tina Hobley 1996–1998 Len Fairclough Peter Adamson 1961–1983 Stanley Fairclough Peter Noone 1961 Ronald Cunliffe 1967 Jonathan Coy 1977 Milton Fanshaw Robert Vaughn 2012 Christine Farrar Jennifer Moss 1960 Linda Farrell Rosie Kerslake 1988 Ted Farrell Gerald Sim 1982 Wayne Farrell Ray Polhill 1992, 1993, 1994 Brenda Fearns Julia Deakin 2003–2004 Neil Fearns Paul Holowaty 2000 Doreen Fenwick Barbara Young 2323 Elaine Fenwick Pippa Hinchley 1993–1994 Duggie Ferguson John Bowe 1999–2002 Lorna Ferguson Annie Hulley 1980 Tom Ferguson Tom Wisdom 1999–2000 Ben Fielding Dominic Gately 2010 Brendan Finch Ted Robbins 2015–2016 Carmel Finnan Catherine Cusack 1992–1993 Eric Firman Malcolm Terris 1994, 1998 Leo Firman John Elmes 1995 Paul Fisher Niven Boyd 1997–1998 Steve Fisher Laurence Mullins 1977–1979 Colin Fishwick David Crellin 2010 Joy Fishwick Doreen Mantle 2010–2011 Richie Fitzgerald Shaun Dooley 1997–1998 Harry Flagg Iain Rogerson 2002–2004 Audrey Fleming Gillian McCann 1968–1970 Dickie Fleming Nigel Humphreys 1968–1970 Gina Fletcher Deirdre Costello 1971 Walter Fletcher Donald Morley 1961 Gregg Flint Bill Nagy 1967, 1968, 1970 Roger Floriot Benjamin Feitleson 1977–1978 Brian Foley Denis Holmes 1961 Rachel Forbes Lisa Shingler 1997–1998 Clifford Ford Mike Walling 2006 Jacko Ford Robert Keegan 1972–1973 Norma Ford Diana Davies 1972–1973, 1974 Arthur Forsythe-Jones Ian Colin 1963 Anne Foster Gwen Taylor 2011–2012 Des Foster Neil Phillips 1983 Edith Foster Linda Beckett 1983 Frank Foster Andrew Lancel 2011–2012 Karl Foster Chris Finch 2003–2004 Sam Foster Paul Clayton 2011 Tina Fowler Michelle Holmes 1989–1990 Glenda Fox Hazel Clyne 1981 Malcolm Fox Glyn Pritchard 1996 Mavis Fox Maureen Davis 1963 Lucy Foyle Andrea Blidgeon 1974 Vernon Foyle Paul Blidgeon 1974 Laurie Fraser Stanley Meadows 1963–1964 Martha Fraser Stephanie Beacham 2009 Rosemary Fraser Clare Owen 1964 Jimmy Frazer John Barrie 1972 Angie Freeman Deborah McAndrew 1990–1993, 1996, 1997–1998 Dulcie Froggatt Margi Campi 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987 Lyn Fullwood Susan McArdle 2010 G [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Eric Garside Peter Kay 2004 Handel Gartside Harry Markham 1970, 1976 Wilf Gaskell James Garbutt 1996–1997 Christian Gatley Andrew Turner 2007, 2013 Edna Gee Mavis Rogerson 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975 Eunice Gee Meg Johnson 1981–1982, 1999 Fred Gee Fred Feast 1975, 1976–1984 Monkey Gibbons Arthur Kelly 1975, 1976, 1977, 1982 Gilbert John Owens 2009 Alec Gilroy Roy Barraclough 1972, 1975, 1986, 1987–1992, 1995, 1996–1998 Glynis Anna Gymer 1961 DC Glynn Philip Rowson 2010 Kath Goodwin Lori Wells Keefe 1984 Sylvia Goodwin Stephanie Cole 2011–2013 Terry Goodwin Terence Hillyer 1983 Lindsey Gordon Susie Amy 2007 Pat Gordon Jamie Lee 2008 Tony Gordon Gray O'Brien 2007–2009, 2010 Amy Goskirk Jayne Ashbourne 2000 Adrian Gosthorpe Philip Brook 1991 Talisa Grady Samantha Power 2015 Colette Graham Susanna Shelling 2000 David Graham Roger Adamson 1964 Dr Graham Fulton Mackay 1961 Jimmy Graham Colin George 1974 PC Gran Clifford Barry 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017 DC Grant Orlessa Altass 2012 Kirsten Grant Vicky Connett 2000 Cheryl Gray Holly Quin-Ankrah 2010–2011 Chris Gray Will Thorp 2010–2011 Russ Gray Finton Flynn 2010–2011 Simon Green Lee Battle 2000–2001 Dot Greenhalgh Joan Francis 1961–1969 Walter Greenhalgh Derek Benfield 1967 George Greenwood Arthur Pentelow 1968, 1971 Bill Gregory Jack Watson 1961, 1962, 1970, 1983–1984 Geena Gregory Jennifer James 2000–2002 Gill Gregory Michelle Newell 2001–2002 Maurice Gregory Keith Drinkel 2001–2002 Phyllis Gregory Mary Quinn 1962 Marjorie Griffin Marjie Lawrence 1968–1969 Mr Griffin Roger Morlidge 2006, 2007, 2009, 2016 Toni Griffiths Tara Moran 2013 Maud Grimes Elizabeth Bradley 1993–1999 Colin Grimshaw Edward de Souza 2008–2009 Holly Grimshaw Niamh Earnnshaw 2006–2007 Jason Grimshaw Ryan Thomas 2000–2016 Todd Grimshaw Bruno Langley 2001–2004, 2007, 2011, 2013–2017 DS Groves Annie Fitzmaurice 2001 Kathleen Gutteridge Elizabeth Rider 1999 H [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Lily Haddon Stephanie Bidmead 1964 Sandra Haddon Jennifer Moss 1960 Wilf Haddon Henry Livings 1964 Alma Halliwell Amanda Barrie 1981, 1982, 1988, 1989–2001 Caz Hammond Rhea Bailey 2015–2016 Linda Hancock Jacqueline Leonard 2015 Molly Hardcastle Jacqueline Kingston 2000–2002 Nathan Harding Ray Fearon 2005–2006 May Hardman Joan Heath 1960 Phil Hardwick Richard Sargent 2007, 2008, 2009 Danny Hargreaves Richard Standing 1999–2001 Kieran Hargreaves Robert Weatherby 1999, 2000, 2001 Jake Harman Kenny Doughty 2009 Karl Harper Anthony Barclay 2001–2002 Angela Harris Kathryn Hunt 2002–2005 Craig Harris Richard Fleeshman 2002–2006 Father Harris Paul Seed 1979, 1981 Jean Harris Sue Wallace 2005 Katy Harris Lucy-Jo Hudson 2002–2005 Tommy Harris Thomas Craig 2002–2005 Peter Hartnell Eamonn Riley 2000–2001 Arthur Harvey Henry Moxon 1973–1974 Colin Harvey Paul Moriarty 1971 Frank Harvey Nick Stringer 1984–1985 Nellie Harvey Mollie Sugden 1965, 1971–1972, 1973, 1974, 1976 Barry Hawkins James Foster 2012 Angela Hawthorne Diane Fletcher 1994, 1995, 2005 Neville Hawthorne Mark Chatterton 1986, 2005, 2007 Esther Hayes Daphne Oxenford 1960–1961, 1962–1963, 1971, 1972 Sheila Hayes Jeni Williams 2001 Tom Hayes Dudley Foster 1961 Wayne Hayes Gary Damer 2000–2001 Lindsay Hayward Eleni Foskett 2012 Louise Hazel Nora Jane Noone 2005 Maddie Heath Amy James-Kelly 2013–2015 Derek Heavey Richard Albrecht 1999, 2002, 2003 Doreen Heavey Prunella Gee 1999, 2002–2003, 2004 Pat Hegherty Tony Barton 1998, 1999–2000, 2001 Fraser Henderson Glyn Grain 1996–1997 George Hepworth Richard Moore 1984 Christopher Hewitt Victoria Baker 1962–1964 Stephen Ward 1967, 1975 Harry Hewitt Ivan Beavis 1960–1964, 1965, 1967 Lucille Hewitt Jennifer Moss 1960–1961, 1962–1969, 1970–1974 Daisy Hibbert Pearl Hackney 1978, 1980 Sylvie Hicks Debbie Arnold 1981–1982 Mark Hillkirk Mark Adshead 1972, 1973 Patricia Hillman Annabelle Apsion 2002 Richard Hillman Brian Capron 2001–2003 Stacy 'Orchid' Hilton Casey-Lee Jolleys 2004, 2006 Alec Hobson Tom Price 1982 Pam Hobsworth Kate Anthony 2008–2010, 2011, 2012 Greig Hodge Stuart Wolfenden 2015 Josie Hodge Una McNulty 2015 Stuart Hodges Vernon Joyner 1964, 1965 Suzanne Holbrook Olivia Carruthers 2011 Reg Holdsworth Ken Morley 1989–1995 Erica Holroyd Claire King 2014–2017 DC Hooch Dominic Carter 2008, 2009 Idris Hopkins Richard Davies 1974–1975 Jerry Hopkins Ken Christiansen 1999–2000 Megan Hopkins Jesse Evans 1974–1975 Rebecca Hopkins Jill Halfpenny 1999–2000 Tricia Hopkins Kathy Jones 1973, 1974–1976 Vera Hopkins Kathy Staff 1973–1975 Mick Hopwood Ian Gain 2002–2003 Tom Hopwood Len Marten 1986–1987 Nick Horrocks William Ilkley 1997, 2000 Tony Horrocks Lee Warburton 1995–1997, 1998 Doreen Horton Annie Raitt 1992–1994, 1996, 1997, 2000 Geoff Horton Dicken Ashworth 1992–1994, 1996, 1997, 2000 Alan Howard Alan Browning 1969–1974 Mark Howard Nicholas Jones 1970 Alan Hoyle John Woodvine 2010 Michael McStay 2011 Charlotte Hoyle Becky Hindley 2010 Dorothy Hoyle Jean Fergusson 2010, 2011 Eileen Hughes Prunella Scales 1961 Blanche Hunt Patricia Cutts 1974 Maggie Jones 1974–1976, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1996, 1997, 1998–2009 Sandy Hunter James Murray 1998 Mel Hutchwright Ian McKellen 2005 I [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Jackie Ingram Shirin Taylor 1990–1991, 1992 Peter Ingram Tony Osoba 1990 Mr Ironfield Anthony Dutton 1968–1969 Dazz Isherwood Paul Elsam 1984 J [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Ed Jackson Dave Parke 1978 Chris Walker 2005–2006 Fred Jackson Joe Gladwin 1961, 1963, 1964, 1966 Jessie Jackson Nailah Cumberbatch 2005–2006 Joanne Jackson Zaraah Abrahams 2005–2007 Linda Jackson Kazia Pelka 1987 Merle Jackson Nicky Ladanowski 2003 Peter Jackson Ian Mercer 1987 Reverend James Eric Dodson 1968, 1969 Thelma James Mary Healey 1977 Sue Jeffers Romy Baskerville 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996–1997 Ron Jenkins Ben Kingsley 1966–1967 Phil Jennings Tommy Boyle 1990–1991 Jo Emma Pike 2006 Joan Maggie Tagney 2009 Dan Johnson Richard Shaw 1980 Johnny Johnson Vincenzo Ricotta 1990 Robert Gwilym 1996 Judd Johnson Neil Kennedy 1970 Lynn Johnson Ann Kennedy 1975 Miss Johnson Barbara Dryhurst 2001, 2002 Roy Johnson Roddy McMillan 1975 Laurie Johnstone Johnny Leeze 2005 Dan Jones Andrew Paul 2015 Maurice Jones Alan Moore 1989–1990 Wilf Jones John Comer 1968 Alex Jordan Simon Lenagan 2002 Kenzie Judd Jack Cooper 2008, 2009 K [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Amber Kalirai Nikki Patel 2005–2009, 2011–2012 Ravinder Kalirai Mina Anwar 2005, 2006 Jenna Kamara Krissi Bohn 2012–2014 Mandy Kamara Pamela Nomvete 2012–2013 Sergei Kasparov George Jackos 1999 Brenda Kelly Rita May 2001 Greg Kelly Stephen Billington 1998–1999 Jane Kenworthy Annie Fitzmaurice 2010 Mark Kenworthy Jason Furnival 2010 Tom Kerrigan Philip McGinley 2008–2009 Lesley Kershaw Judy Holt 2011–2012 Paul Kershaw Tony Hirst 2010, 2011–2013 Flick Khan Rita Wolf 1990 Joanne Khan Tanya Rodrigues 1990 Penny King Pauline Fleming 2003–2006 Sam Kingston Scott Wright 2000–2002 Roberta Kite Helen Griffin 2011 James Kitching Nicholas Irons 1999 L [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Margaret Lacey Josie Kidd 1971 Malcolm Lagg Robert Fyfe 2012 Sid Lambert Graham Rigby 1965–1966, 1970 Marie Lancaster Joy Blakeman 1990 Ralph Lancaster Kenneth Watson 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980 Janice Langton Paula Wilcox 1969 Ray Langton Neville Buswell 1966, 1968–1978, 2005 Elsie Lappin Maudie Edwards 1960 Ian Latimer Michael Looney 1986, 1987 Norman Leach Freddie Lees 1973 Sam Leach Frank Atkinson 1962 Nancy Leathers Norah Hammond 1961, 1962 Craig Lee Kieran O'Brien 1993 Howard Lee Howard Lee 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 Stuart Leigh Tony Whittle 2000 Leon Andrew Langtree 2009 DC Leslie Syreeta Kumar 2013 Aiden Lester Toby Sawyer 2012 Dave Lester Tony McHale 1978 Bobbi Lewis Naomi Ryan 2000–2002 Gordon Lewis David Daker 1981, 1984 Joss Lightfoot Glynn Melvyn 1966 Florrie Lindley Betty Alberge 1960–1965 Norman Lindley Glyn Owen 1965 Jon Lindsay Owen Aaronovitch 1997–1998 Linda Lindsay Margo Gunn 1997–1998 Jennifer Lingwood Lisa Bowerman 2011, 2012 Sam Littlewood Harry Littlewood 1977, 1980 Freda Loftus Poppy Lane 1978 Ted Loftus Ted Morris 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1978 Callum Logan Sean Ward 2014–2015 Marion Logan Susan Cookson 2015, 2016 Joyce Lomas Shirley Dixon 1982 Colin Lomax Davy Jones 1961 Alec Sabin 1972 Jason Lomax Samantha Ferguson 1972 Karen Lomax Rosalind Elliott 1972 Vera Lomax Ruth Holden 1960, 1961, 1963, 1966–1967 Martha Longhurst Lynne Carol 1960–1964 Doreen Lostock Angela Crow 1961, 1962–1963 Gus Lowman Alister Williamson 1964 Joan Lowther June Broughton 1982, 1983, 1985, 1987 Rob Lucas Mark Powley 2001 Luigi Chris Hannon 2007–2008 Yana Lumb Jayne Bickerton 2004–2007 Bertha Lumley Madoline Thomas 1976 Marian Lund Patricia Heneghan 1961 Linda Marlowe 2008 Jessica Lundy Olwen May 1999–2000 Matt Luscombe Sebastian Shaw 2017–2018 Bet Lynch Julie Goodyear 1966, 1970–1995, 2002, 2003 Jenny Lyons Natalie Lawless 2000, 2001 M [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Clare Machin Melanie Barker 2000 DS MacKinnon Sandra Huggett 2016–2017 Mel Maguire Sonia Ibrahim 2016–2017 Joe Makinson Brian Rawlinson 1961, 1963, 1970 Scooter Makuna Sushil Chudasama 2005 Becky Mallett Megan Foster 1998–2000 Billy Mallett Lewis Ablett 1998–2000 Gary Mallett Ian Mercer 1995–2000 Judy Mallett Gaynor Faye 1995–1999 Shane Mallett Lee Hartney 1999 Anne Malone Eve Steele 1995–1997, 1998 DC Joyce Malone Olwen May 2011 Mickie Malone Bill Maynard 1970 Mitch Marcquelle Ward 2009 Nina Mandal Harvey Virdi 2008 Prem Mandal Madhav Sharma 2008 Tara Mandal Ayesha Dharker 2008–2009 Jackie Marsh Pamela Craig 1966 Sonia Marshall Tina Gambe 2003–2005 Clarissa Mason Alexandra Boyd 2008 Dan Mason Matthew Crompton 2007–2008 Edwin Mason Campbell Singer 1961, 1963 Harry Mason Jack Ellis 2007–2008 Ron Mather Joe Lynch 1978–1979 Billy Matheson Neil Bell 2011 Sylvia Matthews Rosemary Dunham 1976 Bob Maxwell Donald Hewlett 1965 Dennis Maxwell William Lucas 1971 Moira Maxwell Ann Castle 1965, 1966 Paula Maxwell Judy Brooke 1992, 1994 Flora McArdle Eileen Davies 2017, 2018 Ciaran McCarthy Keith Duffy 2002–2005, 2010–2011 Andy McDonald Nicholas Cochrane 1989–1997, 2000, 2004, 2009 Becky McDonald Katherine Kelly 2006–2012 Karen McDonald Suranne Jones 2000–2004 Katie McDonald Unknown 1992 Trevor McDonald Himself 2000 Vicky McDonald Helen Warburton 1990 Chloe Newsome 1991–1996, 1998 Ann McIntyre Susan Mitchell 2008 Lorraine Hodgson 2014 Cameron McIntyre Ryan Cook 2006 Joe McIntyre Reece Dinsdale 2008–2010 Tina McIntyre Michelle Keegan 2008–2014 Alan McKenna Glenn Hugill 1996–1997 DC Merrick Jowanna Rose 2010 Iris Merry Joan Kempson 2001 Darren Michaels Bruno Langley 2000 Nicholas Zabel 2001 Glenn Middleham Will Haigh 2000–2001 Clive Middleton Joe Speare 1996, 1997 Fiona Middleton Angela Griffin 1992–1998 Lee Middleton Nicholas Bailey 1996, 1997 Morgan Middleton Connor Chatburn 1998 Pam Middleton Elizabeth Estensen 1996, 1997, 1998 Clara Midgeley Betty Hardy 1965–1966 Jessica Midgeley Christina Barryk 1986 Goran Milanovic Matt Zarb 2002 Priscilla Millbanks Nicola Stephenson 1988 Edna Miller Joan Kempson 1998, 2000–2001 Sandra Milligan Francesca Manning 2002 Carol Mills Collette Cooper 2002 Ernie Mills Jack Grieve 1966–1967 Frank Mills Nigel Gregory 1985 Stephanie Mills Rebecca Atkinson 2002 Christine Millward Julie Shipley 1985 Robert Millward Michael Maloney 2012 Pip Mistral Elaine Stevens 1964 Neil Mitchell John Lloyd Fillingham 1992–1993 Jackie Moffatt Jacqueline Tong 1982 Charlie Moffitt Gordon Rollings 1964–1965 DC Moore Pooja Shah 2011 Megan Morgan Sue Roderick 1989 Ruth Morgan Kirsten Parker 1998 Vanessa Morgan Imogen Boorman 1992 Poppy Morales Sophiya Haque 2008–2009 Jill Morris Linda Cook 1967, 1968 Adrian Mortimer Mark Moraghan 2015 Darryl Morton Jonathan Dixon 2007–2009 Jerry Morton Michael Starke 2007–2008 Jodie Morton Samantha Seager 2007 Kayleigh Morton Jessica Barden 2007–2008 Mel Morton Emma Edmondson 2007–2008 Wilfred Morton Rodney Litchfield 2007 Jim Mount Barry Keegan 1965, 1966 Lloyd Mullaney Craig Charles 2005–2006, 2007–2011, 2012–2015 Karl Munro John Michie 2011–2013 Tim Munson Andrew Grose 1999–2000 Tickler Murphy Patrick McAlinney 1964 Doug Murray Brian Hibbard 1992–1993 N [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Phil Nail Clive Russell 2005–2006 DS Nash Antony Byrne 2012 Kal Nazir Jimi Mistry 2013–2015 Sharif Nazir Marc Anwar 2014–2016 Zeedan Nazir Qasim Akhtar 2014–2018 Rick Neelan Greg Wood 2009–2010, 2012 Nick Neeson Robert Horwell 2007–2008 Alice Nelson Lyn Douglas 1979 Amy Nelson Louise Duprey 1993 Billy Nelson Chris Darwin 1982 Jim Nelson Alan Hockey 1979 Cecil Newton Kenneth Alan Taylor 1987, 1988, 1990 George Baker 2003 Philip Newton Malcolm Scates 2003 Frank Nicholls Keith Clifford 2007 Roger Nightingale Matthew Long 1976 Wendy Nightingale Susan Tebbs 1976 Arthur Noblett Jack Woolgar 1970 Sally Norton Yvonne Nicholson 1977, 1979 Spider Nugent Martin Hancock 1997–2000, 2001, 2003 Debbie Nuttall Gina Maher 1981–1982 Fred Nuttall Larry Noble 1966 Harvey Nuttall Tony Capstick 1995–1997, 1999 O [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Alison Oakley Helen Swift 1989 Shelley Willetts 1998 Frank O'Connor Eamon Boland 2000–2001 Julia O'Driscoll Malgorzata Klara 2015–2016 Richie O'Driscoll James Midgley 2015–2016 Aiden O'Donnell Kieran Flynn 1998–1999 Maz O'Loughlin Emma Rydal 2003 Damian Ogden Neil Ratcliffe 1983 Hilda Ogden Jean Alexander 1964–1987 Polly Ogden Mary Tamm 1973 Stan Ogden Bernard Youens 1964–1984 Trevor Ogden Jonathan Collins 1964 Don Hawkins 1973, 1975, 1983, 1984 DS Dave O'Grady Ronnie Leek 1997 Karen Oldfield Sally Jane Jackson 1980 Sgt Oldfield Michael Lees 1980 Inga Olsen Gabrielle Drake 1967 Karen Olsen Jennie Woodford 1967 Denise Osbourne Denise Black 1992–1997, 2007, 2017 P [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Ted Page Michael Byrne 2008, 2009–2010 Becky Palmer Emily Aston 1996–1997 Carol Palmer Beatrice Kelley 1996 Claire Palmer Maggie Norris 1996–1997 Wendy Papadopoulos Roberta Kerr 1989–1990, 2012 Jayesh Parekh Pal Aron 2001 Ace Bhatti 2004, 2005, 2006 Grishma Parekh Indira Joshi 2010, 2011 Mena Parekh Leena Dhingra 2001, 2004 Upma Parekh Jamila Massey 2010, 2011 Suresh Parekh Kaleem Janjua 2001 Ash Varrez 2004 Donna Parker Rachel Davies 1975, 1976 Tony Parsons David Hill 1970 Imogen Pascoe Melissa Johns 2017 Dr Patel Josephine Lloyd-Welcome 2004, 2009 Sammy Patel Lyndam Gregory 1982–1983 DI Patterson Tony Steedman 1972, 1973, 1975 Rick Peach Nick Caldecott 2009, 2010 Ashley Peacock Steven Arnold 1995, 1996–2010 Beryl Peacock Anny Tobin 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006 Claire Peacock Julia Haworth 2003–2011 Freddie Peacock Dylan Whitbread 2006–2010 Hayden Whitbread 2006–2009 Luke Beresford 2010–2011 Niall Beresford 2010–2011 Joshua Peacock Brandon Jackson 2002–2003 Stephen Collins 2003 Benjamin Beresford 2004–2011 Maxine Peacock Tracy Shaw 1995–2003 Mandy Pearce Kate Faulkner 2003 Phyllis Pearce Jill Summers 1982–1996 Beattie Pearson Gabrielle Daye 1961, 1962, 1969, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1983, 1984 Victor Pendlebury Christopher Coll 1982, 1983, 1984, 1990–1991, 1992 May Penn June Whitfield 2010 Darryl Perkins Paul Loughran 2016 Elaine Perkins Joanna Lumley 1973 Wilfred Perkins Wensley Pithey 1972, 1973, 1974 Christine Peters Frances Tomelty 1972 Miranda Peters Francesca Ryan 1998–1999 Lionel Petty Edward Evans 1965–1966 Sandra Petty Heather Moore 1964–1965 Valerie Phelan Caroline Berry 2013–2014 Pat Phelan Connor McIntyre 2013–2014, 2016–2018 Josie Phillips Siobhan Finneran 1989–1990 Mr Phillips Sam Bond 2010, 2012, 2013 Norman Phillips Ray Brooks 1963–1964 Alice Pickens Doris Hare 1968, 1969 Douglas Pickens John Collin 1969 Wayne Pickles Julian Walsh 1985, 1988 Jim Pickup Bunny May 1963 William Piggott George A. Cooper 1964, 1965, 1970, 1971 Grace Piper Ella-Grace Gregoire 2013 Christopher Pitcher Michael Dixon 2006 Allan Platt Kevin Williams 1965 Martin Platt Sean Wilson 1985–2005, 2018 Barbara Platt Barbara Young 1991 Barry Platt John Jardine 1987 Richard Conway 1991 Billy Platt Unknown 2004 Ethel Platt Julia Lang 1977 Kylie Platt Paula Lane 2010–2016 Vince Plummer Garfield Morgan 1961 Patric Podevin Franck Dubosc 1987–1988 Elaine Pollard Janette Beverley 1984 Tanya Pooley Eva Pope 1993–1994 Ginny Portis Ashley McGuire 2011 John Potter Ian Shaw 1967 Stan Potter Noddy Holder 2000 Harry Potts Russell Dixon 1992, 1993, 1995 Walter Potts Christoper Sandford 1963–1964 Cathy Power Theresa Brindley 1994, 1995 Janet Powers Carol Starks 2010, 2011 Sian Powers Sacha Parkinson 2009–2011 Vinnie Powers Ian Dunn 2009, 2010 Dawn Prescott Louise Harrison 1989 Robert Prescott James Gaddas 1989 Douglas Preston John Baddeley 1967 Joni Preston Sarah Harding 2015 Maurice Preston Seamus O'Neill 1996 Eva Price Catherine Tyldesley 2011–2018 Gloria Price Sue Johnston 2012–2014 Sonia Price Bridget Brice 1981 Stella Price Michelle Collins 2011–2014 Ivor Priestley Paul Copley 2007 Les Pringle Sean Scanlan 1985 Graeme Proctor Craig Gazey 2008–2011 Xin Proctor Elizabeth Tan 2011 Hilary Pugsley Caroline Pegg 2010, 2011 Q [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Jez Quigley Lee Boardman 1997, 1999–2000 Luke \"Quinny\" Quinn Steve Bell 2010 R [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Samir Rachid Al Nedjari 1994–1995 Lydia Radcliffe Lysette Anthony 2010 Sonia Rahman Sudha Bhuchar 2016 Charlie Ramsden Clare McGlinn 2000–2002 Eddie Ramsden William Ivory 1989–1990 Jamie Ramsden Alexander Graham 1989–1990 Matt Ramsden Stephen Beckett 2000–2002, 2006 Stella Randell Pearl Catlin 1971 Wally Randle Mark Eden 1981 Alison Rathbone Rachel Smith 1993 Connie Rathbone Rita May 2009–2010 Jane Rayner Heather Bleasdale 2013 Jeff Rayner Jim Millea 2013 DS Redfern Paul Warriner 2010, 2011 Maggie Redman Jill Kerman 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Mark Redman Thomas Hawkeswood 1983–1984 Christopher Oakes 1986 Michael Bolstridge 1991 Christopher Cook 1992–1994, 1996 Paul Fox 1999–2000, 2001, 2006 Jenny Reece Blue Merrick 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013 Sean Regan Tony Doyle 1972 Malcolm Reid Shane Rimmer 1988 Stephen Reid Todd Boyce 1996, 1997, 2007 Harvey Reuben Andrew Scarborough 2000, 2001 Anita Reynolds Elisabeth Sladen 1970 DI Reynolds Blair Plant 1998, 1999, 2000 Ben Richardson Lucien Laviscount 2009 Jonno Richardson David Sterne 2011 Nigel Ridley John Basham 1989, 1990 Paul Rigby James Tomlinson 1988, 1989 Stella Rigby Vivienne Ross 1985, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1995 Brenda Riley Eileen Kennally 1966 Concepta Riley Doreen Keogh 1960–1964, 1967, 1972, 1975 Frank Riley Sean Caffrey 1968 Sean Riley Harold Goldblatt 1961 Shelagh Riley Shela Ward 1961 Mike Ritchie Murray Cash 1973 Dave Robbins Jon Rollason 1963–1964, 1969, 1971 Alf Roberts Bryan Mosley 1961, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1971–1999 Renee Roberts Madge Hindle 1976–1980 Jules Robinson Rebecca Ritters 2002 Michelle Robinson Stephanie Tague 1985 Gertie Robson Connie Merigold 1974 Trina Robson Kerry Bennett 2017 Robyn Clare Calbraith 2005 Gavin Rodwell Mark Holgate 2015 Michael Rodwell Les Dennis 2014–2016 Brian Roscoe Rob Dickson 1988 Ross Lee Oakes 2009 Andy Rowlands Paul Duncan 1979, 1980, 1981 Zack Rubinstein Uncredited 2018 Nicola Rubinstein Nicola Thorp 2017–2018 Hanif Ruparell Ayub Khan-Din 1992–1993 Caitlin Ryan Eve Gordon 2015–2016 Dougie Ryan Paddy McGuinness 2015 Major Ryan Warren Stanhope 1967 Michael Ryan Jim Bartley 1974 S [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Polly Sagan Nita Valerie 1966, 1967 Saj Junade Khan 2008 Lee Sankey Stephen Graham 1999 Bernie Sayers Jennifer Hennessy 2009 Faye Marie Schofield Jane Casson 1973 Susan Schofield Ann Milton 1962 Tom Schofield Tom Halliday 1965 David Holliday 1973 Philippa Scopes Jacqueline Jones 1962 Anita Scott Nichola McAuliffe 2001–2002 Brendan Scott Milton Johns 1991–1993 Debi Scott Lesley Clare O'Neill 1993 Mike Scott Anthony Bessick 2008, 2009 Eddie Seddon James Duggan 1986 Elsie Seddon Brenda Elder 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1997 Nicolette Seddon Natalie Richards 2005 Norah Seddon Cynthia Michaelis 1961, 1971, 1972, 1978 Jim Sedgewick Michael O'Hagan 1980 Marc Selby Andrew Hall 2011 Terry Seymour Cliff Howells 1991 Joss Shackleton Harold Goodwin 1991 Maya Sharma Sasha Behar 2003–2004 Bill Sharp Derek Newark 1966, 1968, 1971 Abi Sharpe Rachael Elizabeth 2007–2008 Ena Sharples Violet Carson 1960–1980 Peter Shaw Alan Hunter 1988 Lorna Shawcross Luan Peters 1971 Monty Shawcross John Barrett 1980 Liam Shepherd Andrew Knott 1997 Paula Shipley Joanne Rowden 2000 Warren Shipley Dean Worswick 2000 DC Ann Short Jo-Anne Knowles 2001 Archie Shuttleworth Roy Hudd 2002–2003, 2006, 2010 Geoff Siddall Edward Judd 1982 Sue Silcock Angela Scoular 1972 Phil Simmonds Jack Deam 2000–2001 Jeff Singleton Jonathan Barlow 1987 Frank Skinner William Maxwell 1982 Sean Skinner Terence Hillyer 1994, 1995, 1997 Franny Slater Michael Angelis 1972 Robbie Sloan James Fleet 2010 Slug Marshall Lancaster 2006–2007, 2009 Joyce Smedley Anita Carey 1996–1997 Dave Smith Reginald Marsh 1962, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1976 Freddie Smith Derek Griffiths 2016–2017 Jonny Smith Greg Patmore 2012 Lilian Smith Rhoda Lewis 1969 Megan Smithson Amy Dolan 2013 Sylvia Snape Patricia Routledge 1961 Kirsty Soames Natalie Gumede 2011–2013 Alison Soames Dawn Hope 2012, 2013 Edwin Soames David Lonsdale 2012 Vinny Sorrell James Gaddas 1999–2000 Leon Southam Colin Parry 2011 DS Sowman Philip Stone 1961, 1962, 1965 Drew Spellman Tom Godwin 2017 Danielle Spencer Darcey Dunn 2002 Lillian Spencer Maureen Lipman 2002 Timothy Spencer Jonathan Wright 2002 Effie Spicer Ann Dyson 1968–1969 Pat Stanaway Sean Hughes 2007 Marie Stanton Lois Baxter 1976–1977 John Stape Graeme Hawley 2007–2008, 2009–2011 Jean Stark Renny Lister 1961 Wilf Starkey Jim Bywater 1985 Bob Statham Michael Goldie 1983, 1987–1988 Horace Steel Robert Maxfield 2009 Amanda Stephens Martina Brown 2000–2001 Anthony Stephens John Quayle 2000–2001 Gregory Stephens Philip Bird 2000–2001 Isabel Stephens Dilys Laye 2000–2001 Tony Stewart Alan Igbon 2003 Terence Maynard 2014–2015 Roger Stiles Andrew Dunn 2007–2008 Frances Stillman Kim Vithana 1997–1998 Dot Stockwell Barbara Young 1981–1982 Wilf Stockwell Terence Longdon 1981–1982 Dennis Stokes Duncan Preston 2004 Paul Stokes Mark Dexter 2010 Jed Stone Kenneth Cope 1961, 1962–1963, 1966, 2008–2009 Julia Stone Fiona Allen 1999 Kitty Stonely Stella Moray 1971–1972 Candice Stowe Nikki Sanderson 1999–2005 Marion Stowe Paula Simms 2000, 2001, 2003 Billy Stratton Wade Sayers 2012 Danny Stratton Jeremy Sheffield 2011–2012 Gary Strauss Callen Angelo 1967, 1968, 1970 Dennis Stringer Charles Dale 2000–2002 Pauline Stringer Patricia Browning 1980 Luke Strong Craig Kelly 2009 Charlie Stubbs Bill Ward 2003–2007 Janice Stubbs Angela Bruce 1978 Ronnie Stubbs Eamon Boland 1988 Sandra Stubbs Sally Watts 1988–1989 Percy Sugden Bill Waddington 1983–1997 Ted Sullivan William Russell 1992 Eric Summers Bill Waddington 1978 Jenny Sumner Niky Wardley 2012 Dotty Sutherland Susie Baxter 2000, 2005, 2008, 2015 Eric Sutherland Steve Money 2000–2001, 2005, 2008, 2015 Arnold Swain George Waring 1980–1981 Flora Swain Ann Wrigg 1980–1981 Margaret Swain Charlotte Mitchell 1982 Arnold Swift Harry Littlewood 1988 Leonard Swindley Arthur Lowe 1960–1965 Alex Swinton Joe Simpson 2000–2001 Dean Sykes Ciarán Griffiths 2000 Jimmy Sykes Danny Cunningham 2000–2001 Ray Sykes Peter Guinness 2000, 2002 Ron Sykes Bobby Knutt 1980–1983 Ryan Sykes Matthew Dunster 2000–2001 T [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Eric Talford Tony Slattery 2005–2006 Arnold Tanner Frank Crawshaw 1961, 1966 Dennis Tanner Philip Lowrie 1960–1962, 1963–1968, 2011–2014 Elsie Tanner Pat Phoenix 1960–1973, 1976–1984 Emmeline Tanner Stella Bonheur 1967 Jenny Tanner Mitzi Rogers 1968 Norah Tanner Avril Angers 1961 Steve Tanner Paul Maxwell 1967 Wally Tanner George Betton 1966, 1967, 1968 Albert Tatlock Jack Howarth 1960–1984 Edith Tatlock Clare Kelly 1969, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1978 Shannon Tattersall Lucy Whipday 1997–1998 Zoe Tattersall Joanne Froggatt 1997–1998 Brenda Taylor Marlene Sidaway 1990–1991, 1992 Kimberley Taylor Suzanne Hall 1989–1992 Randolf Taylor John Jardine 1990, 1992 Sidney Templeton Randal Herley 1999 Lena Thislewood Maria Charles 2005 Brian Thomas Michael Blackham 1966, 1967 Eddie Thomas Douglas Austin 1964 Glyn Thomas Alan David 1973 Kelly Thomson Sarah Moffett 1996 Mike Thornberry Louis Emerick 2018 Penny Thornley Sue Hanson 2012 Roy Thornley Sydney Livingstone 1976 Ray Thorpe Chris Walker 1997 Log Thwaite Zoe Henry 1998 Eileen Tibson Muriel Rogers 1978 Bert Tilsley Peter Dudley 1979–1983 Brian Tilsley Christopher Quinten 1978–1989 Ivy Tilsley Lynne Perrie 1971–1972, 1974, 1975, 1976–1994 Sam Tindall Tom Mennard 1985–1989 Melanie Tindel Nicola Wheeler 1999 Agnes Tinker Juliette Kaplan 2015 Arlene Tinker Alison Burrows 2015, 2018 Nancy Tinker Kate Fitzgerald 2015, 2018 Chloe Tipton Jo-Anne Knowles 2017 Gloria Todd Sue Jenkins 1985–1988 Mrs Toft Beatrice Nield 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974 Vernon Tomlin Ian Reddington 2005–2008 DS Tony Trafford Justin Burrows 2001, 2002, 2003 George Trench Keith Barron 2007 Chris Trenton Stephen Casey 2016 Brian Tully Tim Healy 2006 Maureen Tully Susan Brown 2006 Liz Turnbull Catriona A Elliott 1986, 1987 Dave Turner Stephen Bent 2002 Frank Turner Tom Watson 1965 Gerry Turner Keith Woodason 1997 Justin Turner Ralph Gassmann 2009 Cyril Turpin William Moore 1969–1970, 1972 Patrick Tussell Trevor Dwyer-Lynch 2002–2005 Ethel Tyson Susan Field 1963 U [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Bev Unwin Susie Blake 2003–2004, 2005–2006, 2015 Shelley Unwin Sally Lindsay 2001–2006 Dean Upton Justin Moorhouse 2014 V [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Vanessa Gabrielle Drake 2009 W [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Ernie Wagstaff Stuart Golland 2001, 2003 Stan Wagstaff Jack Smethurst 2001 Roger Wain Frazer Hines 1965 Henry Wakefield Finetime Fontayne 1985 Joan Wakefield Elizabeth Mansfield 1999, 2000 Annie Walker Doris Speed 1960–1983 Arthur Walker Jack Allen 1965, 1969 Billy Walker Ken Farrington 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1969, 1970–1971, 1972–1973, 1974–1975, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1984 Jack Walker Arthur Leslie 1960–1970 Michael Wall Dominic Rickhards 1998, 2000 Alma Walsh Joyce Kennedy 1978 Pauline Walsh Patricia Ford 1985, 1986 Ruth Walsh Rebecca Callard 2011 Shirley Walton Stephanie Turner 1968 George Wardle Ron Davies 1985–1986 Nessa Warner Sadie Shimmin 2015–2016 Sally Waterman Vicki Chambers 1983, 1984, 1985 Don Watkins Kevin Lloyd 1983–1984 Alice Watts Annabelle Tarrant 2000 Arthur Watts Kenneth Waller 1988 John Pickles 1995 Geoff Oldham 2002 Ben Watts Stephen Collins 2001–2003 Curly Watts Kevin Kennedy 1983–1998, 1999–2003 Emma Watts Angela Lonsdale 2000–2003 Eunice Watts Angela Rooks 1988, 2002 Georgine Anderson 1995 Raquel Watts Sarah Lancashire 1991–1996, 2000 Boris Weaver Mark Hallett 1999, 2000–2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 Mrs Webb Jean Alexander 1962 Johnny Webb Jack Smethurst 1980, 1981, 1983 Sandra Webb Shelagh Stephenson 1981 Alison Webster Naomi Radcliffe 1998–2000 Bill Webster Peter Armitage 1984–1985, 1995–1997, 2006–2010, 2011 Debbie Webster Sue Devaney 1984–1985 Elaine Webster Judy Gridley 1984–1985 Jake Webster Unknown 2000 Maureen Webster Sherrie Hewson 1993–1997, 2006 Jon Welch David Michaels 1994–1995, 1996 DC Weller Caroline Paterson 2008, 2009 Charlie West Keith Clifford 1997, 1998, 1999 Mr Westmore Dominic Geraghty 2011 Robert Weston Philip Bretherton 1991 Darren Whateley Ian Aspinall 1989 Andy Robb 1998 Eunice Wheeler Brenda Elder 1975–1976 Philip Wheeler Simon Delaney 2017 Sheila Wheeler Janice Connolly 2009 Charlie Whelan John St Ryan 1993–1994 Tim White Edward MacLiam 2005 Bob Whiteley Freddie Fletcher 1982 Chalkie Whiteley Teddy Turner 1982–1983 Craig Whiteley Mark Price 1982 Stan Whitmore David Williams 2013 Arthur Whittaker Trevor Martin 1984 Ronald Wilde George Waring 1968 Hazel Wilding Kazia Pelka 2002 John Wilding John Bowler 2002 Nick Wilding Mark Lindley 1991, 1992, 1995, 1996, 1999 Malcolm Wilkinson Antony Booth 1960–1961 Will Chris Brazier 2011 DS Willets James Quinn 2013 Ben Williams Paul Warriner 1991, 1992 Betty Williams Betty Driver 1969–2011 Billy Williams Frank Mills 1995–1997 Owen Williams Richard Harrington 1999 Nona Willis Barbara Ferris 1961 Winifred Willis Joan Scott 1983 Richard Willmore Oliver Beamish 1992, 1993, 1994, 2011 Zoe Willson Kirsty-Leigh Porter 2009 Anna Wilson Emma Parker 2000 DS Wilson Marcus Romer 2001 Dylan Wilson Unknown 2008 Connor and Liam McCheyne 2011, 2012 Eve Wilson Sabina Franklyn 2009–2010 George Wilson Anthony Valentine 2009–2010 Lauren Wilson Lucy Evans 2007–2008 Violet Wilson Jenny Platt 2004–2008, 2011 Derek Wilton Peter Baldwin 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988–1997 Mavis Wilton Thelma Barlow 1971, 1972, 1973–1997 Anna Windass Debbie Rush 2008–2018 Eddie Windass Steve Huison 2008–2011 Len Windass Conor Ryan 2008–2009 Miley Windass Erin, Eilah and Elsie Halliwell 2015, 2017 Ruth Winter Colette O'Neil 1966 Lisa Woods Ruth Whitehead 1987–1988 Edward Wormold Robert Dorning 1965 Donald Worthington Brian Capron 1981, 1982, 1986 Alison Wright Rosalind Ayres 1974 Jonathan Wright Samuel Taylor 1974 Marcus Wrigley Joseph Jacobs 1998, 1999 Billy Wyatt Fabian Cartwright 1988 Y [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Alec Yardley Harry Beety 1983, 1984 PC Yates Simon Hayward 2010–2011, 2012, 2013 Eddie Yeats Geoffrey Hughes 1974–1975, 1976–1983, 1987 Marion Yeats Veronica Doran 1982–1983 Hamish Young James Redmond 2015 Z [ edit ] Character Actor Duration Zack Ralph Ineson 2005 Miklos Zadic Paul Stassino 1968 Marta Zarek Edyta Budnik 2016 See also [ edit ] List of Coronation Street actors External links [ edit ] Characters and cast at itv.com Characters and cast at the Internet Movie Database show v t e Coronation Street Awards and nominations Producers Humour Characters Present characters Past characters Storylines Timeline Births, marriages and deaths \" Who Attacked Ken? \" Episodes Episode One Coronation Street Live (2000) \" Siege Week \" Coronation Street Live (2010) Sets and locations Weatherfield Rovers Return Inn Spin-offs Pardon the Expression Turn Out the Lights VHS and DVD releases Coronation Street: Out of Africa Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday The Road to Coronation Street \" East Street \" Ken and Deirdre's Bedtime Stories Related articles \" I Want to Break Free \" show v t e Coronation Street characters show Present and future characters Ken Barlow Rita Sullivan Peter Barlow Gail McIntyre Tracy Barlow Audrey Roberts Nick Tilsley Kevin Webster Jenny Bradley Sally Webster Sarah Platt Jim McDonald Liz McDonald Steve McDonald Rosie Webster David Platt Norris Cole Sophie Webster Roy Cropper Leanne Battersby Toyah Battersby Tyrone Dobbs Dev Alahan Eileen Grimshaw Maria Connor Kirk Sutherland Bethany Platt Adam Barlow Fiz Brown Simon Barlow Sean Tully Chesney Brown Amy Barlow Michelle Connor Ryan Connor Carla Connor Gary Windass Mary Taylor Lewis Archer Izzy Armstrong Faye Windass Beth Tinker Tim Metcalfe show Past characters Sunita Alahan Christine Appleby Shirley Armitage Katy Armstrong Owen Armstrong Danny Baldwin Frankie Baldwin Jamie Baldwin Mike Baldwin Deirdre Barlow Frank Barlow Ida Barlow Susan Barlow Des Barnes Natalie Barnes Janice Battersby Les Battersby Cilla Battersby-Brown Sheila Birtles Emily Bishop Natasha Blakeman Alan Bradley Renee Bradshaw Teresa Bryant Julie Carp Casey Carswell Matt Carter Paul Clayton Liam Connor Paul Connor Kelly Crabtree Hayley Cropper Trevor Dean Marcus Dent Jackie Dobbs Molly Dobbs Rob Donovan Jack Duckworth Terry Duckworth Tommy Duckworth Vera Duckworth Fred Elliott Anne Foster Frank Foster Alec Gilroy Tony Gordon Cheryl Gray Jason Grimshaw Todd Grimshaw Alma Halliwell Richard Hillman Charlotte Hoyle Blanche Hunt Mel Hutchwright Amber Kalirai Ray Langton Bet Lynch Tara Mandal Ciaran McCarthy Becky McDonald Karen McDonald Joe McIntyre Tina McIntyre Darryl Morton Jerry Morton Kayleigh Morton Mel Morton Lloyd Mullaney Karl Munro Hilda Ogden Stan Ogden Ashley Peacock Claire Peacock Pat Phelan Kylie Platt Martin Platt Sian Powers Eva Price Stella Price Graeme Proctor Mark Redman Alf Roberts Maya Sharma Ena Sharples Kirsty Soames John Stape Jed Stone Candice Stowe Luke Strong Charlie Stubbs Percy Sugden Leonard Swindley Dennis Tanner Elsie Tanner Albert Tatlock Ivy Tilsley Vernon Tomlin Shelley Unwin Annie Walker Curly Watts Raquel Watts Bill Webster Betty Williams Violet Wilson Derek Wilton Mavis Wilton Anna Windass Eddie Windass Eddie Yeats show Original characters David Barlow Frank Barlow Ida Barlow Ken Barlow Minnie Caldwell Ivan Cheveski Linda Cheveski Christine Appleby May Hardman Esther Hayes Harry Hewitt Lucille Hewitt Florrie Lindley Martha Longhurst Emily Bishop Concepta Riley Ena Sharples Leonard Swindley Dennis Tanner Elsie Tanner Albert Tatlock Annie Walker Jack Walker show Lists of characters 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_past_Coronation_Street_characters&oldid=854465536 \" Categories : Lists of Coronation Street characters Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from June 2012 Use British English from June 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Gaeilge Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2018, at 15:29 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Google Street View - Wikipedia Google Street View From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Google Street View A road junction in Manchester , England , showing nine different angles Initial release May 25, 2007 ; 10 years ago ( 2007-05-25 ) Stable release Release 230 ( see list ) / February 5, 2018 ; 24 days ago ( 2018-02-05 ) Platform Android , iOS Available in Multiple languages Website Google Street View Google Street View is a technology featured in Google Maps and Google Earth that provides panoramic views from positions along many streets in the world. It was launched in 2007 in several cities in the United States, and has since expanded to include cities and rural areas worldwide. Streets with Street View imagery available are shown as blue lines on Google Maps. Google Street View displays panoramas of stitched images. Most photography is done by car, but some is done by trekker, tricycle , walking, boat, snowmobile, and underwater apparatus. Contents [ hide ] 1 History and features 2 Implementation 3 Data capturing equipment 4 Pegman 5 Privacy concerns 6 Third-party use of images 7 Coverage 8 Gallery 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History and features Street View had its inception in 2001 with The Stanford CityBlock Project, a Google-sponsored Stanford University research project. The project ended in June 2006, and its technology was folded into StreetView. [1] 2007: Launched on May 25 in the United States using Immersive Media technology. 2008: In May Google announces that it was testing face-blurring technology on its photos of the busy streets of Manhattan . [2] The technology uses a computer algorithm to search Google's image database for faces and blurs them. [3] Street View integrated into Google Earth 4.3, the Maps application on the Apple iPhone , and the Maps application for S60 3rd Edition . In November, the drag and drop Pegman icon is introduced as the primary user interface element for connecting from Maps's 2D view into Street View's 3D view. When Pegman is dropped onto a particular set of coordinates in Google Maps for which Street View data is available, Street View opens and takes over the whole map window. 2009: Introduction of full-screen option. Smart Navigation introduced allowing users to navigate around the panoramas by double-clicking with their cursor on any place or object they want to see. [4] 2010: Indoor views of businesses available. [5] Google invites users to contribute panoramas of their own using gadgets with Android 4.2 . Google highlights user-contributed panoramas with blue circle icons on Maps. The company also created a website to highlight places in the world where one can find them. [6] 2013: Business interior views are shown as small orange circles. Businesses such as shops, cafés and other premises can pay a photographer to take panoramic images of the interior of their premises which are then included in Street View. [7] Google sets up program to let third parties borrow the Street View Trekker (a backpack mounted camera) and contribute imagery to Google Maps. [8] 2014: Street-level imagery from the past can now be seen, if available for a given street view. [9] 2015: A partnership was announced between Street View and the environmental monitoring company Aclima. Cars began carrying sensors to detect pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide , ozone , and particulate matter . [10] In October, support for Google Cardboard was announced allowing users to explore street view in 360 degree virtual reality. [11] 2017: Imagery inside the International Space Station is added to Street View. 2017: Starting in August, Google allows users to create their own street view-like blue paths, for the connected photospheres that are sufficiently close to one another. 2017: On September 5, Google announced that they are improving the quality of the street view panoramic photo revamping its mapping vehicles with all-new high resolution camera systems and AI to capture even better imagery. The new Google cars have been seen in various American cities since March 2017 as well as in Japan since August. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] . The first images taken with the new generation of cameras were available online on September 13. [17] 2017: Since October, Google allows users to capture Street View imagery using Insta360 Pro. Because of this, several years from now, Google Street View could be available in all countries of the world. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] Implementation Street View is available as a component of Google Maps, as a web application , and as a mobile application for Android and iOS . Originally, Google Maps used Adobe Flash for Street View. [23] Google overhauled Google Maps in 2013. The newer version uses JavaScript extensively and provides a JavaScript application programming interface . [24] At the time of their release, the new Google Maps and Street View are measured slower than the old version in various setups. [25] [26] A user can switch to the old version of Google Maps, which is especially useful when Google Maps is more sluggish than usual. [27] [28] Data capturing equipment The Google street View car in New York City A Google Maps Camera Car showcased on the Google campus in Mountain View, California in October 2010 Cameras: Street View imagery has come from several generations of camera systems from Immersive Media [1] , Point Grey Research (now FLIR Systems ) [2] and developed in-house. [29] The cameras contain no mechanical parts, including the shutter , instead using CMOS sensors and an electronic rolling shutter . Widely deployed versions are: R2: the earliest after Immersive Media , photos were captured with a ring of eight 11-megapixel CCD sensors with commercial photographic wide-angle lenses , cameras with the same specs as those used for the Google Books project. Ladybug2 cameras (resolution 1024 x 768 pixels) by Point Grey Research. [30] R5: uses a ring of eight 5- megapixel CMOS cameras by Elphel [31] [32] with custom low- flare lenses, plus a camera with fisheye lens on top to capture upper levels of buildings. R7: is the first completely in-house built camera, it uses 15 of the same sensors and lenses as R5, but no fish-eye. 2017: uses 8 20MP cameras. Includes two facing left and right to read street signs and business names. [33] Positioning: recorded photographs must be associated with accurate positioning. This is done via a Global Positioning System , wheel speed sensor , and inertial navigation sensor data. [29] Laser range scanners from Sick AG for the measuring of up to 50 meters 180° in the front of the vehicle. [34] These are used for recording the actual dimensions of the space being photographed. LIDAR scanners from Velodyne were added in the 2017 update. Mounted at 45° to capture 3D depth information, and used for additional positional information. [33] Vehicles: data recording equipment is usually mounted on the roof of a car. A Trike (tricycle) was developed to record pedestrian routes including Stonehenge , and other UNESCO World Heritage sites . In 2010 a snowmobile -based system captured the 2010 Winter Olympics sites. [29] Trolleys have been used to shoot the insides of museums, and in Venice the narrow roads were photographed with backpack-mounted cameras, and canals were photographed from boats. [35] A portable back-pack Google Trekker is used in outdoor terrain. For instance, the six main paths up Snowdon were mapped by the Google Trekker in 2015. [36] Pegman See also: List of Google Easter eggs § Pegman As noted above, the drag-and-drop Pegman icon is the primary user interface element used by Google to connect Maps to Street View. His name comes from his resemblance to a clothespeg . When not in use, Pegman sits atop the Google Maps zoom controls. Occasionally Pegman \"dresses up\" for special events or is joined by peg friends in Google Maps. When dragged into Street View near Area 51 , he becomes a flying saucer . When viewing older views, the Pegman in the minimap changes to Doc Brown from Back to the Future . [37] Pegman has occasionally appeared as a costumed character at Google events, such as the launch of Street View in France in 2008. [ citation needed ] Privacy concerns A Street View car parked at a Subaru Service Center in Jersey City, New Jersey Main article: Google Street View privacy concerns Google Street View will blur houses for any user who makes a request, in addition to the automatic blurring of faces and licence plates. [38] Privacy advocates have objected to the Google Street View, pointing to views found to show men leaving strip clubs, protesters at an abortion clinic, sunbathers in bikinis, and people engaging in activities visible from public property in which they do not wish to be seen publicly. [39] Another concern is the height of the cameras, and in at least two countries, Japan [40] and Switzerland, [41] Google has had to lower the height of its cameras so as to not peer over fences and hedges. The service also allows users themselves to flag inappropriate or sensitive imagery for Google to review and remove. [42] Police Scotland received an apology for wasting police time in 2014 from a local business owner in Edinburgh who in 2012 had staged a fake murder for the Google camera car by lying in the road \"while his colleague stood over him with a pickaxe handle \". [43] In May 2010, it was revealed that Google had collected and stored payload data from unencrypted Wi-Fi connections as part of Street View. [44] German authorities are considering legal action while the Foreign Minister said \"I will do all I can to prevent it.\" Australian police have also been ordered to investigate. [45] The concerns have led to Google not providing or suspending the service in countries around the world. Austria: Google Street View was banned in Austria because Google was found to collect Wifi data unauthorized in 2010. After the ban was lifted rules were set up for how Street View can operate legally in Austria. Google has yet to resume service. Officially it welcomed the new guidelines but has ruled out operating under them. As of 2016 Google Street View is still unavailable. [46] Australia: In 2010, Google Street View ceased operations in Australia, following months of investigations from Australian authorities. [47] However, this cessation has since ended, with Google announcing plans to continue production on May 4, 2011 [48] and subsequently releasing updated Street View imagery for Australian towns and cities on July 27, 2011. [49] Germany: In 2011, after having put online the pictures of the 20 largest cities, Google stopped taking Street View images in Germany. [50] India: In 2011, Google stopped taking street images in India, after receiving a letter from police authorities in Bangalore. [51] Canada: Street View cars had been spotted as early as September 2007, in Montréal , though service for Canada was delayed while attempting to settle with the Canadian government over its privacy laws . Privacy and town beauty concerns were dealt with and Street View is available in Montréal and other Canadian cities (as of 2016). [52] Third-party use of images Fine-art photographers have selected images for use in their own work. [53] Although the images may be pixelated , the colours muddy, and the perspective warped, the photographs have been published in book form and exhibited in art galleries, such as the work of Jon Rafman at the Saatchi Gallery , London. [54] In his personal appreciation of Street View material, Rafman sees images which evoke the \"gritty urban life\" depicted in American street photography and the images commissioned by the Farm Security Administration . He also invokes the \" decisive moment \" esthetic of Henri Cartier-Bresson \"as if I were a photojournalist responding instantaneously to an emerging event\". [55] Michael Wolf won an honourable mention in Daily Life in the 2011 World Press Photo competition for some of his work using Google Street View. [56] Mishka Henner was short-listed for the 2013 Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in November 2012 for his series 'No Man's Land', which depicts sex workers at rural roadside locations. [57] Swedish programmer Anton Wallén developed a game called GeoGuessr , which places players into a Google Street View and has them guess its location. [58] Canadian artist, Sylvia Grace Borda , worked in conjunction with John M Lynch between 2013-14 [59] [60] to insert the first staged tableaux [61] into the Google Street View engine. Their efforts won them the Lumen Prize in 2016 [62] . Borda has continued independently to author in the Google Street View engine and in 2017 created the tableaux series, the Kissing Project . [63] Coverage Countries and dependencies with mostly full coverage Countries and dependencies with partial coverage Countries and dependencies with full or partial coverage planned (official) Countries and dependencies with full or partial coverage planned (unofficial) Countries and dependencies with views of selected businesses and/or tourist attractions only Countries and dependencies with views of private businesses only Countries and dependencies with no current or planned coverage Main article: Coverage of Google Street View In June 2012, Google announced that it has captured 20 petabytes of data for Street View, comprising photos taken along 5 million miles of roads, covering 39 countries and about 3,000 cities. [64] Coverage includes much of North and South America, from Cambridge Bay , Nunavut to Half Moon Island in the South Shetland Islands . [65] Maps also include panoramic views taken under water such as in West Nusa Tenggara underwater coral, in the Grand Canyon , inside museums, and Liwa Desert in United Arab Emirates which are viewed from camelback. [66] In a ten-day trek with Apa Sherpa , Google documented Khumbu , Nepal with its Mount Everest, Sherpa communities, monasteries and schools. [67] Google also added landmarks in Egypt , including the Pyramids of Giza , Cairo Citadel , Saqqara , Monastery of Saint Mina , and the Citadel of Qaitbay in the 9 September 2014 release. Many places still have limited or no coverage, including: The Caribbean except Puerto Rico , limited coverage in the United States Virgin Islands , and some touristic places in Martinique : Boucle d'Absalon, Habitation Clément and the south-western coast of Sainte-Anne Central America except Guatemala French Guiana , Guyana , Paraguay , Suriname and Venezuela in South America Africa except Botswana , Ghana , Lesotho , Nigeria , Réunion , Senegal , South Africa , Swaziland , Tunisia , Uganda and some city views in Madagascar Austria , Belarus , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Kosovo , Liechtenstein , Moldova and much of Germany in Europe Asia except Bangladesh , Bhutan , Cambodia , Hong Kong , Japan , Macau , Malaysia , Philippines , Singapore , South Korea , Sri Lanka , Taiwan , Thailand , much of Indonesia , Kyrgyzstan , Laos , Mongolia and Russia The Middle East except Israel , Turkey and the United Arab Emirates The South Pacific, except American Samoa , Australia , New Zealand and Pitcairn Islands (Pitcairn and Henderson Island ) Gallery Street View camera showcased on campus Google Street View camera mounted on a \"trike\", on display at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California The cameras of this Google Street View car are mounted on the roof rack . The power and data cables are fed into the car through the right rear passenger window. Google Trike in Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, August 2012 Chevrolet Captiva Street View in Patagonia , Argentina, February 2014 The Google street View car in Japan See also List of street view services Aspen Movie Map (oldest project of this type) Route inspection problem (algorithmic problem related to the planning of Street View car routes) Historypin : a user-generated archive of historical photos, videos, audio recordings and personal recollections. VR photography References Jump up ^ \"The Stanford CityBlock Project: multi-perspective panoramas of city blocks\" . Retrieved August 30, 2014 . Jump up ^ Frome, Andrea. \"Google's LatLong Blog\" . Google-latlong.blogspot.com . Retrieved August 27, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"CNet article \"Google begins blurring faces in Street View \" \" . News.cnet.com . Retrieved August 27, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"PC World article \"Google Street View Gets Smart Navigation \" \" . Pcworld.com . Retrieved August 27, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"An easier way to find panoramic interior imagery in Google Maps\" . Google-latlong.blogspot.co.il. 2012-09-18 . Retrieved 2013-12-23 . Jump up ^ \"Contribuiți – Street View – Hărţi Google\" . Google . Retrieved January 19, 2013 . Jump up ^ Smith, Mark (2013-05-03). \"Google Street View gets peek inside Sheffield university buildings | Technology | guardian.co.uk\" . London: Guardian . Retrieved 2013-06-15 . Jump up ^ \"Treks\" . Google . Retrieved 2 September 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Google introduces 'time machine' feature in Street View\" . The Guardian. 23 April 2014 . Retrieved 31 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Gershgorn, Dave (30 July 2015). \"Google Will Start Mapping Pollution The Same Way They Map Streets\" . Popular Science . Retrieved 30 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Lopez, Napier (12 Oct 2015). \"Google Street View adds virtual reality support\" . NextWeb . Jump up ^ \"Google's New Street View Cameras Will Help Algorithms Index The Real World\" . Jump up ^ Ghoshal, Abhimanyu (September 6, 2017). \"Google is improving Street View with better cameras and AI\" . Jump up ^ Etherington, Darrell. \"Google's Street View cameras get a high-res update focused on AI\" . Jump up ^ \"Instagram post by Rika • Aug 22, 2017 at 1:36am UTC\" . Instagram . Jump up ^ \"Instagram post by Frances • Mar 16, 2017 at 11:52pm UTC\" . Instagram . Jump up ^ \"Google Maps\" . Google Maps . Jump up ^ \"Google gives Insta360 Pro the Street View stamp of approval\" . Jump up ^ Etherington, Darrell. \"Google to let anyone add to Street View, starting with Insta360's Pro camera\" . Jump up ^ \"You can now capture Google Street View scenery with your car for $3,500\" . Jump up ^ \"Now You Can Capture Images for Google Street View, But It'll Cost You\" . Jump up ^ \"Insta360 Pro is the $3,500 'Street View auto ready' camera you've always wanted\" . October 3, 2017. Jump up ^ Arthur, Charles (20 March 2009). \"Where the Streets All Have Google's Name\" . The Guardian.com (US ed.). Jump up ^ \"Street View Service\" . Google Developers . 25 August 2016 . Retrieved 12 December 2016 . Jump up ^ The new Street View on Google Maps is very slow (Google Maps Help Forum, 26 February 2014) Jump up ^ Tired of new, slow Google Maps? This is how you can switch to the old version! (Geoawesomeness, June 12, 2014) Jump up ^ \"Switch back to the classic version of Maps\" . Google . Retrieved 5 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Switching Back to the Old Google Maps (Netvantage Marketing, 2 January 2014) ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Google Street View: Capturing the world at street level\" . Computer . 43 (6): 32–38. June 2010. doi : 10.1109/mc.2010.170 . Retrieved 31 August 2014 . Jump up ^ White, Charlie. \"Google Streetview Cars Rocking Ladybug2 Spherical Camera\" . Gizmodo . Retrieved 2017-10-01 . Jump up ^ \"Weekly Google Code Roundup for August 10th - The official Google Code blog\" . Weekly Google Code Roundup for August 10th - The official Google Code blog . 2007-08-11 . Retrieved 2017-10-01 . Jump up ^ GoogleTechTalks (2007-10-08), PhotoTechEDU Day 25: Open-source-based high-resolution... , retrieved 2017-10-01 ^ Jump up to: a b Amadeo, Ron (6 September 2017). \"Google's Street View cars are now giant, mobile 3D scanners\" . Ars Technica . Retrieved 6 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Cummins, Mark. \"Google Street View – Soon in 3D?\" . Educating Silicon . Retrieved January 3, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Google Street View takes Venice by foot\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Crump, Eryl (11 December 2015). \"Take a tour of Snowdonia - with Google Street View\" . Retrieved 9 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Tan, Alicia Marie (October 22, 2015) Hop into the Google Maps time machine with Doc Brown Mashable, Retrieved June 2016 Jump up ^ \"Mansion Map: a guide to rich people's houses, until Google blurs them out\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 August 2014 . Jump up ^ MacDonald, Calum (June 4, 2007). \"Google's Street View site raises alarm over privacy\" . The Herald. Archived from the original on February 13, 2009 . Retrieved April 1, 2009 . Jump up ^ Wenkart, Michael (2014-04-10). You are the target !: Or do you believe your government is always watching the others? . BoD – Books on Demand. p. 171. ISBN 9783735793553 . Retrieved 2014-12-28 . Jump up ^ O'Brien, Kevin (2012-06-08). \"Swiss Court Orders Modifications to Google Street View\" . New York Times . New York, NY . Retrieved 2014-12-28 . Jump up ^ Mills, Elinor (June 3, 2007). \"Google's street-level maps raising privacy concerns\" . USA Today . Retrieved April 1, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Garage owner fakes Google 'murder' in Edinburgh street\" . BBC News . June 2, 2014 . Retrieved February 20, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Google admits it sniffed out people's data\" . TechEye. May 17, 2010. Jump up ^ \"Google accused of criminal intent over StreetView data\" . BBC Online . June 9, 2010 . Retrieved June 10, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Datenschutz: Kein Google Street View für Österreich\" . Jump up ^ \"Google street view cars no longer operational in Australia – Computer world.com – November 9, 2010\" . Computer world.com. October 29, 2010 . Retrieved December 11, 2010 . Jump up ^ Eustace, Alan. \"Privacy Impact Assessment for Street View in Australia\" . Google Inc . Retrieved August 12, 2011 . Jump up ^ Foster, Andrew. \"Updates to Street View in Australia\" . Google Inc . Retrieved August 12, 2011 . Jump up ^ McCracken, Harry (April 11, 2011). \"Alas, There Will Be No More Google Street View in Germany\" . Techland.time.com . Retrieved December 16, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"India IT hub orders Google to suspend Street View service – International Business Times\" . Hken.ibtimes.com. June 21, 2011. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011 . Retrieved December 16, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Google Street View goes live in Canadian cities\" . CBC News . Retrieved October 7, 2009 . Jump up ^ Rickard, Doug (2010). A New American Picture . Köln: White Press. OCLC 727797183 . Jump up ^ \"The street views Google wasn't expecting you to see – in pictures\" . The Guardian . London. February 20, 2012 . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Jon Rafman, The Nine Eyes of Google Street View , Introduction, Jean Boîte Editions, 2011. ISBN 978-2-36568-001-1 . Jump up ^ Laurent, Olivier (February 11, 2011). \"World Press Photo: Is Google Street View Photojournalism?\" . British Journal of Photography . Archived from the original on August 30, 2011. Jump up ^ \"Deutsche Börse Photography Prize\" Archived June 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine .. Accessed 15 March 2013 Jump up ^ Hartnett, Kevin (May 17, 2013). \"If dropped randomly on earth, would you know where you were?\" . The Boston Globe . Boston . Retrieved May 20, 2013 . Jump up ^ Parhar, Katherine (July 2016). \"Farm Tableaux - Review\" . Photomonitor UK . [ dead link ] Jump up ^ Travis, Rebecca (July 2016). \"The only thing that's changed is everything: An essay by Rebecca Travis on Sylvia Grace Borda: Camera Histories\" . Scottish Society for the History of Photography . Jump up ^ Arva-Toth, Zoltan (October 29, 2013). \"Photographers Create First Artworks in Google Street View\" . Digital News: Photography . Jump up ^ \"2016 Lumen Prize Winners Announced\" . Lumen Prize . Jump up ^ Collins, Leah. \"On Google Street View, this small town in B.C. is a work of art: Peace, Love and Google Maps: these 360-degree portraits of a community aim to be an example for the world \" \" . Jump up ^ Farber, Dan. \"Google takes Street View off-road with backpack rig\" . CNET . Retrieved 7 September 2012 . Jump up ^ \"BBC News – Google Street View hits Antarctic\" . BBC. October 1, 2010 . Retrieved December 16, 2011 . Jump up ^ Adi Kurniawan (October 9, 2014). \"Pakai Unta, Google Petakan Padang Pasir\" . Jump up ^ Apa Sherpa. \"Growing up in the shadow of Everest\" . Retrieved March 12, 2015 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Google Street View . Official website Map of Google Street View coverage [ show ] v t e Google Maps Related products Google Maps mobile app Map Maker Waze Arts & Culture Latitude (discontinued) Views and mapping sites Aerial View Earth Mars Moon Sky Street View Traffic Street View Coverage Africa Antarctica Asia Israel Europe North America Canada United States Oceania South America Argentina Chile Colombia Uruguay Privacy concerns Competing products Other BlooSee Historypin Mapillary [ show ] v t e Google Overview Alphabet Inc. 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{ "text": "Legal drinking age - Wikipedia Legal drinking age From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Minimum legal age to purchase alcohol by country: Illegal regardless of age Minimum age of 25 years Minimum age of 21 years Minimum age of 20 years Minimum age of 19 years Minimum age of 18 years Minimum age of 17 years Minimum age of 16 years No regulation/no information The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume or purchase alcoholic beverages . These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks. [1] Some Islamic nations prohibit Muslims , or both Muslims and non-Muslims, from drinking alcohol at any age. In other countries, it is not illegal for minors to drink alcohol, but the alcohol can be seized without compensation. In some cases, it is illegal to sell or give alcohol to minors. The following list indicates the age of the person for whom it is legal to consume and purchase alcohol. Kazakhstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Paraguay, Solomon Islands, India (certain states), the United States (except U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico), Yemen (Aden and Sana'a), Japan, Iceland, Canada (certain Provinces and Territories), and South Korea have the highest set drinking ages, however some of these countries do not have off-premises drinking limits. Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Georgia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Morocco, and Western Sahara have the lowest set drinking ages. Contents [ hide ] 1 Africa 2 Americas 3 Asia 4 Europe 5 Oceania 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Africa [ edit ] Country/region De jure Notes Drinking Age Purchase age Algeria 18 [2] Angola 18 [ citation needed ] Botswana 18 [2] Burundi 16 [2] No limit if accompanied by parents [ citation needed ] Cameroon 18 21 18 on the premises, 21 off the premises [ citation needed ] Cape Verde 18 [ citation needed ] Central African Republic 18 [ citation needed ] Comoros None [ citation needed ] Egypt 21 [2] Equatorial Guinea None [ citation needed ] Eritrea 18 [2] Ethiopia 18 [2] Gabon 18 [2] Gambia 18 [2] Ghana 18 [3] Guinea-Bissau None [2] Kenya 18 [2] Lesotho 18 [2] Libya Illegal [2] Malawi 18 [2] Mauritius 18 [2] Morocco 18 [ citation needed ] Forbidden for Muslims [2] Mozambique 18 [2] Namibia 18 [2] Niger 18 [2] Nigeria 18 [ citation needed ] Republic of the Congo 18 [ citation needed ] Rwanda 18 [2] Senegal None [ citation needed ] Seychelles 18 [2] Somalia Illegal [4] South Africa 18 The parent, adult guardian of a minor or a person responsible for administering a religious sacrament, may on occasion supply to that minor a moderate quantity of liquor to be consumed by the minor in the presence and under the supervision of that parent, guardian or other person. [5] South Sudan 18 [6] Sudan Illegal [7] Swaziland 18 [2] Tanzania 18 [8] Togo None [2] Tunisia 18 [ citation needed ] Uganda 18 [2] Western Sahara 16 [ citation needed ] Zambia 18 [2] Zimbabwe 18 [2] Americas [ edit ] Country/region De jure Notes Drinking age Purchase age Anguilla 16 [ citation needed ] Antigua and Barbuda 16 [9] The sale and distribution of alcohol to a person under 16 years of age is illegal. Argentina 18 [10] Bahamas 18 [2] Barbados 18 [11] Those aged 10–17 are allowed to consume alcohol provided they are with a parent or guardian. Belize 18 [12] Drinking age is rarely enforced. IDs are almost never requested. Bermuda 18 [13] Bolivia 18 [2] Brazil 18 [2] British Virgin Islands 16 [12] It is illegal to sell or to supply alcohol to anyone under the age of 16. Canada 18 [14] [15] [16] In Alberta , Manitoba and Quebec , the legal drinking age is 18. 19 [14] [15] [16] In Ontario , Saskatchewan , British Columbia , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , Northwest Territories , Yukon , and Nunavut , the legal drinking age is 19. Cayman Islands 18 [17] Chile 18 [2] The minimum age is 18 to enter an enclosure that sells alcoholic beverages. Selling alcohol to a minor may incur a fine. One must provide identification upon request. Residents of Chile over the age of 18 must carry their Chilean identification card issued by the Civil Registry and Identification Service at all times. [18] Colombia 18 [2] Costa Rica 18 [2] Cuba 16 [2] Dominican Republic 18 [19] Ecuador 18 [2] El Salvador 18 [2] Falkland Islands 18 [ citation needed ] Grenada 16 [ citation needed ] Guatemala 18 [2] Guyana 18 [2] Except 16 for wine or malt liquor to be consumed with a meal Haiti None [2] Honduras 18 [2] Jamaica None [ citation needed ] 18 [ citation needed ] Minors can drink if accompanied by parent or legal guardian as well as someone with permission from their parent or legal guardian. [ citation needed ] Mexico 18 [2] A person must be eighteen years or over to legally purchase and consume alcoholic beverages in Mexico. The drinking age however isn't strictly enforced, and IDs are barely requested. [ citation needed ] Nicaragua 18 [2] Panama 18 [2] Paraguay 20 [20] According to Art. 1° of the law to \"ban on the sale of alcoholic beverages to minors\", it is illegal to serve or sell alcohol or to allow the consumption by minors under 20 years of age. Furthermore, under Art 2° all public establishments selling alcohol must display a clearly legible notice in the sales area with the following text: \"ESTA PROHIBIDA LA VENTA DE BEBIDAS ALCOHÓLICAS A MENORES DE VEINTE AÑOS DE EDAD\" (It is illegal (prohibited) to sell alcoholic beverages to minors under 20 years of age) Peru 18 [2] Puerto Rico 18 The minimum age for the selling of any alcohol beverage is 18. Although a valid Puerto Rico license ID or passport is required as proof of age to buyers who look under the age of 18, it is generally not a common practice to ask for ID to enter a venue that sells alcohol or to sell you alcohol at other establishments. This law can be more enforced in some tourist areas and on foreigners visiting the island by some more exclusive hotels, bars, and upscale clubs. A few of the more exclusive venues in the tourist areas may have their own entrance rules regarding age including not allowing anyone under the age of 25 or 23 to enter and consume alcohol or change this depending on specific nights/events and restricted by gender/sex (i.e. women over 18 allowed to enter but only men over 21 on that same night). [ citation needed ] Trinidad and Tobago 18 [2] Turks and Caicos Islands 18 [ citation needed ] United States (50 states and integral territories) Varies by jurisdiction [2] 21 [2] The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 withholds revenue from states that allow the purchase of alcohol by anyone under the age of twenty-one. Prior to the effective date of that Act, the drinking age varied from state to state . Some states do not allow those under the legal drinking age to be present in liquor stores or in bars (usually, the difference between a bar and a restaurant is that food is served only in the latter). Contrary to popular belief, since the act went into law, only a few states prohibit minors and young adults from consuming alcohol in private settings. As of January 1, 2010, fifteen states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, seventeen states do not ban underage consumption, and the remaining eighteen states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, thirty-one states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho , Texas , and Maryland , is considered legal for those under the age of twenty-one. [21] By a judge's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults eighteen to twenty years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise. [22] The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents. Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty-one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to year in jail. [23] See also: Minor in Possession and List of alcohol laws of the United States United States Virgin Islands 18 [24] Uruguay 18 [2] Venezuela 18 [2] Asia [ edit ] Country/region De jure Notes Drinking age Purchase age Afghanistan Illegal [25] Bangladesh Illegal for Muslims [26] Alcohol will be sold to foreigners in certain locations, albeit clandestinely. Bhutan 18 [27] Brunei 17 with restrictions, unless Muslim [2] Non-Muslims over 17 years of age are allowed to import alcohol not to exceed maximum total volume 2 liters of liquor and 12 cans of beer at 330 ml for personal use, once in 48 hours. This alcohol must be “stored and consumed at the place of residence of the importer” and is “not to be given, transferred or sold to another person.”. [2] Cambodia None [28] China 18 [2] Introduced in January 2006. [29] Weakly enforced to not enforced. Hong Kong 18 [30] The regulation is only applicable to restaurants, bars and clubs, where a liquor license is required. Private drinking is also not regulated. India 18–25 (varies between states) [2] Main article: Alcohol laws of India Consumption of alcohol is prohibited in the states of Bihar , Gujarat and Nagaland . [31] Indonesia 21 [32] Iran Illegal [2] There is a ban on alcohol, but religious minorities may purchase small amounts from shops owned by the same religious minority. [33] Iraq 18 [34] Israel None 18 [2] Israel law prohibits selling or serving alcohol to minors, but it does not prohibit minors to drink. Japan 20 [2] Jordan 18 [35] Kazakhstan 21 [36] Kuwait Illegal [37] Kyrgyzstan 18 [2] Lebanon 18 [2] Often unenforced and according to a global school health study, 40% of minors over 13 drink alcohol and up to 25% buy it from stores. [38] Macau None [ citation needed ] Malaysia 18 Will be increased to 21 on 1 December 2017 [39] Maldives Illegal except for tourists, 18 [ citation needed ] Sale of alcohol is limited to tourist resorts. It is illegal to sell alcohol to local Maldivians [40] Mongolia 18 [41] Myanmar None 18 [42] Nepal 18 The legal age for consumption of alcohol in Nepal is 18. However, there are exceptions to underage consumption for purposes of religious ceremonies. [ citation needed ] North Korea 18 [43] Oman 21 Residents need personal liquor licenses to consume alcohol in their private residences. [44] Pakistan Illegal [2] Non-Muslim citizens may possess alcohol to be used in accordance with religious ceremonies [2] Palestinian Authority 16 [ citation needed ] Legal in most cities Philippines 18 [45] Qatar 19 [ citation needed ] Muslims are allowed to purchase alcohol, but generally not allowed to consume. Non Muslims are allowed to purchase, and consume alcohol. The only legal distributor of alcohol in the country is the Qatar Distribution Company located in Doha. [ citation needed ] Saudi Arabia Illegal Drinking or possessing alcohol is illegal in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Persons who drink or possess alcohol are subject to arrest and trial. Punishments range from heavy fines, lengthy prison terms and whippings. [ citation needed ] Singapore None (Private places, sometimes with permission from parents/guardian) 18 (Public places e.g. bars and restaurants) 18 [2] Main Legislation Drinking alcohol is strictly forbidden in public places in reaction to 2013 Little India riot , after the Committee of Inquiry accepts the recommendations on 7 July 2014. For convenience stores, those who pretend to be 18 years and above in a \"Challenge 18\" scheme will be downgraded to \"Challenge 21\" scheme, and after which the licences will be revoked once they pretend to be 18 years and above if it is on \"Challenge 21\". It is illegal to purchase alcohol in Singapore or consume in a nightclub/allow entry to the nightclub under 18. Home and private drinking of alcohol is allowed, although the safest age could be 6. Parents can try a sip of alcohol at any age. [ citation needed ] South Korea None 19 [ citation needed ] The age limit for alcohol is after January 1 of the year one's age turns to 19. [ citation needed ] Sri Lanka 21 [2] Syria 18 [ citation needed ] Taiwan 18 [46] It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 to consume alcohol. [47] Parents, guardians, and others taking care of people under 18 shall prohibit underage drinking, [48] or risk administrative fines of 10000 to 50000 new Taiwan dollars when the situations are serious. [49] One shall not supply alcohol to anyone under the age of 18. [50] A violator shall be administratively fined 3000 to 15000 New Taiwan Dollars . [51] Tajikistan 18 [2] Thailand 20 [52] The Alcoholic Beverage Control Act of 2008 increased the drinking age in Thailand from 18 to 20, private drinking is not regulated in private locations. [52] [53] Turkmenistan 18 [2] United Arab Emirates 18–21 (varies between states). [54] Expatriate non- Muslim residents may request a liquor permit to purchase alcoholic beverages, but it is illegal for such holders to provide drinks to others. [55] The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by-law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal). [54] It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public. [54] Uzbekistan None 20 [2] Vietnam None [ citation needed ] Yemen Illegal [ citation needed ] Exception is in Aden Region where it's legal for 21 and up [ citation needed ] Europe [ edit ] Country/region De jure Notes Drinking age Purchase age Albania 18 [2] Armenia None 18 There are no laws mandating alcohol vendors to ID potential underage drinkers. ID checks are very rarely, if ever, carried out. [ citation needed ] Austria 16 Burgenland , Lower Austria and Vienna [56] 16 for beer and wine 18 for distilled beverages Carinthia , Upper Austria , Salzburg , Styria , Tyrol and Vorarlberg [56] Carinthia also requires adolescents to maintain a blood alcohol level below 0.05%. Azerbaijan 18 [2] Belarus 18 [2] Belgium None 16 for beer and wine 18 for spirits [57] Since 10 January 2010, it is illegal to \"sell, serve, or offer\" any form of distilled alcohol to those under the age of 18 or any alcoholic drink to those under 16. So fermented drinks like beer or wine are permitted above 16. [57] Previously, it was illegal to sell alcoholic drinks to under-16s, but accompanying adults could buy drinks for them. Bosnia and Herzegovina None 18 [58] Bulgaria 18 [2] Croatia 18 [2] Cyprus 17 [59] Czech Republic None 18 [60] It is illegal to provide alcohol to minors [61] (punishable by fine or up to 1 [62] or 2 [63] year(s) imprisonment). Consumption itself is not prohibited by law. [64] Denmark None 16 to buy alcohol <16.5% ABV 18 to buy alcohol ≥16.5% ABV 18 to be served in restaurants, bars, discos etc. [2] While there is no age requirement for drinking alcohol in Denmark, there are laws that prevent minors from buying alcohol: In order to buy alcohol above 1.2% and below 16.5% ABV in stores, one must be 16 years of age. In order to buy alcohol above 16.5% ABV in stores, one must be 18 years of age. [65] To be served alcoholic drinks in bars, discos, clubs, restaurants and any establishment serving alcoholic beverages one must be 18 years of age. By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation . [66] If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification. [67] This card is rarely used though since a passport or moped-licence can sometimes be used. [68] Estonia 18 [69] Finland 18 for possession and purchase of 1.2–22% ABV 20 for possession and purchase of 23–80% ABV 18 for all in bars, clubs and restaurants [70] All major grocery chains have implemented a policy to ask for ID if the customer looks under 30. [71] Stores may refuse to sell alcohol if the customer is accompanied by a minor, or if proxy purchasing is suspected. Purchasing alcohol on behalf of a minor is a criminal offence. [70] [72] Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine. [73] In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances. [70] France None 18 France has no explicitly stated consumption age, [74] but selling alcohol to a minor (under 18) is illegal [75] and can be fined 7500 euros . [74] This age was raised from 16 to 18 in 2009. [76] [77] Georgia None 16 [ citation needed ] Germany None (on private residence) 16 (in public) (14 when accompanied by a custodial person) for beer and wine 18 for spirits and aliments containing spirits above negligible amount [78] 16 for beer and wine 18 for spirits and aliments containing spirits above negligible amounts [78] See also: Alcohol laws in Germany Gibraltar None [79] 16/18 It is illegal to sell alcoholic drinks to anyone under the age of 18. The minimum age to be served in licensed premises is 16 if: [79] The alcoholic beverage is beer, wine or cider below 15% ABV , or The alcoholic beverage is served in a bottle, or a pre-packaged container below 5.5% ABV . Greece None 18 [ citation needed ] In 2008, the consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited for minors in public. However, the law does not apply to private events or private premises. Hungary 18 [2] Iceland None 20 [80] Possession or consumption of alcohol by minors is not an offence, but supplying them with alcohol is. However, law allows alcohol possessed by a minor to be confiscated. Ireland None (on private residence with permission from parents or guardians) [81] 18 [81] It is illegal for minors to buy alcohol or for a third party to attempt to buy it for minors. It is illegal to purchase alcohol for anybody under the age of consent without permission from their guardians. [82] Italy None 18 [83] In 2012 the then Health Minister Renato Balduzzi proposed to raise the age to 18. [84] Selling alcohol to those under the age of 18 in shops carries a fine between €250 and €1000. Serving alcoholic beverages to those under the age of 16 is a criminal offense and is punished with prison up to one year, if the individual is 16 or 17 it will be treated as an offense that is fined between €250 and €1000 (Legge n. 189/2013) . Kosovo None Latvia None 18 [85] Liechtenstein 16 for wine, beer and cider 18 for spirits and spirit-based beverages. e.g. alcopops Wine, beer and ciders as well as some other party drinks sometimes without spirits may be purchased by the age of 16. Spirits as well as alcopops may be sold only to people at least 18. [86] Lithuania 18 [87] Minors under the age of 18 are prohibited from consuming alcoholic beverages or from having them. After 2018, January 1st, a new law will be put into place, changing the legal drinking age from 18 to 20. [88] Luxembourg None 16 [89] Macedonia 18 [90] [ unreliable source? ] Must show an ID card upon request. In certain smaller places, such as family-owned convenience stores and street kiosks, there is little to no enforcement on how old or young somebody purchases alcohol. There is little to no enforcement for drinking privately, but drinking in bars may require an ID. Malta 17 [91] Must provide identification upon request. Moldova None 16 [92] It is illegal to sell alcohol to anyone under the age of 16. There is no consumption age. Montenegro None 18 [ citation needed ] Netherlands 18 The legal age for purchasing and consumption of alcoholic beverages was raised from 16 to 18 on 1 January 2014. However, many places have officially or unofficially retained a less strict regulation towards 16- and 17-year-olds. [93] Alcohol is commonly available upon parental permission. Selling alcoholic beverages to people under 18 is illegal, although giving it away in private is not. Norway None [94] 18 (<22%) 20 (≥22% ABV ) [2] Selling alcohol to or buying alcohol for minors is illegal. Minors are defined as under 18 for beer and wine, under 20 for drinks that contain 22% ABV or more. Minors who buy alcohol are not held criminally responsible; instead, the crime lies with those who sold it or obtained it for them. Alcohol with more than 60% ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products. [95] Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas. [96] Poland None 18 [97] Article 15 of The Act on Upbringing in Sobriety and Counteracting Alcoholism [98] clearly states that buyers or persons being served must be at least 18 and prove it with ID if they look like they may not be at least that age. There is no mention of consumption age in this or any other act in Poland. Drinking on streets, town squares, and in parks is illegal regardless of age. Portugal None [ citation needed ] 18 [99] Romania None 18 [100] According to law 61/1991 updated in 2008, paragraphs 21-25, it is illegal to serve or sell alcohol to minors. Russia None 18 [101] There is no law or regulation in Russia that prohibits minors from consuming alcohol, but selling alcohol to minors is prohibited by federal and additional regional laws. Serbia 18 [102] Slovakia 18 [103] Slovenia None 18 [104] There is no law regulating the possession and consumption, but it is illegal to sell or offer alcohol of any kind to minors. Spain 18 Asturias was the last autonomous community in Spain where the drinking age was increased to 18 (previously 16) on 1 May 2015. [105] Sweden None None (less than 2.25% ABV ) 18 (bars and restaurants), 18 (2.25%–3.5% ABV in food shops), 20 ( Systembolaget shops [106] ), See also: Alcohol in Sweden Many clubs choose to have higher age limits than 18, commonly 20 or 23. It is legal to drink below 18, but it is illegal to sell, lend or give alcohol to someone under that age and the police can seize alcohol from them, apart from being served alcohol supervised in private \"in moderation\". It is legal to serve an underage person alcohol in a private place. [107] The reason for lower limit in bars than in Systembolaget shops is that bartenders have a legal responsibility for how drunk a guest gets. Switzerland None (See notes) 16 for fermented alcoholic drinks (with less than 15% ABV and natural wines with less than 18% ABV); [108] 18 for spirits [109] Whoever offers or supplies alcoholic beverages to a child under the age of 16 years in an amount which is harmful to one's health is punished with imprisonment up to 3 years or a fine. [110] Whoever sells or supplies spirits to a person under the age of 18 years is punished with a fine up to 10.000 CHF. [111] 18 The canton Ticino prohibits selling and consumption of any type of alcohol by minors under the age of 18. Some shops and supermarkets may not sell alcohol to minors under the age of 18. [112] Turkey 18 [2] See also: Alcohol laws of Turkey Ukraine 18 [2] United Kingdom 18 (on licensed premises) [113] 16 (beer, wine or cider with a meal on licensed premises) [113] 5 (not on licensed premises) [114] None (under medical supervision, or in an emergency) [114] 18 [113] None (liqueur confectionery) [115] Legislation in England and Wales : It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages on licensed premises under the age of 18, other than the following two exceptions. [113] Minors aged 16 or 17 may consume wine, beer or cider on licensed premises when ordered with a meal, and accompanied by an adult. [113] It is legal to sell liqueur confectionery to someone of any age. [115] It is illegal to permit minors under the age of 5 to consume alcoholic beverages unless under medical supervision or in an emergency. [114] Persons over 17 are entitled to their own duty free allowance, which includes alcohol. [116] 18 (in public without a meal or adult supervision) 16 (beer, wine or cider on licensed premises with meal) 5 (on private premises) [117] 18 16 (beer, wine, cider or perry with a meal on licensed premises) None (liqueur confectionery) [115] Legislation in Scotland : It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18. [118] Minors aged 16 or 17 may consume wine, beer or cider on licensed premises when ordered with a meal. [118] It is legal to sell liqueur confectionery to someone of any age. [115] Persons over 17 are entitled to their own duty free allowance, which includes alcohol. [116] 18 Legislation in Northern Ireland: It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18. [ citation needed ] Challenge 21 and Challenge 25 (applies to all of the United Kingdom ) Under the BBPA 's Challenge 21 and Challenge 25 schemes, customers attempting to buy alcoholic beverages are asked to prove their age if in the retailer's opinion they look under 21 [119] (or optionally 25) even though the law states they must be a minimum of 18. Many supermarket and off-licence chains display Challenge 21 (or Challenge 25) notices stating that they will not serve persons who look under 21 (or 25) without ID. Oceania [ edit ] Country/region De jure Notes Drinking age Purchase age American Samoa 21 [120] Australia 18 [2] [121] Main article: Alcohol laws of Australia Varies by state. Some states restrict possession and consumption to over 18, all states restrict purchasing to over 18. In some states, minors may consume alcohol in a private residence with parental permission. [122] Fiji 18 [123] The drinking age was 21 from 2006 to 2009 but was lowered to 18 in 2009. [123] Guam 21 [124] Micronesia, Federated States of 21 New Zealand None 18 [125] Minimum age applies for beverages with 1.15% ABV or over; no restrictions on beverages less than 1.15% ABV. [126] Persons under 18 may drink outside private residences or private functions if accompanied by their parent or legal guardian. Alcohol may be supplied to minors only by, or with express consent from, their parent or legal guardian. [127] Northern Mariana Islands 21 [ citation needed ] Palau 21 [2] Papua New Guinea 18 [2] Samoa 21 [2] Solomon Islands 21 [2] Tokelau 18 [128] Tonga 21 [2] Vanuatu 18 [2] See also [ edit ] Part of the Politics series on Youth rights Activities [show] Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. Child Labor Deterrence Act Children's Online Privacy Protection Act Convention on the Rights of the Child Fair Labor Standards Act Hammer v. Dagenhart History of youth rights in the United States Morse v. Frederick Newsboys' strike of 1899 Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms Wild in the Streets Theory/Concepts [show] Adultcentrism Adultism Ageism Criminalization Democracy Ephebiphobia Fear of children Fear of youth Intergenerational equity Paternalism Social class Suffrage Taking Children Seriously Universal suffrage Unschooling Youth activism Youth suffrage Youth voice Issues [show] Age of candidacy Age of consent Age of majority Behavior modification facility Child labour Compulsory education Conscription Corporal punishment Curfew Child abuse Emancipation of minors Gambling age Homeschooling Human rights and youth sport In loco parentis Juvenile delinquency Juvenile court Legal drinking age Legal working age Minimum driving age Marriageable age Minor (law) Minors and abortion School leaving age Smoking age Status offense Underage drinking in America Voting age Youth-adult partnership Youth participation Youth politics Youth voting Organizations [show] Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission National Youth Rights Association One World Youth Project Queer Youth Network Students for a Democratic Society Freechild Project Three O'Clock Lobby Youth International Party Youth Liberation of Ann Arbor Young Communist League of Canada Persons [show] Adam Fletcher (activist) David J. Hanson David Joseph Henry John Caldwell Holt Alex Koroknay-Palicz Lyn Duff Mike A. Males Neil Postman Sonia Yaco Related [show] Animal rights Anti-racism Direct democracy Egalitarianism Feminism Libertarianism Socialism Students rights Youth rights Social movements portal v t e Amethyst Initiative Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States National Minimum Drinking Age Act Alcoholism National Youth Rights Association Shoulder tap (alcohol) The Century Council Choose Responsibility Mature minor doctrine Youth Youth suffrage Youth rights Age of candidacy Legal drinking age controversy References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Drinking Age Limits Archived 2013-01-20 at the Wayback Machine . - International Center for Alcohol Policies ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb \"Minimum Legal Age Limits\" . 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{ "text": "Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones - Wikipedia Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Engraving of \"The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones\" by Gustave Doré The Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones (or The Valley of Dry Bones or The Vision of Dry Bones ) is a prophecy in chapter 37 of the Book of Ezekiel . [1] The chapter details a vision revealed to the prophet Ezekiel , conveying a dream-like realistic - naturalistic depiction. In his vision the prophet sees himself standing in the valley full of dry human bones . He is commanded to carry a prophecy. Before him the bones connect into human figures, then the bones become covered with tendon tissues, flesh and skin . Then God reveals the bones to the prophet as the People of Israel in exile and commands the Prophet to carry another prophecy in order to revitalize these human figures, to resurrect them and to bring them to the Land of Israel . References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Book of Ezekiel , 37:1-14 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ezekiel's Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones . This article related to the Bible is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . v t e Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vision_of_the_Valley_of_Dry_Bones&oldid=780930205 \" Categories : Prophecy Book of Ezekiel Biblical dreams and visions Bible stubs Hidden categories: Commons category without a link on Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bahasa Indonesia עברית Edit links This page was last edited on 18 May 2017, at 01:06. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Vision_of_the_Valley_of_Dry_Bones&amp;oldid=780930205" }

{ "text": "Love the Way You Lie - Wikipedia Love the Way You Lie From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the song by Rihanna, featuring Eminem, see \" Love the Way You Lie (Part II) \". \"Love the Way You Lie\" Single by Eminem featuring Rihanna from the album Recovery Released August 9, 2010 ( 2010-08-09 ) Format CD single Recorded 2009 Studio Effigy Studios ( Ferndale, Michigan ) Sun Studios (Dublin, Ireland) Genre Pop-rap Length 4 : 23 Label Aftermath Shady Interscope Songwriter(s) Eminem Alex da Kid Skylar Grey Producer(s) Alex da Kid Makeba Riddick Eminem singles chronology \" Not Afraid \" (2010) \" Love the Way You Lie \" (2010) \" No Love \" (2010) \" Not Afraid \" (2010) \" Love the Way You Lie \" (2010) \" No Love \" (2010) Rihanna singles chronology \" Te Amo \" (2010) Te Amo 2010 \" Love the Way You Lie \" (2010) Love the Way You Lie2010 \" Only Girl (In the World) \" (2010) Only Girl (In the World) 2010 Music video \"Love the Way You Lie\" on YouTube \" Love the Way You Lie \" is a song recorded by the American rapper Eminem , featuring Barbadian singer Rihanna , from Eminem's seventh studio album Recovery (2010). The singer and songwriter Skylar Grey wrote and recorded a demo of the song alongside the producer Alex da Kid when she felt she was in an abusive romantic relationship with the music industry. Eminem wrote the verses and chose Rihanna to sing the chorus, resulting in a collaboration influenced by their past experiences in difficult relationships. Recording sessions were held in Ferndale, Michigan , and Dublin, Ireland. Backed by guitar, piano and violin, the track is a midtempo hip-hop ballad with a pop refrain, sung by Rihanna, and describes two lovers who refuse to separate despite being in a dangerous love–hate relationship . Interscope Records released the song in August 2010 as the second single from Recovery . Critics praised its melody but were divided on thematic aspects such as poignancy and accuracy. Eminem promoted the single with performances at the 2010 Electronic Entertainment Expo , the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and festivals . The music video, directed by Joseph Kahn , stars Dominic Monaghan and Megan Fox in a violent relationship and shows Eminem and Rihanna in front of a burning house. The clip had a mixed reception due to scenes of domestic violence . Reporters suggested that the song and its accompanying video were influenced by Eminem's and Rihanna's relationships with their respective ex-lovers Kimberly Scott and Chris Brown . Critics listed \"Love the Way You Lie\" among the best tracks of 2010 and of Eminem's career. The song won many awards and received five Grammy nominations. It is Eminem's best-selling single and ranked number one on several record charts , including the United States' Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks. The single sold six million copies in the US and was the best-selling song of 2010 in the United Kingdom . Musical acts such as Cher Lloyd and The Band Perry have performed cover versions . Rihanna has said that the theme of domestic violence, a topic on which she claims many people do not have insight, is what makes the song effective. She later recorded \" Love the Way You Lie (Part II) \", narrated mostly from her perspective. Contents [ hide ] 1 Writing and production 2 Recording 3 Composition 4 Release and response 4.1 Themes 4.2 Recognition 5 Commercial performance 6 Music video 6.1 Production 6.2 Synopsis 6.3 Reception 7 Live performances 8 Cover versions 9 Sequel 10 Awards 11 Track listing 12 Personnel 13 Charts 13.1 Weekly charts 13.2 Year-end charts 13.3 All-time charts 14 Certifications 15 See also 16 References 17 External links Writing and production [ edit ] Rihanna's approval of the song's topic ultimately influenced her decision to work with Eminem. Development of \"Love the Way You Lie\" began with the backing track and hook melody, which were created by the British hip hop producer Alex da Kid . [1] When making a track, he said he spends hours making loops and produces an electronic drum rhythm before adding live instrumentation. The drums are sampled from live recordings he saves. [2] Alex da Kid recorded an acoustic guitar for the verses with a Georg Neumann U87 microphone and an Avid Mbox audio interface. He told Sound on Sound magazine that this song had given him an opportunity to reintroduce live guitar in hip hop music. [2] During the session, he used Waves RVerb and REQ equalization on his main kick track and a MaxxBass plug-in on two others. [1] Writing began in late 2009, when the American singer Holly Hafermann resided at the Artula Retreat in Bandon, Oregon , [3] and composed songs. [4] Later, in New York City , under her new stage name Skylar Grey, she visited her Universal Music publisher, Jennifer Blakeman , to seek help presenting her work; [4] [5] Blakeman suggested she collaborate with Alex da Kid. [4] The producer emailed Grey his track, which suggested a theme of abusive romantic relationships to her as she spontaneously sang lyrics to the melody. [6] She told the Los Angeles Times that she was in an abusive relationship with the music industry : \"I love it so much, and I give it all that I have, yet it beats me down.\" [7] This idea inspired her writing, [7] a process she found came naturally, as if she were creating an alternative pop song for herself. [8] She wrote the chorus to \"Love the Way You Lie\" in fifteen minutes and recorded vocals for Alex da Kid's demo . [4] [9] In early 2010, Alex da Kid offered the Shady Records Senior Director Rigo \"Riggs\" Morales some backing tracks. [10] Morales enjoyed the tracks and sent them to Eminem , who was seeking a different musical approach for his next album. [10] Impressed with Alex da Kid's work, Eminem asked for more tracks and subsequently heard \"Love the Way You Lie\". He chose it and told his manager Paul Rosenberg he wanted to collaborate with the Barbadian singer Rihanna . [10] Eminem told Skyrock , \"It's one of those tracks that I felt like only she could pull it off.\" [11] Rosenberg sent the track to Rihanna, who accepted Eminem's request \"at the last moment.\" [10] Eminem then wrote the rapped verses. [9] Rihanna said she joined the collaboration because she could relate to the theme of the song, as she and Eminem had been in difficult relationships on \"different ends of the table\". [12] Eminem had released the songs \" '97 Bonnie & Clyde \" (1998) and \" Kim \" (2000), in which he fantasizes, respectively, about murdering and verbally abusing his then-wife Kimberly Scott. [13] They had divorced in 2001 and again in 2006 after a remarriage. [14] In February 2009, Rihanna's relationship with the American singer Chris Brown had ended following his felony assault on her. [15] Rihanna described \"Love the Way You Lie\" as unique, realistic and deep, saying that it \"broke down the cycle of domestic violence\" because few people had insight on the topic. [12] [16] [17] Recording [ edit ] Mike Strange recorded and mixed Eminem's vocals at Effigy Studios in Ferndale, Michigan . [18] The sessions took two days. [19] Strange edited the vocals with D-Verb—a reverberation software—and an Extra Long Delay plug-in. He preferred to make few changes; for \"Love the Way You Lie\" he almost exclusively used board compression and console equalization . Strange used the Bricasti and Eventide Reverb 2016 mixing tools for \"brighter\" reverberation. Detroit musician Luis Resto has contributed to the arrangement on many of Eminem's songs, but did not do so for \"Love the Way You Lie\". According to Strange, \"Everything we needed was already in the track, apart from the vocals.\" [1] Two to three weeks after the sessions, Alex da Kid arrived to help mix and master the track. [10] He wanted to replace the acoustic guitar on the demo, but Eminem chose to keep it. [2] Strange said, \"It was simply a matter of trying to match and then to improve on the demo [Alex da Kid]'d sent us.\" [1] Strange's brother Joe engineered the track. [18] Rihanna's recording sessions took place at Sun Studios in Dublin, Ireland, and were engineered by Marcos Tovar. The American songwriter Makeba Riddick provided additional vocal production. [18] Strange used equalization, compression and reverberation but left the vocal balance. He assumed that Rihanna was satisfied with her recorded vocals and did not make major changes on her seven stereo vocal tracks. [1] Composition [ edit ] \"Love the Way You Lie\" A 26-second song sample. Backed by an electric guitar and a piano, [2] [20] Rihanna sings the second half of the chorus in a sad voice without vibrato . [21] Eminem begins the second verse over an acoustic guitar, violin and drums, expressing frustration in his voice. [2] [22] [23] Problems playing this file? See media help . \"Love the Way You Lie\" is a midtempo hip hop ballad . [8] [24] [25] The lyrics describe a couple's refusal to separate despite having an abusive relationship. [26] According to the sheet music from Universal Music Publishing Group , the song is in the key of B♭ major with a common time signature and a tempo of 84 beats per minute . [27] The vocal range spans from B ♭ 3 to D 5 . [27] \"Love the Way You Lie\" opens as Rihanna sings the pop refrain over a piano: [20] [23] Just gonna stand there and watch me burn But that's alright, because I like the way it hurts. Just gonna stand there and hear me cry But that's alright, because I love the way you lie. [26] The refrain is based on a Gm–E ♭ (add2) –B ♭ –F/A chord progression . [27] Fraser McAlpine of the BBC wrote that Rihanna feels confined \"in a cell of [her] own creation\". [26] She sings without vibrato , [21] a pulsating musical effect used to add expression. [28] One commentator, The New York Times ' David Brownie, wrote that despite this, her voice subtly shows grief and regret. [21] Eminem then \"zap[s] out into a ballady rap\": [20] \"I can't tell you what it really is/ I can only tell you what it feels like.\" [23] The verses follow a Gm–E ♭ (add2) B ♭ –Fsus/A chord progression. [27] Eminem regrets an end to an abusive, failed relationship, describing mutual violence and expressing both fondness and anger. [29] [30] The two artists' characters are portrayed in a romantic relationship when he responds to Rihanna by concluding the verse: \"I laid hands on her. I'll never stoop so low again/ I guess I don't know my own strength.\" [26] Rihanna sings the chorus again, backed by an electric guitar and a piano. [2] [20] Acoustic guitar, violin and drums accompany Eminem's verses. [2] [22] The lyrics transition from discussing positive aspects of love to describing violent events. [30] Eminem raps, \"It's the rage that took over, it controls you both, so they say it's best to go your separate ways. Guess that they don't know ya, cause today that was yesterday.\" [31] Sady Doyle of The Atlantic interpreted these lyrics as the rapper's confession to having abused Scott, as he \"turns the anger and accusations toward himself\". [31] In the second verse, Eminem accepts the outcome after feeling sorry, admitting, \"Yesterday is over, it's a different day.\" [29] His frustration increases and he raps that two personalities can clash and devastate: \"maybe that's what happens when a tornado meets a volcano\". [23] [26] The described love–hate relationship worsens and leads to domestic violence . [32] Eminem admits to lying about promises he makes and says late in the song, [30] \"If she ever tries to fuckin' leave again, I'ma tie her to the bed and set this house on fire\", [33] a reference to Rihanna's lyrics. [30] Release and response [ edit ] On May 27, 2010, Eminem revealed the title of \"Love the Way You Lie\" as part of the track list of his seventh studio album Recovery , [34] which came out on June 21. [35] Initially a radio single, [36] the song was released later by Polydor Records as a CD in the United Kingdom on August 9, 2010. [37] Interscope Records distributed it in Germany on August 20. [38] \"Love the Way You Lie\" received generally favorable reviews. An editor for Rap-Up listed it among the four best tracks from the album. [39] New York Times writer Jon Caramanica considered it \"one of the album's most engaging songs\" and praised Eminem's ability to assess issues from the perspectives of both sexes. [40] MTV's Rodriguez wrote that the song echoes content from Eminem's earlier albums, but finds him \"sober\" and \"more mature\". [41] He added that the lyrics allude to Eminem's relationship with Scott and that \"Love the Way You Lie\" is his closest approach to a love song. [29] Editors of The A.V. Club compared the single with \"Kim\" and \" '97 Bonnie & Clyde\"; they found he is more tempered in \"Love the Way You Lie\" when discussing a \"mutually destructive relationship\" and that Rihanna's involvement creates an eerie mood. [42] Critics especially praised Rihanna's contribution. Michael Menachem of Billboard complimented her \"exquisitely melodic and surprisingly hopeful\" vocal performance and \"Eminem's dark, introspective\" rapping. [24] He noted that the percussion complements both artists and that Alex da Kid gave the classical arrangement a mainstream touch. [24] Kyle Anderson, writing for MTV, remarked that the song showcases Rihanna's emotional vocals and Eminem's \"most intense rhymes about his tumultuous relationships\". [43] He regarded \"Love the Way You Lie\" as an honest, \"well-constructed pop song with a killer hook\" and likened the \"slow-burning\" music to that of \" Someone like You \", a 2011 single by the British singer Adele . [43] [44] The Houston Chronicle pop critic Joey Guerra commented that Rihanna brought a \"sandpaper and silk sheen\" to the track. [45] Themes [ edit ] Many critics believed the song was about Rihanna's past relationship with Chris Brown . Critics have commented on the message in the lyrics. Anderson noted a dark theme, [43] while Nick Levine of Digital Spy , Allie Townsend of Time magazine and Jocelyn Noveck of The Associated Press suggested the previous relationships of both artists influenced the song. [30] [46] [47] Levine gave it four stars out of five. [46] According to Eric Hayden of The Atlantic Wire , the song refers to an alcoholic couple, possibly inspired by Rihanna's relationship with Brown. [48] McAlphine awarded \"Love the Way You Lie\" four stars out of five. [26] According to him, the song would not have been effective if it had featured only Eminem's point of view and feelings of regret; he wrote that Rihanna's representing the opposite side of the relationship shows \"proper storytelling\" and \"sends a message\" because of her breakup with Brown. [26] McAlphine wrote that as a result the song depicts a more realistic abusive relationship and could be featured in a campaign for women's shelters . He praised Eminem's accuracy and understanding of the topic. [26] Winston Robbins from Consequence of Sound attributed the song's poignancy to Rihanna's past abusive relationship, and a theme of infidelity and abuse. [49] On the critical side, The Daily Telegraph ' s Jenny McCartney dismissed the metaphors in the chorus and thought the song's topic was over-hyped. [50] She disagreed with the critical praise, arguing that women accept abusive relationships for deeper reasons than sexual and emotional pleasure, such as family and financial issues and helplessness. [50] In an NPR article, the writer Maura Johnston commented that the lyrics portray Rihanna as the subject of Eminem's violence. [51] Jay Smooth , a New York radio personality, responded that \"while Eminem explores the psyche of the abuser with an almost disturbing amount of depth and detail,\" Rihanna's perspective is downplayed and not explained fully. [51] Johnston and Smooth wrote that such imbalances are a prevalent issue in popular music duets. [51] To Sady Doyle, although \"Love the Way You Lie\" is one of Eminem's most affecting tracks and finds him remorseful, it does not make up for his past misogynistic actions and hateful songs. [31] Noveck questioned whether the lyrics are \"a treatise against (or apology for) domestic violence, or an irresponsible glorification of it? Or, is it something uncomfortable in between?\" [30] Marjorie Gilberg, executive director of the anti-teenage violence group Break the Cycle, commented that \"Love the Way You Lie\" can teach listeners about the dangers of abusive relationships if interpreted correctly. She believed that because popular culture often depicts what is socially acceptable, people may accept such violence more easily. She added, \"One problem, though, ... is that the song reflects myths about domestic violence—myths that lead to blaming the victim .\" [30] Gilberg said the victim is often accused of being as guilty as the partner but wants to be loved, not abused. Terry O'Neill , a feminist and the president of the National Organization for Women , criticized the lyric, \"But your temper's just as bad as mine is / You're the same as me\", saying it is a typical excuse used by abusive men for aggression and that \"it's only 2-year-olds and violent men who use violence to get what they want.\" [30] She added that Rihanna unintentionally glorifies domestic violence in the song despite attempting to fight it. [30] Recognition [ edit ] \"Love the Way You Lie\" ranked in various best-of-2010 lists. Claire Suddath of Time placed it at number five on her top-ten list and wrote, \"That this song didn't come across sounding clichéd or tasteless is a testament to both artists' skill.\" [23] AOL Radio considered the song the best of 2010 hip hop music, regarding Eminem as imaginative and passionate. [52] It ranked ninth on MTV News' top-twenty-five list. [53] Its editor James Montgomery attributed the song's success to its theme and relation to the artists' past abusive relationships. [53] He concluded, \"You cannot write a song any better than that, because that's how this kind of thing happens in real life.\" [53] The New York Post placed the song at second place on their \"top 210 songs from 2010\" list and regarded it as a \"comeback club anthem.\" [54] In April 2011, Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine ranked it at number 100 on their \"100 Best Eminem Songs\" list, calling it a love song and praising Rihanna's vocals as beautiful. [55] \"Love the Way You Lie\" and its accompanying music video were nominated for five Grammy Awards at the 2011 ceremony , including \" Record of the Year \", \" Song of the Year \" and \" Best Short Form Music Video \". [56] It won the People's Choice Awards for \"Favorite Music Video\" and \"Favorite Song\". [57] Commercial performance [ edit ] \"Love the Way You Lie\" reached number one on several record charts worldwide. [58] It entered the United States' Billboard Hot 100 at number two in the issue dated July 10, 2010. [59] The single debuted at number one on the US Digital Songs after selling 338,000 digital copies in its first week. [36] From July 31 to September 11, 2010, it had a seven-week run at the top of the Hot 100, [60] giving Eminem his fourth, and Rihanna her seventh, number-one US hit. [61] The single sold more than 300,000 digital copies in the week of August 14, 2010, rising to number two on the Pop Songs and Radio Songs charts. [62] In the Billboard issue for August 21, 2010, Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems recognized the single with the BDS Certified Award for 50,000 radio spins . [63] It topped the Pop Songs chart in the same issue, [64] giving Eminem his third number-one track on the chart and Rihanna her sixth. [65] \"Love the Way You Lie\" was the first number-one hit on the Rap Songs chart with Eminem as the lead artist since his 2000 single \" The Real Slim Shady \". [66] With sales of 4,245,000 copies, \"Love the Way You Lie\" was the third-best-selling single of 2010 in the US. [67] There, it sold 6 million copies by October 2013 and 6.5 million copies by October 2015. [68] [69] The song entered the Australian Singles Chart on July 4, 2010, at number fourteen. [58] It rose to the top three weeks later, occupying the position for six weeks and staying on the chart for 38 weeks in total. [58] In Austria, \"Love the Way You Lie\" debuted at number 31, on July 2, 2010, and ascended to number one on September 4. [70] After making a final consecutive appearance on March 4, 2011, it reappeared at number 75 on August 26. The song spent 47 weeks on the chart. [70] \"Love the Way You Lie\" charted for 30 weeks in France, where debuted and peaked at number three on July 2, 2010. [71] It was South Korea's third-best-selling song in 2010 by a foreign artist, with 1,200,653 downloads. [72] On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at number seven on June 27, 2010, and peaked at number two four weeks later. [73] [74] By the end of 2010,\"Love the Way You Lie\" had sold 854,000 copies in the UK, making it the country's biggest-selling song of the year . [75] In October 2011, it became the 109th song to reach 1 million sales there. [76] By November 2012, the single had sold 1.05 million copies in the UK, placing at number 100 on the Official Charts Company 's \"The Million Sellers\" list. [77] As of June 2015, it is the 17th best-selling single of the 2010s in the UK . [78] According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry , \"Love the Way You Lie\" sold 9.3 million copies worldwide in 2010. [79] In December 2011, it was certified as Eminem's best-selling single. [80] Music video [ edit ] Production [ edit ] Megan Fox helped the video have a strong impact, according to the director Joseph Kahn . The music video for \"Love the Way You Lie\" was Eminem's third to be directed by the American filmmaker Joseph Kahn . [81] Despite having planned to shoot a feature film and stop directing pop videos, Kahn chose to work on \"Love the Way You Lie\" because, according to him, the song discusses an important topic. [82] This was an opportunity for him to direct a video for Eminem without the comedic themes of their previous collaborations. [83] For the video, Kahn considered the British actor Dominic Monaghan as a co-star for his versatility, which he thought would help him play an antagonist. [84] Kahn cast the American actress Megan Fox , which he had presumed would be almost impossible because of her popularity with directors. [83] Fox, a fan of Eminem, accepted the role unhesitatingly. [83] Rosenberg gave Kahn one day to write a treatment , which Kahn finished in 45 minutes. [83] He filmed Eminem's and Rihanna's parts on July 20, 2010; [85] scenes with Fox and Monaghan were shot three days later. [86] By July 24, 2010, they finished the shoot. [87] Kahn confirmed the completion of the director's cut the next day. [85] He said Fox's involvement made the video powerful, [83] commenting for Vibe : We wanted to make a specific story about two people—Meg and Dom—not a video that was representative of all couples or all domestic violence situations. I'm not saying that all couples fight this way. I just want people just to be able to identify with the characters and recognize that they've seen relationships like this where two people are together that are completely wrong for each other and things spiral out of control. ... Megan was the key to this video. ... I'll tell you as a director the reason why [Fox and Monaghan's] scenes in the video feel so real is because in the moment they were real. [83] Monaghan told MTV he thought the couple represents Eminem and Scott. [17] The clip was produced by Kathy Angstadt and MaryAnn Tanedo of HSI Productions. [88] Shortly before its release, Eminem reported in a press statement: \"Joseph and I worked pretty closely together to make sure we got this right\". [89] He said the difficult topic resulted in a powerful video because of the contributions of Rihanna, Fox and Monaghan. [89] Fox donated her appearance fee to the Soujourn House, a battered women's shelter. [90] On August 5, 2010, the video premiered on MTV and the music video website Vevo . [85] [91] Synopsis [ edit ] Eminem and Rihanna stand in front of a burning house in the video. Rihanna sings the chorus in front of a burning house, while an interspersing scene shows fire on a woman's (Fox) palms. In another scene, the woman is asleep with her lover (Monaghan) and wakes up. As Eminem begins to rap in an open field, the woman attacks her lover after seeing the name \"Cindy\" and a phone number written on his hand. [92] He unsuccessfully tries to kiss the woman and brings her back after she attempts to leave him. The man then pushes her onto the wall and aims his fist at her, puncturing the wall instead. After Rihanna sings again, the video flashes back to when the couple first meet \"at a seedy dive bar next door\" to a liquor store. [86] [92] The man steals a bottle of vodka and they kiss on the rooftop. During the present, the man apologizes to his lover and they are reconciled. In another flashback, he attacks someone who plays pool with his lover. [92] Eminem joins Rihanna in front of the burning house for the final verse. Meanwhile, after the flashback, the woman comes home and locks herself in the bathroom to stop her abusive lover from entering. In another scene, the fire on her palms vanishes as she clasps her hands. Flames later engulf Eminem and the couple, [93] who are then shown fighting in front of the burning house. In the end, the couple stays together and the video returns to their first scene, in which they sleep. [92] [94] Reception [ edit ] \"It's the story of them getting to know each other, and it's the story of their tumultuous relationship, and it was the story of the breakdown of their relationship. Ultimately, what I think [Eminem]'s trying to say in the song ... is that he should have walked away a little bit quicker than he did and not let it get as messy as it did.\" —Monaghan's interpretation of \"Love the Way You Lie\" [95] The clip broke what was a YouTube record at the time of its release for the most views in one day, with 6.6 million. [96] It had a mixed reception from critics, most of whom commented on scenes of domestic violence. [97] NPR's Zoe Chace deemed the video sickening, [98] while AOL Music listed it at number five on their list of the \"Top 10 Most Controversial Music Videos in Pop\". [97] Stephanie Nilva—the executive director of trauma resource center Day One—told MTV News that it mainly raises \"the topic of dating violence among young people\". [95] Nilva praised the clip's accurate depiction of patterns in an abusive relationship and thought the video's potency came from Eminem's history of violence-themed songs and Brown's assault on Rihanna. [95] A writer for Rap-Up considered the video realistic, as \"art imitates life\". [99] Conor Friedersdorf of The Atlantic called it an inaccurate portrayal of domestic violence due to insufficient violence, as evidenced by the lack of injuries after punching through a wall. [100] Mariel Concepcion of Billboard suggested the video was inspired by the lyric, [91] \"Just gonna stand there and watch me burn, but that's alright because I like the way it hurts.\" [33] Rihanna's appearance was criticized. Writing for Rolling Stone magazine, Daniel Kreps called it \"especially striking\" and noted her relationship with Brown. [101] An editor from The Boston Globe commented that although the video is realistic, it hinders Rihanna's ability to set an example for women in abusive relationships. [94] Billy Johnson Jr. from Yahoo! Music wrote that Fox's character alternated between vulnerable and confrontational personalities, while Monaghan's character is similar to Eminem. [102] Kahn, who understood why viewers thought Eminem's and Rihanna's relationships influenced the video, asked that they realize this is untrue. He said the team had been conscious of such personal matters and Fox's and Monaghan's characters are only significant to each other. [103] Reviewers discussed the acting. Peter Gicas of E! News noted that Fox and Monaghan portray \"combustible behavior the tune is hellbent on describing.\" [104] The New York Post ' s Jarett Wieselman wrote that they play their roles perfectly and help make the video powerful. [105] Entertainment Weekly ' s Whitney Pastorek found the violent acting sexually appealing, [106] while Willa Paskin of New York magazine wrote that the cast's appeal \"hypnotize[s]\" viewers. [107] Paskin noted the use of sepia toning in the burning-house scenes. [107] Matthew Wilkening of AOL Radio commented that the video leaves viewers to decide \"if it's a good thing or a bad thing that the pair always end up reconciling.\" [108] Mikey Fresh of Vibe commented that Fox's natural reaction when Monaghan pierces the wall and almost hits her is an \"incredible act of vulnerability\". [83] L Magazine ' s Benjamin Sutton likened the scene in which the characters burn to the Marvel Comics character Chris Bradley , whom Monaghan portrays in the 2009 action film X-Men Origins: Wolverine . [109] As of April 2018, the video is the site's 36th most viewed video , [110] with more than 1.5 billion views. [111] Live performances [ edit ] Eminem and Rihanna performing \"Love the Way You Lie\" at E3 2010 Eminem has promoted \"Love the Way You Lie\" at concerts. On June 15, 2010, he and Rihanna performed the song at Los Angeles' Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 , accompanied by the drummer Travis Barker and D12 's Mr. Porter . [112] Eminem sang \"Love the Way You Lie\" at the Scottish festival T in the Park on July 10, 2010, dedicating it to \"everybody who'[d] been in a fucked-up relationship.\" [113] He then performed the song at Ireland's annual Oxegen festival on July 11, 2010. [114] James Hendicott from State wrote that the rapper's personality \"fill[ed] the stage\" and that his vocals were sharp and packed \"plenty of punch\". [115] He criticized the use of a pre-recorded backing track and noted the lack of live music and female vocals. [115] Eamon Sweeney from the Irish Independent called Eminem's performance only \"mildly impressive\". [116] On July 21, 2010, the rapper joined Rihanna on her Last Girl on Earth Tour to perform in Los Angeles. [117] He then performed at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and was voted the best performer of the ceremony in an MTV poll, earning 34 percent of votes. [118] [119] Rihanna made a surprise appearance despite having said she could not perform because of her schedule. [120] Suddath of Time called their duet dull. [121] Eminem sang \"Love the Way You Lie\" without Rihanna at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival for almost 80,000 people. [122] [123] According to MTV News' Montgomery, the \"sheer tenacity with which he attacked\" was his strength. [122] Patrick Doyle of Rolling Stone felt Eminem delivered a triumphal act by \"constantly bouncing across the stage\" and singing energetically. [124] Eminem performed \"Love the Way You Lie\" on the second day of Chicago's annual Lollapalooza festival on August 6, 2011. [125] Members of the audience sang the chorus to compensate for Rihanna's absence. [126] Piet Levy of USA Today named the show a \"tragic stunner\", [125] while Katie Hasty of HitFix added that it displayed competition between the sexes. [127] Eminem and Rihanna performed in Staffordshire on the first day of V2011 ( V Festival ), on August 20, 2011. [128] James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph considered it an \"affecting\" rendition. [129] The Guardian called their performance thrilling and an editor for the British newspaper Metro felt that it was the best part of the evening. [130] [131] Eminem closed the festival on the night of August 21 in Chelmsford , Essex , for an audience of 120,000. [132] A reporter for the International Business Times thought that Eminem's duet with Rihanna was the highlight of the show. [133] Cover versions [ edit ] Various musical acts have performed cover versions of \"Love the Way You Lie\". Eric Stanley , an American violinist, remixed the song on the violin. [134] The country music group The Band Perry sang the song at the June 2010 CMT Music Awards . [135] Two months later, Taylor Momsen —the lead singer of the American rock band The Pretty Reckless —performed a cover version for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge as part of a mashup with the song \" Islands \" by the English pop band The xx . [136] Assisted by a guitarist from her band, she began with a section of \"Islands\" and transitioned into the chorus of \"Love the Way You Lie\". [136] Cher Lloyd , a British singer, performed the song in the final five of The X Factor UK ' s seventh season . [137] [138] A writer from The Sun called the performance \"stripped-back\" and \"without any of her usual stage gimmicks.\" [139] Mernie Gilmore of the Daily Express commented that the song is \"a duet for a reason\" as Lloyd performed both Eminem's and Rihanna's parts. [137] In 2010, the Russian guitarist Alex Feather Akimov , released \"Love The Way You Lie (Heavy Remix)\", a recording that was recognized by Billboard.biz (Web Trends). [140] The American post-hardcore band A Skylit Drive recorded a cover of the single for Punk Goes Pop 4 , the 2011 release of the Punk Goes... series. [141] Sequel [ edit ] Main article: Love the Way You Lie (Part II) Rihanna performing \"Love the Way You Lie (Part II)\" on the Loud Tour (2011) in Birmingham, England On November 3, 2010, an alternative version titled \" Love the Way You Lie (Part II) \" leaked onto the Internet. [142] Rihanna is the lead vocalist and Eminem is a featured guest. The song mainly views matters from Rihanna's perspective and is based on Grey's demo. [7] [143] Rihanna agreed to record a sequel despite initially thinking \"the original couldn't be beaten\". [144] She said that the sequel involved less production, with only piano and drums. [144] It is the eleventh and final track on her 2010 studio album Loud . [145] Grey's version appears on her 2012 extended play The Buried Sessions of Skylar Grey and her 2013 studio album Don't Look Down as \"Love the Way You Lie (Part III)\". [146] [147] Rihanna performed a short medley that comprised \"Love the Way You Lie (Part II)\", \" What's My Name? \" and \" Only Girl (In the World) \" at the American Music Awards of 2010 . [148] Another medley, consisting of \"Love the Way You Lie (Part II)\" and \" I Need a Doctor \", was performed at the 2011 Grammy Awards. [149] While the Chicago Sun-Times considered the track an unnecessary sequel, [150] the BBC reviewer James Skinner wrote, \" 'Love the Way You Lie (Part II)' even bests the original, Eminem's verse exuding the kind of volatile, simmering menace that got everyone so excited about him in the first place. But it is Rihanna's vocal—at once commanding, soulful and vulnerable—that anchors the song\". [151] Awards [ edit ] See also: List of awards and nominations received by Eminem Year Ceremony Award Result 2010 Teen Choice Awards [152] Choice Music: Rap/Hip-Hop Track Won MTV Europe Music Awards [153] Best Song Nominated Best Video Nominated Soul Train Music Awards [154] Best Hip-Hop Song of the Year Won People's Choice Awards [57] Favorite Music Video Won Favorite Song Won 2011 Barbados Music Awards [155] Best Collaboration Won NRJ Music Awards [156] [157] Chanson Internationale de l'Année (International Song of the Year) Nominated Clip de l'Année (Video of the Year) Nominated Grammy Awards [56] Record of the Year Nominated Song of the Year Nominated Best Rap Song Nominated Best Rap/Sung Collaboration Nominated Best Short Form Music Video Nominated Billboard Music Awards [158] [159] Top Digital Song Nominated Top Hot 100 Song Nominated Top Radio Song Nominated Top Rap Song Won Top Streaming Song (Audio) Nominated Top Streaming Song (Video) Nominated MuchMusic Video Awards [88] Best International Artist Video Nominated MuchMusic.com Most Watched Video Nominated UR Fave: International Video Nominated Detroit Music Awards [160] Outstanding National Single Nominated Outstanding Video / Major Budget (Over $10,000) Nominated MTV Video Music Awards [161] Best Cinematography Nominated Best Direction Nominated Best Male Video Nominated Best Video with a Message Nominated Track listing [ edit ] CD single [162] \"Love the Way You Lie\" (featuring Rihanna) – 4:15 \" Not Afraid \" (Live at T in the Park )  – 6:54 Personnel [ edit ] The credits for \"Love the Way You Lie\" are adapted from the liner notes of Recovery . [18] Eminem – mixing engineer , writer , vocalist Rihanna – vocalist Alex da Kid – mastering engineer , [10] mixing engineer, producer , writer Skylar Grey – writer Mike Strange – mixing engineer, recording engineer Marcos Tovar – recording engineer Joe Strange – engineering assistant James Darkin  – engineering assistant Makeba Riddick – producer (vocals) J. Brow – guitarist Charts [ edit ] Weekly charts [ edit ] Chart (2010) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) [58] 1 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [70] 1 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [163] 1 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia) [164] 1 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) [165] 1 Czech Republic ( Rádio Top 100 ) [166] 2 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) [167] 1 Europe ( European Hot 100 Singles ) [168] 1 Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) [169] 1 France ( SNEP ) [71] 1 Germany ( Official German Charts ) [170] 1 Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [171] 1 Ireland ( IRMA ) [172] 1 Israel ( Media Forest ) [173] 1 Italy ( FIMI ) [174] 1 Japan ( Japan Hot 100 ) [175] 55 Luxembourg Digital Songs ( Billboard ) [176] 1 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) [177] 4 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) [178] 1 Norway ( VG-lista ) [179] 1 Poland ( Polish Airplay Top 100 ) [180] 1 Poland ( Video Chart ) [181] 1 Romania ( Romanian Top 100 ) [182] 1 Russia ( Download Chart ) [183] 1 Scotland (Official Charts Company) [184] 3 Slovakia ( Rádio Top 100 ) [185] 1 South Korea ( GAON ) [186] 1 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [187] 1 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) [188] 1 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [189] 1 UK Singles (Official Charts Company) [74] 2 UK R&B (Official Charts Company) [190] 1 US Billboard Hot 100 [191] 1 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [192] 29 US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs ( Billboard ) [193] 7 US Hot Latin Songs ( Billboard ) [194] 23 US Hot Rap Songs ( Billboard ) [195] 1 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) [196] 1 US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) [197] 1 Year-end charts [ edit ] Chart (2010) Position Australia ( ARIA ) [198] 1 Australia Urban ( ARIA ) [199] 1 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 75 ) [200] 5 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [201] 21 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia) [202] 11 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) [203] 7 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) [204] 7 European Hot 100 Singles [205] 8 Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [206] 35 Ireland ( IRMA ) [207] 4 Italy ( FIMI ) [208] 20 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) [209] 20 New Zealand ( RIANZ ) [210] 2 South Korea International Singles ( Gaon ) [211] 2 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [212] 11 Spain Top 20 TV ( PROMUSICAE ) [213] 19 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) [214] 1 US Billboard Hot 100 [215] 7 US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs ( Billboard ) [216] 59 US Pop Songs ( Billboard ) [217] 9 Chart (2011) Position Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [218] 41 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) [219] 133 All-time charts [ edit ] Chart Position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) [220] 89 Certifications [ edit ] Region Certification Certified units /Sales Australia ( ARIA ) [221] 10× Platinum 700,000 ^ Belgium ( BEA ) [222] Gold 15,000 * Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) [223] Platinum 60,000 ^ Germany ( BVMI ) [224] 2× Platinum 600,000 ^ Italy ( FIMI ) [225] Platinum 50,000 * Japan ( RIAJ ) [226] Gold 100,000 ^ New Zealand ( RMNZ ) [227] 2× Platinum 30,000 * Russia ( NFPF ) [228] Ringtone 3× Platinum 600,000 * Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [229] Platinum 40,000 ^ Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland) [230] 3× Platinum 90,000 ^ United Kingdom ( BPI ) [231] 2× Platinum 1,552,222 [232] United States ( RIAA ) [233] 12× Platinum 12,000,000 * sales figures based on certification alone ^ shipments figures based on certification alone sales+streaming figures based on certification alone Since May 9, 2013, RIAA certifications for digital singles include on-demand audio and/or video song streams in addition to downloads. [234] See also [ edit ] List of best-selling singles List of best-selling singles in the United States List of best-selling singles in Australia List of number-one singles of 2010 (Australia) List of number-one hits of 2010 (Austria) List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2010 (Canada) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Denmark) List of European number-one hits of 2010 List of number-one singles of 2010 (Finland) List of number-one hits of 2010 (France) List of number-one hits of 2010 (Germany) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Hungary) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Ireland) List of number-one hits of 2010 (Italy) List of number-one singles in 2010 (New Zealand) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Norway) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Poland) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Spain) List of number-one singles of 2010 (Sweden) List of UK R&B Singles Chart number ones of 2010 List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2010 List of Mainstream Top 40 number-one hits of 2010 (U.S.) Hip hop portal R&B and Soul Music portal Eminem portal Rihanna portal References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Tingen, Paul. \"Secrets Of The Mix Engineers: Mike Strange Jr\" . 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Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved February 28, 2018 . If necessary, click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ \"RIAA Adds Digital Streams To Historic Gold & Platinum Awards\" . Recording Industry Association of America . May 9, 2013. Archived from the original on May 26, 2013 . Retrieved May 9, 2013 . External links [ edit ] Eminem – Love the Way You Lie (music video) ft. Rihanna on YouTube Eminem \"Love The Way You Lie\" lyrics [ show ] v t e Eminem songs Discography Production discography Awards and nominations D12 discography Bad Meets Evil Slim Shady EP \" Just Don't Give a Fuck \" The Slim Shady LP \" My Name Is \" \" Role Model \" \" Guilty Conscience \" The Marshall Mathers LP \" The Real Slim Shady \" \" The Way I Am \" \" Stan \" The Eminem Show \" Without Me \" \" Cleanin' Out My Closet \" \" Superman \" \" Sing for the Moment \" \" Business \" 8 Mile soundtrack \" Lose Yourself \" Encore \" Just Lose It \" \" Mosh \" \" Encore \" \" Like Toy Soldiers \" \" Mockingbird \" \" Ass Like That \" Curtain Call: The Hits \" When I'm Gone \" \" Shake That \" Eminem Presents: The Re-Up \" You Don't Know \" \" Jimmy Crack Corn \" Relapse \" Crack a Bottle \" \" We Made You \" \" 3 a.m. \" \" Old Time's Sake \" \" Beautiful \" Refill \" Forever \" \" Hell Breaks Loose \" \" Elevator \" \" Music Box \" Recovery \" Not Afraid \" \" Love the Way You Lie \" \" No Love \" \" Space Bound \" The Marshall Mathers LP 2 \" Berzerk \" \" Survival \" \" Rap God \" \" The Monster \" \" Headlights \" Shady XV \" Guts Over Fear \" \" Detroit vs. Everybody \" Southpaw soundtrack \" Phenomenal \" \" Kings Never Die \" Revival \" Walk on Water \" \" Untouchable \" \" River \" \" Nowhere Fast \" Collaborations \" Dead Wrong \" \" Forgot About Dre \" \" The Watcher \" \" Renegade \" \" Rock City \" \" Hellbound \" \" Rap Name \" \" Shit Hits the Fan \" \" One Day at a Time \" \" Welcome 2 Detroit \" \" Smack That \" \" Touchdown \" Drop the World \" \" Roman's Revenge \" \" Love the Way You Lie (Part II) \" \" That's All She Wrote \" \" I Need a Doctor \" \" Writer's Block \" \" Throw That \" \" My Life \" \" C'mon Let Me Ride \" \" Numb \" \" Calm Down \" \" Best Friend \" \" No Favors \" \" Revenge \" Other songs \" '97 Bonnie & Clyde \" \" Kim \" \" Bitch Please II \" \" White America \" \" 'Till I Collapse \" \" The Warning \" \" Won't Back Down \" \" Bad Guy \" \" Rhyme or Reason \" \" Legacy \" \" So Far... \" \" Campaign Speech \" [ show ] v t e Rihanna songs Discography Music of the Sun \" Pon de Replay \" \" If It's Lovin' that You Want \" \" You Don't Love Me (No, No, No) \" A Girl like Me \" SOS \" \" Unfaithful \" \" We Ride \" \" Break It Off \" Good Girl Gone Bad \" Umbrella \" \" Don't Stop the Music \" \" Shut Up and Drive \" \" Hate That I Love You \" \" Rehab \" Good Girl Gone Bad: Reloaded \" Disturbia \" \" Take a Bow \" \" If I Never See Your Face Again \" Rated R \" Wait Your Turn \" \" Hard \" \" Stupid in Love \" \" Rockstar 101 \" \" Russian Roulette \" \" Rude Boy \" \" Te Amo \" \" Cold Case Love \" Loud \" S&M \" \" What's My Name? \" \" Cheers (Drink to That) \" \" Fading \" \" Only Girl (In the World) \" \" California King Bed \" \" Man Down \" \" Raining Men \" \" Complicated \" \" Skin \" \" Love the Way You Lie (Part II) \" Talk That Talk \" You da One \" \" Where Have You Been \" \" We Found Love \" \" Talk That Talk \" \" Cockiness (Love It) \" \" Birthday Cake \" \" Drunk on Love \" \" Roc Me Out \" \" Watch n' Learn \" \" Farewell \" \" Do Ya Thang \" \" Fool in Love \" Unapologetic \" Phresh Out the Runway \" \" Diamonds \" \" Numb \" \" Pour It Up \" \" Loveeeeeee Song \" \" Jump \" \" Right Now \" \" What Now \" \" Stay \" \" Nobody's Business \" \" Love Without Tragedy / Mother Mary \" \" No Love Allowed \" \" Half of Me \" Home \" Towards the Sun \" \" Dancing in the Dark \" Anti \" Consideration \" \" Kiss It Better \" \" Work \" \" Desperado \" \" Needed Me \" \" Love on the Brain \" \" Pose \" \" Sex with Me \" Collaborations \" All of the Lights \" \" Bad (Remix) \" \" Can't Remember to Forget You \" \" Famous \" \" Fly \" \" Lemon \" \" Live Your Life \" \" Love the Way You Lie \" \" Loyalty \" \" Nothing Is Promised \" \" Numba 1 (Tide Is High) \" \" Princess of China \" \" Roll It \" \" Run This Town \" \" Selfish \" \" Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour) \" \" Take Care \" \" The Monster \" \" This Is What You Came For \" \" Too Good \" \" Who's That Chick? \" \" Wild Thoughts \" Non-album songs \" American Oxygen \" \" Bad Girl \" \" Birthday Cake (Remix) \" \" Bitch Better Have My Money \" \" Cockiness (Love It) (Remix) \" \" FourFiveSeconds \" \" Just Stand Up! \" \" Redemption Song \" \" S&M (Remix) \" \" Sledgehammer \" \" Turn Up the Music (Remix) \" Book Category Portal [ show ] v t e Best-selling singles by year in the United Kingdom 1952–1969 1952: \" Auf Wiederseh'n Sweetheart \" – Vera Lynn (UK) 1953: \" I Believe \" – Frankie Laine 1954: \" Secret Love \" – Doris Day 1955: \" Rose Marie \" – Slim Whitman 1956: \" I'll Be Home \" – Pat Boone 1957: \" Diana \" – Paul Anka 1958: \" Jailhouse Rock \" – Elvis Presley 1959: \" Living Doll \" – Cliff Richard (UK) 1960: \" It's Now or Never \" – Elvis Presley 1961: \" Wooden Heart \" – Elvis Presley 1962: \" I Remember You \" – Frank Ifield (UK) 1963: \" She Loves You \" – The Beatles (UK) 1964: \" Can't Buy Me Love \" – The Beatles (UK) 1965: \" Tears \" – Ken Dodd (UK) 1966: \" Green, Green Grass of Home \" – Tom Jones (UK) 1967: \" Release Me \" – Engelbert Humperdinck (UK) 1968: \" Hey Jude \" – The Beatles (UK) 1969: \" Sugar, Sugar \" – The Archies 1970–1989 1970: \" The Wonder of You \" – Elvis Presley 1971: \" My Sweet Lord \" – George Harrison (UK) 1972: \" Amazing Grace \" – The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Band (UK) 1973: \" Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree \" – Tony Orlando and Dawn 1974: \" Tiger Feet \" – Mud (UK) 1975: \" Bye Bye Baby \" – Bay City Rollers (UK) 1976: \" Save Your Kisses for Me \" – Brotherhood of Man (UK) 1977: \" Mull of Kintyre \" / \" Girls' School \" – Wings (UK) 1978: \" Rivers of Babylon \" / \" Brown Girl in the Ring \" – Boney M. 1979: \" Bright Eyes \" – Art Garfunkel 1980: \" Don't Stand So Close to Me \" – The Police (UK) 1981: \" Don't You Want Me \" – The Human League (UK) 1982: \" Come On Eileen \" – Dexys Midnight Runners (UK) 1983: \" Karma Chameleon \" – Culture Club (UK) 1984: \" Do They Know It's Christmas? \" – Band Aid (UK) 1985: \" The Power of Love \" – Jennifer Rush 1986: \" Don't Leave Me This Way \" – The Communards (UK) 1987: \" Never Gonna Give You Up \" – Rick Astley (UK) 1988: \" Mistletoe and Wine \" – Cliff Richard (UK) 1989: \" Ride on Time \" – Black Box 1990–2009 1990: \" Unchained Melody \" – The Righteous Brothers 1991: \" (Everything I Do) I Do It for You \" – Bryan Adams 1992: \" I Will Always Love You \" – Whitney Houston 1993: \" I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That) \" – Meat Loaf 1994: \" Love Is All Around \" – Wet Wet Wet (UK) 1995: \" Unchained Melody \" – Robson & Jerome (UK) 1996: \" Killing Me Softly \" – Fugees 1997: \" Something About the Way You Look Tonight \" / \" Candle in the Wind 1997 \" – Elton John (UK) 1998: \" Believe \" – Cher 1999: \" ...Baby One More Time \" – Britney Spears 2000: \" Can We Fix It? \" – Bob the Builder (UK) 2001: \" It Wasn't Me \" – Shaggy featuring Rikrok (UK) 2002: \" Anything Is Possible \" / \" Evergreen \" – Will Young (UK) 2003: \" Where Is the Love? \" – The Black Eyed Peas 2004: \" Do They Know It's Christmas? \" – Band Aid 20 (UK) 2005: \" Is This the Way to Amarillo \" – Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay (UK) 2006: \" Crazy \" – Gnarls Barkley 2007: \" Bleeding Love \" – Leona Lewis (UK) 2008: \" Hallelujah \" – Alexandra Burke (UK) 2009: \" Poker Face \" – Lady Gaga 2010–present 2010: \" Love the Way You Lie \" – Eminem featuring Rihanna 2011: \" Someone Like You \" – Adele (UK) 2012: \" Somebody That I Used to Know \" – Gotye featuring Kimbra 2013: \" Blurred Lines \" – Robin Thicke featuring T.I. & Pharrell Williams 2014: \" Happy \" – Pharrell Williams 2015: \" Uptown Funk \" – Mark Ronson (UK) featuring Bruno Mars 2016: \" One Dance \" – Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla (UK) 2017: \" Shape of You \" - Ed Sheeran (UK) Retrieved from \" 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{ "text": "Treaty of Paris (1763) - Wikipedia Treaty of Paris (1763) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 8 February 2018 . Jump to: navigation , search For other treaties of Paris, see Treaty of Paris . Treaty of Paris (1763) The combatants of the Seven Years' War as shown before the outbreak of war in the mid-1750s. Great Britain, Prussia, Portugal, with allies France, Spain, Austria, Russia, with allies Context End of the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in North America) Signed 10 February 1763 ( 1763-02-10 ) Location Paris , Kingdom of France Negotiators John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford César Gabriel de Choiseul, Duke of Praslin Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi Signatories Kingdom of Great Britain Kingdom of France Spanish Empire Parties Kingdom of Great Britain Kingdom of France Spanish Empire Portuguese Empire Treaty of Paris (1763) at Wikisource See also: Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763), Treaty of Paris (1783) . Part of a series on the Constitution of Canada Constitutional history Bill of Rights (1689) Act of Settlement (1701) Treaty of Paris (1763) Royal Proclamation (1763) Quebec Act (1774) Constitutional Act (1791) Act of Union (1840) Constitution Act (1867) Supreme Court Act (1875) Constitution Act, 1886 British North America Acts (1867–1975) Statute of Westminster (1931) Succession to the Throne Act (1937) Letters Patent (1947) Canada Act (1982) Constitution Act (1982) Document list Amendments Unsuccessful amendments Constitutional law Constitutional debate Patriation Charter of Rights and Freedoms Canadian federalism Law of Canada Canadian Bill of Rights Implied Bill of Rights Canadian Human Rights Act Politics of Canada portal v t e The Treaty of Paris , also known as the Treaty of 1763 , was signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain , France and Spain , with Portugal in agreement, after Great Britain's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War . The signing of the treaty formally ended the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre, [1] and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe. [2] Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, but Great Britain gained much of France's possessions in North America. Additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World. The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, the Treaty of Hubertusburg , five days later. Contents [ hide ] 1 Exchange of territories 2 Louisiana question 3 Canada question 3.1 British perspective 3.2 French perspective 3.3 Canada in the Treaty of Paris 4 Dunkirk question 5 Reaction 6 Effects on French Canada 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Exchange of territories [ edit ] During the war, Great Britain had conquered the French colonies of Canada , Guadeloupe , Saint Lucia , Dominica , Grenada , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and Tobago , the French \"factories\" (trading posts) in India , the slave-trading station at Gorée , the Sénégal River and its settlements, and the Spanish colonies of Manila (in the Philippines ) and Havana (in Cuba ). France had captured Minorca and British trading posts in Sumatra , while Spain had captured the border fortress of Almeida in Portugal , and Colonia del Sacramento in South America. \"A new map of North America\" - produced following the Treaty of Paris In the treaty, most of these territories were restored to their original owners, but not all: Britain made considerable gains. [3] France and Spain restored all their conquests to Britain and Portugal. Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain, and Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Gorée, and the Indian factories to France. [4] In return, France ceded Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago to Britain. [5] France also ceded the eastern half of French Louisiana to Britain; that is, the area from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains . [6] Spain ceded Florida to Britain. [4] France had already secretly given Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) . In addition, while France regained its factories in India, France recognized British clients as the rulers of key Indian native states, and pledged not to send troops to Bengal . Britain agreed to demolish its fortifications in British Honduras (now Belize ), but retained a logwood-cutting colony there. Britain confirmed the right of its new subjects to practise Catholicism. [7] France ceded all of its territory in mainland North America, but retained fishing rights off Newfoundland and the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , where its fishermen could dry their catch. In turn France gained the return of its sugar colony, Guadeloupe, which it considered more valuable than Canada. [8] Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Canada as \"Quelques arpents de neige\", \"A few acres of snow\". [9] Louisiana question [ edit ] The Treaty of Paris is frequently noted as the point at which France gave Louisiana to Spain. [10] [11] The transfer, however, occurred with the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) but was not publicly announced until 1764. The Treaty of Paris was to give Britain the east side of the Mississippi (including Baton Rouge, Louisiana , which was to be part of the British territory of West Florida ). New Orleans on the east side remained in French hands (albeit temporarily). The Mississippi River corridor in what is modern day Louisiana was to be reunited following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819. The 1763 treaty states in Article VII: VII. French territories on the continent of America; it is agreed, that, for the future, the confines between the dominions of his Britannick Majesty and those of his Most Christian Majesty, in that part of the world, shall be fixed irrevocably by a line drawn along the middle of the River Mississippi, from its source to the river Iberville, and from thence, by a line drawn along the middle of this river, and the lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea; and for this purpose, the Most Christian King cedes in full right, and guaranties to his Britannick Majesty the river and port of the Mobile, and everything which he possesses, or ought to possess, on the left side of the river Mississippi, except the town of New Orleans and the island in which it is situated, which shall remain to France, provided that the navigation of the river Mississippi shall be equally free, as well to the subjects of Great Britain as to those of France, in its whole breadth and length, from its source to the sea, and expressly that part which is between the said island of New Orleans and the right bank of that river, as well as the passage both in and out of its mouth: It is farther stipulated, that the vessels belonging to the subjects of either nation shall not be stopped, visited, or subjected to the payment of any duty whatsoever. The stipulations inserted in the IVth article, in favour of the inhabitants of Canada shall also take place with regard to the inhabitants of the countries ceded by this article. Canada question [ edit ] British perspective [ edit ] While the war was fought all over the world, the British began the war over French possessions in North America . [12] After a long debate of the relative merits of Guadeloupe, which produced £6 million a year in sugar, versus Canada which was expensive to keep, Great Britain decided to keep Canada for strategic reasons and return Guadeloupe to France. [13] While the war had weakened France, it was still a European power . British Prime Minister Lord Bute wanted a peace that would not aggravate France towards a second war. [14] This explains why Great Britain agreed to return so much while being in such a strong position. Though the Protestant British feared Roman Catholics, Great Britain did not want to antagonize France through expulsion or forced conversion. Also, it did not want French settlers to leave Canada to strengthen other French settlements in North America. [15] This explains Great Britain's willingness to protect Roman Catholics living in Canada. French perspective [ edit ] Unlike Lord Bute, the French Foreign Minister the Duke of Choiseul expected a return to war. However, France needed peace to rebuild. [16] French diplomats believed that without France to keep the Americans in check, the colonists might attempt to revolt. [ citation needed ] In Canada, France wanted open emigration for those, such as nobility, who would not swear allegiance to the British Crown. [17] Lastly, France required protection for Roman Catholics in North America considering Britain's previous treatment of Roman Catholics under its jurisdiction. Canada in the Treaty of Paris [ edit ] The article states: IV. His Most Christian Majesty renounces all pretensions which he has heretofore formed or might have formed to Nova Scotia or Acadia in all its parts, and guaranties the whole of it, and with all its dependencies, to the King of Great Britain: Moreover, his Most Christian Majesty cedes and guaranties to his said Britannick Majesty, in full right, Canada, with all its dependencies, as well as the island of Cape Breton, and all the other islands and coasts in the gulph and river of St. Lawrence, and in general, every thing that depends on the said countries, lands, islands, and coasts, with the sovereignty, property, possession, and all rights acquired by treaty, or otherwise, which the Most Christian King and the Crown of France have had till now over the said countries, lands, islands, places, coasts, and their inhabitants, so that the Most Christian King cedes and makes over the whole to the said King, and to the Crown of Great Britain, and that in the most ample manner and form, without restriction, and without any liberty to depart from the said cession and guaranty under any pretence, or to disturb Great Britain in the possessions above mentioned. His Britannick Majesty, on his side, agrees to grant the liberty of the Catholick religion to the inhabitants of Canada: he will, in consequence, give the most precise and most effectual orders, that his new Roman Catholic subjects may profess the worship of their religion according to the rites of the Romish church, as far as the laws of Great Britain permit. His Britannick Majesty farther agrees, that the French inhabitants, or others who had been subjects of the Most Christian King in Canada, may retire with all safety and freedom wherever they shall think proper, and may sell their estates, provided it be to the subjects of his Britannick Majesty, and bring away their effects as well as their persons, without being restrained in their emigration, under any pretence whatsoever, except that of debts or of criminal prosecutions: The term limited for this emigration shall be fixed to the space of eighteen months, to be computed from the day of the exchange of the ratification of the present treaty. Dunkirk question [ edit ] During the negotiations that led to the treaty, a major issue of dispute between Britain and France had been over the status of the fortifications of the French coastal settlement of Dunkirk . The British had long feared that it would be used as a staging post to launch a French invasion of Britain . Under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 they had forced France to concede extreme limits on the fortifications there. The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had allowed more generous terms, [18] and France had constructed greater defences for the town. By the Treaty Britain forced France to accept the earlier 1713 conditions and demolish the fortifications they had constructed since then. [19] This would be a continuing source of resentment to France, who would eventually have this clause overturned in the 1783 Treaty of Paris which brought an end to the American Revolutionary War . Reaction [ edit ] When Lord Bute became Prime Minister in 1762, he pushed for a resolution to the war with France and Spain, fearing that Great Britain could not govern all of its newly acquired territories. In what Winston Churchill would later term a policy of \"appeasement,\" Bute returned some colonies to Spain and France in the negotiations. [20] Despite a desire for peace, many in the British parliament opposed the return of any gains made during the war. Notable among the opposition was former Prime Minister William Pitt, the Elder , who warned that the terms of the treaty would only lead to further conflicts once France and Spain had time to rebuild. \"The peace was insecure,\" he would later say, \"because it restored the enemy to her former greatness. The peace was inadequate, because the places gained were no equivalent for the places surrendered.\" [21] The treaty passed 319 votes to 65 opposed. [22] The Treaty of Paris took no consideration of Great Britain's battered continental ally, Frederick II of Prussia . Frederick would have to negotiate peace terms separately in the Treaty of Hubertusburg . For decades following the Seven Years' War, Frederick II would consider the Treaty of Paris as a British betrayal. The American colonists were disappointed by the protection of Roman Catholicism in the Treaty of Paris because of their own strong Protestant faith. [23] Some have pointed to this as one reason for the breakdown of American–British relations. [23] Effects on French Canada [ edit ] The article provided for unrestrained emigration for 18 months from Canada. However, passage on British ships was expensive. [17] A total of 1,600 people left New France through the Treaty clause, but only 270 French Canadians. [17] Some have claimed that this was part of British policy to limit emigration. [17] Article IV of the treaty allowed Roman Catholicism to be practised in Canada. [24] George III agreed to allow Catholicism within the laws of Great Britain. In this period, British laws included various Test Acts to prevent governmental, judicial, and bureaucratic appointments from going to Roman Catholics. Roman Catholics were believed to be agents of the Jacobite Pretenders to the throne, who normally resided in France supported by the French regime. [25] This was relaxed in Quebec to some degree, but top positions like governorships were still held by Anglicans. [24] Article IV has also been cited as the basis for Quebec often having its unique set of laws that are different from the rest of Canada. There was a general constitutional principle in the United Kingdom to allow colonies taken through conquest to continue their own laws. [26] This was limited by royal prerogative , and the monarch could still choose to change the accepted laws in a conquered colony. [26] However, the treaty eliminated this power because by a different constitutional principle, terms of a treaty were considered paramount. [26] In practice, Roman Catholics could become jurors in inferior courts in Quebec and argue based on principles of French law. [27] However, the judge was British and his opinion on French law could be limited or hostile. [27] If the case was appealed to a superior court, neither French law nor Roman Catholic jurors were allowed. [28] Many French residents of what are now Canada's Maritime provinces, called Acadians , were deported during the Great Expulsion (1755–63). After the signing of the peace treaty guaranteed some rights to Roman Catholics, some Acadians returned to Canada. However, they were no longer welcome in English Nova Scotia. [29] They were forced into New Brunswick, which is a bilingual province today as a result of that relocation. [30] Much land previously owned by France was now owned by Britain, and the French people of Quebec felt great betrayal at the French concession. Commander-in-Chief of the British Jeffrey Amherst noted that, \"Many of the Canadians consider their Colony to be of utmost consequence to France & cannot be convinced … that their Country has been conceded to Great Britain\". [31] See also [ edit ] France in the Seven Years' War Great Britain in the Seven Years' War List of treaties References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Marston, Daniel (2002). The French–Indian War 1754–1760 . Osprey Publishing . p. 84. ISBN 0-415-96838-0 . Jump up ^ \"Wars and Battles: Treaty of Paris (1763)\" . www.u-s-history.com. In a nutshell, Britain emerged as the world's leading colonial empire . Jump up ^ \"The Treaty of Paris ends the French and Indian War\" . www.thenagain.info. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe\" . World Digital Library . 1778 . Retrieved 2013-08-30 . Jump up ^ \"His Most Christian Majesty cedes and guaranties to his said Britannick Majesty, in full right, Canada, with all its dependencies, as well as the island of Cape Breton, and all the other islands and coasts in the gulph and river of St. Lawrence, and in general, every thing that depends on the said countries, lands, islands, and coasts, with the sovereignty, property, possession, and all rights acquired by treaty, or otherwise, which the Most Christian King and the Crown of France have had till now over the said countries, lands, islands, places, coasts, and their inhabitants\" — Article IV of the Treaty of Paris (1763) at Wikisource Jump up ^ ” (…) it is agreed, that … the confines between the dominions of his Britannick Majesty and those of his Most Christian Majesty, in that part of the world, shall be fixed irrevocably by a line drawn along the middle of the River Mississippi, from its source to the river Iberville , and from hence, by a line drawn along the middle of this river, and the lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea; and for this purpose, the Most Christian King cedes in full right, and guaranties to his Britannick Majesty the river and port of Mobile, and every thing which he possesses, or ought to possess, on the left side of the river Mississippi, except the town of New Orleans and the island in which it is situated, which shall remain to France, (…)”— Article VII of the Treaty of Paris (1763) at Wikisource Jump up ^ Extracts from the Treaty of Paris of 1763 . A. Lovell & Co. 1892. p. 6. His Britannick Majesty, on his side, agrees to grant the liberty of the Roman Catholic religion to the inhabitants of Canada. Jump up ^ Dewar, Helen (December 2010). \"Canada or Guadeloupe?: French and British Perceptions of Empire, 1760–1783\". Canadian Historical Review . 91 (4): 637–660. doi : 10.3138/chr.91.4.637 . Jump up ^ \"Quelques arpents de neige\" . Jump up ^ \"The French and Indian War ends - Feb 10, 1763\" . HISTORY.com . Retrieved 2018-02-08 . Jump up ^ \"The Stakes of the Treaty of Paris\" . France in America . Library of Congress . Retrieved 2018-02-08 . Jump up ^ Monod p 197–98 Jump up ^ Colin G. Calloway (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America . Oxford U.P. p. 8. Jump up ^ Gough p 95 Jump up ^ Calloway p 113–14 Jump up ^ Rashed, Zenab Esmat (1951). The Peace of Paris . Liverpool University Press . p. 209. ISBN 978-0853-23202-5 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Calloway p 114 Jump up ^ Dull p.5 Jump up ^ Dull p.194–243 Jump up ^ Winston Churchill (reprint 2001). The Great Republic: A History of America . Modern Library. p. 52. Check date values in: |date= ( help ) Jump up ^ Simms, Brendan (2007). Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783 . Allan Lane. p. 496. ISBN 978-0713-99426-1 . Jump up ^ Fowler, William M. (2004). Empires at War: the French and Indian War and the struggle for North America, 1754–1763 . Walker & Company. p. 271. ISBN 978-0802-71411-4 . ^ Jump up to: a b Monod p 201 ^ Jump up to: a b Conklin p 34 Jump up ^ Colley, Linda (1992). Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 . p. 78. ISBN 978-0-300-15280-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Conklin p 35 ^ Jump up to: a b Calloway p 120 Jump up ^ Calloway p 121 Jump up ^ Price, p 136 Jump up ^ Price p 136–137 Jump up ^ Calloway p 113 Further reading [ edit ] Calloway, Colin Gordon (2006). The scratch of a pen: 1763 and the transformation of North America . New York: Oxford University Press . Churchill, Sir Winston (1956). The Great Republic: A History of America . New York: Random House . ISBN 0-375-50320-X . Conklin, William E. (1979). In Defence of Fundamental Rights . Springer . Dull, Jonathan R. (2005). The French Navy and the Seven Years' War . University of Nebraska . Gough, Barry M. (1992). British Mercantile Interests in the Making of the Peace of Paris, 1763 . Edwin Meller Press . Monod, Paul Kleber (2009). Imperial Island: A History of Britain and Its Empire, 1660–1837 . Wiley-Blackwell . Price, Joseph Edward (2007). The status of French among youth in a bilingual American–Canadian border community: the case of Madawaska, Maine . Indiana University . External links [ edit ] Treaty of Paris Profile and Videos - Chickasaw.TV Wikisource has original text related to this article: Treaty of Paris (1763) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Treaty of Paris (1763) . The Treaty of Paris and its Consequences (in French) Entry on the Treaty of Paris from The Canadian Encyclopedia Treaty of Paris at the Avalon Project of the Yale Law School [ hide ] v t e Treaties of the Seven Years' War (1754/56–1763) Diplomatic Revolution Westminster 1st Versailles 2nd Versailles Saint Petersburg Hamburg Fontainebleau Paris Hubertusburg Campaigns: Europe , America Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)&oldid=824651516 \" Categories : Seven Years' War 1763 treaties Peace treaties of the Ancien Régime Peace treaties of the Kingdom of Great Britain 1763 in France 1763 in Great Britain 1763 in Spain 18th century in Paris France–United Kingdom relations French and Indian War History of Canada (1534–1763) History of Saint Pierre and Miquelon Legal history of Canada Military history of Quebec New France Pre-Confederation Canada 1763 in the British Empire 1763 in the French colonial empire 1763 in Canada 1763 in New France 1763 in North America History of Quebec Pre-Confederation Quebec Hidden categories: CS1 errors: dates Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use dmy dates from August 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014 Articles with French-language external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 25 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 February 2018, at 17:34. 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{ "text": "I Wanna Marry \"Harry\" - Wikipedia I Wanna Marry \"Harry\" From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search I Wanna Marry \"Harry\" Genre Competitive reality dating show Created by Danny Fenton Starring Matthew Hicks Paul Leonard Original language(s) English No. of seasons 1 No. of episodes 8 Production Executive producer(s) Danny Fenton Kevin Utton Matt Gould Ryan Seacrest Adam Sher Heather Schuster David Tibballs Rebecca Eisen Production company(s) Zig Zag Productions Ryan Seacrest Productions Release Original network Fox Original release May 20 – June 11, 2014 ( 2014-06-11 ) External links Website I Wanna Marry \"Harry\" was a reality television show that premiered on May 20, 2014, on Fox . The series has a premise similar to Joe Millionaire , [1] and follows twelve American women who are led to believe that they are competing for the affections of Prince Harry . However, in reality the bachelor is Matthew Hicks, a Prince Harry look-alike . On June 12, 2014, it was announced the show was pulled from the air in the US and cancelled after airing only four episodes. [2] Although not broadcast, the last four episodes were made available on Fox.com, Fox NOW, cable On Demand and Hulu. [3] The complete series was broadcast on the ITV2 channel in the UK, on Latin-American E! throughout Latin America (especially in Mexico , Colombia and Argentina ) in February 2015, and on Network Ten in Australia. Contents 1 Background 2 Ratings 3 Reviews 4 The Bachelor 5 The Contestants 6 Elimination table 7 Aftermath 8 References 9 External links Background [ edit ] At first, the contestants are not explicitly told that the bachelor is Prince Harry; they are merely led to make that inference on their own by Hicks' close resemblance, the royal setting of Englefield House , [4] the lavish dates, and being surrounded by real professional servants and a security detail that really does have experience protecting heads of state. [5] Hicks is referred to in the contestants' presence only as \"Sir.\" [6] However, in the 5th episode, Hicks tells Kelly while they are alone that he is Prince Harry and later butler Kingsley announces to all seven remaining contestants at the dinner table that \"Sir is indeed His Royal Highness Prince Harry of Wales.\" Contestant Andrea Fox, in an interview on the Kidd Kraddick in the Morning radio show, said that prior to filming the contestants were told they were going to be on a TV show called \"Dream Date\" and that it was more about \"the experience for the girls\" instead of \"finding love\", and that people with the show kept saying \"Don't compare it to The Bachelor \". [7] The butler on the show, only referred to as Kingsley, is portrayed by English actor Paul Leonard. [8] The series first aired in the USA on May 20, 2014, on Fox . On June 12, 2014, Fox cancelled I Wanna Marry \"Harry\" after four of the eight produced episodes due to low ratings but announced it would air the remainder on Fox.com, cable On Demand, [2] Fox NOW and Hulu. [3] [9] It began airing in the UK on ITV2 on Wednesday, June 4, 2014 at 9:00pm. [10] It began airing on Network Ten in Australia on May 30, 2014, originally at 8:30pm Fridays, later moving to a 10:30pm-11pm start due to poor ratings. [11] Ratings [ edit ] The first episode aired on Fox following the last season 13 American Idol performance show and had a 1.5 household rating, with a 0.7 for adults 18-49. The second show, which followed Riot , had a 1.0 household rating, with a 0.4 for viewers 18-49. [12] The third episode had 1.04 million live + \"same day DVR\" viewers with a rating for adults 18-49 of 0.4 (adults 18-49 share: 1). [13] The first Australian broadcast of the show on Network Ten on Friday, May 30, 2014 drew 341,000 viewers which placed it 24th in OzTAM's overnight ratings for that night. [11] ITV2 broadcast the first and second shows on the same night (June 4, 2014) and the first show drew 286,000 viewers (1.2%) from 9pm-10pm, while the second show drew 274,000 viewers (1.7%) from 10pm to 11pm. [14] Reviews [ edit ] Time magazine reviewed the US premiere, comparing it as \"weirdly similar, down to minor details\" to Joe Millionaire . However, unlike Joe Millionaire , the magazine noted, there is no shame or guilt in the deception, which Time attributed to reality TV learning to become \"lighter in tone yet more slick and ruthless.\" [1] In the UK The Telegraph headlined its review \"fodder for the braindead\" and commenting \"the floundering Harry lookalike wasn't a wild or weird enough character to carry the show, entertainment derived solely from the foolish bachelorettes.\" But it picks out the butler, Kingsley, as a \"genre-bender of genius\" who strays far from his brief. [15] The Bachelor [ edit ] The bachelor, Matthew Hicks, works for an environmental consultancy firm. He had previously done some very small-scale impersonations of Prince Harry, but otherwise had no prior acting experience. Before filming began, Hicks had his natural blond hair dyed red to match Prince Harry's hair colour, and was given brief training in \"princely\" activities he would need for the show, such as horseback riding, fencing and ballroom dancing. Hicks was also taught extensive information about Prince Harry , to help Hicks be able to respond to contestants appropriately. [16] Show creator Danny Fenton said in an interview on Good Morning Britain that he talked to over 100 potential Harry look-a-likes from multiple countries before selecting Hicks. [17] The Contestants [ edit ] The contestants are the following 12 women: [18] Name Age Hometown Job Crown Suite Eliminated Kimberly Birch 24 Malverne , Long Island, New York Social worker, model and actress Week 2, 6 Winner Karina Kennedy 25 Palos Hills, Illinois Physical therapist Week 3 Week 8 (Runner-Up) Kelley Andrews 25 Mobile, Alabama Hostess Week 4 Week 8 (3rd Place) Rose Copeland 23 Westlake Village, California Special preschool teacher Week 1 Week 7 Meghan Ramsey Jones 26 Tustin, California Artist Week 5 Week 6 Jacqueline Conroy 25 Rockville Centre , Long Island, New York (Fox biography gives New York, New York ) Nutritionist/model/actor Week 6 Maggie Toraason 25 Peru, Illinois Account executive Week 5 Anna Lisa Matias 24 San Francisco, California Miss LA Week 4 Chelsea Brookshire 22 Long Beach, California Actress/model Week 4 (Quit) Carley Hawkins 24 Buffalo, Missouri Instructional pre-med student Week 3 Andrea Fox 25 Longview, Texas Lead development representative Week 2 Leah Thom 24 Fort Worth, Texas Cocktail waitress [19] Week 1 Elimination table [ edit ] E01 E02 E03 E04 E05 E06 E07 E08 Kimberly SAFE CROWN SAFE SAFE SAFE CROWN SAFE WIN Karina SAFE SAFE CROWN SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE OUT Kelley SAFE SAFE SAFE CROWN SAFE SAFE SAFE OUT Rose CROWN SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE OUT Jacqueline SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE OUT Meghan SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE CROWN OUT Maggie SAFE SAFE SAFE SAFE OUT Anna SAFE SAFE SAFE OUT Chelsea SAFE SAFE SAFE LEFT Carley SAFE SAFE OUT Andrea SAFE OUT Leah OUT (WIN) The contestant won the competition. (CROWN) The contestant got the Crown Suite. (SAFE) The contestant was safe. (LEFT) The contestant quit the competition. (OUT) The contestant was eliminated. Aftermath [ edit ] The series was filmed in August and September 2013. Nine months afterwards Hicks and the winner Kimberly Birch were still in touch and planning to meet up. \"We genuinely like each other and have spoken regularly from the moment we stopped filming,\" said Birch in June 2014. [9] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b REVIEW: I Wanna Marry “Harry”: Welcome to Bucking-sham Palace - TIME, 20 May 2014 ^ Jump up to: a b Bibel, Sara (June 12, 2014). \" ' I Wanna Marry Harry' & 'Riot' Canceled by FOX\" . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on June 15, 2014 . Retrieved June 13, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Andreeva, Nellie (June 12, 2014). \"Fox Pulls 'Riot' & 'I Wanna Marry \"Harry\"' From Schedule\" . Deadline Hollywood . PMC . Retrieved June 16, 2014 . Jump up ^ Vincent, Alice (April 1, 2014). \"I Wanna Marry Harry makes women compete for 'Prince Harry's' hand in marriage\" . The Telegraph . Retrieved May 8, 2014 . Jump up ^ Gomez, Patrick (April 2, 2014). \"I Wanna Marry Harry: How 12 Women Were Duped\" . People . Retrieved May 8, 2014 . Jump up ^ Lovece, Frank (May 20, 2014). \"Marry Harry? Could it really be?\" . Newsday . New York / Long Island . p. B7. Jump up ^ \"Andrea Fox from I Wanna Marry \"Harry \" \" . youtube.com . KiddNation. May 22, 2014 . Retrieved June 5, 2014 . Jump up ^ Rosenfield, Laura (May 27, 2014). \"Kingsley on 'I Wanna Marry Harry' Is Not Really a Butler & He Has a Leg Up On Russell Crowe\" . bustle.com . Retrieved June 22, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Heredus, Eric (June 20, 2014). \" ' Marry Harry' winner still seeing fake prince\" . New York Post . Retrieved July 19, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"US reality show I Wanna Marry Harry to air on ITV2\" . http://tv.uk.msn.com . MSN UK. June 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 8, 2014 . External link in |website= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b \"I Wanna Marry Harry flops in ratings\" . http://www.dailymail.co.uk . Mail Online. May 30, 2014 . Retrieved June 8, 2014 . External link in |website= ( help ) Jump up ^ Cantor, Brian (May 28, 2014). \" \" I Wanna Marry 'Harry'\" Ratings Sink in Week Two\" . headlineplanet.com . Headline Planet . Retrieved May 31, 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 4, 2014). \"TV Ratings Tuesday: 'America's Got Talent' & 'The Night Shift' Dip, 'Celebrity Wife Swap' Rises to Season High + 'I Wanna Marry Harry' Flat\" . http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . Zap2it . Retrieved June 5, 2014 . External link in |website= ( help ) Jump up ^ Farber, Alex (June 5, 2014). \"I Wanna Marry 'Harry' lures 300k\" . www.broadcastnow.co.uk . Broadcast . Retrieved June 8, 2014 . Jump up ^ McLaren, Iona (June 4, 2014). \"I Wanna Marry 'Harry' review: 'fodder for the braindead ' \" . The Telegraph . Retrieved June 7, 2014 . Jump up ^ Seikaly, Andrea (May 3, 2014). \"Meet the 'Prince': 'I Wanna Marry 'Harry'' Star on Living Like a Royal\" . Variety . Retrieved May 8, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"TV producers meet 100 Prince Harry lookalikes for new dating show\" . http://indiatoday.intoday.in . India Today. June 5, 2014 . Retrieved June 8, 2014 . External link in |website= ( help ) Jump up ^ \"Meet The 'I Wanna Marry Harry' Women\" . Inside Edition . Retrieved May 8, 2014 . Jump up ^ Gomez, Patrick (May 22, 2014). \"I Wanna Marry 'Harry s Leah Thom: It Was Like 'Speed Dating of the Worst Kind ' \" . people.com . People Magazine . Retrieved May 30, 2014 . External links [ edit ] Official website I Wanna Marry \"Harry\" on IMDb Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Wanna_Marry_%22Harry%22&oldid=854010947 \" Categories : 2010s American television series 2014 American television series debuts 2014 American television series endings American dating and relationship reality television series English-language television programs Fox network shows Hidden categories: CS1 errors: external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 8 August 2018, at 10:42 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "I Wanna Marry \"Harry\"", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=I_Wanna_Marry_%22Harry%22&amp;oldid=854010947" }

{ "text": "Spanish colonization of the Americas - Wikipedia Spanish colonization of the Americas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Conquista\" redirects here. For other uses, see Conquista (disambiguation) . Part of a series on European colonization of the Americas First wave of European colonization British Couronian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller (Maltese) Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization Colonialism portal v t e Flag of Spanish conquistadors with crown of Castile on a red flag, used by Hernán Cortés , Francisco Pizarro and others The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions. Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America , most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico , Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States ). It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492–1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850–1950). In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the emancipation of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico , which were finally given up in 1898, following the Spanish–American War , together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas. Contents [ hide ] 1 Conquests 1.1 West Indies 1.2 Mexico 1.3 Peru 1.4 Río de la Plata and Paraguay 1.5 New Granada 2 Governing 2.1 Dominions 2.1.1 North 2.1.2 South 3 19th century 3.1 Demographic impact 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 6.1 Historiography 7 External links Conquests [ edit ] Iberian territory of Crown of Castile . . Overseas north territory of Crown of Castile (New Spain and Philippines) Overseas south territory of Crown of Castile (Perú, New Granada and Río de la Plata) The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile , Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand , King of Aragon , pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. [1] West Indies [ edit ] Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew , founded Santo Domingo . By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish-occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua , Venezuela , followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present-day Guajira peninsula . Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas , [2] in 1501 by Franciscan friars , but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa 's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién . [3] Mexico [ edit ] Main article: Spanish conquest of Mexico For more details on this topic, see Spanish conquest of Yucatán and Spanish conquest of Guatemala . Spanish Conquest of Mexico, meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma II Map depicting Cortes' invasion route The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán , the Spanish conquest of Guatemala , the war of Mexico's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations. [4] [5] [6] But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés . The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl . These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city-states' political hierarchy and social structure in place. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America . When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519, marks the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established by Charles V in 1535 with the appointment of Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first viceroy. Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833 . Peru [ edit ] Main article: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Vasco Núñez de Balboa claiming possession of the South Sea ( Pacific Ocean ) Map depicting the route of Pizarro from Panama to Cuzco In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire . It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas . In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization . The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar , and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas , Chachapoyas , and Cañaris . In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Río de la Plata and Paraguay [ edit ] European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River . Buenos Aires , a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay . Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay , who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay ). He dubbed the settlement \"Santísima Trinidad\" and its port became \"Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires.\" The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . New Granada [ edit ] Main article: Spanish conquest of the Muisca See also: Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations Between 1537 and 1543, six [ citation needed ] Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation , and set up the New Kingdom of Granada ( Spanish : Nuevo Reino de Granada ). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. [7] It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá , and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern-day Colombia and parts of Venezuela . The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru . The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia . [8] Governing [ edit ] Main articles: Viceroyalty of New Spain , Viceroyalty of Peru , and Intendant § The Spanish Monarchy Argentine Cabildo council Spain's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, México City ), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima ). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru. This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroyalties into an Intendant system, raise more revenue and promote greater efficiency. Dominions [ edit ] Juan Ponce de León ( Santervás de Campos , Valladolid , Spain ). He was one of the first Europeans to arrive to the current United States because he led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named. North [ edit ] Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821) Las Californias Nuevo Reino de León Nuevo Santander Nueva Vizcaya Santa Fe de Nuevo México Nueva Extremadura Nueva Galicia Captaincy General of the Philippines (administered by New Spain from 1565 to 1821, then after Mexican independence transferred to and directly administered by Madrid until 1898) Captaincy General of Cuba (until 1898) – Included in this captaincy general until 1819 was La Florida , Spain's North American colonies in what is now the southeastern United States . Captaincy General of Puerto Rico (until 1898) Santo Domingo (last Spanish rule 1861–1865) Captaincy General of Guatemala South [ edit ] Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819) Captaincy General of Venezuela Viceroyalty of Perú (1542–1824) Captaincy General of Chile (1541–1818) Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1814) 19th century [ edit ] Main article: Spanish American wars of independence Spanish colonialization in the Americas . During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain . The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for \"Liberators\") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country . In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada . The first two were in present-day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present-day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico. These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas. In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish–American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba , the Philippines , and Puerto Rico . Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self-governing unincorporated territory . Demographic impact [ edit ] It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence. [9] In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas , the \"Defender of the Indians\" estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492. [ citation needed ] The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1–2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century. [ citation needed ] The overwhelming cause of decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases , although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline. Of the history of the indigenous population of California , Sherburne F. Cook (1896–1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821–1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846–1910). [10] [11] [12] See also [ edit ] New Spain portal Colombia portal Argentina portal Ecuador portal Venezuela portal Atlantic World Historiography of Colonial Spanish America Black Legend Habsburg Spain Inter caetera List of largest empires New Spain Old Spanish Trail (trade route) Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas Smallpox Epidemics in the New World Spanish conquest of Chiapas Spanish conquest of El Salvador Spanish conquest of Guatemala Spanish conquest of Honduras Spanish conquest of Petén Spanish conquest of the Maya Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North America Valladolid debate Viceroyalty of Peru References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Ida Altman, S.L. Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003 pp. 35–36. Jump up ^ [1] Sucre State Government: Cumaná in History (Spanish) Jump up ^ Tibesar, A.S. (1957). \"The Franciscan Province of the Holy Cross of Espanañola, 1505–1559\". The Americas . 13 (4): 377–389. doi : 10.2307/979442 . JSTOR 979442 . Jump up ^ Robert S. Chamberlain, The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan . Washington DC: Carnegie Institution. Jump up ^ Ida Altman, The War for Mexico's West . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2010. Jump up ^ Philip W. Powell, Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: North America's Last Frontier War . Tempe: Center for Latin America Studies, Arizona State University 1975. First published by University of California Press 1952. Jump up ^ Clements Markham, The Conquest of New Granada (1912) online Jump up ^ Avellaneda Navas, José Ignacio. The Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995) ISBN 978-0-8263-1612-7 Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=lvvynCzrJOwC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=emigraci%C3%B3n+espa%C3%B1ola+a+las+indias+cifras&source=bl&ots=WIWVcSlOdq&sig=4XmK7Gkv36L6qQ4jItqp7a553dI&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwinzqqfsrLPAhWKAsAKHXbSBf0Q6AEINzAE#v=onepage&q=emigraci%C3%B3n%20espa%C3%B1ola%20a%20las%20indias%20cifras&f=false Jump up ^ Baumhoff, Martin A. 1963. Ecological Determinants of Aboriginal California Populations. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 49:155–236. Jump up ^ Powers, Stephen. 1875. \"California Indian Characteristics\". Overland Monthly 14:297–309. on-line Jump up ^ Cook's judgement on the effects of U.S rule upon the native Californians is harsh: \"The first (factor) was the food supply... The second factor was disease. ...A third factor, which strongly intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian. He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved, beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not only given no assistance in the struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter. The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally incredible, and not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident.\"Cook, Sherburne F. 1976b. The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970 . University of California Press, Berkeley|p. 200 Further reading [ edit ] Brading, D. A. , The First America: the Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1993). Clark, Larry R. Spanish Attempts to Colonize Southeast North America: 1513–1587 (McFarland & Company, 2010) ISBN 978-0-7864-5909-4 Elliott, J. H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007) Hanke, Lewis . The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1965). Haring, Clarence H. The Spanish Empire in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1947) Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763 (HarperCollins, 2004) Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (Vol. 1. London: Macmillan, 1918) Portuondo, María M. Secret Science: Spanish Cosmography and the New World (Chicago: Chicago UP, 2009). Restall, Matthew and Felipe Fernández-Armesto. The Conquistadors: A Very Short Introduction (2012) excerpt and text search Thomas, Hugh . Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan (2005) Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North America (Yale University Press, 1992) Historiography [ edit ] Alejandro Cañeque. \"The Political and Institutional History of Colonial Spanish America\" History Compass (April 2013) 114 pp 280–291, DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12043 Weber, David J. \"John Francis Bannon and the Historiography of the Spanish Borderlands: Retrospect and Prospect.\" Journal of the Southwest (1987): 331–363. External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish Exploration and Conquest of North America Spain in America (Edward Gaylord Bourne, 1904) 'Spain in America' The Spanish Borderlands (Herbert E. Bolton, 1921) 'The Spanish Borderlands' Indigenous Puerto Rico DNA evidence upsets established history The short film Spanish Empire in the New World (1992) is available for free download at the Internet Archive “The Political Force of Images,” Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820 . 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{ "text": "Photosynthesis - Wikipedia Photosynthesis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the plant. Overall equation for the type of photosynthesis that occurs in plants Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial vegetation . Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities ( energy transformation ). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis , from the Greek φῶς , phōs , \"light\", and σύνθεσις , synthesis , \"putting together\". [1] [2] [3] In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth . [4] Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane . In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the \"energy currency\" of cells. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle , to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). [5] Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose . The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide , rather than water, as sources of electrons. [6] Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth , [7] which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts , [8] [9] [10] which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization . [11] Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year. [12] [13] Contents [ hide ] 1 Overview 2 Photosynthetic membranes and organelles 3 Light-dependent reactions 3.1 Z scheme 3.2 Water photolysis 4 Light-independent reactions 4.1 Calvin cycle 4.2 Carbon concentrating mechanisms 4.2.1 On land 4.2.2 In water 5 Order and kinetics 6 Efficiency 7 Evolution 7.1 Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts 7.2 Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis 8 Discovery 8.1 Development of the concept 8.2 C3 : C4 photosynthesis research 9 Factors 9.1 Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature 9.2 Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Books 12.2 Papers 13 External links Overview Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O 2 , and fixes CO 2 into sugar. Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs , which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. [4] In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants , algae , and cyanobacteria , the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis , used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen. Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation . Photosynthesis provides the energy in the form of free electrons that are used to split carbon from carbon dioxide that is then used to fix that carbon once again as carbohydrate . Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis supplies the energy that drives both process. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration , in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism's metabolism . The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments. The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore: [14] CO 2 + 2H 2 A + photons → [​ CH 2 O ​] + 2A + H 2 O carbon dioxide + electron donor + light energy → carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor + water Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is: CO 2 + 2H 2 O + photons → [CH 2 O] + O 2 + H 2 O carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen + water This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction , but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation: CO 2 + H 2 O + photons → [CH 2 O] + O 2 carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite ) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate : [15] The equation for this reaction is: CO 2 + (AsO 3− 3 ) + photons → (AsO 3− 4 ) + CO [16] carbon dioxide + arsenite + light energy → arsenate + carbon monoxide (used to build other compounds in subsequent reactions) Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH . During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide. Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation. [17] Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis. [18] [19] Photosynthetic membranes and organelles Chloroplast ultrastructure : 1. outer membrane 2. intermembrane space 3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope) 4. stroma (aqueous fluid) 5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid) 6. thylakoid membrane 7. granum (stack of thylakoids) 8. thylakoid (lamella) 9. starch 10. ribosome 11. plastidial DNA 12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids) Main articles: Chloroplast and Thylakoid In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes . In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself. [20] However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids , [21] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes . [22] These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb. [21] In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts . A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system. Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll . The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls . [23] Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin , carotenes , and xanthophylls in green algae , phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors. These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light-harvesting complex . Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves . Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity , such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll , can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating . The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place. Light-dependent reactions Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane Main article: Light-dependent reactions In the light-dependent reactions , one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron . This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin , which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH . In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane , which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP . The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis , which releases a dioxygen (O 2 ) molecule as a waste product. The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is: [24] 2 H 2 O + 2 NADP + + 3 ADP + 3 P i + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H + + 3 ATP + O 2 Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms. Z scheme The \"Z scheme\" In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation . The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so-called Z-scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H + ) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme . The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I . There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem . The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H + to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction . Water photolysis Main articles: Photodissociation and Oxygen evolution The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin . However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z-scheme , an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light-driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo-dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction. Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration , including photosynthetic organisms. [25] [26] Light-independent reactions Calvin cycle Main articles: Calvin cycle , Carbon fixation , and Light-independent reactions In the light-independent (or \"dark\") reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO 2 from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin-Benson cycle , it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green plants is [24] :128 3 CO 2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H + → C 3 H 6 O 3 -phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 P i + 6 NADP + + 3 H 2 O Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three-carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose , the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration . The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain . The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate , to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate , also known as 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate . This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde ( PGAL ) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus \"recycled\" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose , starch and cellulose . The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids . Carbon concentrating mechanisms On land Overview of C4 carbon fixation In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO 2 will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO 2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions. [27] Main article: C4 carbon fixation Plants that use the C 4 carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three-carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) , a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase , creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid . Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO 2 released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids . The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO 2 fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. [28] C 4 plants can produce more sugar than C 3 plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C 4 plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C 3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use C 3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C 4 carbon fixation; [29] however, the evolution of C 4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution . [27] Main article: CAM photosynthesis Xerophytes , such as cacti and most succulents , also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C 4 metabolism, which spatially separates the CO 2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C 3 plants, and fix the CO 2 at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO 2 mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO 2 inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM. [30] In water Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes , which increase the concentration of CO 2 around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase , located within the carboxysome releases CO 2 from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO − 3 ). Before the CO 2 diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by RuBisCO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO − 3 ions are made from CO 2 outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They cannot cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO 2 very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO − 3 ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes. [31] Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO 2 around rubisco. [32] Order and kinetics The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages: [13] Stage Description Time scale 1 Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid membranes) femtosecond to picosecond 2 Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions (thylakoid membranes) picosecond to nanosecond 3 Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid membranes) microsecond to millisecond 4 Carbon fixation and export of stable products millisecond to second Efficiency Probability distribution resulting from one-dimensional discrete time random walks. The quantum walk created using the Hadamard coin is plotted (blue) vs a classical walk (red) after 50 time steps. Main article: Photosynthetic efficiency Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%. [33] Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1–2%) [34] re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. A fact that allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers. [35] Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%. [36] By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices. The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex. [37] For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C 3 plants. [37] Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks. [38] [39] [40] For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions. [41] [42] [43] Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction. [44] It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together. [45] Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO 2 , and of ΔH 2 O using reliable methods [46] CO 2 is commonly measured in μmols/m 2 /s −1 , parts per million or volume per million and H 2 0 is commonly measured in mmol/m 2 /s −1 or in mbars. [46] By measuring CO 2 assimilation, ΔH 2 O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, “A” or carbon assimilation, “E” or transpiration, “gs” or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO 2 . [46] However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV/FM and Y(II) or F/FM’ can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations. [43] Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO 2 levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A/Ci curves, at different CO 2 levels, to characterize a plant’s photosynthetic response. [46] Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer – gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms. [44] [47] While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO 2 levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C C to replace Ci. [45] [48] The estimation of CO 2 at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or C C , becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g m using an integrated system. [44] [45] [49] Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll-fluorescence, P700- and P515-absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO 2 assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength-dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed. [50] A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light-sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna-shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton , which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell's metabolism. The exciton's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously \"choose\" the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic \"hop\". The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks. [51] [52] [53] Evolution Life timeline view • discuss • edit -4500 — – -4000 — – -3500 — – -3000 — – -2500 — – -2000 — – -1500 — – -1000 — – -500 — – 0 — water Single-celled life photosynthesis Eukaryotes Multicellular life Land life Dinosaurs Mammals Flowers ← Earliest Earth ( −4540 ) ← Earliest water ← Earliest life ← LHB meteorites ← Earliest oxygen ← Atmospheric oxygen ← Oxygen crisis ← Earliest sexual reproduction ← Ediacara biota ← Cambrian explosion ← Earliest humans P h a n e r o z o i c P r o t e r o z o i c A r c h e a n H a d e a n Pongola Huronian Cryogenian Andean Karoo Quaternary Axis scale : millions of years ago . Orange labels: ice ages . Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline Main article: Evolution of photosynthesis Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria , are thought to have been anoxygenic , and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time . [54] Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old. [55] [56] The main source of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis , and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe . Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria , became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen ( O 2 ) in the photosynthetic reaction center . Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, Plagiomnium affine ) Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals , sponges and sea anemones . It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes. [57] In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time. [58] [59] Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive. [60] An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria , including a circular chromosome , prokaryotic-type ribosome , and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. [61] [62] The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis ) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria , chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria . [63] DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co -location is required for R edox R egulation. [ clarification needed ] Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria . The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier. [64] [65] Because the Earth's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen. [66] Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation . [ citation needed ] Green algae joined blue-green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic , but it was only with the Mesozoic (251–65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae. [67] Discovery Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century. Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate — much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself. Joseph Priestley , a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly \"injure\" air. He then showed that the air that had been \"injured\" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant. In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz , repeated Priestley's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours. In 1796, Jean Senebier , a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO 2 but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined. Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide. Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll \"a\", PSII contains primarily chlorophyll \"a\" with most of the available chlorophyll \"b\", among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry. [13] Melvin Calvin works in his photosynthesis laboratory. Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b 6 (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate , ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction [68] is as follows: 2 H 2 O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) → 2 AH 2 + O 2 where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved. Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water. Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson , along with James Bassham , elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle , which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle. Nobel Prize -winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain. Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO 2 , activated by the respiration. [69] Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series. Development of the concept In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis , for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light . Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term. [70] C3 : C4 photosynthesis research After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon-14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques. [71] The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground-breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2/square metere.sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50% of sunlight. [72] [73] These rates were determined in potted plants grown indoors under low light intensity. Later in 1958-1963 at Cornell University , field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight. [74] [75] This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species. [76] [77] In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38−40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i. e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane. [78] Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light. [79] The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986. [77] These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate. [80] [81] [82] Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3-carbon PGA acid. At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2/square meter.sec. indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants. [76] [77] Factors The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are: Light irradiance and wavelength Carbon dioxide concentration Temperature . Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature See also: PI (photosynthesis-irradiance) curve Absorbance spectra of free chlorophyll a ( green ) and b ( red ) in a solvent. The action spectra of chlorophyll molecules are slightly modified in vivo depending on specific pigment-protein interactions. The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life. [83] The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space. In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity ( irradiance ) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation. At constant temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, increasing as the irradiance increases, but reaching a plateau at higher irradiance. At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little influence on the rate of carbon assimilation. At constant high irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is increased. These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature . However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are, of course, the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors . Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome . [ clarification needed ] Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration Photorespiration As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light-independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO , the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide . However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration , uses energy, but does not produce sugars. RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons: One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon). Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the Calvin-Benson cycle . Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis. Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce ammonia (NH 3 ), which is able to diffuse out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen. A highly simplified summary is: 2 glycolate + ATP → 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP + NH 3 The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration , since it is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide. See also Environment portal Ecology portal Earth sciences portal Jan Anderson (scientist) Artificial photosynthesis Calvin-Benson cycle Carbon fixation Cellular respiration Chemosynthesis Integrated fluorometer Light-dependent reaction Organic reaction Photobiology Photoinhibition Photosynthetic reaction center Photosynthetically active radiation Photosystem Photosystem I Photosystem II Quantum biology Radiosynthesis Red edge Vitamin D Hill reaction References Jump up ^ \"photosynthesis\" . Online Etymology Dictionary . Jump up ^ φῶς . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project Jump up ^ σύνθεσις . 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From Chapter 3, \"Chlorophylla Fluorescence a Signature of Photosynthesis\", edited by George Papaqeorgiou and Govindjee, published by Springer 2004, PO Box17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pages 66-79 Jump up ^ Flexas 1999 – \"Water stress induces different levels of photosynthesis and electron transport rate regulation in grapevines\"J. FLEXAS, J. M. ESCALONA & H. MEDRANO Plant, Cell & Environment Volume 22 Issue 1 Page 39-48, January 1999 Jump up ^ Fryer M. J., Andrews J.R., Oxborough K., Blowers D. A., Baker N.E. (1998) Relationship between CO2 assimilation, photosynthetic electron transport and active 02 metabolism in leaves of maize in the field during periods of low temperature Jump up ^ Earl H, Said Ennahli S (2004). \"Estimating photosynthetic electron transport via chlorophyll fluorometry without Photosystem II light saturation\". Photosynthesis Research . 82 (177–186): 2004. Jump up ^ Genty B, Briantais J. \"M. & Baker N. R. (1989) The relationship between the quantum yield of photosynthetic electron transport and quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence\". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta . 990 : 87–92. doi : 10.1016/s0304-4165(89)80016-9 . ^ Jump up to: a b Baker NR (2008). \"Chlorophyll Fluorescence: A Probe of Photosynthesis In Vivo\". Annu. Rev. Plant Biol . 59 : 89–113. doi : 10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092759 . PMID 18444897 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Bernacchi CJ, Portis A. \"R., Nakano H., von Caemmerer S., and Long S.P. (2002) Temperature Response of Mesophyll Conductance. Implications for the Determination of Rubisco Enzyme Kinetics and for Limitations to Photosynthesis in Vivo\". Plant Physiology . 130 : 1992–1998. doi : 10.1104/pp.008250 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Ribas-Carbo M., Flexas J., Robinson S.A., Tcherkez G. G. B., (2010) In vivo measurement of plant respiration University of Wollongong Research Online ^ Jump up to: a b c d Long S.P., and Bernacchi C.J. (2003) Gas exchange measurements, what can they tell us about the underlying limitations to photosynthesis? Procedures and sources of error. Jump up ^ Ribas-Carbo M., Flexas J., Robinson S.A., Tcherkez G. G. B., (2010) In vivo measurement of plant respiration University of Wollongong Research Online Jump up ^ Bernacchi CJ, Portis A. \"R., Nakano H., von Caemmerer S., and Long S.P. (2002) Temperature Response of Mesophyll Conductance. Implications for the Determination of Rubisco Enzyme Kinetics and for Limitations to Photosynthesis in Vivo\". Plant Physiology . 130 : 1992–1998. doi : 10.1104/pp.008250 . Jump up ^ YIN X, Struik PC (2009). \"Theoretical reconsiderations when estimating the mesophyll conductanceto CO2 diffusion in leaves of C3 plants by analysis of combined gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence measurements pce_2016 1513..1\". Plant, Cell and Environment . 32 : 1513–1524 [1524]. doi : 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2009.02016.x . Jump up ^ Schreiber U, Klughammer C, Kolbowski J (2012). \"Assessment of wavelength-dependent parameters of photosynthetic electron transport with a new type of multi-color PAM chlorophyll fluorometer\" . Photosynthesis research . 113 (1–3): 127–144. doi : 10.1007/s11120-012-9758-1 . Jump up ^ Palmer J (21 June 2013). \"Plants 'seen doing quantum physics ' \" . BBC News. Jump up ^ Lloyd S (10 March 2014). \"Quantum Biology: Better Living Through Quantum Mechanics - The Nature of Reality\" . Nova: PBS Online, WGBH Boston. Jump up ^ Hildner R, Brinks D, Nieder JB, Cogdell RJ, van Hulst NF (Jun 2013). \"Quantum coherent energy transfer over varying pathways in single light-harvesting complexes\". Science . 340 (6139): 1448–51. doi : 10.1126/science.1235820 . PMID 23788794 . Jump up ^ Gale, Joseph (2009). Astrobiology of Earth : The emergence, evolution and future of life on a planet in turmoil . OUP Oxford. pp. 112–113. ISBN 9780191548352 . Jump up ^ Photosynthesis got a really early start , New Scientist, 2 October 2004 Jump up ^ Revealing the dawn of photosynthesis , New Scientist, 19 August 2006 Jump up ^ Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE (2008). \"Photosynthetic symbioses in animals\". Journal of Experimental Botany . 59 (5): 1069–80. doi : 10.1093/jxb/erm328 . PMID 18267943 . Jump up ^ Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR (May 2000). \"Solar-powered sea slugs. Mollusc/algal chloroplast symbiosis\" . Plant Physiology . 123 (1): 29–38. doi : 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 . PMC 1539252 . PMID 10806222 . Jump up ^ Muscatine L, Greene RW (1973). \"Chloroplasts and algae as symbionts in molluscs\". International Review of Cytology . International Review of Cytology. 36 : 137–69. doi : 10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60217-X . ISBN 9780123643360 . PMID 4587388 . Jump up ^ Rumpho ME, Worful JM, Lee J, Kannan K, Tyler MS, Bhattacharya D, Moustafa A, Manhart JR (Nov 2008). \"Horizontal gene transfer of the algal nuclear gene psbO to the photosynthetic sea slug Elysia chlorotica\" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 105 (46): 17867–71. Bibcode : 2008PNAS..10517867R . doi : 10.1073/pnas.0804968105 . PMC 2584685 . PMID 19004808 . Jump up ^ Douglas SE (Dec 1998). \"Plastid evolution: origins, diversity, trends\". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development . 8 (6): 655–61. doi : 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 . PMID 9914199 . Jump up ^ Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D (2007). \"The origin and establishment of the plastid in algae and plants\". Annual Review of Genetics . 41 : 147–68. doi : 10.1146/annurev.genet.41.110306.130134 . PMID 17600460 . Jump up ^ Raven JA, Allen JF (2003). \"Genomics and chloroplast evolution: what did cyanobacteria do for plants?\" . Genome Biology . 4 (3): 209. doi : 10.1186/gb-2003-4-3-209 . PMC 153454 . PMID 12620099 . Jump up ^ Tomitani A, Knoll AH, Cavanaugh CM, Ohno T (Apr 2006). \"The evolutionary diversification of cyanobacteria: molecular-phylogenetic and paleontological perspectives\" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 103 (14): 5442–7. doi : 10.1073/pnas.0600999103 . PMC 1459374 . PMID 16569695 . Jump up ^ \"Cyanobacteria: Fossil Record\" . Ucmp.berkeley.edu . Retrieved 2010-08-26 . Jump up ^ Smith, Alison (2010). Plant biology . New York, NY: Garland Science. p. 5. ISBN 0815340257 . Jump up ^ Herrero A, Flores E (2008). The Cyanobacteria: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Evolution (1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-15-8 . Jump up ^ Walker DA (2002). \" ' And whose bright presence' - an appreciation of Robert Hill and his reaction\" (PDF) . Photosynthesis Research . 73 (1–3): 51–4. doi : 10.1023/A:1020479620680 . PMID 16245102 . Jump up ^ Otto Warburg – Biography . Nobelprize.org (1970-08-01). Retrieved on 2011-11-03. Jump up ^ Gest, Howard (2002). \"History of the word photosynthesis and evolution of its definition\" . Photosynthesis Research . 73 (1–3): 7–10. doi : 10.1023/A:1020419417954 . Jump up ^ Calvin, Melvin (July 1989). \"Forty years of photosynthesis and related activities\". Photosynthesis Research . 21 (1). doi : 10.1007/BF00047170 . Jump up ^ Verduin, J. 1953. A table of photosynthesis rates under optimal, near natural conditions. Am.J. Bot. 40:675-679. Jump up ^ Verduin, J., Whitwer, E. E., and Cowell, B.C. 1959. Maximal photosynthetic rates in nature, Science 130:268-269. Jump up ^ Hesketh, J. D., and Musgrave, R.B. 1962. Photosynthesis under field conditions. IV. Light studies with individual corn leaves. Crop Sci. 2:311-315. Jump up ^ Hesketh, J.D., and Moss, D. N. 1963.Variation in the response of photosynthesis to light. Crop Sci. 3:107-110. ^ Jump up to: a b El-Sharkawy, M. A., and Hesketh, J. D. 1965. Photosynthesis among species in relation to characteristics of leaf anatomy and CO2 diffusion resistances. Crop Sci. 5:517-521. ^ Jump up to: a b c El-Sharkawy, M. A., and Hesketh, J. D. 1986.Citation Classic-Photosynthesis among species in relation to characteristics of leaf anatomy and CO2 diffusion resistances. Curr. Cont./Agr.Biol.Environ.27:14-14. Online http://www.library.upenn/edu/classics1986/A1986C691300001.pdf . Jump up ^ Haberlandt, G. 1904.Physiologische Pflanzanatomie. Engelmann, Leipzig. Jump up ^ El-Sharkawy, M. A. 1965.Factors Limiting Photosynthetic Rates of Different Plant Species. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. Jump up ^ Karpilov YS (1960). \"The distribution of radioactvity in carbon-14 among the products of photosynthesis in maize\". Proc. Kazan Agric. Inst . 14 : 15–24. Jump up ^ Kortschak HP, Hart CE, Burr GO (1965). \"Carbon dioxide fixation in sugarcane leaves\". Plant Physiol . 40 : 209–213. doi : 10.1104/pp.40.2.209 . Jump up ^ Hatch MD, Slack CR (1966). \"Photosynthesis by sugar-cane leaves. A new carboxylation reaction and the pathway of sugar formation\". Biochem. J . 101 : 103–111. doi : 10.1042/bj1010103 . Jump up ^ Jones HG (2014). Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology (Third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27959-8 . Further reading Books Bidlack JE, Stern KR, Jansky S (2003). Introductory plant biology . New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-290941-2 . Blankenship RE (2014). Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-1-4051-8975-0 . Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (2006). Discoveries in Photosynthesis . Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. 20 . Berlin: Springer. ISBN 1-4020-3323-0 . Reece JB, et al. (2013). Campbell Biology . Benjamin Cummings . ISBN 978-0321775658 . Papers Gupta RS, Mukhtar T, Singh B (Jun 1999). \"Evolutionary relationships among photosynthetic prokaryotes ( Heliobacterium chlorum , Chloroflexus aurantiacus , cyanobacteria, Chlorobium tepidum and proteobacteria): implications regarding the origin of photosynthesis\". Molecular Microbiology . 32 (5): 893–906. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01417.x . PMID 10361294 . Rutherford AW, Faller P (Jan 2003). \"Photosystem II: evolutionary perspectives\" . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences . 358 (1429): 245–53. doi : 10.1098/rstb.2002.1186 . PMC 1693113 . PMID 12594932 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photosynthesis . A collection of photosynthesis pages for all levels from a renowned expert (Govindjee) In depth, advanced treatment of photosynthesis, also from Govindjee Science Aid: Photosynthesis Article appropriate for high school science Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Overall examination of Photosynthesis at an intermediate level Overall Energetics of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Discovery Milestones – experiments and background The source of oxygen produced by photosynthesis Interactive animation, a textbook tutorial Marshall J (2011-03-29). \"First practical artificial leaf makes debut\" . Discovery News. Photosynthesis – Light Dependent & Light Independent Stages Khan Academy, video introduction Library resources about Photosynthesis Resources in your library [ hide ] v t e Botany History of botany Subdisciplines Plant systematics Ethnobotany Paleobotany Plant anatomy Plant ecology Phytogeography Geobotany Flora Phytochemistry Plant pathology Bryology Phycology Floristics Dendrology Plant groups Algae Archaeplastida Bryophyte Non-vascular plants Vascular plants Spermatophytes Pteridophyte Gymnosperm Angiosperm Plant morphology ( glossary ) Plant cells Cell wall Phragmoplast Plastid Plasmodesmata Vacuole Tissues Meristem Vascular tissue Vascular bundle Ground tissue Mesophyll Cork Wood Storage organs Vegetative Root Rhizoid Bulb Rhizome Shoot Stem Leaf Petiole Cataphyll Bud Sessility Reproductive (Flower) Flower development Inflorescence Umbel Raceme Bract Pedicellate Flower Whorl Floral symmetry Floral diagram Floral formula Receptacle Hypanthium (Floral cup) Perianth Tepal Petal Sepal Sporophyll Gynoecium Ovary Ovule Stigma Archegonium Androecium Stamen Staminode Pollen Tapetum Gynandrium Gametophyte Sporophyte Plant embryo Fruit Fruit anatomy Berry Capsule Seed Seed dispersal Endosperm Surface structures Epicuticular wax Plant cuticle Epidermis Stoma Nectary Trichome Prickle Plant physiology Materials Nutrition Photosynthesis Chlorophyll Plant hormone Transpiration Turgor pressure Bulk flow Aleurone Phytomelanin Sugar Sap Starch Cellulose Plant growth and habit Secondary growth Woody plants Herbaceous plants Habit Vines Lianas Shrubs Subshrubs Trees Succulent plants Reproduction Evolution Ecology Alternation of generations Sporangium Spore Microsporangia Microspore Megasporangium Megaspore Pollination Pollinators Pollen tube Double fertilization Germination Evolutionary development Evolutionary history timeline Hardiness zone Plant taxonomy History of plant systematics Herbarium Biological classification Botanical nomenclature Botanical name Correct name Author citation International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) - for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) Taxonomic rank International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) Plant taxonomy systems Cultivated plant taxonomy Citrus taxonomy cultigen cultivar Group grex Practice Agronomy Floriculture Forestry Horticulture Lists Related topics Botanical terms Botanists by author abbreviation Botanical expedition Category Commons Portal WikiProject [ show ] v t e Metabolism map Carbon Fixation Photo- respiration Pentose Phosphate Pathway Citric Acid Cycle Glyoxylate Cycle Urea Cycle Fatty Acid Synthesis Fatty Acid Elongation Beta Oxidation Peroxisomal Beta Oxidation Glyco- genolysis Glyco- genesis Glyco- lysis Gluconeo- genesis Decarb- oxylation Fermentation Keto- lysis Keto- genesis feeders to Gluconeo- genesis Direct / C4 / CAM Carbon Intake Light Reaction Oxidative Phosphorylation Amino Acid Deamination Citrate Shuttle Lipogenesis Lipolysis Steroidogenesis MVA Pathway MEP Pathway Shikimate Pathway Transcription & Replication Translation Proteolysis Glycosy- lation Sugar Acids Double / Multiple Sugars & Glycans Simple Sugars Inositol-P Amino Sugars & Sialic Acids Nucleotide Sugars Hexose-P Triose-P Glycerol P-glycerates Pentose-P Tetrose-P Propionyl -CoA Succinate Acetyl -CoA Pentose-P P-glycerates Glyoxylate Photosystems Pyruvate Lactate Acetyl -CoA Citrate Oxalo- acetate Malate Succinyl -CoA α-Keto- glutarate Ketone Bodies Respiratory Chain Serine Group Alanine Branched-chain Amino Acids Aspartate Group Homoserine Group & Lysine Glutamate Group & Proline Arginine Creatine & Polyamines Ketogenic & Glucogenic Amino Acids Amino Acids Shikimate Aromatic Amino Acids & Histidine Ascorbate ( Vitamin C ) δ-ALA Bile Pigments Hemes Cobalamins ( Vitamin B 12 ) Various Vitamin B's Calciferols ( Vitamin D ) Retinoids ( Vitamin A ) Quinones ( Vitamin K ) & Carotenoids ( Vitamin E ) Cofactors Vitamins & Minerals Antioxidants PRPP Nucleotides Nucleic Acids Proteins Glycoproteins & Proteoglycans Chlorophylls MEP MVA Acetyl -CoA Polyketides Terpenoid Backbones Terpenoids & Carotenoids ( Vitamin A ) Cholesterol Bile Acids Glycero- phospholipids Glycerolipids Acyl-CoA Fatty Acids Glyco- sphingolipids Sphingolipids Waxes Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Neurotransmitters & Thyroid Hormones Steroids Endo- cannabinoids Eicosanoids Major metabolic pathways in metro-style map . Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article. Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes). Orange nodes: carbohydrate metabolism . Violet nodes: photosynthesis . Red nodes: cellular respiration . Pink nodes: cell signaling . Blue nodes: amino acid metabolism . Grey nodes: vitamin and cofactor metabolism. Brown nodes: nucleotide and protein metabolism. Green nodes: lipid metabolism . [ show ] v t e Ecology : Modelling ecosystems : Trophic components General Abiotic component Abiotic stress Behaviour Biogeochemical cycle Biomass Biotic component Biotic stress Carrying capacity Competition Ecosystem Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem model Keystone species List of feeding behaviours Metabolic theory of ecology Productivity Resource Producers Autotrophs Chemosynthesis Chemotrophs Foundation species Mixotrophs Myco-heterotrophy Mycotroph Organotrophs Photoheterotrophs Photosynthesis Photosynthetic efficiency Phototrophs Primary nutritional groups Primary production Consumers Apex predator Bacterivore Carnivores Chemoorganotroph Foraging Generalist and specialist species Intraguild predation Herbivores Heterotroph Heterotrophic nutrition Insectivore Mesopredators Mesopredator release hypothesis Omnivores Optimal foraging theory Predation Prey switching Decomposers Chemoorganoheterotrophy Decomposition Detritivores Detritus Microorganisms Archaea Bacteriophage Environmental 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{ "text": "Let Me Be the One (Five Star song) - Wikipedia Let Me Be the One (Five Star song) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Let Me Be The One\" Single by Five Star from the album Luxury Of Life B-side \"Beat 47\" Released 8 July 1985 Format 7\" single , 12\" single Genre Pop Length 3 : 58 Label RCA , Tent Songwriter(s) Ian Foster Producer(s) Nick Martinelli Five Star singles chronology \" All Fall Down \" (1985) \" Let Me Be The One \" (1985) \" Love Take Over \" (1985) \" All Fall Down \" (1985) \" Let Me Be The One \" (1985) \" Love Take Over \" (1985) \" Let Me Be The One \" is the name of a 1985 hit single by British pop group Five Star , and was the fourth release from their debut album Luxury Of Life , released in the summer of 1985. \"Let Me Be The One\" was the group's second UK Top 20 single of the year, reaching #18. [1] It also reached #2 on the U.S. R&B Billboard chart. The song was later covered by American singer Mandy Moore in 1999 for her debut album. Track listings [ edit ] 7\" Single: PB 40193 1. Let Me Be The One (Edit - 3:58) 2. Beat 47 12\" Single: PT40194 1. Let Me Be The One (Full Album Version - 4:41) 2. All Fall Down (M&M Dub Remix) 3. Beat 47 12\" Single: PT40194R 1. Let Me Be The One (Philadelphia Remix) 6:06 * 2. Let Me Be The One (Long Hot Soulful Summer Mix) 3. All Fall Down (M&M Dub Remix) 4. Beat 47 12\" Single: PT40194RR 1. Let Me Be The One (Philadelphia Remix) 6:06 * 2. Let Me Be The One (Dance Mix By Hard Rock) ** 3. All Fall Down (M&M Dub Remix) 4. Beat 47 U.S. 7\" Single: PB 14229 (alternative cover) 1. Let Me Be The One (Edit - 3:58) 2. Let Me Be The One (Edited Philadelphia Remix - 3:59) - exclusive to this release U.S. 12\" Single: PW 14230 (alternative cover) 1. Let Me Be The One (Philadelphia Remix) 6:06 * 2. Let Me Be The One (LP Version) 4:41 3. Let Me Be The One (Long Hot Soulful Summer Mix) 4. Beat 47 * The 6:06 Philadelphia Remix of Let me be the one was released on the Rhino CD \"Smooth Grooves - After Hours Cool Down\" in 2002 (Cat R2 78276) and in 2009 on volume 25 of the Dance Classics CD series released by Rodeo Media. Also released as an extra track on the 2010 remastered 'Luxury Of Life' album. ** The Dance Mix By Hard Rock version of Let Me Be The One was released on the Dome CD \"British R&B Invasion\" Barcode: 5027731719082 References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.chartstats.com/songinfo.php?id=12653 [ hide ] v t e Five Star Deniece Pearson Doris Pearson Lorraine Pearson Delroy Pearson Stedman Pearson Studio albums Luxury of Life Silk and Steel Between the Lines Rock the World Five Star Shine Heart and Soul Eclipse Compilation albums Greatest Hits The Greatest Hits The Remix Anthology - The Remixes 1984-1991 Singles \" Problematic \" \" Hide and Seek \" \" Crazy \" \" All Fall Down \" \" Let Me Be the One \" \" Love Take Over \" \" R.S.V.P. \" \" System Addict \" \" Can't Wait Another Minute \" \" Find the Time \" \" Rain or Shine \" \" If I Say Yes \" \" Stay Out of My Life \" \" The Slightest Touch \" \" Are You Man Enough \" \" Whenever You're Ready \" \" Strong as Steel \" \" Somewhere Somebody \" \" Another Weekend \" \" Rock My World \" \" Someone's in Love \" \" There's a Brand New World \" \" Let Me Be Yours \" \" With Every Heartbeat \" \" Treat Me Like a Lady \" \" Hot Love \" \" Shine \" \" (I Love You) For Sentimental Reasons \" \" I Give You Give \" \" Surely \" \" Funktafied \" \" System Addict 2005 \" Video/DVDs Luxury of Life Silk and Steel Between the Lines (Live at Wembley) Greatest Hits Five Star Performance Related articles Buster Pearson Discography Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Let_Me_Be_the_One_(Five_Star_song)&oldid=809363404 \" Categories : Five Star songs 1985 singles Song recordings produced by Nick Martinelli 1985 songs RCA Records singles Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from November 2012 Use British English from November 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 8 November 2017, at 17:10. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Let Me Be the One (Five Star song)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Let_Me_Be_the_One_(Five_Star_song)&amp;oldid=809363404" }

{ "text": "History of the Philippines - Wikipedia History of the Philippines From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The lead section of this article may need to be rewritten. The reason given is: This lead section reads like a long timeline, and thus needs an introductory overview paragraph, and individual assertions seem to be based on 30-year-old paradigms which may need to be reassessed in light of present-day scholarship. . Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page . Use the lead layout guide to ensure the section follows Wikipedia's norms and to be inclusive of all essential details. (September 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Part of a series on the History of the Philippines Prehistory (pre–900) [show] Paleolithic age Awidon Mesa Formation Callao Limestone Formation Neolithic age Callao and Tabon peoples Arrival of the Negritos Austronesian expansion Angono Petroglyphs Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens Jade culture Iron age Sa Huyun Culture Society of the Igorot Ancient barangays Events/Artifacts Balangay grave goods Manunggul Jar Prehistoric gems Sa Huyun-Kalanay Complex Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery Archaic epoch (900–1565) [show] Historically documented city-states/polities (by geography from North to South) Samtoy chieftaincy Caboloan Tondo Namayan Rajahnate of Maynila Ma-i Madja-as Chiefdom of Taytay Rajahnate of Cebu Kedatuan of Dapitan Rajahnate of Butuan Sultanate of Maguindanao Lanao confederacy Sultanate of Sulu Legendary Suwarnapumi Chryse Ophir Tawalisi Wāḳwāḳ Sanfotsi Zabag kingdom Ten Bornean Datus Events/Artifacts Maragtas Laguna Copperplate Inscription Butuan Ivory Seal Limestone tombs Batanes citadels Golden Tara Gold Kinnara Ticao Stone Inscription Butuan Silver Paleograph Buddhist art Majapahit conflict Brunei War Colonial period (1565– 1946) [show] Spanish era Voyage of Ferdinand Magellan Battle of Mactan Voyage of Miguel López de Legazpi Spanish capture of Manila New Spain Captaincy General Spanish East Indies Manila galleon Revolts and uprisings Chinese invasion Sulu Sea pirates Dutch invasions British invasion Propaganda Movement Cavite Mutiny La Liga Filipina Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin Philippine Revolution Tejeros Convention Republic of Biak-na-Bato Spanish–American War Battle of Manila Bay American capture of Manila Declaration of Independence Malolos Congress First Republic Philippine–American War American colonial period Tagalog Republic Negros Republic Zamboanga Republic Moro Rebellion Insular Government Jones Law Tydings–McDuffie Act Commonwealth Japanese occupation Fall of Bataan and Corregidor Second Republic Battle of Leyte Gulf Liberation of the Philippines Post-colonial period (1946 –1986) [show] Treaty of Manila Third Republic Hukbalahap Rebellion Filipino First policy New Society & Fourth Republic CPP–NPA–NDF rebellion Moro Conflict People Power Revolution Contemporary history (1986–present) [show] Mount Pinatubo eruption 1997 Asian financial crisis 2000 All-out war against MILF 2001 EDSA Revolution EDSA III Oakwood mutiny Typhoon Yolanda Philippine Drug War By topic [show] Ancient religions Rulers List of Queen consorts Military Political Communications Transportation Filipino Americans Timeline Archaeology Philippines portal v t e Part of a series on the Culture of the Philippines History [show] Archaeology Prehistory 900–1521 1521–1898 1946–65 1965–86 1986–present People Languages Traditions Mythology and folklore [show] Mythology folklore Cuisine Festivals Religion Art Literature Music and performing arts [show] Music Performing arts Media [show] Radio Television Cinema Sport [show] basketball volleyball football martial arts rugby union Monuments [show] World Heritage Sites Cultural properties Historical markers more Symbols [show] Flag Coat of arms Motto Anthem Language Flower Tree Bird Gem Sport Philippines portal v t e The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans [1] [2] [3] using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested. [4] Negrito groups first inhabited the isles. Groups of Austronesians later migrated to the islands. Scholars generally believe that these social groups eventually developed into various settlements or polities with varying degrees of economic specialization , social stratification , and political organization . [5] Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered early states . [6] This includes the predecessors of modern-day population centers such as Maynila , Tondo , Pangasinan , Cebu , Panay , Bohol , Butuan , Cotabato , Lanao , and Sulu [2] as well as some polities, such as Ma-i , whose possibly location are still the subject of debate among scholars. [7] These polities were either influenced by the Hindu - Buddhist [8] Indian religion , language , culture , literature and philosophy from India through many campaigns from India including the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I , [9] Islam from Arabia or were Sinified tributary states allied to China . These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium. [10] [11] These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. [12] The remainder of the settlements were independent barangays allied with one of the larger states. These small states alternated from between being part of or being influenced by larger Asian empires like the Ming Dynasty , Majapahit and Brunei or rebelling and waging war against them. The first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan . He sighted Samar Island on March 16, 1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan, Eastern Samar . [13] Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi 's expedition on February 13, 1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement in Cebu . [14] Much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political structure known as the Philippines . Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity, the code of law and the oldest modern university in Asia. The Philippines was ruled under the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain . After which, the colony was directly governed by Spain. Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War . The Philippines then became a territory of the United States. U.S forces suppressed a Philippine Revolution led by Emilio Aguinaldo . The United States established the Insular Government to rule the Philippines. In 1907, the elected Philippine Assembly was set up with popular elections. The U.S. promised independence in the Jones Act . [15] The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim step prior to full independence. However, in 1942 during World War II, Japan occupied the Philippines . The U.S. military overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The Treaty of Manila in 1946 established an independent Philippine Republic. Contents 1 Timeline 2 Prehistory 2.1 The Jade culture 2.2 The Sa Sa Huỳnh Culture 2.3 Timeline of Iron age 3 Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565) 3.1 Initial recorded history 3.2 The Polity of Tondo 3.3 Caboloan (Pangasinan) 3.4 The Nation of Ma-i 3.5 The Kedatuan of Dapitan 3.6 The Kedatuan of Madja-as 3.7 The Rajahnate of Cebu 3.8 The Rajahnate of Butuan 3.9 Struggle against Majapahit 3.10 The Sultanate of Sulu 3.11 The Sultanate of Maguindanao 3.12 The Sultanate of Lanao 3.13 The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam 4 Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898) 4.1 Early Spanish expeditions and conquests 4.2 Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th centuries 4.3 Spanish rule during the 18th century 4.3.1 British invasion (1762–1764) 4.3.2 Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century 4.4 Spanish rule during the 19th century 4.5 Philippine Revolution 5 American rule (1898–1946) 5.1 Philippine–American War 5.2 The Tagalog, Negros and Zamboanga Cantonal Republics 5.3 Insular Government (1901–1935) 5.4 Commonwealth 5.5 World War II and Japanese occupation 5.5.1 Military 5.5.2 Home front 6 Postcolonial Philippines and the Third Republic (1946–1965) 6.1 Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) 6.2 Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953) 6.3 Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957) 6.4 Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961) 6.5 Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965) 6.5.1 Land Reform Code 6.5.2 Maphilindo 7 Marcos era 7.1 Martial law 7.2 Fourth Republic 8 Fifth Republic (1986–present) 8.1 Administration of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino (1986–1992) 8.2 Administration of Fidel Valdez Ramos (1992–1998) 8.3 Administration of Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998–2001) 8.4 Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001–2010) 8.5 Administration of Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010–2016) 8.6 Administration of Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016–present) 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Timeline [ edit ] Main article: Timeline of Philippine history Prehistory [ edit ] Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines Docking station and entrance to the Tabon Cave Complex Site in Palawan , where one of the oldest human remains was located. Discovery in 2018 of stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains in Rizal, Kalinga has pushed back evidence of early hominins in the country to as early as 709,000 years. [16] Still, the earliest archeological evidence for man in the archipelago is the 67,000-year-old Callao Man of Cagayan and the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal , both of whom appear to suggest the presence of human settlement prior to the arrival of the Negritos and Austronesian speaking people . [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos. F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally . [ citation needed ] Wilhelm Solheim 's Island Origin Theory [22] postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale migration. The Austronesian Expansion Theory states that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC, displacing earlier arrivals. [23] [24] The Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated. [25] They were followed by speakers of the Malayo-Polynesian languages , a branch of the Austronesian language family , who began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 4000 BC, displacing the earlier arrivals. [26] [27] Before the expansion out of Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence had linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to cultures such as the Hemudu , its successor the Liangzhu [28] [29] and Dapenkeng in Neolithic China. [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] During this neolithic period, a \"jade culture\" is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC. [35] [36] The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies. [37] The Ifugao/Igorot people utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, such as the Aetas , Hanunoo , Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended on hunter-gathering and were concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; the petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon ; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island maritime trade. [38] It was also during the first millennium BC that early metallurgy was said to have reached the archipelagos of maritime Southeast Asia via trade with India [39] [40] Around 300–700 AD, the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in balangays began to trade with the Indianized kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago and the nearby East Asian principalities, adopting influences from both Buddhism and Hinduism . [41] [42] The Jade culture [ edit ] Metal lingling-o earrings from Luzon . Existence of a \" Jade culture \" in the Philippines is evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found at a site in Batangas province. [35] [36] Jade artifacts are made from white and green nephrite and dating as far back as 2000–1500 BC, have been discovered at a number of archeological excavations in the Philippines since the 1930s. The artifacts have been both tools like adzes [43] and chisels , and ornaments such as lingling-o earrings, bracelets and beads. Nephrite, otherwise known as Jade , is a mineral widely used throughout Asia as ornaments or for decorative purposes. The oldest jade artefacts in Asia (6000 BC) were found in China where they were used as the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpturing. In 3000 BC, jade production in the Hongsan and Liangzhu cultures of China reached its peak. During this period, the knowledge of jade craftsmanship spread across the sea to Taiwan and eventually to the Philippines . The artefacts discovered in several sites in the Philippines were made from nephrite. Nephrite excavated in the Philippines were of two types: white nephrite and green nephrite. [44] The Sa Sa Huỳnh Culture [ edit ] The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed . The dispute is about the existence of a Sa Huỳnh presence in the Philippines aside from the presence of their trade products . Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced . See the relevant discussion on the talk page . (October 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Asia in 200 BC, showing Sa Huỳnh cultures in southeast Asia The Sa Huỳnh culture centred on present-day Vietnam, showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huỳnh beads were made from glass, carnelian , agate , olivine , zircon , gold and garnet ; most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. Han dynasty -style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Sa Huỳnh sites. Conversely, Sa Sa Huỳnh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand , Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the Philippines, in the Palawan , Tabon Caves . One of the great examples is the Kalanay Cave in Masbate ; the artefacts on the site in one of the \"Sa Huyun-Kalanay\" pottery complex sites were dated 400BC–1500 AD. The Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery in the Sarangani Province of southern Mindanao is c. 200 AD. [45] [46] Timeline of Iron age [ edit ] Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Prehistoric (or Proto-historic ) Iron Age Historic Iron Age Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565) [ edit ] Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1521) Idjang Maynila Kedatuan of Madja-as Rajahnate of Butuan Sultanate of Sulu Ma-i Kedatuan of Dapitan Sultanate of Maguindanao Rajahnate of Cebu Namayan Tondo Sultanate of Lanao Igorot Plutocracy Cainta Caboloan Ibalon Samtoy Chiefdom of Taytay Locations of pre-colonial polities, kingdoms and sultanates in the Philippine archipelago Initial recorded history [ edit ] During the period of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire , Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia and the Philippines which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms . [47] [48] The end of Philippine prehistory is 900, [49] the date inscribed in the oldest Philippine document found so far, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription . From the details of the document, written in Kawi script , the bearer of a debt, Namwaran, along with his children Lady Angkatan and Bukah, are cleared of a debt by the ruler of Tondo . From the various Sanskrit terms and titles seen in the document, the culture and society of Manila Bay was that of a Hindu – Old Malay amalgamation, similar to the cultures of Java , Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra at the time. There are no other significant documents from this period of pre-Hispanic Philippine society and culture until the Doctrina Christiana of the late 16th century, written at the start of the Spanish period in both native Baybayin script and Spanish. Other artifacts with Kawi script and baybayin were found, such as an Ivory seal from Butuan dated to the early 11th century [50] and the Calatagan pot with baybayin inscription, dated to the 13th century. [51] Tagalog royal couple belonging to the Maginoo class In the years leading up to 1000, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging in size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled by datus , wangs, rajahs , sultans or lakans . [52] or by upland agricultural societies ruled by \"petty plutocrats\". States such as the Kingdom of Maynila , the Kingdom of Taytay in Palawan (mentioned by Antonio Pigafetta to be where they resupplied when the remaining ships escaped Cebu after Magellan was slain), the Chieftaincy of Coron Island ruled by fierce warriors called Tagbanua as reported by Spanish missionaries mentioned by Nilo S. Ocampo, [53] Namayan , the Kingdom of Tondo , the Sinitic wangdom of Pangasinan , the nation of Ma-i , the Kedatuans of Madja-as and Dapitan , the Indianized rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates of Maguindanao , Lanao and Sulu existed alongside the highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan . [54] [55] [56] [57] Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya , Majapahit and Brunei . [58] [59] [60] The Polity of Tondo [ edit ] Main article: Tondo (historical polity) Since at least the year 900, this thalassocracy centered in Manila Bay flourished via an active trade with Chinese, Japanese, Malays, and various other peoples in Asia. Tondo thrived as the capital and the seat of power of this ancient kingdom, which was led by kings under the title \"Lakan\" which belongs to the caste of the Maharlika , who were the feudal warrior class in ancient Tagalog society. They ruled a large part of what is now known as Luzon from Ilocos to Bicol from possibly before 900 AD to 1571, becoming the largest pre-colonial Philippine state. The Spaniards called them Hidalgos . [61] [62] The people of Tondo had developed a culture which is predominantly Hindu and Buddhist, they were also good agriculturists, and lived through farming and aquaculture . During its existence, it grew to become one of the most prominent and wealthy kingdom states in pre-colonial Philippines due to heavy trade and connections with several neighboring nations such as China and Japan. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription , c. 900 CE. The oldest known historical record found in the Philippines, which indirectly refers to the polity of Tondo Due to its very good relations with Japan, the Japanese called Tondo as Luzon , even a famous Japanese merchant, Luzon Sukezaemon , went as far as to change his surname from Naya to Luzon. In 900 AD, the lord-minister Jayadewa presented a document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the Philippines' oldest known document, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription . [63] Caboloan (Pangasinan) [ edit ] Main article: Caboloan Pangasinan or Feng-chia-hsi-lan in Chinese records, was a sovereign Prehispanic Philippine state, notable for having traded with the Kingdom of Ryukyu , Japan and was a tributary state to Ming Dynasty . The Chinese records of this kingdom began when the first tributary King (Wang in Chinese), Kamayin, sent an envoy offering gifts to the Chinese Emperor. [64] The state occupies the current province of Pangasinan . It was locally known the Luyag na Kaboloan (also spelled Caboloan ), with Binalatongan as its capital, existed in the fertile Agno River valley. It flourished around the same period, the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires arose in Indonesia which had extended their influence to much of the Malay Archipelago . Urduja , a legendary woman warrior, is believed to have ruled in Pangasinan around the 14th century. The Luyag na Kaboloan expanded the territory and influence of Pangasinan to what are now the neighboring provinces of Zambales , La Union , Tarlac , Benguet , Nueva Ecija , and Nueva Vizcaya . Pangasinan enjoyed full independence until the Spanish conquest. In the sixteenth century Pangasinan was called the \"Port of Japan\" by the Spanish. The locals wore native apparel typical of other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to Japanese and Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton garments. They also blackened their teeth and were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners, which were likened to that of animals. Also, used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and Chinese households. Japanese-style gunpowder weapons were also encountered in naval battles in the area. [1] In exchange for these goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade primarily for gold and slaves, but also for deerskins, civet and other local products. Other than a notably more extensive trade network with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon groups to the south. The Nation of Ma-i [ edit ] Main article: Ma-i Piloncitos , a type of gold nugget with Baybayin Ma characters which could be a symbol for the nation of Ma-i. Used as one of the early currencies along with gold rings Around 1225, the nation of Ma-i , a Buddhist pre-Hispanic Philippine island-state centered in Mindoro , [65] flourished as an entrepôt , attracting traders and shipping from the Kingdom of Ryukyu to the Empire of Japan. [66] Chao Jukua , a customs inspector in Fukien province, China wrote the Zhufan Zhi (\"Description of the Barbarous Peoples\" [67] ), which described trade with this pre-colonial Philippine state. Its people were noted for their honesty and trustworthiness in trade. [68] The Kedatuan of Dapitan [ edit ] Main article: Kedatuan of Dapitan Around the 12th century, a group of people from Northern Mindanao settled in the strait between mainland Bohol and the island of Panglao . Those people came from a nation in northern Mindanao called Lutao (probably the animist kingdom of what will soon be the Islamic Lanao). Those people established the Kedatuan of Dapitan in western Bohol because the true indigenous people of Bohol in the Anda peninsula and nearby areas were not open to them, forcing them to establish settlement in the western part of the island. The kedatuan was first built with hardwood on the soft seabed. It engaged it trade with nearby areas and some Chinese merchants. The Jesuit Alcina tells tales about a rich nation he called the 'Venice of the Visayas', pointing to the Kedatuan of Dapitan at that time. The Jesuit also tells of a Dapitan princess named Bugbung Hamusanum, whose beauty caused her suitor, Datu Sumangga of Leyte, to raid parts of southern China to win her hand. [69] The Kedatuan of Madja-as [ edit ] Main article: Madja-as Images from the Boxer Codex illustrating an ancient kadatuan or tumao (noble class) Visayan couple. A royal couple of the Visayans. A Visayan princess. During the 11th century several exiled datus of the collapsing empire of Srivijaya [70] led by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunao of the island of Borneo . Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of polities and named it the Kedatuan of Madja-as centered in Aklan and they settled the surrounding islands of the Visayas . This confederation reached its peak under Datu Padojinog. During his reign the confederations' hegemony extended over most of the islands of Visayas. Its people consistently made piratical attacks against Chinese imperial shipping. [71] The Rajahnate of Cebu [ edit ] Main article: Rajahnate of Cebu Trading at Port of Sugbu , Chinese, Anamese, Cambodian, Europeans and Arabs entered and traded at the Cebu Port. Gold, cotton, and slaves were bartered in exchange of silk, porcelain, beads, and other metals. Traders paid tribute to the Rajah of Cebu. The Rajahnate of Cebu was a classical Philippine state which used to exist on Cebu island prior to the arrival of the Spanish. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty which happened to occupy Sumatra - Indonesia . He was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. This rajahnate warred against the 'magalos' (Slave traders) of Maguindanao and had an alliance with the Rajahnate of Butuan and Indianized Kutai in South Borneo, before it was weakened by the insurrection of Datu Lapu-Lapu . [72] The Rajahnate of Butuan [ edit ] Main article: Rajahnate of Butuan Rajahnate of Butuan The Butuan Ivory Seal , displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines . The Kawi script lettering says \"But-wan\" and the smaller lettering (similar to Baybayin ) says \"Bu-wa\" (diacritics for the \"Wan/Ban\" in Kawi and \"Bu/Ba\" in the smaller letters have worn off). A silver strip excavated from the 1970s in Butuan inside of a wooden coffin. The characters display a Hindu-Buddhist influence, probably a form of early writing in the Philippines. ( c. 14th–15th century ). By year 1011, Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan , a maritime-state famous for its goldwork [73] sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states. [74] The request being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their rivals, Tondo and the Champa civilization. [75] Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph . [76] Struggle against Majapahit [ edit ] During the 1300s, the Javanese-centered Hindu empire of Majapahit briefly ruled over Luzon island and the Sulu archipelago as recorded in the epic poem Nagarakretagama , which stated that they had colonies in the Philippines at Saludong ( Manila ) and Solot ( Sulu ). It even incorporated the Butuan and Cebu Rajahanates' Bornean ally, Kutai . But they failed to take hold of the Visayas islands, which was populated by Srivijayan loyalists who were waging incessant guerrilla warfare against them. Eventually, the kingdoms of Luzon regained independence from Majapahit during the Battle of Manila (1365) and Sulu also reestablished independence, and in vengeance, assaulted the Majapahit province of Poni ( Brunei ) before a fleet from the capital drove them out. [77] The subsequent start of the Islamic era ushered the slow death of Majapahit as its provinces eventually seceded and became independent sultanates. With the upsurge of Islam, the remnants of Hindu Majapahit eventually fled to the island of Bali . [78] The Sultanate of Sulu [ edit ] Main article: Sultanate of Sulu The official flag of the Royal Sultanate of Sulu under the guidance of Ampun Sultan Muedzul Lail Tan Kiram of Sulu. In 1380, Karim ul' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab trader born in Johore, arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting its previous ruler, the Hindu king, Rajah Baguinda , to Islam and then marrying his daughter. This sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to its diving for fine pearls . [79] The Sultanate of Maguindanao [ edit ] Main article: Sultanate of Maguindanao The bust of Sultan Muhammad Kudarat of Maguindanao at Rizal Park . The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to prominence at the end of the 15th century, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married Paramisuli, an Iranun princess from Mindanao, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao. [80] It ruled most parts of Mindanao and continued to exist prior to the Spanish colonization until the 19th century. The Sultanate also traded and maintained good relations with the Chinese, Dutch, and the British. [81] [82] The Sultanate of Lanao [ edit ] Main article: Confederation of sultanates in Lanao The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, Philippines were founded in the 16th century through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520. Islam was introduced to the area by Muslim missionaries and traders from the Middle East, Indian and Malay regions who propagated Islam to Sulu and Maguindanao.\nUnlike in Sulu and Maguindanao, the Sultanate system in Lanao was uniquely decentralized. The area was divided into Four Principalities of Lanao or the Pat a Pangampong a Ranao which are composed of a number of royal houses (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan or The Sixteen (16) Royal Houses) with specific territorial jurisdictions within mainland Mindanao. This decentralized structure of royal power in Lanao was adopted by the founders, and maintained up to the present day, in recognition of the shared power and prestige of the ruling clans in the area, emphasizing the values of unity of the nation (kaiisaisa o bangsa), patronage (kaseselai) and fraternity (kapapagaria). By the 16th century, Islam had spread to other parts of the Visayas and Luzon. The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam [ edit ] Main article: Bruneian Empire Prior to the usage of the Arabic style merged with Modernist style common in mosque architecture in the Philippines today, the mosques of the Philippines used to be the vernacular hut-style and Pagoda-style , which were common until the late 19th century. During the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521, the recently Islamized Bruneian Empire (formerly the Majapahit province of Poni that had seceded) decided to break the Dynasty of Tondo 's monopoly in the China trade by attacking Tondo and defeating Rajah Gambang and then establishing the State of Selurong ( Kingdom of Maynila ) as a Bruneian satellite-state. [3] [83] A new dynasty under the Islamized Rajah Salalila [84] was also established to challenge the House of Lakandula in Tondo. [85] In addition to establishing the satellite state of Manila , Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana, the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra to expand Brunei's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao. Furthermore, Islam was further strengthened by the arrival to the Philippines of traders and proselytizers from Malaysia and Indonesia. [86] Concurrent with the spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago, was the rise of the Lucoes who were the people of Luzon . They rose to prominence by establishing overseas communities all across Southeast Asia and participating in trading ventures, navigation expeditions and military campaigns in Burma , Malacca and East Timor [87] [88] [89] where they were employed as traders and mercenaries. [90] [91] [92] One prominent Luções was Regimo de Raja , who was a spice magnate and a Temenggung ( Jawi : تمڠݢوڠ) [93] (Governor and Chief General) in Portuguese Malacca. He was also the head of an armada which traded and protected commerce between the Indian Ocean , the Strait of Malacca , the South China Sea , [94] and the medieval maritime principalities of the Philippines . [95] [96] Around 1563 AD, at the closing stages of the precolonial era, the Kedatuan of Dapitan in Bohol achieved prominence and it was known to a later Spanish missionary, Alcina, as the \"Venice of the Visayas\", because it was a wealthy, wooden and floating city-state in the Visayas. However, this kedatuan was eventually attacked and destroyed by soldiers from the Sultanate of Ternate , a state made up of Muslim Papuan people. The survivors of the destruction, led by their datu, Pagbuaya, migrated to northern Mindanao and established a new Dapitan there. Eventually, in vengeance against the Muslims and Portuguese allied to the Ternateans, they aided the Spanish in the conquest of Muslim Manila and in the Spanish expeditions to capture Portuguese Ternate. There was also a simmering territorial conflict between the Polity of Tondo and the Bruneian vassal-state, the Islamic Rajahnate of Maynila, to which the ruler of Maynila, Rajah Matanda , sought military assistance against Tondo from his relatives at the Sultanate of Brunei. [97] The Hindu Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu also endured slave raids from, and waged wars against the Sultanate of Maguindanao. [98] Simultaneous with these slave-raids, was the rebellion of Datu Lapu-Lapu of Mactan against Rajah Humabon of Cebu. [99] The sparse population and the multiple states competing over the limited territory and people of the islands simplified Spanish colonization by allowing its conquistadors to effectively employ a strategy of divide and conquer for rapid conquest. Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898) [ edit ] Main article: History of the Philippines (1521–1898) Early Spanish expeditions and conquests [ edit ] Main article: Spanish-Moro Conflict Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines in 1521. Parts of the Philippine Islands were known to Europeans before the 1521 Spanish expedition around the world led by Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan (the Portuguese conquered Malacca City in 1511 and reached Maluku Islands in 1512 ). Magellan landed on the island called Homonhon , claiming the islands he saw for Spain, and naming them Islas de San Lázaro. [100] He established friendly relations with some of the local leaders especially with Rajah Humabon and converted some of them to Roman Catholicism . [100] In the Philippines, they explored many islands including the island of Mactan . However, Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan against the local datu, Lapu-Lapu . Old Spanish Chart of the Philippine Islands Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were dispatched to the islands. In 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos led an expedition to the islands and gave the name Las Islas Filipinas (after Philip II of Spain ) to the islands of Samar and Leyte . [101] The name was then extended to the entire archipelago later on in the Spanish era. A late 17th-century manuscript by Gaspar de San Agustin from the Archive of the Indies , depicting López de Legazpi's conquest of the Philippines European colonization began in earnest when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu . Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian monks, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for the colonization of the Archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Latin-American recruits and their Visayan allies attacked and occupied the kingdom of Tondo as well as Maynila , a vassal-state of the Brunei Sultanate, establishing Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies . [102] [103] Monument in Lapu-Lapu City , Cebu in the Philippines . Legazpi built a fort in Maynila and made overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula , Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. However, Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman , who was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi, but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik Sulayman and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the battle of Bankusay , he was finally defeated and killed. In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of the Philippine archipelago. On one side, the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the Kedatuan of Madja-as and Rajahnate of Cebu , plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (which were from northern Mindanao), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan had previously waged war against the Sultanate of Sulu and Kingdom of Maynila , then joined the Spanish in the war against the Bruneian Empire and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-state of Maynila and Sulu which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish and its Visayan allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, Kota Batu . This was achieved as a result in part of the assistance rendered to them by two noblemen , Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as a tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal. [104] The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new Bendahara . In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by De Sande himself, acting as Capitán General , started their journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards, 1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans. [105] The campaign was one of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu . [106] [107] Miguel López de Legazpi The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on April 16, 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong . In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to a cholera or dysentery outbreak. [108] [109] They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on June 26, 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof. [110] Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by the ruling Sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian Tagalog , named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo and had children in the Philippines. [111] In 1587, Magat Salamat , one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588 failed [112] in which a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo). [113] Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico. Spanish power was further consolidated after Miguel López de Legazpi's complete assimilation of Madja-as, his subjugation of Rajah Tupas , the Rajah of Cebu and Juan de Salcedo 's conquest of the provinces of Zambales, La Union, Ilocos, the coast of Cagayan, and the ransacking of the Chinese warlord Limahong 's pirate kingdom in Pangasinan . The Spanish also invaded Northern Taiwan and Ternate in Indonesia, using Filipino warriors, before they were driven out by the Dutch. [114] The Spanish and the Moros of the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu also waged many wars over hundreds of years in the Spanish-Moro conflict , not until the 19th century did Spain succeed in defeating the Sulu Sultanate and taking Mindanao under nominal suzerainty. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista , a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict [115] that included a rivalry with the Ottoman Caliphate which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal, the Sultanate of Aceh . [116] Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th centuries [ edit ] The sketch of the Plaza de Roma Manila by Fernando Brambila, a member of the Malaspina Expedition during their stop in Manila in 1792. Bahay na bato , a typical Filipino urban house during the colonial era The \"Memoria de las Encomiendas en las Islas\" of 1591, just twenty years after the conquest of Luzon, reveals a remarkable progress in the work of colonization and the spread of Christianity. [117] A cathedral was built in the city of Manila with an episcopal palace, Augustinian, Dominican and Franciscan monasteries and a Jesuit house. The king maintained a hospital for the Spanish settlers and there was another hospital for the natives run by the Franciscans. In order to defend the settlements the Spaniards established in the Philippines, a network of military fortresses called \" Presidios \" were constructed and officered by the Spaniards, and sentried by Latin-Americans and Filipinos, across the archipelago, to protect it from foreign nations such as the Portuguese, British and Dutch as well as raiding Muslims and Wokou . [118] The Manila garrison was composed of roughly four hundred Spanish soldiers and the area of Intramuros as well as its surroundings, were initially settled by 1200 Spanish families. [119] In Cebu City , at the Visayas, the settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers from New Spain . [120] At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present at Ermita [121] and at Cavite [122] [123] [124] where they were stationed as sentries. In addition, men conscripted from Peru , were also sent to settle Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to wage war upon Muslim pirates. [125] There were also communities of Spanish-Mestizos that developed in Iloilo , [126] Negros [127] and Vigan . [128] Interactions between native Filipinos and immigrant Spaniards, Latin-Americans and their Spanish-Mestizo descendants eventually caused the formation of a new language, Chavacano , a creole of Mexican Spanish . Meanwhile, in the suburb of Tondo, there was a convent run by Franciscan friars and another by the Dominicans that offered Christian education to the Chinese converted to Christianity. The same report reveals that in and around Manila were collected 9,410 tributes, indicating a population of about 30,640 who were under the instruction of thirteen missionaries (ministers of doctrine), apart from the monks in monasteries. In the former province of Pampanga the population estimate was 74,700 and 28 missionaries. In Pangasinan 2,400 people with eight missionaries. In Cagayan and islands Babuyanes 96,000 people but no missionaries. In La Laguna 48,400 people with 27 missionaries. In Bicol and Camarines Catanduanes islands 86,640 people with fifteen missionaries. Based on the tribute counts, the total founding population of Spanish-Philippines was 667,612 people, [129] of which: 20,000 were Chinese migrant traders, [130] 16,500 were Latino soldier-colonists sent from Peru and Mexico, [131] 3,000 were Japanese residents, [132] and 600 were pure Spaniards from Europe, [133] there was also a large but unknown number of Indian Filipinos , the rest were Malays and Negritos. They were under the care of 140 missionaries, of which 79 were Augustinians, nine Dominicans and 42 Franciscans. [134] Maria Clara gown The fragmented and sparsely populated [135] nature of the islands made it easy for Spanish colonization. The Spanish then brought political unification to most of the Philippine archipelago via the conquest of the various small maritime states although they were unable to fully incorporate parts of the sultanates of Mindanao and the areas where the ethnic groups and highland plutocracy of the animist Ifugao of Northern Luzon were established. The Spanish introduced elements of western civilization such as the code of law , western printing and the Gregorian calendar alongside new food resources such as maize, pineapple and chocolate from Latin America. [136] Plaza Santo Tomas in Intramuros, Manila; where the Santo Domingo Church , Colegio de Santa Rosa and the original University of Santo Tomas were built during the Spanish era. Education played a major role in the socio-economic transformation of the archipelago. The oldest universities, colleges , and vocational schools and the first modern public education system in Asia were all created during the Spanish colonial period, and by the time Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power, Filipinos were among the most educated subjects in all of Asia. [137] The Jesuits founded the Colegio de Manila in 1590, which later became the Universidad de San Ignacio , a royal and pontifical university. They also founded the Colegio de San Ildefonso on August 1, 1595. After the expulsion of the Society of Jesus in 1768, the management of the Jesuit schools passed to other parties. On April 28, 1611, through the initiative of Bishop Miguel de Benavides, the University of Santo Tomas was founded in Manila. The Jesuits also founded the Colegio de San José (1601) and took over the Escuela Municipal, later to be called the Ateneo de Manila University (1859). All institutions offered courses included not only religious topics but also science subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics. The University of Santo Tomás, for example, started by teaching theology, philosophy and humanities and during the 18th century, the Faculty of Jurisprudence and Canonical Law, together with the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened. Wife of José Rizal , wearing Maria Clara gown Outside the tertiary institutions, the efforts of missionaries were in no way limited to religious instruction but also geared towards promoting social and economic advancement of the islands. They cultivated into the natives their innate [ citation needed ] taste for music and taught Spanish language to children. [138] They also introduced advances in rice agriculture, brought from America maize and cocoa and developed the farming of indigo, coffee and sugar cane. The only commercial plant introduced by a government agency was the plant of tobacco.\nChurch and state were inseparably linked in Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments. [139] One of Spain's objectives in colonizing the Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the disunity and insignificance of other organized religions, except for Islam, which was still predominant in the southwest. [139] The pageantry of the church had a wide appeal, reinforced by the incorporation of indigenous social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Roman Catholic majority, from which the Muslims of western Mindanao and the upland tribal and animistic peoples of Luzon remained detached and alienated from (Ethnic groups such as the Ifugaos of the Cordillera region and the Mangyans of Mindoro). At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect rule helped create an indigenous upper class, called the principalía , who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This perpetuated an oligarchic system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the indigenous idea of communal use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the conferring of titles on members of the principalía . [139] Around 1608 William Adams , an English navigator contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu , who wished to establish direct trade contacts with New Spain . Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico, via the Royal Audiencia of Manila, and administered directly from Spain from 1821 after the Mexican revolution , [140] until 1898. The Manila galleons which linked Manila to Acapulco traveled once or twice a year between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Spanish military fought off various indigenous revolts and several external colonial challenges, especially from the British, Chinese pirates, Dutch, and Portuguese. Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity and founded schools, universities, and hospitals. In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced education, establishing public schooling in Spanish. [141] Manila Cathedral Coat of arms of Manila were at the corners of the Cross of Burgundy in the Spanish-Filipino battle standard. In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La Naval de Manila was fought between the forces of Spain and the Dutch Republic , as part of the Eighty Years' War . Although the Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and a galley with crews composed mainly of Filipino volunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans for an invasion of the Philippines. Spanish rule during the 18th century [ edit ] Colonial income derived mainly from entrepôt trade: The Manila Galleons sailing from the port of Manila to the port of Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of silver bullion , and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Asian, and Pacific products. A total of 110 Manila galleons set sail in the 250 years of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade (1565 to 1815). There was no direct trade with Spain until 1766. [139] Fort Santiago Postern of Our Lady of Solitude, Manila, through which on 5 October 1762, Lieutenant Governor Simón de Anda y Salazar escaped the British bombardment during the conquest of Manila. The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish rule, and the long war against the Dutch in the 17th century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the South nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. [139] The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter to King Charles III of Spain , in which he advises to abandon the colony. The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy paid by the Spanish Crown, and the 200-year-old fortifications at Manila had not been improved much since first built by the early Spanish colonizers. [142] This was one of the circumstances that made possible the brief British occupation of Manila between 1762 and 1764. British invasion (1762–1764) [ edit ] Main article: British occupation of Manila Britain declared war against Spain on January 4, 1762 and on September 24, 1762 a force of British Army regulars and British East India Company soldiers, supported by the ships and men of the East Indies Squadron of the British Royal Navy , sailed into Manila Bay from Madras, India. [143] Manila was besieged and fell to the British on October 4, 1762. Outside of Manila, the Spanish leader Simón de Anda y Salazar organized a militia of 10 000 of mostly from Pampanga to resist British rule. Anda y Salazar established his headquarters first in Bulacan, then in Bacolor. [144] After a number of skirmishes and failed attempts to support uprisings, the British command admitted to the War Secretary in London that the Spanish were \"in full possession of the country\". [145] The occupation of Manila ended in April 1764 as agreed to in the peace negotiations for the Seven Years' War in Europe. The Spanish then persecuted the Binondo Chinese community for its role in aiding the British. [146] An unknown number of Indian soldiers known as sepoys , who came with the British, deserted and settled in nearby Cainta, Rizal , which explains the uniquely Indian features of generations of Cainta residents. [147] Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century [ edit ] The Cross of Burgundy served as the flag of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821) Colonial houses of the Philippines In 1766 direct communication was established with Spain and trade with Europe through a national ship based on Spain. Those expeditions were administered since 1785 by the Real Compañía Filipina, which was granted a monopoly of trade between Spain and the islands that lasted until 1834, when the company was terminated by the Spanish crown due to poor management and financial losses. [ citation needed ] In 1781, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country . [148] The Philippines was administered from the Viceroyalty of New Spain until the independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct rule from Spain of the Philippines from that year. Spanish rule during the 19th century [ edit ] José Rizal The Philippines was included in the vast territory of the Kingdom of Spain, in the first constitution of Spain promulgated in Cadiz in 1812. It was never a colony as modern-day historical literature would say, but an overseas region in Asia {Spanish Constitution 1812}. The Spanish Constitution of 1870 provides for the first autonomous community for \"Archipelago Filipino\" where all provinces in the Philippine Islands will be given the semi-independent home rule program. During the 19th century Spain invested heavily in education and infrastructure. Through the Education Decree of December 20, 1863, Queen Isabella II of Spain decreed the establishment of a free public school system that used Spanish as the language of instruction, leading to increasing numbers of educated Filipinos. [149] Additionally, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cut travel time to Spain, which facilitated the rise of the ilustrados , an enlightened class of Spanish-Filipinos that had been able to enroll in Spanish and European universities. The Philippines has contributed one Prime Minister to Spain, Marcelo Azcarraga, who was born in the Bicol Peninsula in the Philippine Islands, Spain. Holy Rosary Minor Seminary A great number of infrastructure projects were undertaken during the 19th century that put the Philippine economy and standard of living ahead of most of its Asian neighbors and even many European countries at that time. Among them were a railway system for Luzon, a tramcar network for Manila, and Asia's first steel suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later called Puente Colgante. [150] On August 1, 1851 the Banco Español-Filipino de Isabel II was established to attend the needs of the rapid economic boom, that had greatly increased its pace since the 1800s as a result of a new economy based on a rational exploitation of the agricultural resources of the islands. The increase in textile fiber crops such as abacá , oil products derived from the coconut, indigo, that was growing in demand, etc., generated an increase in money supply that led to the creation of the bank. Banco Español-Filipino was also granted the power to print a Philippine-specific currency (the Philippine peso ) for the first time (before 1851, many currencies were used, mostly the pieces of eight ). Spanish Manila was seen in the 19th century as a model of colonial governance that effectively put the interests of the original inhabitants of the islands before those of the colonial power. As John Crawfurd put it in its History of the Indian Archipelago, in all of Asia the \"Philippines alone did improve in civilization, wealth, and populousness under the colonial rule\" of a foreign power. [151] John Bowring , Governor General of British Hong Kong from 1856 to 1860, wrote after his trip to Manila: Escolta, Manila in 1899 \"Credit is certainly due to Spain for having bettered the condition of a people who, though comparatively highly civilized, yet being continually distracted by petty wars, had sunk into a disordered and uncultivated state. The inhabitants of these beautiful Islands upon the whole, may well be considered to have lived as comfortably during the last hundred years, protected from all external enemies and governed by mild laws vis-a-vis those from any other tropical country under native or European sway, owing in some measure, to the frequently discussed peculiar (Spanish) circumstances which protect the interests of the natives.\" [152] In The Inhabitants of the Philippines , Frederick Henry Sawyer wrote: Santa Lucia Gate, Intramuros , Manila \"Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule, and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos were as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The population greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in affluence; cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily increased. [...] Let us be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony, populated by natives can compare with the Philippines as they were until 1895?.\" [153] The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878. The colony's population as of December 31, 1877, was recorded at 5,567,685 persons. [154] This was followed by the 1887 census that yielded a count of 6,984,727, [155] while that of 1898 yielded 7,832,719 inhabitants. [156] The estimated GDP per capita for the Philippines in 1900, the year Spain left, was $1,033.00. That made it the second-richest place in all of Asia, just a little behind Japan ($1,135.00), and far ahead of China ($652.00) and India ($625.00). [157] In 2006, the Civil Code of Spain provided that the acquisition of nationalities of Ibero-American countries, Andorra, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Portugal and those of the Sephardic Jews originally from Spain, does not bear the loss of their Spanish nationalities of origin that paved the way for easier route of Spanish Nationality reacquisition by the people of the Philippines. A similar law in the Philippines was enacted later in 1963 that provides \"Natural born citizens of the Philippines who acquired the citizenship of one of the Iberian countries, Ibero-American Countries and United Kingdom will not lose their natural born citizen status.\" [ This quote needs a citation ] Philippine Revolution [ edit ] Main article: Philippine Revolution Andrés Bonifacio , father of the Philippine Revolution. Revolutionary sentiments arose in 1872 after three Filipino priests, Mariano Gómez , José Burgos , and Jacinto Zamora , known as Gomburza , were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed by garote. This would inspire the Propaganda Movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar , José Rizal , Graciano López Jaena , and Mariano Ponce , that clamored for adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for independence. José Rizal , the most celebrated intellectual and radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels \" Noli Me Tángere \", and \" El filibusterismo \", which greatly inspired the movement for independence. [158] The Katipunan , a secret society whose primary purpose was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines, was founded by Andrés Bonifacio who became its Supremo (leader). An early flag of the Filipino revolutionaries. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896. Rizal was wrongly implicated in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for treason in 1896. The Katipunan in Cavite split into two groups, Magdiwang , led by Mariano Álvarez (a relative of Bonifacio's by marriage), and Magdalo , led by Emilio Aguinaldo . Leadership conflicts between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo culminated in the execution or assassination of the former by the latter's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a truce with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong. Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the agreement. One, General Francisco Makabulos , established a Central Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in Spanish-governed Philippines. Revolutionaries gather during the Malolos Congress of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines . In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the USS Maine , having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution , exploded and sank in Havana harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish–American War . [159] After Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila, a German squadron arrived in Manila and engaged in maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as obstruction of his blockade, offered war—after which the Germans backed down. [160] The German Emperor expected an American defeat, with Spain left in a sufficiently weak position for the revolutionaries to capture Manila—leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking. [161] The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by Dewey. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite . Aguinaldo proclaimed a Revolutionary Government of the Philippines on June 23. By the time U.S. land forces arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon except for Spanish capitol in the walled city of Intramuros . In the Battle of Manila , on August 13, 1898, the United States captured the city from the Spanish. This battle marked an end of Filipino-American collaboration, as Filipino forces were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action deeply resented by the Filipinos. [162] On January 23, 1899, the First Philippine Republic was proclaimed under Asia's first democratic constitution, with Aguinaldo as its President. [158] Spain and the United States had sent commissioners to Paris to draw up the terms of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish–American War. The Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo , had been excluded from sessions as Aguinaldo's government was not recognized by the family of nations. [162] Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided to annex the Philippines. In addition to Guam and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the negotiations cede the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for US$20,000,000.00. [163] U.S. President McKinley justified the annexation of the Philippines by saying that it was \"a gift from the gods\" and that since \"they were unfit for self-government, … there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them\", [164] [165] in spite of the Philippines having been already Christianized by the Spanish over the course of several centuries. The First Philippine Republic resisted the U.S. occupation, resulting in the Philippine–American War (1899–1913). American rule (1898–1946) [ edit ] Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946) 1898 political cartoon showing U.S. President McKinley with a native child. Here, returning the Philippines to Spain is compared to throwing the child off a cliff. Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain. [166] However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence . [167] Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay. [167] Philippine–American War [ edit ] Main article: Philippine–American War Filipino casualties on the first day of war Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates on patrol killed three Filipino soldiers in San Juan , a Manila suburb. [168] This incident sparked the Philippine–American War , which would cost far more money and take far more lives than the Spanish–American War . [158] Some 126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died, [168] as did 12,000–20,000 Philippine Republican Army soldiers who were part of a nationwide guerrilla movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000 soldiers. [169] The general population, caught between Americans and rebels, suffered significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino civilians lost their lives as an indirect result of the war mostly as a result of the cholera epidemic at the war's end that took between 150,000 and 200,000 lives. [170] Atrocities were committed by both sides. [168] American troops guarding the bridge over the River Pasig on the afternoon of the surrender. From Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain , Vol. II, published by Harper and Brothers in 1899. President Emilio Aguinaldo boarding the USS Vicksburg after his capture by American forces. The poorly equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by American troops in open combat, but they were formidable opponents in guerrilla warfare. [168] Malolos , the revolutionary capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped, however, establishing a new capital at San Isidro, Nueva Ecija . On June 5, 1899, Antonio Luna , Aguinaldo's most capable military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in an apparent assassination while visiting Cabanatuan , Nueva Ecija to meet with Aguinaldo. [171] With his best commander dead and his troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern Luzon , Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army on November 13 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla commands in each of several military zones. [172] Another key general, Gregorio del Pilar , was killed on December 2, 1899 in the Battle of Tirad Pass —a rear guard action to delay the Americans while Aguinaldo made good his escape through the mountains. Aguinaldo was captured at Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901 and was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the war. [168] However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim south, until 1913. [173] Flag of the United States, 1896–1908. In 1900, President McKinley sent the Taft Commission , to the Philippines, with a mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer the political system. [174] On July 1, 1901, William Howard Taft , the head of the commission, was inaugurated as Civil Governor, with limited executive powers. [175] The authority of the Military Governor was continued in those areas where the insurrection persisted. [176] The Taft Commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local government. A Philippine Constabulary was organized to deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the responsibilities of the United States Army . [177] The Tagalog, Negros and Zamboanga Cantonal Republics [ edit ] During the First Philippine Republic , three other insurgent republics were briefly formed: the Tagalog Republic in Luzon, under Macario Sakay , [178] the Negros Republic in the Visayas under Aniceto Lacson , and the Republic of Zamboanga in Mindanao under Mariano Arquiza. [179] Insular Government (1901–1935) [ edit ] Main article: Insular Government of the Philippine Islands William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly . Manuel Luis Quezon, (center), with representatives from the Philippine Independence Mission The Philippine Organic Act was the basic law for the Insular Government , so called because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs . This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. [180] On July 4, 1902 the office of military governor was abolished and full executive power passed from Adna Chaffee , the last military governor, to Taft, who became the first U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines . [181] United States policies towards the Philippines shifted with changing administrations. [158] During the early years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to delegate authority to the Filipinos, but an elected Philippine Assembly was inaugurated in 1907, as the lower house of a bicameral legislature , with the appointive Philippine Commission becoming the upper house. Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as: steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated Port of Manila ; dredging the River Pasig ,; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey. [182] In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law’s failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines’ best path to development. [183] Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women's Clubs. [184] Tranvia in Manila during American Era When Democrat Woodrow Wilson became U.S. president in 1913, new policies were launched designed to gradually lead to Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law established Filipinos citizenship in the Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not become citizens of the United States. The Jones Law of 1916 became the new basic law, promised eventual independence. It provide for the election of both houses of the legislature. Manila, Philippines, ca.1900s In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States. [185] A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases , to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery , piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished. A new educational system was established with English as the medium of instruction, eventually becoming a lingua franca of the Islands. The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American governors-general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his powers vis-à-vis the Philippine legislature. Members to the elected legislature lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918. Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the Nacionalista Party , which was founded in 1907. Although the party's platform called for \"immediate independence\", their policy toward the Americans was highly accommodating. [186] Within the political establishment, the call for independence was spearheaded by Manuel L. Quezon , who served continuously as Senate president from 1916 until 1935. World War I gave the Philippines the opportunity to pledge assistance to the US war effort. This took the form of an offer to supply a division of troops, as well as providing funding for the construction of two warships. A locally recruited national guard was created and significant numbers of Filipinos volunteered for service in the US Navy and army. [187] Frank Murphy was the last Governor-General of the Philippines (1933–35), and the first U.S. High Commissioner of the Philippines (1935–36). The change in form was more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to independence. Commonwealth [ edit ] Main article: Commonwealth of the Philippines Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington, D.C. Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon With Manila's Filipino Hispanic roots, Daniel Burnham developed the Urban planning of Manila through the City Beautiful Movement ; Neo-Classical architecture of Paris through Manila's Government buildings, Canals of Venice through the Esteros of Manila, Sunset view of Naples through Manila Bay and Winding River of Paris through Pasig River . a fine example of the Burnham plan is the Manila Central Post Office and Jones Bridge Manila circa 1930s. The Great Depression in the early thirties hastened the progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar (and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and labor could be shut out of the United States. [188] In 1933, the United States Congress passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act as a Philippine Independence Act over President Herbert Hoover 's veto. [189] Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon , partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. [190] The following year, a revised act known as the Tydings–McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with transition to full independence after a ten-year period. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president. [190] The Act stipulated that the date of independence would be on July 4 following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth. A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935. [191] [192] On September 17, 1935, [193] presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo , the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay , and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively. [194] The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. [193] Under the Tydings–McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946, a timetable which was followed after the passage of almost eleven very eventful years. World War II and Japanese occupation [ edit ] Main articles: Japanese occupation of the Philippines , Second Philippine Republic , and Home front during World War II § The Philippines As many as 10,000 American and FIlipino soldiers died in the Bataan Death March Military [ edit ] Japanese Army Tankettes in Manila, Philippines 1942 Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor . Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur . Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay. Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo and Manuel Roxas began and ended the conflict on opposite sides. On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction. [195] The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination. [196] President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile. [197] MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines. The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the Philippine Executive Commission . They initially organized a Council of State , through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be unpopular to the pro-colonial Filipinos, but very popular to the pro-Asiatic independence Filipinos. Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity. The American-aligned Philippine Army , as well as remnants of the U.S. Army Forces Far East , [198] [199] continued to fight the Japanese and pro-Japanese paramilitary forces in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army. [200] Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces . [201] One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap , which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon. [201] Leyte Landing of General Douglas MacArthur to liberate the Philippines from the Empire of Japan The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of the Philippines, the Allied forces and the Japanese Empire waged the largest naval battle in history, by gross tonnage in the Battle of Leyte Gulf . [204] The American army had been fighting the Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur's Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte . Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. Approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in action in the Philippines when the war ended, more than in any other country in the Pacific or European Theaters. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila . An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged, mainly due to excessive use of artillery by the American forces. [201] Battle of Manila General Tomoyuki Yamashita surrender Home front [ edit ] As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and black markets were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed independence on new terms, and some collaborators went along with the plan, but Japan was clearly losing the war and nothing became of it. [205] With a view of building up the economic base of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , the Japanese Army envisioned using the islands as a source of agricultural products needed by its industry. For example, Japan had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan but, a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides , and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, derris for quinine , cotton for uniforms, and abaca (hemp) for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production. The Flag of the United States of America is lowered while the Flag of the Philippines is raised during the Independence Day ceremonies on July 4, 1946 Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, due to inflation. [206] Postcolonial Philippines and the Third Republic (1946–1965) [ edit ] Manuel Roxas , President from 1946 until 1948. Main article: History of the Philippines (1946–1965) Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) [ edit ] Elections were held in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas becoming the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States ceded its sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. [158] [207] However, the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on United States markets —more dependent, according to United States high commissioner Paul McNutt , than any single U.S. state was dependent on the rest of the country. [208] The Philippine Trade Act , passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States, [209] exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99-year lease on designated military bases in the country. Elpidio Quirino , president from 1948 until 1953. Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953) [ edit ] Victoria Quirino-Gonzalez was the second daughter of Philippine President Elpidio Quirino . Since her father was a widower , she served as First Lady of the Philippines , becoming the youngest bearer of the title at the age of 16. The Roxas administration granted general amnesty to those who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice president, Elpidio Quirino , was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating José P. Laurel and winning a four-year term. World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the Communist-supported Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as \"Huks\"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc in May 1954. Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957) [ edit ] President and Mrs. Magsaysay with Eleanor Roosevelt at the Malacañan Palace. Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a populist platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in land reform by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities. [210] Nevertheless, he was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1957 dealt a serious blow to national morale. [211] Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961) [ edit ] Carlos P. Garcia , president of the Philippines from 1957 until 1961. Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of \"Filipino first\", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country's economy. [212] Garcia successfully negotiated for the United States' relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced. [213] Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965) [ edit ] President-elect Diosdado Macapagal departs his mother-in-law's home, his family in tow, for the Malacañang Palace on the day of his inauguration. In the presidential elections held on November 14, 1961, Vice President Diosdado Macapagal defeated re-electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a Vice President. President Macapagal was the President of the Philippines that changed the independence day of the Philippines from July 4 to June 12. Land Reform Code [ edit ] Main article: Agricultural Land Reform Code See also: Land reform in the Philippines The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major Philippine land reform law enacted in 1963 under President Diosdado Macapagal . [214] The code declared that it was State policy To establish owner-cultivatorship and the economic family-size farm as the basis of Philippine agriculture and, as a consequence, divert landlord capital in agriculture to industrial development; To achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious institutional restraints and practices; To create a truly viable social and economic structure in agriculture conducive to greater productivity and higher farm incomes; To apply all labor laws equally and without discrimination to both industrial and agricultural wage earners; To provide a more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and public land distribution; and To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible citizens, and a source of genuine strength in our democratic society. and, in pursuance of those policies, established the following An agricultural leasehold system to replace all existing share tenancy systems in agriculture; A declaration of rights for agricultural labor; An authority for the acquisition and equitable distribution of agricultural land; An institution to finance the acquisition and distribution of agricultural land; A machinery to extend credit and similar assistance to agriculture; A machinery to provide marketing, management, and other technical services to agriculture; A unified administration for formulating and implementing projects of land reform; An expanded program of land capability survey, classification, and registration; and A judicial system to decide issues arising under this Code and other related laws and regulations. Maphilindo [ edit ] Main article: Maphilindo Maphilindo was a proposed nonpolitical confederation of Malaya, the Philippines, and Indonesia. It was based on concepts developed during the Commonwealth government in the Philippines by Wenceslao Vinzons and by Eduardo L. Martelino in his 1959 book Someday, Malaysia\" . [215] In July 1963, President Diosdado Macapagal of the Philippines convened a summit meeting in Manila. Maphilindo was proposed as a realization of José Rizal's dream of bringing together the Malay peoples. However, this was perceived as a tactic on the parts of Jakarta and Manila to delay or prevent the formation of the Federation of Malaysia . The plan failed when Indonesian President Sukarno adopted his plan of Konfrontasi with Malaysia. [216] Marcos era [ edit ] Main article: History of the Philippines (1965–1986) The leaders of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building in Manila , hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos on October 24, 1966. (L-R:) Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Harold Holt (Australia), President Park Chung-hee (South Korea), President Ferdinand Marcos (Philippines), Prime Minister Keith Holyoake (New Zealand), Lt. Gen. Nguyễn Văn Thiệu (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn (Thailand), President Lyndon B. Johnson (United States) Imelda Marcos Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his former party -mate, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos , who had switched to the Nacionalista Party . Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects and intensified tax collection which brought the country economic prosperity throughout the 1970s. His administration built more roads (including a substantial portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway ) than all his predecessors combined, and more schools than any previous administration. [217] Marcos was re-elected president in 1969, becoming the first president of the Philippines to achieve a second term. Opponents of Marcos, however, blocked the necessary legislation to further implement his expansive agenda. Because of this, optimism faded early in his second term and economic growth slowed. [218] Crime and civil disobedience increased. The Communist Party of the Philippines formed the New People's Army in response to his shaky hold over the nation and the Moro National Liberation Front continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao. An explosion during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on August 21, 1971 prompted Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus , which he restored on January 11, 1972 after public protests. Martial law [ edit ] Banda Kawayan Pilipinas performing c. 1970's Amidst the rising wave of lawlessness and the conveniently timed threat of a looming Communist insurgency, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972 by virtue of Proclamation No. 1081 . The Nacionalista president, ruling by decree, curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, abolished Congress, closed down major media establishments, ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics: senators Benigno Aquino, Jr. , Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno . [219] The declaration of martial law was initially well received, given the social turmoil the Philippines was experiencing. [220] Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented. [221] Many political opponents were forced to go into exile. [ citation needed ] Corazon C. Aquino, the Wife of Benigno Aquino, Jr. replaced Marcos by an Election on 1986. A constitutional convention , which had been called for in 1970 to replace the colonial 1935 Constitution , continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a \"New Society\" based on new social and political values. [222] The economy during the 1970s was robust, with budgetary and trade surpluses. The Gross National Product rose from P55 billion in 1972 to P193 billion in 1980. Tourism rose, contributing to the economy's growth. Fourth Republic [ edit ] Manila circa 1980s Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government's power for arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose own health faced obstacles due to lupus . The political opposition decided to boycotted the 1981 presidential elections , which pitted Marcos against retired general Alejo Santos , in protest over his control over the results. [219] Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes, which constitutionally allowed him to have another six-year term. Finance Minister Cesar Virata was eventually appointed to succeed Marcos as Prime Minister. [223] In 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated at the Manila International Airport upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986. [224] The opposition united under Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino . The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of Namfrel , an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by Corazon Aquino and her supporters. International observers, including a U.S. delegation, denounced the official results. [224] General Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-military uprising, now popularly called the People Power Revolution , forced Marcos into exile and installed Corazon Aquino as president on February 25, 1986. Fifth Republic (1986–present) [ edit ] Main article: History of the Philippines (1986–present) Further information: 1986–90 Philippine coup attempts Administration of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino (1986–1992) [ edit ] Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991. Corazon Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional \" Freedom Constitution \". [225] A new permanent constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987. [226] The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao , and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress. [227] Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military. [228] Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless. [229] During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six unsuccessful coup attempts , the most serious occurring in December 1989. [230] In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country. The United States turned over Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines. Administration of Fidel Valdez Ramos (1992–1998) [ edit ] In the 1992 elections , Defense Secretary Fidel V. Ramos , endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration, Ramos declared \"national reconciliation\" his highest priority and worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of the Aquino years. [227] He legalized the Communist Party and laid the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents. In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in Mindanao , was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year-old struggle. However, an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state. Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not seek re-election. [231] On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the Rape-slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed was Leo Echegaray in 1999. Administration of Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998–2001) [ edit ] President Joseph Estrada Joseph Estrada , a former movie actor who had served as Ramos' vice president, was elected president by a landslide victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor. [232] Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis . The economy did, however, recover from a low −0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999. [233] [234] [235] [236] [237] [238] Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the constitution. After the worsening secessionist movement in Midanao in April 2000, President Estrada declared an \"all-out-war\" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). [239] [240] The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's headquarters', Camp Abubakar. [239] [241] [242] In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling businesses. He was impeached by the House of Representatives, but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block examination of the president's bank records. Bonifacio Global City , Metro Manila In response, massive street protests erupted demanding Estrada's resignation. Faced with street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of support from the armed forces, Estrada was forced from office on January 20, 2001. Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001–2010) [ edit ] Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (the daughter of President Diosdado Macapagal ) was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory. [243] Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion. [243] Later on in December 2002 she said would not run in May 10, 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to join the race anyway. [243] She was re-elected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained. [244] The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation. [244] Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down. [244] Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year. Halfway through her second term, Arroyo unsuccessfully attempted to push for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government, which critics describe would be a move that would allow her to stay in power as Prime Minister. [245] Numerous other scandals (such as the Maguindanao massacre , wherein 58 people were killed, and the unsuccessful NBN-ZTE Broadband Deal) took place in the dawn of her administration. She formally ended her term as president in 2010 (wherein she was succeeded by Senator Benigno Aquino III) and ran for a seat in congress the same year (becoming the second president after Jose P. Laurel to run for lower office following the presidency). Administration of Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010–2016) [ edit ] Main article: Presidency of Benigno Aquino III Aftermath of Typhoon Haiyan in Tacloban , Leyte Benigno Aquino III began his presidency on June 30, 2010, the fifteenth President of the Philippines. He is a bachelor and the son of former Philippines president Corazon C. Aquino . His administration claimed to be focused on major reforms that would bring greater transparency, reduced poverty, reduced corruption, and a booming market which will give birth to a newly industrialized nation. Just as with his predecessor, however, Aquino's administration has been marked with a mix of success and scandal since his inauguration, beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time (affecting major events such as Wikimania 2013 ). The Sultanate of Panay , founded in 2011, was recognized by the Lanao Advisory Council in 2012. Tensions regarding Sabah due to the Sultanate of Sulu 's claim gradually rose during the early years of his administration. Standoffs in Sabah between The Sultanate of Sulu 's Royal Army and the Malaysian forces struck in 2013. In 2012, the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed to create the Bangsamoro Government in Mindanao . In response, the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) was assembled by religious extremists with the goal of seceding from the Philippines. The economy performed well at 7.2% GDP growth, the second fastest in Asia. In 2013, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) struck the country, leading to massive rehabilitation efforts by foreign world powers sending aid, inevitably devolving into chaos following the revelations that the administration and that the government had not been properly handing out the aid packages and preference for political maneuvering over the safety of the people, leading to mass deterioration of food and medical supplies. Okada Manila In 2014, the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro was finally signed after 17 years of negotiation with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a move that is expected to bring peace in Mindanao and the Sulu . On April 28, 2014, when United States President Barack Obama visited the Philippines, the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement , between the United States of America and the Philippines, was signed. From January 15 to 19, 2015, Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan . On January 25, 2015, 44 members of the Philippine National Police - Special Action Force (PNP-SAF) were killed during an encounter between MILF and BIFF in Mamasapano, Maguindanao putting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law into law in an impasse. Under his presidency, the Philippines has had controversial clashes with the People's Republic of China on a number of issues (such as the standoff in Scarborough Shoal in the South China Sea and the dispute over the Spratly islands ). This resulted in the proceedings of the Philippines to file a sovereignty case against China in a global arbitration tribunal. Later on in 2014, the Aquino Administration then filed a memorial to the Arbitration Tribunal in The Hague which challenged Beijing's claim in the South China Sea after Chinese ships were accused of harassing a small Philippine vessel carrying goods for stationed military personnel in the South Thomas Shoal where an old Philippine ship had been stationed for many years. Under his presidency, for aiming to enhance the educational system in the country, Aquino III signed the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, commonly known as K–12 program on May 15, 2013. On December 20, 2015, Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe 2015 , making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973 . On January 12, 2016, the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country. On March 23, 2016, Diwata-1 was launched to the International Space Station (ISS), becoming the country's first micro-satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos. Administration of Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016–present) [ edit ] Rodrigo Duterte , current President of the Philippines . Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP–Laban won the 2016 presidential election , garnering 39.01% or 16,601,997 of the total votes, becoming the first Mindanaoan to become president. On the other hand, Camarines Sur 3rd District representative Leni Robredo won with the second narrowest margin in history, against Senator Bongbong Marcos . [246] On 30 May, the Congress had proclaimed Rodrigo Duterte, despite his absence, as president-elect and Leni Robredo as vice president-elect. [247] On July 12, 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China's claims in the South China Sea. [248] Duterte's presidency began following his inauguration on June 30, 2016 at the Rizal Ceremonial Hall of the Malacañang Palace in Manila, which was attended by more than 627 guests. [249] On August 1, 2016, the Duterte administration launched a 24-hour complaint office accessible to the public through a nationwide hotline, 8888 , and changed the nationwide emergency telephone number from 117 to 911 . [250] [251] After winning the Presidency, Duterte launched an intensified anti-drug campaign to fulfill a campaign promise of wiping out criminality in six months. [252] By March 2017, the death toll for the Philippine Drug War passed 8,000 people, with 2,679 killed in legitimate police operations and the rest the government claims to be homicide cases. [253] [254] [255] On November 8, 2016, the Supreme Court of the Philippines ruled in favor of the burial of the late president Ferdinand Marcos in the Libingan ng Mga Bayani , the country's official cemetery for heroes, provoking protests from thousands of millennials, Marcos-regime human rights victims, and relatives of people who were tortured, killed, or were still missing due to martial rule. The burial of the late president was a campaign promise of President Rodrigo Duterte , who was supported by voters in Ilocos Norte , the home province of Marcos. [256] In November 18, 2016, the remains of Ferdinand Marcos was secretly buried by the Philippine National Police, Armed Forces of the Philippines, and the family and friends of Ferdinand Marcos, despite the Supreme Court order being non-executory due to protocol. Later in the afternoon, the event was made public. [257] On May 23, 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Proclamation No. 216 declaring a 60-day martial law in Mindanao following clashes between government forces and the Maute group in Marawi . [258] See also [ edit ] Philippines portal Ancient Filipino diet and health Archaeology of the Philippines Filipino nationalism Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935 History of Asia History of Southeast Asia List of disasters in the Philippines List of Philippine historic sites List of Presidents of the Philippines List of sovereign state leaders in the Philippines Military history of the Philippines National hero of the Philippines Politics of the Philippines Resident Commissioner of the Philippines Sovereignty of the Philippines Timeline of Philippine history Timeline of Philippine sovereignty Dambana Suyat Battles of Manila Battles of the Philippines Notes [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society . Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 971-550-135-4 . ^ Jump up to: a b Junker, Laura Lee (1998). \"Integrating History and Archaeology in the Study of Contact Period Philippine Chiefdoms\". International Journal of Historical Archaeology . 2 (4). ^ Jump up to: a b Scott 1984 . Jump up ^ \"Callao Man' Could Redraw Filipino History : Discovery News\" . DNews . Jump up ^ \"Pre-colonial Manila\" . Malacañang Presidential Museum and Library . Malacañang Presidential Museum and Library Araw ng Maynila Briefers. Malacañang Presidential Museum and Library, Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016 . Retrieved 27 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Jocano, F. Landa (2001). Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage . Quezon City: Punlad Research House, Inc. ISBN 971-622-006-5 . Jump up ^ Go, Bon Juan (2005). \"Ma'I in Chinese Records - Mindoro or Bai? An Examination of a Historical Puzzle\" . Philippine Studies . Ateneo de Manila. 53 (1): 119–138. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Jump up ^ Demetrio, Francisco R.; Cordero-Fernando, Gilda ; Nakpil-Zialcita, Roberto B.; Feleo, Fernando (1991). The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion . GCF Books, Quezon City. ASIN B007FR4S8G . Jump up ^ Thakur, Upendra (1986). Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture . Abhinav Publications. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7017-207-9 . Jump up ^ Junker, Laura Lee (2000). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms . Ateneo University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-347-1 . Lay summary . Jump up ^ Bisht, Bankoti & 2004 , p. 69 . Jump up ^ \"The Cultural Influences of India, Indonesia, China, Arabia, and Japan\" . philippinealmanac.com . Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Jump up ^ Bergreen, Laurence (October 14, 2003). \"Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe\". William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-06-621173-2 . Jump up ^ \"Cebu\" . encyclopedia.com . Jump up ^ Zaide 1994 , p. 281 Jump up ^ \"Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago\" . 2 May 2018. Jump up ^ Valmero, Anna (August 5, 2010). \"Callao man could be 'oldest' human in Asia Pacific, says Filipino archaeologist\" . Yahoo! Southeast Asia, loqal.ph . Retrieved 2010-08-05 . Jump up ^ Severino, Howie G. (August 1, 2010). Researchers discover fossil of human older than Tabon Man Archived August 4, 2010, at the Wayback Machine .. GMA News . Retrieved October 21, 2010. Jump up ^ Morella, Cecil. (August 3, 2010). 'Callao Man' Could Redraw Filipino History . Agence France-Presse. Retrieved October 21, 2010 from Discovery News. Jump up ^ \" Archaeologists unearth 67,000-year-old human bone in Philippines \". The Daily Telegraph . Jump up ^ The Utrecht Faculty of Education. \"The Philippines – The Philippines in earlier times – The First Inhabitants 40,000 years ago\" . Archived from the original on August 11, 2009 . Retrieved November 7, 2009 . Jump up ^ Solheim, Wilhelm G., II. (2006). Archeology and Culture in Southeast Asia . University of the Philippines Press. pp. 57–139. ISBN 978-971-542-508-7 . Jump up ^ Solheim, Wilhelm G., II. (January 2006). Origins of the Filipinos and Their Languages (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on August 3, 2008 . Retrieved 2009-08-27 . Jump up ^ Mijares, Armand Salvador B (2006). \"The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon: Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites\" . Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association . 26 : 72–78. doi : 10.7152/bippa.v26i0.11995 . Archived from the original on July 7, 2014. Jump up ^ \"Not one roof beam, not one grain of rice, not one pygmy Negrito bone has been recovered. Any theory which describes such details is therefore pure hypothesis and should be honestly presented as such.\", Scott 1984 , p. 138. Jump up ^ Solheim II, Wilhelm G. \"The Filipinos and their Languages\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on August 3, 2008 . Retrieved 2009-08-27 . Jump up ^ Scott 1984 , p. 52. Jump up ^ Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration . p. 213. Jump up ^ Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5 . American Philosophical Society. pp. 127–128. Jump up ^ Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5 . American Philosophical Society. p. 52. Jump up ^ \"Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum\" . Archived from the original on February 28, 2014. Jump up ^ Sagart, Laurent. \"The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia\" . Jump up ^ Li, H; Huang, Y; Mustavich, LF; et al. (November 2007). \"Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River\". Hum. Genet . 122 (3–4): 383–8. doi : 10.1007/s00439-007-0407-2 . PMID 17657509 . CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Early Austronesians: Into and Out Of Taiwan\" . ^ Jump up to: a b Scott, William (1984). Prehispanic Source Material . p. 17. ^ Jump up to: a b Bellwood, Peter (2011). Pathos of Origin . pp. 31–41. Jump up ^ Hsiao-Chun, Hung (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia . Jump up ^ Legarda, Benito, Jr. (2001). \"Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines\". Kinaadman (Wisdom) A Journal of the Southern Philippines . 23 : 40. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Munoz, Paul Michael (2006). Early kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay peninsula . p. 45. Jump up ^ Glover, Ian; Bellwood, Peter, eds. (2004). Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History . Psychology Press. pp. 36, 157. ISBN 978-0-415-29777-6 . Jump up ^ The Philippines and India – Dhirendra Nath Roy, Manila 1929 and India and The World – By Buddha Prakash p. 119–120. Jump up ^ Cembrano, Margarita R. Patterns of the Past: The Ethno Archaeology of Butuan . Archived from the original on October 22, 2009 . Retrieved August 18, 2009 . [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Father Gabriel Casal & Regalado Trota Jose, Jr., Eric S. Casino, George R. Ellis, Wilhelm G. Solheim II, The People and Art of the Philippines , printed by the Museum of Cultural History, UCLA (1981) Jump up ^ Bellwood, Peter, Hsiao-Chun Hung, and Yoshiyuki Iizuka. \"Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction.\" Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde (2011): 31–41. Jump up ^ Solheim, William (1969). \"Prehistoric Archaeology in Eastern Mainland Southeast Asia and the Philippines\". Asian Perspectives . 3 : 97–108. hdl : 10125/19126 . Jump up ^ Miksic, John N. (2003). Earthenware in Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the Singapore Symposium on Premodern Southeast Asian Earthenwares . Singapore: Singapore University Press, National University of Singapore. Jump up ^ Philippine Journal of Linguistics – 23 – p. 67 Jump up ^ The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History by Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson p.186 Jump up ^ Copperplate Archived November 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ., in The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, bibingka.com [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ The Butuan Ivory Seal Archived October 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine ., bibingka.com [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ The Calatagan Pot Archived February 18, 2016, at the Wayback Machine ., bibingka.com [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Philippine History by Maria Christine N. Halili. \"Chapter 3: Precolonial Philippines\" (Published by Rex Bookstore; Manila, Sampaloc St. Year 2004) Jump up ^ \"Katutubo, Muslim, Kristyano\" . Salazar at Mendoza-Urban. Jump up ^ The Kingdom of Namayan and Maytime Fiesta in Sta. Ana of new Manila , Traveler On Foot self-published journal. [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Volume 5 of A study of the Eastern and Western Oceans ( Japanese : 東西洋考 ) mentions that Luzon first sent tribute to Yongle Emperor in 1406. Jump up ^ \"Akeanon Online – Aton Guid Ra! – Aklan History Part 3 – Confederation of Madyaas\" . Akeanon.com. March 27, 2008 . Retrieved 2010-01-02 . Jump up ^ The Unconquered Kingdom Archived December 1, 2008, at the Wayback Machine . in The official website of the Royal Hashemite Sultanate of Sulu and the Royal Hashemite Sultanate of Sabah [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Munoz 2006 , p. 171. Jump up ^ Background Note: Brunei Darussalam , U.S. State Department. Jump up ^ \"Introduction\" . Mangyan Heritage Center. Archived from the original on February 13, 2008 . Retrieved 2010-11-15 . Jump up ^ Scott, William Henry (1985). Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. p. 104. ISBN 978-971-10-0073-8 . Jump up ^ The Report: The Philippines 2012 . Oxford Business Group. 2012. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-907065-56-9 . Jump up ^ Woods, Damon L. (2006). The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook . ABC-CLIO. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-85109-675-6 . Jump up ^ Scott, William Henry (1989). \"Filipinos in China in 1500\" (PDF) . China Studies Program . De la Salle University. p. 8. Jump up ^ Scott 1984 , p. 70. Jump up ^ \"South East Asia Pottery – Philippines\" . Seapots.com. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011 . Retrieved 2011-10-27 . Jump up ^ Old Chinese Book Tells of the World 800 Years Ago ; Chau-Ju-Kua's Chronicles of the Twelfth Century, Now First Translated, Give a \"Description of Barbarous Peoples\" Picked Up by This Noted Inspector of Foreign Trade and Descendant of Emperors. Jump up ^ Scott 1984 , p. 67. Jump up ^ History of the Kingdom of Dapitan . Retrieved February 3, 2017. Jump up ^ Jovito S. Abellana, \"Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya\" (Ms., Cebuano Studies Center, ca. 1960) Jump up ^ Maragtas by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro Jump up ^ Jovito Abellana, Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik, 1952 Jump up ^ Kinaadman . 2001. Volume 23. Xavier University Press. Page 34. Jump up ^ Scott 1984 , p. 59. Jump up ^ Santos, Hector. (October 28, 1996). \"The Butuan Silver Strip\" Archived July 24, 2011, at the Wayback Machine .. A Philippine Leaf. Retrieved 2007-08-09. [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Santos, Hector. (October 28, 1996). \"The Butuan Silver Strip Deciphered\" . A Philippine Leaf. Archived from the original on September 8, 2009 . Retrieved 2009-09-28 . [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ History for Brunei 2009 , p. 44 Jump up ^ Barski, p.46 Jump up ^ 100 Events That Shaped The Philippines (Adarna Book Services Inc. 1999 Published by National Centennial Commission) Page 72 \"The Founding of the Sulu Sultanate\" Jump up ^ \"The Maguindanao Sultanate\" , Moro National Liberation Front web site. \"The Political and Religious History of the Bangsamoro People, condensed from the book Muslims in the Philippines by Dr. C. A. Majul.\" (archived from the original on 2003-01-26) Retrieved January 9, 2008. Jump up ^ Palafox, Queenie. \"The Sultan of the River\" . National Historical Commission . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Shinzō Hayase (2007). Mindanao Ethnohistory Beyond Nations: Maguindanao, Sangir, and Bagobo Societies in East Maritime Southeast Asia . University of Hawaii Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-971-550-511-6 . Jump up ^ Pusat Sejarah Brunei Archived April 15, 2015, at the Wayback Machine .. Retrieved February 7, 2009. Jump up ^ Santiago, Luciano P.R., The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571–1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 18 [1990] Jump up ^ Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300–1965. 4th ed. revised. Angeles City: By the author. Jump up ^ Agoncillo 1990 , p. 22. Jump up ^ Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD. At the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya. SOURCE: Ibidem, page 195. Jump up ^ The former sultan of Malacca decided to retake his city from the Portuguese with a fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525 AD. SOURCE: Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera de Asia de Ioano de Barros dos feitos que os Portugueses fezarao no descubrimiento dos mares e terras de Oriente [1628], Lisbon, 1777, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194. Jump up ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1969) [1524]. \"First voyage round the world\". Translated by J.A. Robertson. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild. Jump up ^ Pires, Tomé (1944). A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodriguez: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão [1512 – 1515] (in Portuguese). Translated by Armando Cortesao. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society. Jump up ^ Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). \"Chapter 8: The Philippine Islands\". Asia in the Making of Europe . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46732-5 . Jump up ^ Reid, Anthony (1995). \"Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity\" . In Peter Bellwood; James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon . The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives . Canberra: Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University. Jump up ^ Turnbull, C.M. (1977). A History of Singapore: 1819-1975 . Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-580354-9 . Jump up ^ Antony, Robert J. Elusive Pirates, Pervasive Smugglers: Violence and Clandestine Trade in the Greater China Seas. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010. Print, 76. Jump up ^ Junker, Laura L. Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. Honolulu: University of Hawaiì Press, 1999. Jump up ^ Wilkinson, R J. An Abridged Malay-English Dictionary (romanised). London: Macmillan and Co, 1948. Print, 291. Jump up ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1524). Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo . Jump up ^ Marivir Montebon, Retracing Our Roots – A Journey into Cebu’s Pre-Colonial Past, p.15 Jump up ^ Celestino C. Macachor (2011). \"Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana\" . Rapid Journal . 10 (2). Archived from the original on July 3, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b Lacsamana 1990 , p. 47 Jump up ^ Lacsamana 1990 , p. 52 Jump up ^ & Kurlansky 1999 , p. 64. Jump up ^ Joaquin 1988 . Jump up ^ Alip 1964 , p. 201,317. Jump up ^ United States War Dept 1903 p.379 [ citation not found ] Jump up ^ McAmis 2002 , p. 33. Jump up ^ \"Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578\" . Archived from the original on October 14, 2014 . Retrieved October 17, 2009 . Jump up ^ Frankham 2008 , p. 278. Jump up ^ Atiyah 2002 , p. 71. Jump up ^ Saunders 2002 , pp. 54–60. Jump up ^ Saunders 2002 , p. 57. Jump up ^ Tomas L. \"Magat Salamat\" . Archived from the original on December 12, 2007 . Retrieved 2008-07-14 . [ unreliable source? ] Jump up ^ Fernando A. Santiago, Jr. \"Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898\" . Retrieved 2008-07-18 . Jump up ^ Peter Borschberg (2015). Journal, Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge. Security, Diplomacy and Commerce in 17th-Century Southeast Asia . Singapore : NUS Press. pp. 82, 84, 126, 421 . Retrieved 30 Aug 2015 . Jump up ^ Truxillo, Charles A. (2012). Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War . Jain Publishing Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-89581-864-5 . Jump up ^ Peacock Gallop (2015) \"From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia\". Jump up ^ Jiménez, David Sánchez (Fall 2010). \"La hispanización y la identidad hispanaen Filipinas (1a parte)\" . Revista Filipina (in Spanish). XIV (3). ISSN 1496-4538 . Jump up ^ \"Fortress of Empire, Rene Javellana, S. J. 1997\" . Jump up ^ Barrows, David (2014). \"A History of the Philippines\" . Guttenburg Free Online E-books . 1 : 179. Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or \"arrabales,\" all occupied by Spaniards (\"todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles\"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes. Jump up ^ \"Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines\" . PHILIPPINE-HISTORY.ORG. 2005. Jump up ^ \"Living in the Philippines: Living, Retiring, Travelling and Doing Business\" . Jump up ^ Galaup \"Travel Accounts\" page 375. Jump up ^ \"Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World\" By Eva Maria Mehl, page 235. Jump up ^ Barrows, David (2014). \"A History of the Philippines\" . Guttenburg Free Online E-books . 1 : 229. Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing what was known as the \"Regiment of the King,\" made up very largely of Mexican soldiers [note: emphasis added]. He also formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army. Jump up ^ \"SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. 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This population was not only small, but it was also extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes separated by the differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each tiny community was practically independent, and the power of a dato very limited. There were no great princes, with large forces of fighting retainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portuguese had encountered among the Malays south in the Moluccas. Jump up ^ Spain (1680). Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo Quince. De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias . Madrid. Spanish-language facsimile of the original . Jump up ^ Coleman 2009 , pp. 17–59 Jump up ^ Antonio de Morga (1609). Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas . Fondo de Cultura. ISBN 0-521-01035-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dolan & 1991-4 Jump up ^ Shafer 1958 Jump up ^ \"US Country Studies: Education in the Philippines\" . Countrystudies.us . Retrieved 2010-11-15 . 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October 26, 2007 . Retrieved 2006-08-16 . Jump up ^ Antonio C. Abaya, GMA's successes , Manila Standard, January 17, 2008. Jump up ^ Philippines' GDP grows 3.2 pc in 1999, GNP up 3.6 pc Archived November 17, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ., Asian Economic News, January 31, 2000. Jump up ^ Philippines' GDP up 4.5% in 2nd qtr , Asian Economic News, September 4, 2000. Jump up ^ The Philippines: Sustaining Economic Growth Momentum In A Challenging Global Environment , Governor Amando M. Tetangco, Jr.,\nBangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, June 27, 2008. (WebCite archive of the original ) Jump up ^ Speech: THE PHILIPPINES: CONSOLIDATING ECONOMIC GROWTH , Governor Rafael Buenaventura , Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas , March 13, 2000. Jump up ^ Philippines : Recent Trends and Prospects , Asian Development Bank, 2001. (archived from the original on 2011-06-07) ^ Jump up to: a b Speech of Former President Estrada on the GRP-MORO Conflict (September 18, 2008), Human development Network . Jump up ^ In the Spotlight : Moro Islamic Liberation Front Archived September 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine ., Center for Defense Information Terrorism Project, February 15, 2002. Jump up ^ Philippine Military Takes Moro Headquarters , People's Daily , July 10, 2000. Jump up ^ AFP-MILF 2000 War in Mindanao Remembered Archived March 8, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . (April 13, 2006), American Chronicle , May 13, 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Country Profile: Philippines, March 2006\" (PDF) . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 2006-08-22 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Talkasia Transcript\" . CNN . Retrieved 2006-07-29 . Jump up ^ Dalangin-Fernandez, Lira (July 20, 2006). \"People's support for Charter change 'nowhere to go but up ' \" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Archived from the original on July 27, 2006 . Retrieved 2006-07-27 . Jump up ^ \"Duterte, Robredo win 2016 polls\" . ABS-CBN . May 27, 2016 . Retrieved May 27, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Congress proclaims Duterte, Robredo as new President, VP; Rody a no-show\" . Inquirer.net . May 27, 2016 . Retrieved May 27, 2016 . Jump up ^ Philips, T.; Holmes, O.; Bowcott, O. (July 12, 2016). \"Philippines wins South China Sea case against China\" . The Guardian . Retrieved July 12, 2016 . Jump up ^ Rañada, Pia (June 22, 2016). \"Duterte inauguration guest list now has 627 names\" . Rappler . Retrieved June 30, 2016 . Jump up ^ Corrales, Nestor (July 7, 2016). \"Duterte administration to launch 24-hour hotline in August\" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved July 9, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Dial 8888, 911: Gov't opens complaints, emergency hotlines\" . ABS CBN News . August 1, 2016 . Retrieved August 1, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Duterte sworn in as Philippines president\" . Reuters . 30 June 2016 . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Between Duterte and a death squad, a Philippine mayor fights drug-war violence\" . Reuters . March 16, 2017. Jump up ^ \"#RealNumbersPH\" . Philippine Information Agency . Retrieved 22 May 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Cayetano: PH war on drugs exaggerated by fake news\" . ABS-CBN. 5 May 2017 . Retrieved 22 May 2017 . Jump up ^ News, RG Cruz, ABS-CBN. \"Martial law survivor asks SC to reverse Marcos burial\" . Jump up ^ \"Anti-Marcos protesters brave rains to condemn burial - The Manila Times Online\" . www.manilatimes.net . Jump up ^ Esguerra, Anthony; Salaverria, Leila (May 23, 2017). \"Duterte declares martial law in Mindanao\" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved May 23, 2017 . References [ edit ] Agoncillo, Teodoro A. (1990) [1960]. History of the Filipino People (8th ed.). Quezon City: Garotech Publishing. ISBN 971-8711-06-6 . Alip, Eufronio Melo (1964). Philippine History: Political, Social, Economic . Atiyah, Jeremy (2002). Rough guide to Southeast Asia . Rough Guide. ISBN 978-1858288932 . Bisht, Narendra S.; Bankoti, T. S. (2004). Encyclopaedia of the South East Asian Ethnography . Global Vision Publishing Ho. ISBN 978-81-87746-96-6 . Coleman, Ambrose (2009). The Firars in the Philippines . BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-113-71989-8 . Deady, Timothy K. (2005). \"Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency: The Philippines, 1899–1902\" (PDF) . Parameters . Carlisle, Pennsylvania: United States Army War College. 35 (1): 53–68. Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"Early History\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"The Early Spanish\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"The Decline of Spanish\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"Spanish American War\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"War of Resistance\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"United States Rule\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"A Collaborative Philippine Leadership\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"Commonwealth Politics\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"World War II\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"Economic Relations with the United States\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"The Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal Administrations\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"Marcos and the Road to Martial Law\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"From Aquino's Assassination to People Power\" . Philippines: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8 . Ellis, Edward S. (2008). Library of American History from the Discovery of America to the Present Time . READ BOOKS. ISBN 978-1-4437-7649-3 . Duka, Cecilio D. (2008). Struggle for Freedom' 2008 Ed . Rex Bookstore, Inc. ISBN 978-971-23-5045-0 . Escalante, Rene R. (2007). The Bearer of Pax Americana: The Philippine Career of William H. Taft, 1900–1903 . Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-1166-6 . Fish, Shirley (2003). When Britain Ruled The Philippines 1762–1764 . 1stBooks. ISBN 1-4107-1069-6 . Frankham, Steven (2008). Borneo . Footprint Handbooks. Footprint. ISBN 978-1906098148 . Fundación Santa María (Madrid) (1994). Historia de la educación en España y América: La educación en la España contemporánea : (1789–1975) (in Spanish). Ediciones Morata. ISBN 978-84-7112-378-7 . Joaquin, Nick (1988). Culture and history: occasional notes on the process of Philippine becoming . Solar Pub. Corp. ISBN 978-971-17-0633-3 . Kurlansky, Mark (1999). The Basque history of the world . Walker. ISBN 978-0-8027-1349-0 . Lacsamana, Leodivico Cruz (1990). Philippine History and Government (Second ed.). Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 971-06-1894-6 . Linn, Brian McAllister (2000). The Philippine War, 1899–1902 . University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1225-3 . McAmis, Robert Day (2002). Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia . Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802849458 . Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula . Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 978-981-4155-67-0 . Norling, Bernard (2005). The Intrepid Guerrillas of North Luzon . University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-9134-8 . Riggs, Fred W. (1994). \"Bureaucracy: A Profound Puzzle for Presidentialism\" . In Farazmand, Ali. Handbook of Bureaucracy . CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-9182-7 . Saunders, Graham (2002). A History of Brunei . Routledge. ISBN 978-0700716982 . Schirmer, Daniel B.; Shalom, Stephen Rosskamm (1987). The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance . South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-275-5 . Scott, William Henry (1984). Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history . New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0227-5 . Shafer, Robert Jones (1958). The economic societies in the Spanish world, 1763–1821 . Syracuse University Press. Tracy, Nicholas (1995). Manila Ransomed: The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years War . University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-426-5 . Stearns, Peter N. , ed. (2002). \"V.(F)2. The Philippines, 1800–1913\". Encyclopedia of World History . Bartleby.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2008 . Retrieved 2010-08-13 . Taft, William (1908). Present Day Problems . Ayer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8369-0922-7 . Annual report of the Secretary of War . Washington GPO: US Army. 1903. Wionzek, Karl-Heinz (2000). \"Germany, the Philippines, and the Spanish–American War: four accounts by officers of the Imperial German Navy\" . National Historical Institute. Woods, Ayon kay Damon L. (2005). The Philippines . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-675-2 . Zaide, Sonia M. (1994). The Philippines: A Unique Nation . All-Nations Publishing Co. ISBN 971-642-071-4 . Further reading [ edit ] Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State and Society in the Philippines . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6872-3 . Columbia University Press (2001). \"Philippines, The\" . Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Bartleby.com . Archived from the original on July 28, 2008. Barrows, David Prescott (1905). A History of the Philippines . Amer. Bk. Company. Corpuz, O.D. (2005). Roots of the Filipino Nation . University of the Philippines Press. ISBN 971-542-461-9 . Elliott, Charles Burke (1916). The Philippines : To the End of the Military Régime (pdf) . The Bobbs-Merrill Company. Elliott, Charles Burke (1917). The Philippines: To the End of the Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy (pdf) . The Bobbs-Merrill Company. Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1903). 1582–1583 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803 . 5 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Preface to Volume 1 General Preface The entrance of the United States of America into the arena of world-politics, the introduction of American influence into Oriental affairs, and the establishment of American authority in the Philippine archipelago, all render the history of those islands and their, numerous peoples a topic of engrossing interest and importance to the reading public, and especially to scholars, historians, and statesmen. The present work – its material carefully selected and arranged from a vast mass of printed works and unpublished manuscripts – is offered to the public with the intention and hope of casting light on the great problems which confront the American people in the Philippines; and of furnishing authentic and trustworthy material for a thorough and scholarly history of the islands. For this purpose, the Editors reproduce (mainly in English translation) contemporaneous documents which constitute the best original sources of Philippine history. Beginning with Pope Alexander VI's line of demarcation between the Spanish and the Portuguese dominions in the New World (1493), the course of history in the archipelago is thus traced through a period of more than three centuries, comprising the greater part of the Spanish régime. In the selection of material, the Editors have sought to make the scope of the work commensurate with the breadth of the field, and to allot to each subject space proportioned to its interest; not only the political relations, but the social and religious, economic and commercial conditions of the Philippines have received due attention and care. All classes of writers are here represented—early navigators, officials civil and military, ecclesiastical dignitaries, and priests belonging to the various religious orders who conducted the missions among the Filipino peoples. To the letters, reports, and narratives furnished by these men are added numerous royal decrees, papal bulls and briefs, and other valuable documents. Most of this material is now for the first time made accessible to English-speaking readers; and the great libraries and archives of Spain, Italy, France, England, Mexico, and the United States have generously contributed to furnish it. In the presentation of these documents, the Editors assume an entirely impartial attitude, free from any personal bias, whether political or sectarian. They aim to secure historical accuracy, especially in that aspect which requires the sympathetic interpretation of each author's thought and intention; and to depict faithfully the various aspects of the life of the Filipinos, their relations with other peoples (especially those of Europe), and the gradual ascent of many tribes from barbarism. They invite the reader's especial attention to the Introduction furnished for this series by Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, of Yale University – valuable alike for its breadth of view and for its scholarly thoroughness. The Bibliographical Data at the end of each volume will supply necessary information as to sources and location of the documents published therein; fuller details, and of broader scope, will be given in the volume devoted to Philippine bibliography, at the end of the series. Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1903). 1583–1588 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 6 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth century. Change of title and extension of scope – Preface to Volume 6 . Editorial Announcement Facsimile of title page from Volume 43 The Editors desire to announce to their readers an important modification in the scope and contents of this work. As originally planned and hitherto announced, the series was intended to furnish the original sources, printed and documentary, for the history of the Philippine Islands only to the beginning of the nineteenth century. To most of our readers, the reasons for this are obvious: the fact that the classic period of Philippine history is thus bounded; the comparative rarity and inaccessibility of most material therein to the general public; the vast extent of the field covered by Philippine history, and the necessary limitations of space imposed upon the selection of material for this work; the closing of foreign archives to all investigators after an early date in the nineteenth century; and the greater difficulty, in that later period, of securing a proper historical perspective. But so many and urgent requests have come to us, from subscribers and reviewers, for such extension of this series as shall cover the entire period of Spanish domination, that we have decided to modify the former plan in the manner here briefly indicated. It is our purpose not to exceed the number of volumes already announced, fifty-five. We are able to do this because in our original plan, to avoid a subsequent increase in the number of volumes, a certain amount of space was purposely left for possible future changes as a result of later investigations to be made in foreign archives, or on account of the necessary excision of extraneous or irrelevant matter from the printed works which are to be presented in this series. The new title will be \"The Philippine Islands: 1493–1898.\" The early and especially important history of the islands will be covered as fully as before. For the history of the nineteenth century, we will present various important decrees, reports, and other official documents; and provide a clear, careful, and impartial synopsis of some of the best historical matter extant, down to the close of the Spanish régime. Throughout the series will be used, as has been done from the beginning, all the best material available – historical, descriptive, and statistical – for reference and annotation. With the copious and carefully-prepared bibliography of Philippine historical literature, and the full analytical index, which will close the series; the broad and representative character of the material selected throughout; and the impartial and non-sectarian attitude maintained, the Editors trust that this change will still further enable scholars, historical writers, and general readers alike to study, with reliable and satisfactory material, the history of the Philippine Islands from their first discovery by Europeans to the close of the Spanish régime, and incidentally the history of the entire Orient. Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1903). 1588–1591 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 7 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1903). 1591–1593 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 8 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1904). 1593–1597 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 9 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1904). 1604–1605 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 13 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1905). 1630–1634 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 24 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne ; additional translations by Rev T.C. Middleton and Robert W. Haight . Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1905). 1635–1636 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 25 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord BOURNE ; additional translations by Rev T.C. Middleton and Robert W. Haight . Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1906). 1649–1666 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 36 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne ; additional translations by Henry B. Lathrop. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander , eds. (1906). 1670–1700 . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 . 42 . Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne . Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company . Millis, Walter (1931). The Martial Spirit . Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-929587-07-3 . Kalaw, Maximo M. (1927). \"Early Political Life in the Philippines\" . The development of Philippine politics . Oriental commercial. p. 1 . Retrieved 2008-01-21 . Nieva, Gregorio (September 28, 1921). \"Now Is The Time To Solve The Philippine Problem: The View Of A Representative Filipino\" . The Outlook . Outlook Publishing Company, Inc. 129 : 135–137 . Retrieved 2009-07-30 . Scott, William Henry (1992). Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino: And Other Essays in Philippine History . New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0524-5 . Worcester, Dean Conant (1913). The Philippines: Past and Present . New York: The Macmillan company. Worcester, Dean Conant (1898). The Philippine Islands and Their People . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of the Philippines . Official government portal of the Republic of the Philippines . National Historical Institute . The United States and its Territories 1870–1925: The Age of Imperialism . History of the Philippine Islands by Morga, Antonio de in 55 volumes, from Project Gutenberg . Translated into English, edited and annotated by E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson. Volumes 1–14 and 15–25 indexed under Blair, Emma Helen. Philippine Society and Revolution (archived from the original on 2010-01-10). 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{ "text": "Sam Seaborn - Wikipedia Sam Seaborn From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Samuel Seaborn The West Wing character Rob Lowe as Sam Seaborn First appearance \" Pilot \" Last appearance \" Tomorrow \" Created by Aaron Sorkin Portrayed by Rob Lowe Information Nickname(s) Princeton (Secret Service code name), Schmutzy Pants (by CJ) Gender Male Occupation Deputy White House Communications Director (seasons 1-4) Deputy White House Chief of Staff (last episode of season 7) Spouse(s) an ex-fiancée - Lisa Sherborne Nationality American Samuel Norman Seaborn is a fictional character portrayed by Rob Lowe on the television serial drama The West Wing . He is Deputy White House Communications Director in the Josiah Bartlet administration throughout the first four seasons of the series. The show was designed with Sam as the main character, and as such he is the protagonist of the pilot episode, and remains a focal point and lens for the show through at least the first season. However, by the time of his departure, his significance in the plot had decreased as the show started to focus more on the President's ability to govern despite obstacles such as his previously undisclosed multiple sclerosis , campaign for re-election, and increased focus on foreign policy and terrorism. The character of Sam had never been strongest in these areas, resulting in the elevation of Martin Sheen 's character President Josiah Bartlet simultaneously with Sam's decline. Contents 1 Creation and development 2 Character biography 2.1 Return to politics 3 See also 4 References Creation and development [ edit ] The role of Sam Seaborn was initially offered to actor Bradley Whitford , who had auditioned for the part of Josh Lyman . However, Whitford wanted and was eventually given the role of Josh, [1] and the part of Sam went to Rob Lowe, whose audition, said show creator Aaron Sorkin , \"left our jaws on the floor\". [2] Sam's inept performance as a White House tour guide in the pilot episode may have been inspired by former Clinton press secretary Joe Lockhart , who told the Chicago Tribune that despite having to give tours on a regular basis, he did not know whether the Roosevelt Room was named after Franklin or Teddy Roosevelt , saying, \"I haven't gotten caught yet, but I've made up a few things.\" [3] (It is actually named after both Presidents Roosevelt.) Character biography [ edit ] This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (November 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Sam grew up in Laguna Beach, California . He makes a reference to going to Dungeons and Dragons camp when he was younger in the episode The Two Bartlets . Sam graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University and Duke University School of Law . He makes repeated references to his alma mater, especially in the earlier seasons, indicating a certain pride in his attendance there. \"Princeton\" is his Secret Service code name, and he mentions being the recording secretary of the Princeton Gilbert and Sullivan Society. He can speak Spanish, as seen in Season 3 episode \"Ways and Means.\" Sam attended Duke Law School and was the editor of the Duke Law Review (which, in reality, is known as the Duke Law Journal ). He was a staffer for several congressmen and the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee . He was also a practicing lawyer, working at the law firm of Dewey Ballantine in New York City before joining the fictional Gage Whitney Pace (aka \"Gage Whitney\"), reputedly the second biggest law firm in New York City . Sam worked there for seven years and is concentrating on helping an oil company with a deal that would protect them from litigation in the event of an oil spill when old friend Josh Lyman comes to visit him. Josh is running John Hoynes ' presidential campaign and comes to try to recruit Sam as a speechwriter. Sam declines, explaining that he is about to be made partner and is getting married soon (the engagement later fell through). Sam returns to work but, feeling guilty about the deal he is making, begins trying to convince the oil company to buy newer, better tankers than the ones they want, unleashing the wrath of his boss and jeopardizing his promotion to partner. In the midst of this, Josh returns from a trip to New Hampshire during which he has seen Hoynes' dark-horse challenger, Jed Bartlet , speak to a small audience of voters. Josh has been sufficiently inspired to abandon Hoynes' campaign and go work for Bartlet, which in turn convinces Sam to do the same. Sam becomes part of the talented team of staffers who help Bartlet to a very unlikely victory in 1998. After the election, Sam attains the position of Deputy White House Communications Director in the Bartlet Administration, often collaborating with White House Communications Director Toby Ziegler to write the President's most important public addresses, most notably States of the Union and his first inaugural address. Sam's tragically flawed romantic relationships are something of a theme of the series with Josh once describing Sam's love life as \"a moveable feast\". After joining the campaign, Sam broke up with his fiancée, Lisa Sherborne , whom he was planning to marry in September of that year (the joke was that they broke up so that her name wouldn't become Lisa Sherborne Seaborn). Sam's other romantic relationships include a high-priced call girl named Laurie, played by Lisa Edelstein (with whom he slept without knowledge of her profession), and Leo McGarry 's daughter, Mallory O'Brien , a fourth-grade teacher — a relationship Leo jokingly tries to sabotage, telling Sam, \"I don't mind you dating my 'only' daughter, but you can't expect me not to have some fun along the way.\" Sam's trademark — both his greatest strength and greatest flaw — is his unflinching idealism . His unwavering faith in and love for the American political process and the positive impact that government can have in its citizens' lives define his character. Sam believes in doing the right thing simply because it is right, even when the consequences might be politically disastrous. This often causes him to clash with the other members of the senior staff, who tend to be more practical when approaching political problems. Occasionally Sam's idealism and faith in people are disappointed, to which he reacts very strongly. In the second-season episode \"Somebody's Going to Emergency, Somebody's Going to Jail\", Sam finds out that his father has been having a 28-year affair while married to his mother, a revelation that deeply shakes his sense of what he can and cannot count on. This feeling is reinforced by his discovery that a White House staffer convicted of treason during the Cold War , who Sam has always believed was innocent, actually had been a spy. Another trademark of Sam is his ability as a speechwriter. He is an extremely talented writer, one of the very few people Toby recognizes as an equal in his field. Sam is seen in many episodes to rewrite speeches over and over, unwilling to put words in the President's mouth that he isn't completely satisfied with. After a pipe bomb explodes at a university in \"20 Hours in America, Part II\", killing 44 people, including three swimmers, Bartlet gives a speech, written by Sam, that includes the following: More than any time in recent history, America's destiny is not of our own choosing. We did not seek nor did we provoke an assault on our freedoms and our way of life. We did not expect nor did we invite a confrontation with evil. Yet the true measure of a people's strength is how they rise to master that moment when it does arrive. Forty-four people were killed a couple of hours ago at Kennison State University; three swimmers from the men's team were killed and two others are in critical condition; when after having heard the explosion from their practice facility they ran into the fire to help get people out ... ran into the fire. The streets of heaven are too crowded with angels tonight. They're our students and our teachers and our parents and our friends. The streets of heaven are too crowded with angels, but every time we think we have measured our capacity to meet a challenge, we look up and we're reminded that that capacity may well be limitless. This is a time for American heroes. We will do what is hard. We will achieve what is great. This is a time for American heroes and we reach for the stars. God bless their memory, God bless you, and God bless the United States of America.\" Bartlet campaign advisor Bruno Gianelli asks Sam when he wrote the last part. He replies, \"in the car\", which prompts the response, \"Freak\". In a third-season episode, Sam is awed by President Bartlet's foresight and wisdom when resolving an apparent impasse among the Chinese, the Taiwanese and the United States. President Bartlet predicts that Sam will run for President someday and should not be scared; Bartlet believes that he can do it. During the fourth season, Sam decides to run for Congress in his home district — the California 47th in Orange County, California — in a special election held after deceased Democratic candidate Horton Wilde posthumously makes history by defeating arch-conservative Republican incumbent Chuck Webb. Sam first becomes familiar with the congressional race when he is sent to talk to Wilde's campaign manager, Will Bailey , on behalf of the Democratic Party, to convince him to drop the campaign. Will continues running the campaign with earnestness and energy after Wilde died, an act that is seen as bizarre and pointless — or, as Sam puts it to him, \"a national joke\". After seeing firsthand how dedicated Will is and realizing that he is a public servant in the mold of Bartlet's own senior staff, Sam becomes impressed with how he ran Wilde's campaign and offers his own name as a replacement candidate for election night in case Wilde wins, not thinking he will have to honor the promise. When Wilde does win, Sam decides not to back out but to use this opportunity to promote a truly liberal agenda in the traditionally conservative district. He goes to California with the blessing of Bartlet and his fellow White House staffers. Once he learns that Will Bailey is not going to stay on to manage his campaign, he recommends him as a temporary replacement for himself in the White House, to help Toby write Bartlet's second inaugural address. It is never explicitly revealed whether Sam wins or loses the election, but he is expected to lose in a landslide. President Bartlet goes to California to lend his support, taking with him Sam's friends on the senior staff, who believe campaign manager Scott Holcomb is wasting Sam's time by having him run a safe, timid campaign. In the midst of the visit, Sam learns that Bartlet is putting off announcing the Democratic budget plan Sam himself had helped design, so that Sam won't feel pressured to support it and further stigmatize himself during the election. Sam is appalled and decides to put things right. While introducing the President at a campaign event, he adds that the audience shouldn't \"let him off this stage\" until he has announced the budget plan. Backstage, Bartlet watches Scott Holcomb react with distress and asks why he is running Sam's campaign the way he is. Holcomb admits that he is anticipating Sam's loss and trying to smooth the way for a less divisive candidate the next time around, prompting Bartlet to (unofficially) fire him and get Toby to take over the campaign for the final weeks. Toby runs a thoroughly honest and liberal campaign, not until the very end of which does Sam realize, \"I'm going to lose\". Toby confirms it, explaining, \"They're going to throw rocks at you next week, and I wanted to be standing next to you when they did.\" They hug, and this is the last scene in which Sam appears until the end of the final season. Return to politics [ edit ] Although Sam is mentioned occasionally following his departure — most notably calling Josh to tell him to \"roll with the punches\" after the latter unwittingly caused the defection of a Democratic Senator — he is not seen in the series until the last episodes of the seventh and final season, following the election of Congressman Matt Santos as President. Resolving the debate over the result of the California 47th 's special election , it is implied that Sam was defeated by Congressman Webb and declined the promotion to Senior Counselor to the President that had been suggested by Toby. After summarily quitting politics, Sam remained in his home state of California and joined an unnamed law firm in Los Angeles which pays him a salary that would \"make [Josh] puke\". In a development reminiscent of his recruitment of Sam into Josiah Bartlet 's campaign for the presidency eight years earlier ( Ep 23 ) , Josh Lyman (now Chief of Staff-designate in the incoming Santos Administration) flies to Los Angeles on a same day round trip to offer Sam the post of Deputy White House Chief of Staff . Although initially hesitant because he is again engaged, Sam ultimately agrees as he later sees that Santos is part of a bright future for the country. Sam accepts on the condition that Josh take a vacation after witnessing the toll of post-election stress, insisting that Josh will need to be at his best when helping govern the country. Sam's final appearance of the series comes in the final episode, meeting with new President Matt Santos and Josh Lyman in the Oval Office . See also [ edit ] The West Wing List of characters on The West Wing List of politicians on The West Wing List of The West Wing episodes References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Sassone, Bob (May 7, 2006). A look back at The West Wing: Entertainment Weekly in 60 seconds . TV Squad . Retrieved on December 15, 2007. Jump up ^ Sorkin, Aaron (2002). The West Wing Script Book . New York: Newmarket Press. ISBN 1-55704-499-6 Jump up ^ Topping, Keith (2002). An Unofficial and Unauthorized Guide to The West Wing : Inside the Bartlet White House . London: Virgin Books Ltd. hide v t e The West Wing List of characters List of politicians Main characters Josiah Bartlet Leo McGarry Josh Lyman Toby Ziegler Sam Seaborn C. J. Cregg Charlie Young Donna Moss Abbey Bartlet Will Bailey Matt Santos Arnold Vinick Mandy Hampton Annabeth Schott Recurring characters Ellie Bartlet Zoey Bartlet Debbie Fiderer Amy Gardner John Hoynes Dolores Landingham Joey Lucas Robert Ritchie Bob Russell Andrea Wyatt Episodes Season 1 \" Pilot \" \" Five Votes Down \" \" The Crackpots and These Women \" \" In Excelsis Deo \" \" He Shall, from Time to Time... \" \" Let Bartlet Be Bartlet \" \" What Kind of Day Has It Been \" Season 2 \" The Lame Duck Congress \" \" Noël \" \" Two Cathedrals \" Season 3 \" Manchester, Part I \" \" Manchester, Part II \" \" Ways and Means \" \" On the Day Before \" Season 4 \" 20 Hours in America \" \" Twenty Five \" Season 5 \" The Warfare of Genghis Khan \" \" An Khe \" \" Full Disclosure \" \" Eppur Si Muove \" Season 6 Season 7 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sam_Seaborn&oldid=854256380 \" Categories : The West Wing characters Fictional political consultants Fictional lawyers Fictional characters from Orange County, California Fictional Democrats (United States) Fictional characters introduced in 1999 Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from June 2013 Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Articles needing additional references from November 2017 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 10 August 2018, at 01:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Sam Seaborn", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sam_Seaborn&amp;oldid=854256380" }

{ "text": "If on a winter's night a traveler - Wikipedia If on a winter's night a traveler From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search hide This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style . (October 2011) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) 'If on a winter's night a traveler First edition (publ. Einaudi , Turin ) Author Italo Calvino Original title ' Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore' Translator William Weaver (English) Country Italy Language Italian Genre Postmodernist novel Publication date 1979 If on a winter's night a traveler ( Italian : Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore ) is a 1979 novel by the Italian writer Italo Calvino . The postmodernist narrative, in the form of a frame story, is about the reader trying to read a book called If on a winter's night a traveler . Each chapter is divided into two sections. The first section of each chapter is in second person, and describes the process the reader goes through to attempt to read the next chapter of the book he or she is reading. The second half is the first part of a new book that the reader (\"you\") finds. The second half is always about something different from the previous ones and the ending is never explained. The book was published in an English translation by William Weaver in 1981. Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Cimmeria 2 Characters 3 Influences 4 Legacy and opinion 5 See also 6 References Structure [ edit ] The book begins with a chapter on the art and nature of reading , and is subsequently divided into twenty-two passages. The odd-numbered passages and the final passage are narrated in the second person. That is, they concern events purportedly happening to the novel's reader. (Some contain further discussions about whether the man narrated as \"you\" is the same as the \"you\" who is actually reading.) These chapters concern the reader's adventures in reading Italo Calvino's novel, If on a winter's night a traveler. Eventually the reader meets a woman named Ludmilla, who is also addressed in her own chapter, separately, and also in the second person. Alternating between second-person narrative chapters of this story are the remaining (even) passages, each of which is a first chapter in ten different novels, of widely varying style, genre, and subject-matter. All are broken off, for various reasons explained in the interspersed passages, most of them at some moment of plot climax. The second-person narrative passages develop into a fairly cohesive novel that puts its two protagonists on the track of an international book-fraud conspiracy, a mischievous translator, a reclusive novelist, a collapsing publishing house, and several repressive governments. The chapters which are the first chapters of different books all push the narrative chapters along. Themes which are introduced in each of the first chapters will then exist in succeeding narrative chapters, such as after reading the first chapter of a detective novel, then the narrative story takes on a few common detective-style themes. There are also phrases and descriptions which will be eerily similar between the narrative and the new stories. The ending exposes a hidden element to the entire book, where the actual first-chapter titles (which are the titles of the books that the reader is trying to read) make up a single coherent sentence, which would make a rather interesting start for a book. The theme of a writer's objectivity appears also in Calvino's novel Mr. Palomar , which explores if absolute objectivity is possible, or even agreeable. Other themes include the subjectivity of meaning (associated with post-structuralism ), the relationship between fiction and life, what makes an ideal reader and author, and authorial originality. Cimmeria [ edit ] Cimmeria is a fictional country in the novel. The country is described as having existed as an independent state between World War I and World War II . The capital is Örkko, and its principal resources are peat and by-products, bituminous compounds. Cimmeria seems to have been located somewhere on the Gulf of Bothnia , a body of water between Sweden to the west and Finland to the east. The country has since been absorbed, and its people and language, of the 'Bothno-Ugaric' group, have both disappeared. As Calvino concludes the alleged, fictional encyclopedia entry concerning Cimmeria: \"In successive territorial divisions between her powerful neighbors the young nation was soon erased from the map; the autochthonous population was dispersed; Cimmerian language and culture had no development\" ( If on a winter's night a traveler , pp. 43–44). The pair of chapters following the two on Cimmeria and its literature are followed by one describing another fictional country called the Cimbrian People's Republic, a communist nation which allegedly occupied part of Cimmeria during the latter's decline. Languages named Cimmerian and Cimbrian have both existed. The Cimmerians were an ancient tribal group, contemporary with the Scythians , who lived in southern Ukraine . The Cimbrian language still exists today, and is spoken by about 2230 people in northern Italy, not too remote from Calvino's home in Turin . However, these real-world items have no clear relationship to their fictional namesakes. Characters [ edit ] The main character in the first part of each chapter is you, the reader. The narrative starts out when you begin reading a book but then all of the pages are out of order. You then go to a bookstore to get a new copy of the book. When at the bookstore, you meet a girl, Ludmilla, who becomes an important character in the book. You think Ludmilla is beautiful, and you both share a love of books. Throughout the rest of the narrative, you and Ludmilla develop a relationship while on the quest for the rest of the book you had started reading. There are a number of minor characters that appear at various points in the story including Lotaria (Ludmilla's sister), Ermes Marana (a translation scammer), and Silas Flannery (an author). Influences [ edit ] In a 1985 interview with Gregory Lucente, Calvino stated If on a winter's night a traveler was \"clearly\" influenced by the writings of Vladimir Nabokov . [1] The book was also influenced by the author's membership in the literary group Oulipo . [2] The structure of the text is said to be an adaptation of the structural semiology of A.J. Greimas . [2] In a letter written to critic Lucio Lombardo Radice dated November 13, 1979 (published in Italo Calvino: letters, 1941–1985 ; Princeton University Press, 2013, p. 501), Calvino mentions Bulgakov , Kawabata , Tanizaki , Rulfo , Arguedas , Borges and Chesterton as having influenced, in various ways, the narrative style of the ten stories that comprise the book. Legacy and opinion [ edit ] The Telegraph included the novel in 69th place in a list of \"100 novels everyone should read\" in 2009, describing it as a \"playful postmodernist puzzle\". [3] Author David Mitchell described himself as being \"magnetised\" by the book from its start when he read it as an undergraduate, but on rereading it, felt it had aged and that he did not find it \"breathtakingly inventive\" as he had the first time, yet does stress that \"however breathtakingly inventive a book is, it is only breathtakingly inventive once\" – with once being better than never. [4] Novelist and lecturer Scarlett Thomas uses it to teach innovative contemporary fiction, as an example of different kinds of narrative techniques. [5] Sting named his 2009 album If on a Winter's Night... after the book. [6] English musician and composer Bill Ryder-Jones released the album If... on 14 November 2011. The album is a musical adaptation of the book and serves as an \"imaginary film score\". [7] See also [ edit ] One Thousand and One Nights Pale Fire \" Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote \" Self-reference References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Lucente, Gregory. An Interview with Italo Calvino . Contemporary Literature. Vol. 26, No. 3, (Autumn 1985), p. 252. ^ Jump up to: a b Calvino, Italo. Comment j'ai écrit un de mes Livres , Bibliothèque oulipienne; cited in Paul Fournel's preface to the French translation of the book, Éditions du Seuil Jump up ^ \"100 novels everyone should read\" . The Telegraph. 2009-01-16 . Retrieved 2010-12-09 . Jump up ^ David Mitchell (2004-05-22). \"David Mitchell rereads Italo Calvino\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 2010-12-09 . Jump up ^ \"Interview with Scarlett Thomas\" . University of Kent. 2008-10-14. Archived from the original on 2011-02-05 . Retrieved 2010-12-09 . Jump up ^ Andy Gill (2009-10-30). \"Album: Sting, If on a Winter's Night... (Deutsche Grammophon)\" . The Independent . Retrieved 2010-12-09 . Jump up ^ Bill Ryder-Jones (2011-11-07). \"Bill Ryder-Jones – If ... (exclusive album stream)\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 2012-03-22 . hide v t e Works by Italo Calvino Novels The Path to the Nest of Spiders The Cloven Viscount The Baron in the Trees The Nonexistent Knight The Castle of Crossed Destinies Invisible Cities If on a winter's night a traveler Mr. Palomar Story collections The Crow Comes Last Marcovaldo Cosmicomics t zero Difficult Loves Under the Jaguar Sun Other Italian Folktales Un re in ascolto Six Memos for the Next Millennium Omnibus titles Our Ancestors The Complete Cosmicomics Authority control BNF : cb11968278h (data) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=If_on_a_winter%27s_night_a_traveler&oldid=854552549 \" Categories : 1979 novels Novels by Italo Calvino Metafictional novels Self-reflexive novels Novels about novels Postmodern novels 20th-century Italian novels Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from October 2011 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with style issues from October 2011 All articles with style issues Articles with multiple maintenance issues Pages to import images to Wikidata Articles containing Italian-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Македонски Polski Română Русский Suomi Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2018, at 05:24 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "If on a winter's night a traveler", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=If_on_a_winter%27s_night_a_traveler&amp;oldid=854552549" }

{ "text": "List of countries with IKEA stores - Wikipedia List of countries with IKEA stores From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Map of countries with IKEA stores Legend: Current market locations Future market locations No current or planned market locations IKEA is a multinational group of companies that designs and sells ready-to-assemble furniture (such as beds, chairs and desks), appliances and home accessories. The following list of countries with IKEA stores is arranged by date of first store in each country. Contents [ hide ] 1 Countries 2 Planned 3 Abandoned 4 Largest stores 5 References 6 External links Countries [ edit ] Country Debut First store location [1] No. of stores Notes Sweden 1958 Älmhult [2] 20 Sweden has the world's second largest IKEA (outside Stockholm; 55,221 square meters) [3] after South Korea's Gwangmyeong store. [4] Norway 1963 Slependen 7 First IKEA outside Sweden. Stores: Oslo (Two stores, Slependen and Furuset ), Kristiansand , Stavanger , Trondheim and Bergen . [5] The world's largest IKEA is planned to be built in Larvik, Norway. It is rumoured to be in the range of 60,000-80,000 square metres. [6] Denmark 1969 Ballerup [7] (near Copenhagen ) 5 Opened 13 March 1969. Ballerup store closed and moved to Høje Tåstrup 1975. Other stores: Gentofte , Aarhus , Odense and Aalborg . Switzerland 1973 Spreitenbach [8] 9 First IKEA outside Scandinavia . Germany 1977 ( West Germany before October 1990) Eching [9] (near Munich ) 53 IKEA's largest market. Berlin alone has four stores. The Berlin \"Landsberger Allee\" store is the second largest in Europe with 43,000 m 2 (460,000 sq ft). Japan 1974 2006 (after withdrawal in 1986) Kobe (initial) Funabashi (reentry) 9 IKEA withdrew from the market in 1987 because of stagnant sales, [10] then returned in 2006 to Funabashi , Chiba under a distribution partnership with the Mitsubishi Corporation . [11] [12] Australia 1975 Artarmon ( Sydney ) 10 There are ten stores in Australia. Rhodes , Tempe and Marsden Park in Sydney , Richmond and Springvale in Melbourne , North Lakes and Logan in Brisbane , and also Perth , Adelaide , and Canberra , although Perth and Adelaide are a franchise owned by CEBAS Pty LTD. IKEA have announced they will open stores in Campbellfield , Melbourne . The planned Campbellfield store will be the largest free-standing store in the Southern Hemisphere totaling 41,000 square metres. [13] Canada 1975 Dartmouth 13 The first IKEA store in North America opened in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia in 1975 and closed 13 years later. [14] [15] The company made a return to the city in September 2017 with the opening of IKEA Halifax. [16] As of 2017, there were 13 stores in six provinces—two in British Columbia ( Richmond and Coquitlam ), two in Alberta ( Calgary and Edmonton ), one in Manitoba ( Winnipeg ), five in Ontario ( Burlington , Vaughan , Etobicoke , North York and Ottawa ), two in Quebec ( Montreal and Boucherville ), and one in Nova Scotia ( Halifax ). [17] The current Ottawa store, opened on 7 December 2011, was at the time the largest IKEA in Canada—approximately 37,000 square metres. [18] On 8 May 2012, IKEA began construction on expanding its current Montreal location into North America's largest IKEA store. Completed in summer 2013, the new IKEA Montreal measures 43,626 square metres. [19] IKEA is re-opening a store in Quebec City , Quebec , in 2018. [20] IKEA will open its 15th store in London, Ontario , in 2019. [21] Hong Kong 1975 Kowloon ( Tsim Sha Tsui ) 4 The first store opened in Hong Kong (then a British colony) in Tsim Sha Tsui. The original store was later relocated. Since 2007, IKEA has had three stores in Hong Kong: Causeway Bay , Kowloon Bay , Shatin , plus a warehouse in Sheung Shui . All are franchises owned by Dairy Farm International Holdings . The Shatin Store was expanded in December 2009. In summer 2010, the Kowloon Bay store was relocated from Telford Plaza to Megabox . With area of 150,000 square feet (14,000 m 2 ) it is the largest store in Hong Kong. Austria 1977 Vösendorf (near Vienna ) 7 A new store, the seventh of Austria, was opened in 2008 in Klagenfurt . Singapore 1978 Bukit Timah 2 Original store moved to Katong in 1984, then to Alexandra Road in Queenstown in 1995. A second store opened in November 2006 in Tampines . Netherlands 1978 Sliedrecht 13 Groningen store is the 3rd largest in Europe with 42,000 square metres (450,000 sq ft). Newest store opened in February 2015 in Zwolle . [22] The old store in Sliedrecht closed in 2006. [23] Spain 1980 Las Palmas 20 There are 16 stores on mainland Spain and 4 stores in the Canary Islands & the Balearic Islands . [24] Iceland 1981 Reykjavík 1 Originally, IKEA started its business in a loft above a grocery store in Reykjavík. Later after having spent a decade in a large warehouse, it reopened (at around 20,000 m 2 (220,000 sq ft) in Garðabær in October 2006. [25] IKEA's director in Iceland said that they want to open a store in Akureyri in the upcoming years, [26] but meanwhile that plan was shelfed (and instead a limit put on shipping cost). [27] France 1981 Bobigny (near Paris ) 33 Saudi Arabia 1983 Jeddah 4 Stores in Riyadh , Jeddah and Dhahran . The Riyadh and Jeddah stores have been completely rebuilt and relocated in recent years. The store in Dhahran opened in 2008. A new store opened in Jeddah in 2017. It's the second store in Jeddah. Two pick-up points also opened in two cities. Belgium 1984 Zaventem and Ternat (near Brussels ) 8 Stores in Anderlecht , Arlon , Ghent , Hasselt , Liege , Mons , Wilrijk and Zaventem . In 2008 the IKEA store in Ternat closed. In 2016 the stores in Hasselt and Mons opened, in October 2016 Ikea bought a piece of land to open a second store in Antwerp. [28] Another new store will open near Kortrijk, but not anytime soon. Kuwait 1984 Kuwait City 1 Opened in the industrial district of Shuwaikh in 1984; transferred to a significantly larger new facility at The Avenues (a shopping centre) in early 2007. United States 1985 Plymouth Meeting (near Philadelphia ) 45 [29] The first IKEA in the U.S. was built in the Philadelphia suburb of Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania ; this store has since moved to Conshohocken, Pennsylvania . The original IKEA building has since been demolished [30] and is now a Whole Foods Market . In 1992, IKEA acquired the California-based STØR chain, adding 3 of that chain's 4 locations to their US presence; that chain's Houston, Texas location, which operated under a franchise agreement , became one of only a few independently franchised IKEA locations in the world. [31] Another store opened in Frisco, Texas in 2005, one of the largest in the world at the time. Most-recent stores opened since 2008 include Tampa, Florida ; Charlotte, North Carolina ; Brooklyn , New York; and Centennial, Colorado . The first IKEA in Puerto Rico opened its doors on 2013 in Bayamón [32] and a second store in Ponce is planned for the near future. [33] IKEA announced on 4 December 2013 that a new 389,000 square foot store would begin construction in 2014 in St. Louis, Missouri in the city's Midtown District. [34] New locations in the Miami suburb of Sweetwater, Florida [35] and the Kansas City suburb of Merriam, Kansas [36] opened in Autumn 2014. A 351,000 square foot store opened in Spring Valley, Nevada , in June 2016. [37] Two stores opened in 2017: one in Columbus, Ohio in June, [38] and another in the Indianapolis suburb of Fishers, Indiana in October. [39] On May 5, 2016, a planned store in Oak Creek, Wisconsin was announced. [40] The Oak Creek store is planned to open during the summer of 2018. On June 21, 2016, a planned store in Norfolk, Virginia was announced. [41] The most recent announcement came on November 29, 2016, for a store in Live Oak, Texas , a suburb of San Antonio , scheduled to open in 2019. [42] IKEA's second location in Dallas-Fort Worth is being built in Grand Prairie [43] In late 2017 IKEA made plans to open a location in Marietta, Georgia. This will become IKEA's second location in Atlanta. [44] United Kingdom 1987 Warrington , Cheshire 21 IKEA opened a new 32,000 square metres (340,000 sq ft) store in Calcot, Reading, Berkshire on 14 July 2016 and opened in September 2017 in Sheffield . On the 10th May 2018, the UK's 21st store opened in Exeter . [45] [46] A store is set to open in Greenwich Peninsula in early 2019. [47] Additionally the UK has three Order and Collect points; Norwich , [48] Aberdeen [49] and Birmingham . [50] Italy 1989 Cinisello Balsamo (near Milan ) 21 The last one opened in Cagliari in 2016. The largest store is located in Carugate , Milan , extending to 38000 m 2 . Hungary 1990 Budapest 3 There are three stores in Hungary , two in the capital city Budapest and one in Budaörs . [51] Poland 1990 Janki (near Warsaw ) 11 The first store, a small pavillion called Start Shop IKEA, was opened in Warsaw residential area Ursynów . It was followed by another store, located in central Warsaw. [52] The two stores have since been closed. Currently, greater Warsaw has three stores. [53] There are also stores in Gdańsk , Wrocław , Katowice , Kraków , Poznań , Łódź , Bydgoszcz , and Lublin . A store in Zabrze (a second one in Katowice region) is being built and scheduld to open in 2019, [54] while four other stores are planned in Rzeszów , [55] Częstochowa , [56] Szczecin [57] and Warsaw (a fourth one in the city) [58] . Additionally, there are four Order and Collect points: in Kalisz , Opole , Szczecin and Rzeszów, [59] and a concept store for companies, called IKEA dla Firm, is located in central Warsaw. [60] Czech Republic 1991 ( Czechoslovakia before January 1993) Budějovická ( Prague ) 4 There are two IKEA stores in Prague - one at Zličín and one at Černý Most ; both Zličín and Černý most are located at the periphery of Prague and at the endstations of underground line B. The first original store at Budějovická - Prague 4 was abandoned. [ when? ] Outside of Prague there are two locations - in the country's second largest city, Brno , and in Ostrava . There are 3 stores planned within 6 years ( Plzeň , Hradec Králové and a third location in Prague). United Arab Emirates 1991 Dubai 2 The UAE's stores are located in Dubai and Abu Dhabi . The IKEA store in Abu Dhabi was located at the Marina Mall . It was then shifted to Yas Island . [61] The Dubai store recently moved to the Festival Waterfront Centre . Slovakia 1992 Bratislava 1 Original store was closed upon the opening of a new store in the Avion Shopping Park. There are two more stores planned in Slovakia, in Košice and Žilina . Taiwan 1994 Taipei 5 The first store opened in Taipei in 1994, but was closed in 2002. There are currently 5 IKEA stores in Taiwan: Taipei , New Taipei , Taoyuan , Kaohsiung and Taichung . IKEA was initially owned by Jardine Matheson , but is currently owned by Dairy Farm International Holdings . Finland 1996 Espoo 6 New stores were opened in Vantaa in 2003, in Raisio in 2008 and in Tampere in 2010. The Tampere store is the biggest IKEA in Finland. In 2011 a new store opened in Kuopio . Malaysia 1996 Bandar Utama 3 Re-located to Mutiara Damansara , Selangor , in 2003. The new IKEA store in Mutiara Damansara was the largest in Asia at that time with a shop floor area of approximately 27,000 square metres (290,000 sq ft). The second store in Cheras , Kuala Lumpur has been officially opened on November 19, 2015 [62] [63] On November 15, 2017, the largest IKEA store in Southeast Asia of 2017 was opened In Tebrau, Johor Bahru . On March 15 2018, IKEA Bang Yai, Thailand replaced the store in Tebrau as the largest IKEA in Southeast Asia. In addition, Ikea has also planned to open another IKEA store in Penang . [64] [65] China 1998 Shanghai 24 [66] There are 3 IKEA stores in Shanghai , 2 stores in Beijing , 2 stores in Chengdu , Tianjin , Guangzhou , Shenzhen , Nanjing , Dalian , Shenyang and 11 other cities across China. Russia 2000 Khimki (near Moscow ) 14 Fourth market by revenue after Germany, the U.S. and Sweden. There are 3 IKEA stores in Moscow ( Khimki , Teply Stan and Belaya Dacha ), 2 stores in St. Petersburg ( Parnas and Dybenko ), stores in Nizhny Novgorod , Yekaterinburg , Kazan , Novosibirsk , Rostov-on-Don , Novaya Adygea (in Adygea near Krasnodar ), Samara , Omsk and Ufa . The IKEA stores in Russia are in connection with MEGA malls developed by IKEA. 5-6 new openings planned by 2020. Israel 2001 Netanya 4 IKEA operates in Israel through a franchise company, IKEA Israel, which is owned by Matthew Bronfman . The second store opened on March 9, 2010, in Rishon LeZion , a suburb of Tel Aviv . The store has an area of 33,000 sq. meter. The store in Netanya was destroyed in a fire on February 5, 2011, [67] and after extensive renovations it was reopened on March 6, 2012. [68] In March, 2014 IKEA opened its third store in Kiryat Ata , one of Haifa 's suburbs. [69] The fourth store opened in Beersheba on the February 26, 2018 with an area of 22,000 sq. meter. Greece 2001 Thessaloniki 5 The first store opened in Thessaloniki on October 24, 2001. The second store opened in Athens (Airport Retail Park) on April 23, 2004. The third store, also in Athens (Egaleo), opened on March 26, 2008. The fourth store, in Larissa , opened on October 14, 2009. The fifth store, in Ioannina , opened in December 2010. [70] Three more stores are planned by 2013 in Athens (third store, possibly in Elefsina), Heraklion and in the new shopping center Iasmos Park in Komotini . [71] Portugal 2004 Alfragide (near Lisbon ) 5 Second store opened on July 31, 2007 in Matosinhos , with 36,000 square metres (390,000 sq ft), [72] and third store opened on 25 May 2010, in Frielas, Loures , the largest store on the Iberian Peninsula with 39,000 m2. Now the fourth store is open in Braga with 22,000 square metres (240,000 sq ft). Turkey 2005 Istanbul 6 There are three stores in İstanbul ( Bayrampaşa and Ümraniye and Kartal ), one store in İzmir ( Bornova ), one store in Bursa ( Osmangazi ) and one store in Ankara ( Mamak ). Romania 2007 Bucharest 1 26,000 square metres (280,000 sq ft) store opened on March 21, 2007, in Băneasa retail park. [73] The second store with 37,000 square metres (400,000 sq ft) will be opened in Q3 2018, in Bucharest (Theodor Pallady area) [74] . Other stores are planned to be opened in Timișoara , Braşov , Cluj-Napoca , Bucharest , Iaşi , Constanţa , Craiova . [75] Cyprus 2007 Strovolos (near Nicosia ) 1 22,000 square metres (240,000 sq ft) store opened in September 2007. [76] [77] [78] Ireland 2009 Ballymun [79] (near Dublin ) 1 The first IKEA store in the Republic of Ireland (and second on the island of Ireland ) opened on July 27, 2009. The store was granted planning permission in 2007 with conditions, [80] [81] and although the store was completed in February 2009, [82] planning conditions [83] resulted in the delayed opening. [84] Ireland's first small format store, where customers can order and collect products is planned to open in Carrickmines in the summer of 2016. [85] Dominican Republic 2010 Santo Domingo 1 The first Dominican IKEA store opened 17 February 2010 in Santo Domingo. [86] It is the first IKEA store in Latin America . [87] The owner of the IKEA franchisee for Dominican Republic, Anders Alm, is reported as saying that the new store has created 400 jobs. [88] Bulgaria 2011 Sofia 1 IKEA opened its first store in the Bulgarian capital Sofia on September 20, 2011. [89] IKEA eyes a second Bulgarian store in Varna . [90] Thailand 2011 Bangkok 2 The first IKEA in Thailand opened its door on 3 November 2011, in Bang Phli , Samut Prakan . The store is adjacent to a major interchange where the Bang Na-Bang Pakong Highway and Kanchanaphisek Outer Ring Road intersect, with convenient access from the more affluent eastern suburbs of Bangkok. It is expected to have 43,000 square metres (460,000 sq ft) of retail space as a part of the Mega Bangna Shopping Center. [91] [92] The larger second store with 50,278 square metres (541,190 sq ft) of area will open in Bang Yai , Nonthaburi as a part of CentralPlaza WestGate department store. [93] Macau 2012 Nossa Senhora de Fátima 1 In 2012, Macau had its first IKEA merchandise pick up store in Avenida de Venceslau de Morais, customers can head to Hong Kong stores or shop online and pick up their merchandise here. In April 2016, IKEA is interested on enhancing customers experience, the new location of the merchandise pick up is located in Macau Tower. [94] Lithuania 2013 Vilnius 1 The first IKEA store in Lithuania was opened on August 14, 2013 in Vilnius. It has the capacity of 26,000 square metres and is also considered to be one of the best projects in the history of IKEA. The store is located near Vilnius International Airport . [95] [96] Second store was planned to be opened in port city of Klaipėda in Autumn 2015. [97] Egypt 2013 Cairo 1 The first IKEA store in Africa has opened its door on November 26, 2013. The store is located in Cairo Festival City Mall, and it has 34,500 square meters. [98] The mega project owned by Al-Futtaim Group is located in New Cairo, near the Suez Road, Ring Road, Police Academy, and The American International School in Egypt . [99] Qatar 2013 Doha 1 The first IKEA in Qatar opened its door on March 11, 2013. [100] The store is located in Doha Festival City Mall. Jordan 2014 Amman 1 The first IKEA in Jordan [101] opened its doors on 6 March 2014. [102] IKEA Jordan store is located on Airport road, after Madaba bridge going to Amman and it is IKEA's largest store in the Middle East with an area of 42,000 square metres and 400 Jordanian employees. Croatia 2014 Zagreb 1 The first IKEA in Croatia [103] opened its doors on 21 August 2014 and with total area of 38,000 m 2 (410,000 sq ft)is one of the five biggest in Europe and among 10 biggest IKEA stores in the world. [104] Indonesia 2014 Tangerang (near Jakarta ) 1 IKEA just opened a store in Tangerang, Indonesia, under a partnership with Hero Supermarket , Indonesian subsidiary of Dairy Farm International Holdings . [105] [106] IKEA opened their doors to Indonesia in October 15, 2014 at Alam Sutera, Tangerang , located in the western suburbs of Jakarta . [107] South Korea 2014 Gwangmyeong 2 The world's largest IKEA store at 59,000 square meters (640,000 square feet) [4] [108] opened near the KTX Gwangmyeong Station , located at the heart of the Seoul Capital Area , on December 18, 2014. [109] The second store opened in Goyang on October 19, 2017, which is even larger at 164,000 square meters (1.76-million square feet) in gross floor area , breaking the previous world record holder's 131,550 square meters. IKEA plans to have six stores in the country by 2020, four in the Seoul Capital Area , one in Daejeon and one in Busan . [110] Morocco 2016 Casablanca 1 IKEA opened a Moroccan location in partnership with the Kuwait-based Al-Homaizi. The first location is in the New city of Zenata (located in outskirts of Casablanca). [111] [112] [113] Serbia 2017 Belgrade 1 The first IKEA store in Serbia was opened in 1991, but closed in 1992 due UN sanctions over Yugoslavia. IKEA returned after 25 years and official department store was open on August 10, 2017. [114] [115] The object has 33,437 square meters and it was jubilee 400th IKEA department store in the world. IKEA plans to develop a 40,000 square metres retail park in Belgrade, in addition to the department store in Bubanj Potok [116] and furthermore open one more department store in Serbian capital and three more stores in cities of Novi Sad, Kragujevac and Niš for which the land has already been acquired back in 2013. Belgrade IKEA office is regional center for Former Yugoslavia and Romania. Planned [ edit ] Country Debut First store location [1] Notes India 2018 Hyderabad IKEA plans to open 25 stores, investing about 10,500 crore (US$2 billion) over 15 to 20 years. [117] [118] IKEA began constructing its first store in India on 11 August 2016. The 400,000 sq ft store in Hyderabad is being built at a cost of ₹ 700 crore (US$100 million), [119] and is scheduled to open in August 9, 2018. [120] Slovenia 2018/2019 Ljubljana IKEA has signed an agreement to open its first store in Ljubljana with the size of 35,000 m 2 and costs about € 80 million. [121] [122] [123] [124] Bahrain 2018 Salmabad IKEA is currently building its first store in Bahrain costing $125 million with 6,200 square meters in floor area and plans on opening in mid 2018. [125] Latvia 2018 Riga Two Icelandic entrepreneurs had planned to open an IKEA store in Latvia once the Lithuania store has been successfully opened. [126] [127] [128] However, after a few studies has been conducted regarding the more suitable next Baltic States to open the next IKEA store after Lithuania, it was announced that the next IKEA store will open in Riga , Latvia instead of Estonia due to the small market size in Estonia, despite IKEA's plan to expanding IKEA stores to all 3 Baltic States including Estonia within 2019. [129] [130] [131] On 31 January 2017 it was announced that there will be a new IKEA store near Riga. The store is scheduled to open in August 2018. [132] [133] Ukraine 2019/2020 Kiev On May 29, 2017 in response to an inquiry from Hromadske TV, IKEA confirmed an intent to open a store in Ukraine. [134] Subsequently, (on 20 December 2017) IKEA officially announced their intention to open a store in Ukraine within one to two years. [135] Estonia 2019 Laagri Two Icelandic entrepreneurs had planned to open an IKEA store in Latvia once the Lithuania store has been successfully opened. [126] [127] [128] However, after a few studies has been conducted regarding the more suitable next Baltic States to open the next IKEA store after Lithuania, it was announced that the next IKEA store will open in Riga , Latvia instead of Estonia due to the small market size in Estonia, despite IKEA's plan to expanding IKEA stores to all 3 Baltic States including Estonia within 2019. [130] [131] [129] Chile 2020 Santiago On May 17, 2018, Falabella holding announced a franchise agreement with IKEA to open stores in Chile, Peru and Colombia, rebranding Homy stores and opening new stores starting in Santiago. [136] Brazil TBA São Paulo IKEA has shown interest in the past in expanding its stores to Brazil. [137] Colombia TBA Bogotá On May 17, 2018, Falabella holding announced a franchise agreement with IKEA to open stores in Chile, Peru and Colombia. [136] Mexico TBA Mexico City IKEA has begun market research to open its first store in Mexico. [138] New Zealand TBA Auckland Ikea have been rumoured to be interested in New Zealand since 2008 where the franchisee for Ikea WA and Perth (CEBAS) considered a site in South Auckland https://www.nbr.co.nz/article/ikea-eyes-auckland-store > This didn't proceed and there have been subsequent and numerous rumours since. IKEA Australia Managing Director commented on a market in New Zealand and 'there's opportunities there'. [139] In 2018 the retail consultant RCG confirmed that they had again been working for Ikea https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11976045 and there is a suggestion that this market research has been undertaken since 2015. The outcome of this is not known. Anecdotal evidence is a Twitter account for @ikeanewzealand that was live and has over a period of time given brief updates since its creation in 2011, however after the bio was altered saying 'something big is coming' the bio was cleaned and subsequently suspended in 2018. Ikea have trademarked numerous items and are registered with IPONZ https://app.iponz.govt.nz/app/Extra/IP/TM/Qbe.aspx?sid=636657930727185002 . Ikea haven't formally commented on New Zealand other than 'we are looking for ways to make Ikea more accessible for more people', however in the meantime Ikea Australia are consolidating their market. Peru TBA Lima On May 17, 2018, Falabella holding announced a franchise agreement with IKEA to open stores in Chile, Peru and Colombia. [136] Philippines 2021 Manila Swedish Ambassador-designate to Manila Harald Fries hailed the decision of Swedish furniture giant Ikea to open stores in the Philippines on November 17, 2016, during the reopening of the Swedish Embassy in Manila. It plans to open a store in a designated location in SM Mall of Asia in three years time. After its first store, IKEA plans to expand to 5 - 6 stores in Baguio, Cagayan de Oro, Cebu, Davao and Iloilo in 8 years time. [140] Vietnam TBA Ho Chi Minh City On Monday, Bloomberg conducted an interview with Inter Ikea Chief Executive Officer Torbjorn Loof on the company’s future expansion plans. According to Loof, South America and Southeast Asia are the top two regions on IKEA’s expansion radar after its arrival in India and Latvia this year. He confirmed that in Southeast Asia, Vietnam and Philippines are the next in line to get IKEA stores, after Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. [141] Abandoned [ edit ] Country Intended debut Intended first store location Notes Ukraine Not revealed Odessa [142] In 2009, IKEA bought an area of land in Odessa on which to build a store. [142] A year later IKEA cancelled the store, saying there was not a strong enough market. The economy minister of Ukraine stated that it should be opened to help fight the perception of corruption. [143] Largest stores [ edit ] The largest IKEA store in the world is located in Gwangmyeong The world's five largest IKEA stores are: Gwangmyeong , Gyeonggi , South Korea : 57,100 m 2 (614,619.3 sq ft) [144] Stockholm Kungens Kurva , Sweden : 55,200 m 2 (594,167.9 sq ft) [144] Shanghai Baoshan , China : 55,032 m 2 (592,359.5 sq ft) Goyang , Gyeonggi , South Korea : 52,199 m 2 (561,865.4 sq ft) [145] Bangyai , Nonthaburi , Thailand 50,278 m 2 (541,187.9 sq ft) [146] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"IKEA: Country's first store\" . Inter IKEA Systems B.V. Archived from the original on July 13, 2012 . Retrieved February 13, 2012 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Ingvar Kamprad — king of IKEA\" . Sweden.se. Archived from the original on 2012-05-11 . Retrieved 2012-01-16 . Jump up ^ \"World's largest Ikea and the Swedish Royal Family\" . K Composite Magazine . Retrieved 2012-01-16 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"이케아 광명점 12월 18일 오픈 - IKEA\" . IKEA KR/KO . 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Retrieved 17 May 2018 . Jump up ^ \"IKEA Expansion to Brazil\" . The Brazil Business. December 12, 2013 . Retrieved June 8, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"IKEA alista entrada a mercado mexicano\" . El Financiero. July 1, 2016 . Retrieved July 17, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Preview: Inside Retail Weekly 2094 - Inside Retail\" . 2016-05-31 . Retrieved 2016-07-20 . Jump up ^ \"Preview: Swedish envoy hails Ikea plan to open PH stores\" . 2017-11-17 . Retrieved 2017-02-02 . Jump up ^ \"Preview: It's Official: IKEA Confirms Plans to Expand to Vietnam, Philippines\" . 2017-10-10 . Retrieved 2018-03-06 . ^ Jump up to: a b IKEA starts in Odessa (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Plea for Swedish Ikea to set up shop in Ukraine\" . 2015-10-15 . Retrieved 2016-12-14 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"America's Largest IKEA Is Being Assembled In Burbank\" . LAist . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Retrieved 19 January 2017 . (\"Currently the largest IKEA in the world is just outside Seoul, South Korea, a beast of a store coming in at 635,070 square feet. That one is nearly as big as the Louvre museum and even beat out the 594,167 square feet of Stockholm's own previous record holder.\") Jump up ^ http://www.mediagoyang.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=4122 Jump up ^ http://www.nationmultimedia.com/news/business/corporate/30303856 External links [ edit ] Inter IKEA B.V., World-wide IKEA store listing and map Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_with_IKEA_stores&oldid=850116202 \" Categories : IKEA Lists of buildings and structures Sweden-related lists Hidden categories: CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 errors: external links Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Romanian-language sources (ro) CS1 Latvian-language sources (lv) Articles with Russian-language external links All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from August 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bosanski Italiano Magyar Nederlands Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2018, at 18:17 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of countries with IKEA stores", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_with_IKEA_stores&amp;oldid=850116202" }

{ "text": "List of demigods - Wikipedia List of demigods From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 25 October 2017 . Jump to: navigation , search This is a list of notable offspring of a deity with a mortal, in mythology and modern fiction . Such entities are sometimes referred to as demigods , although the term \"demigod\" can also refer to a minor deity, or great mortal hero with god-like valour and skills, who sometimes attains divine status after death. [ citation needed ] Contents [ hide ] 1 Greek mythology 2 Roman mythology 3 Hindu mythology 4 Norse mythology 5 Celtic mythology 6 Other 7 Popular fiction 8 External links Greek mythology [ edit ] Achilles : son of the sea nymph Thetis (daughter of sea god Nereus), and Peleus, king of the Myrmidons. Aeacus : son of a son of Zeus and Aegina who was the daughter of a river god. He was the father of Telamon and Peleus and grandfather of Ajax and Achilles. Aeneas : Trojan hero, son of Aphrodite, goddess of love and Prince Anchises. He fled to Italy and became the father of Romulus and Remo, founders of Rome. Amphion :son of Zeus and Antiope , and twin brother of Zethus. Arcas : son of Zeus and Callisto , a nymph and minor goddess associated with Aphrodite. Bellerophon : according to Homer`s Iliad, son of Glaucus and Eurymede of Corinth. According to Apollodorus and Hesiod`s catallouges by Hyginus, he was a son of the sea god Poseidon by Eurymede. Dardanus :son of Zeus and Electra, daughter of Atlas. Dionysus : son of Zeus and Semele, a mortal. Later on he became a god, part of the Olympians when Hestia gave up her seat for him Epaphus :son of Zeus and Io, a priestess of the goddess Hera (Zeus' wife). Harmonia : daughter of Zeus and Electra. Heracles : son of Zeus (king of the gods) and Alcmene, a mortal woman. Helen of Sparta, also known as Helen of Troy : Daughter of Zeus and Leda, wife of Tyndareus, the king of Sparta. Hippolyta : daughter of Ares . Iasus : son of Zeus and Electra (one of the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione). He was the brother of Dardanus. Memnon : son of Tithonus and Eos, a Titan goddess of the dawn. Orion : son of Poseidon (the sea god) Euryale, the eldest of the Gorgons. Orpheus : son of Calliope and the god Apollo. Penthesilea : daughter of Ares and Otrera , a Queen of the Amazons Perseus : son of Zeus and mortal princess Danae, whom he impregnated as a golden shower. Polydeuces, also known by his Roman name of Pollux : one of the Dioscuri and twin brother of Kastor. He was son of Zeus and the mortal Leda while his twin had a mortal father. Theseus : son of Poseidon (the sea god) and Aethra, the wife of king Aegeus. Tityos : a giant, son of Zeus and Elara. Zethes : son of Boreas (the Greek god of the cold north wind and the bringer of winter) and Oreithyia, daughter of King Erechtheus of Athens. His brother was Calais, and they are collectively known as Boreads . Zethus : son of Zeus and Antiope, twin brother of Amphion, co-founder of Thebes. Roman mythology [ edit ] Bacchus : son of Zeus and Semele, a mortal.The Roman god of agriculture, wine and fertility copied from the Greek god Dionysus . Hercules : son of Zeus and Alcmene . Often portrayed in popular fiction as either a demigod and as a god. Romulus and Remus : twin sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia , co-founders of Rome . Turnus : son of Venilia . Hindu mythology [ edit ] Arjuna : son of Indra and Kunti . Bhima : son of Pawan and Kunti . Bhishma : son of Kuru King Shantanu and the goddess Ganga . Dhristadyumna : materialised out of a ritual fire-altar; quasi son of fire god Agni ; Draupadi's brother. Draupadi : materialised out of a ritual fire-altar; quasi daughter of fire god Agni ; Dhristadyumna's sister. Drona : contained spark of Brihaspati . Ghatotkacha : born of demigod Bhima and a demoness Hidimbā . Hanuman : son of Vayu . Iravan : The son of Pandava prince Arjuna (one of the main heroes of the Mahabharata ) and the Naga (snake) princess Ulupi . Karna : son of sun god Surya and Kunti . Lakshmana : incarnation of the great serpent god Ananta. Nakula : son of one of the gods Ashvini Kumaras . Pradyumna : incarnation of Sanatkumara . Sahadeva : son of one of the gods Ashvini Kumaras . Devavrata, named Bhishma : son of Shantanu and Ganga, the river goddess. Shikhandi Sugreeva : son of sun god Surya . Vali : son of the king of all gods, the thunder god Indra . Yudhishthira : son of the god of death and justice Yama and Kunti . Norse mythology [ edit ] Sæmingr : king of Norway, son of god Odin and queen Skade. Bragi : another son of Odin. Celtic mythology [ edit ] Cú Chulainn : Son of the god Lugh and the mortal woman Deichtine. Other [ edit ] Diarmuid Ua Duibhne : son of Donn and one of the Fianna . Māui (Maori, New Zealand). Gilgamesh : Sumerian king. Recent research claims he was not a demigod after all. [ citation needed ] Semiramis : Assyrian queen who, according to some legends was daughter of the fish goddess Atargatis or Derketo of Ascalon in Assyria and a mortal. Popular fiction [ edit ] Wonder Woman : In the fictional world of DC Comics , she is Diana, the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta , queen of the Amazons of Themyscira. External links [ edit ] Demigods Demigod in Greek mythology Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_demigods&oldid=807081041 \" Categories : Greek mythology Hindu mythology Mythology-related lists Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 25 October 2017, at 19:44. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "List of demigods", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_demigods&amp;oldid=807081041" }

{ "text": "54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment - Wikipedia 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry The 54th Massachusetts at the Second Battle of Fort Wagner , July 18, 1863 Active March 13, 1863 – August 4, 1865 Country United States of America Allegiance Union Branch Union Army Type Infantry Size 1,100 Engagements American Civil War Battle of Grimball's Landing Second Battle of Fort Wagner Battle of Olustee Battle of Honey Hill Battle of Boykin's Mill Commanders Colonel Robert Gould Shaw Colonel Edward Needles Hallowell The 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment that saw extensive service in the Union Army during the American Civil War . The unit was the first African-American regiment organized in the northern states during the Civil War. [1] [2] Authorized by the Emancipation Proclamation , the regiment consisted of African-American enlisted men commanded by white officers. [3] The unit began recruiting in February 1863 and trained at Camp Meigs outside Boston, Massachusetts . [3] Prominent abolitionists were active in recruitment efforts, including Frederick Douglass , whose two sons were among the first to enlist. [4] Massachusetts Governor John Albion Andrew , who had long pressured the U.S. Department of War to begin recruiting African-Americans, placed a high priority on the formation of the 54th Massachusetts. [5] Andrew appointed Robert Gould Shaw , the son of Boston abolitionists, to command the regiment as Colonel . The free black community in Boston was also instrumental in recruiting efforts, utilizing networks reaching beyond Massachusetts and even into the southern states to attract soldiers and fill out the ranks. [6] After its departure from Massachusetts on May 28, 1863, the 54th Massachusetts was shipped to Beaufort, South Carolina and became part of the X Corps commanded by Major General David Hunter . [7] During its service with the X Corps, the 54th Massachusetts took part in operations against Charleston, South Carolina , including the Battle of Grimball's Landing on July 16, 1863, and the more famous Second Battle of Fort Wagner on July 18, 1863. During the latter engagement, the 54th Massachusetts, with other Union regiments, executed a frontal assault against Fort Wagner and suffered casualties of 20 killed, 125 wounded, and 102 missing (primarily presumed dead)--roughly 40 percent of the unit's numbers at that time. [8] [9] Col. Robert G. Shaw was killed on the parapet of Fort Wagner. [8] In 1864, as part of the Union Army's Department of Florida , the 54th Massachusetts took part in the Battle of Olustee . [7] The service of the 54th Massachusetts, particularly their charge at Fort Wagner, soon became one of the most famous episodes of the war, interpreted through artwork, poetry and song. [10] More recently, the 54th Massachusetts gained prominence in popular culture through the award-winning film Glory . [11] Contents 1 Organization and early service 2 Battle of Fort Wagner 3 Battle of Olustee 4 Pay controversy 5 Legacy 6 2008 reactivation 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Organization and early service [ edit ] Massachusetts Gov. John A. Andrew ordered the formation of the 54th Massachusetts after receiving authorization from Secretary of War Stanton General recruitment of African Americans for service in the Union Army was authorized by the Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton accordingly instructed the Governor of Massachusetts , John A. Andrew , to begin raising regiments including \"persons of African descent\" on January 26, 1863. [12] Andrew selected Robert Gould Shaw to be the regiment's colonel and Norwood Penrose \"Pen\" Hallowell to be its lieutenant colonel. [13] Like many officers of regiments of African-American troops, both Robert Gould Shaw and Hallowell were promoted several grades, both being captains at the time. [13] The rest of the officers were evaluated by Shaw and Hallowell: these officers included Luis Emilio, [14] and Garth Wilkinson \"Wilkie\" James, brother of Henry James and William James . Many of these officers were of abolitionist families and several were chosen by Governor Andrew himself. Lt. Col. Norwood Hallowell was joined by his younger brother Edward Needles Hallowell who commanded the 54th as a full colonel for the rest of the war after Shaw's death. Twenty-four of the 29 officers were veterans, but only six had been previously commissioned. [15] The soldiers were recruited by black abolitionists like Frederick Douglass and Major Martin Robison Delany, M.D. , and white abolitionists, including Shaw's parents. Lieutenant J. Appleton, [16] the first white man commissioned in the regiment, posted a notice in the Boston Journal . [17] Wendell Phillips and Edward L. Pierce spoke at a Joy Street Church recruiting rally, encouraging free blacks to enlist. [ citation needed ] About 100 people were actively involved in recruitment, including those from Joy Street Church and a group of individuals appointed by Governor Andrew to enlist black men for the 54th. [18] Among those appointed was George E. Stephens , African-American military correspondent to the Weekly Anglo-African who recruited over 200 men in Philadelphia and would go on to serve as a First Sergeant in the 54th. [19] The 54th trained at Camp Meigs in Readville near Boston . While there they received considerable moral support from abolitionists in Massachusetts, including Ralph Waldo Emerson . [20] Material support included warm clothing items, battle flags and $500 contributed for the equipping and training of a regimental band. As it became evident that many more recruits were coming forward than were needed, the medical exam for the 54th was described as \"rigid and thorough\" by the Massachusetts Surgeon-General. This resulted in what he described as \"a more robust, strong and healthy set of men were never mustered into the service of the United States.\" [21] Despite this, as was common in the Civil War, a few men died of disease prior to the 54th's departure from Camp Meigs. [22] By most accounts the 54th left Boston with very high morale. This was despite the fact that Jefferson Davis 's proclamation of December 23, 1862, effectively put both African-American enlisted men and white officers under a death sentence if captured on the grounds that they were inciting servile insurrection. [23] After muster into federal service on May 13, 1863, [24] the 54th left Boston with fanfare on May 28, and arrived to more celebrations in Beaufort, South Carolina . They were greeted by local blacks and by Northern abolitionists, some of whom had deployed from Boston a year earlier as missionaries to the Port Royal Experiment . [25] In Beaufort, they joined with the 2nd South Carolina Volunteers , a unit of South Carolina freedmen led by James Montgomery . [26] After the 2nd Volunteers' successful Raid at Combahee Ferry , Montgomery led both units in a raid on the town of Darien , Georgia . [27] The population had fled, and Montgomery ordered the soldiers to loot and burn the empty town. [28] Shaw objected to this activity and complained over Montgomery's head that burning and looting were not suitable activities for his model regiment. [29] Battle of Fort Wagner [ edit ] William Harvey Carney circa 1864 The regiment's first battlefield action took place in a skirmish with Confederate troops on James Island , South Carolina , on July 16. The regiment stopped a Confederate assault, [30] losing 42 men in the process. [ citation needed ] The regiment gained recognition on July 18, 1863, when it spearheaded an assault on Fort Wagner near Charleston, South Carolina . 270 of the 600 men who charged Fort Wagner were \"killed, wounded or captured.\" [31] At this battle Colonel Shaw was killed, along with 29 of his men; 24 more later died of wounds, 15 were captured, 52 were missing in action and never accounted for, and 149 were wounded. The total regimental casualties of 270 would be the highest total for the 54th in a single engagement during the war. Although Union forces were not able to take and hold the fort (despite taking a portion of the walls in the initial assault), the 54th was widely acclaimed for its valor during the battle, and the event helped encourage the further enlistment and mobilization of African-American troops, a key development that President Abraham Lincoln once noted as helping to secure the final victory. Decades later, Sergeant William Harvey Carney was awarded the Medal of Honor for grabbing the U.S. flag as the flag bearer fell, carrying the flag to the enemy ramparts and back, and singing \" Boys, the old flag never touched the ground !\" While other African Americans had since been granted the award by the time it was presented to Carney, Carney's is the earliest action for which the Medal of Honor was awarded to an African American. [ citation needed ] Battle of Olustee [ edit ] Under the command of now-Colonel Edward Hallowell, the 54th fought a rear-guard action covering the Union retreat at the Battle of Olustee . During the retreat, the unit was suddenly ordered to counter-march back to Ten-Mile station. The locomotive of a train carrying wounded Union soldiers had broken down and the wounded were in danger of capture. When the 54th arrived, the men attached ropes to the engine and cars and manually pulled the train approximately three miles (4.8 km) to Camp Finnegan, where horses were secured to help pull the train. After that, the train was pulled by both men and horses to Jacksonville for a total distance of ten miles (16 km). It took forty-two hours to pull the train that distance. [13] As part of an all-black brigade under Col. Alfred S. Hartwell , they unsuccessfully attacked entrenched Confederate militia at the November 1864 Battle of Honey Hill . In mid-April 1865, they fought at the Battle of Boykin's Mill , a small affair in South Carolina that proved to be one of the last engagements of the war. [ citation needed ] Pay controversy [ edit ] The enlisted men of the 54th were recruited on the promise of pay and allowances equal to their white counterparts. This was supposed to amount to subsistence and $13 a month. [32] Instead, they were informed upon arriving in South Carolina, the Department of the South would pay them only $7 per month ($10 with $3 withheld for clothing, while white soldiers did not pay for clothing at all.) [33] Colonel Shaw and many others immediately began protesting the measure. [34] Although the state of Massachusetts offered to make up the difference in pay, on principle, a regiment-wide boycott of the pay tables on paydays became the norm. [35] After Shaw's death at Fort Wagner, Colonel Edward Needles Hallowell took up the fight to get full pay for the troops. [36] Lt. Col. Hooper took command of the regiment starting June 18, 1864. After nearly a month Colonel Hallowell returned on July 16. [37] Refusing their reduced pay became a point of honor for the men of the 54th. In fact, at the Battle of Olustee , when ordered forward to protect the retreat of the Union forces, the men moved forward shouting, \"Massachusetts and Seven Dollars a Month!\" [13] The Congressional bill, enacted on June 16, 1864, authorized equal and full pay to those enlisted troops who had been free men as of April 19, 1861. Of course not all the troops qualified. Colonel Hallowell, a Quaker, rationalized that because he did not believe in slavery he could therefore have all the troops swear that they were free men on April 19, 1861. Before being given their back pay the entire regiment was administered what became known as \"the Quaker oath\". [36] Colonel Hallowell skillfully crafted the oath to say: \"You do solemnly swear that you owed no man unrequited labor on or before the 19th day of April 1861. So help you God\". [36] [38] On September 28, 1864, the U.S. Congress took action to pay the men of the 54th. Most of the men had served 18 months. [37] Legacy [ edit ] Memorial to Robert Gould Shaw and the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment by Augustus Saint-Gaudens A monument to Shaw and the 54th Massachusetts regiment , constructed 1884–1898 by Augustus Saint-Gaudens on the Boston Common , is part of the Boston Black Heritage Trail . [39] A plaster of this monument was also displayed in the entryway to the U.S. paintings galleries at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900. [40] Of the regiment, Governor John A. Andrew said, \"I know not where, in all of human history, to any given thousand men in arms there has been committed a work at once so proud, so precious, so full of hope and glory.\" [41] A famous composition by Charles Ives , \"Col. Shaw and his Colored Regiment\", the opening movement of Three Places in New England , is based both on the monument and the regiment. [39] Detail from Saint-Gauden's original tinted plaster model Colonel Shaw and his men also feature prominently in Robert Lowell 's Civil War centennial poem \"For the Union Dead.\" It was originally titled \"Colonel Shaw and the Massachusetts' 54th\" and published in Life Studies (1959). In the poem, Lowell uses the Robert Gould Shaw memorial as a symbolic device to comment on broader societal change, including racism and segregation, as well as his more personal struggle to cope with a rapidly changing Boston. [42] A Union officer had asked the Confederates at Battery Wagner for the return of Shaw's body, but was informed by the Confederate commander, Brigadier General Johnson Hagood , \"We buried him with his niggers.\" [43] Shaw's father wrote in response that he was proud that Robert, a fierce fighter for equality, had been buried in that manner. [44] \"We hold that a soldier's most appropriate burial-place is on the field where he has fallen.\" [45] As a recognition and honor, at the end of the Civil War, the 1st South Carolina Volunteers , and the 33rd Colored Regiment were mustered out at the Battery Wagner site of the mass burial of the 54th Massachusetts. [ citation needed ] More recently, the story of the unit was depicted in the 1989 Academy Award -winning film Glory , starring Matthew Broderick as Shaw, Denzel Washington as Private Tripp, Morgan Freeman , Cary Elwes , Jihmi Kennedy and Andre Braugher . [46] The film re-established the now-popular image of the combat role African Americans played in the Civil War, and the unit, often represented in historical battle reenactments , now has the nickname the \"Glory\" regiment. [39] 2008 reactivation [ edit ] The unit was reactivated on November 21, 2008, to serve as the Massachusetts National Guard ceremonial unit to render military honors at funerals and state functions. The new unit is now known as the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Regiment . [47] See also [ edit ] 55th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment List of United States Colored Troops Civil War units List of Massachusetts Civil War units Massasoit Guards Footnotes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Headley, 450. Jump up ^ \"54th Regiment!\" . Massachusetts historical Society . Retrieved December 6, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Bowen, 672. Jump up ^ Washington, 136 Jump up ^ Berlin, 195. Jump up ^ Blatt, 232-233. ^ Jump up to: a b Dyer, 1266. ^ Jump up to: a b Bowen, 676. Jump up ^ Headley, 451. Jump up ^ Blatt, 1. Jump up ^ Blatt, 3. Jump up ^ Emilio, 2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Emilio 1995 , pp. 1–5. Jump up ^ Cox 1991 , p. 90. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , p. 6. Jump up ^ Burchard 1965 , pp. 77–78. Jump up ^ \"To Colored Men. 54th Regiment! Massachusetts Volunteers, Of African Descent\" . Massachusetts Historical Society. 16 February 1863. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , p. 11. Jump up ^ Shepard 2017 , pp. 37-39. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , pp. 15–16. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , pp. 19–20. Jump up ^ Emilio 1894 , pp. 339-388. Jump up ^ \"Jefferson Davis's Proclamation Regarding Captured Black Soldiers, December 23, 1862\" . University of Maryland, College Park . Archived from the original on 2012-10-25 . Retrieved 2008-07-18 . Jump up ^ \"Battle Unit Details - The Civil War (U.S. National Park Service)\" . Jump up ^ Rose 1964 , pp. 248249. Jump up ^ Rose 1964 , pp. 250–249. Jump up ^ Rose 1964 , pp. 251–252. Jump up ^ Rose 1964 , p. 252. Jump up ^ Rose 1964 , pp. 252–253. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , pp. 51–57. Jump up ^ \"Exhibit: 54th Mass Casualty List\" . National Archives and Records Administration. 1996 . Retrieved 2008-07-18 . Jump up ^ Emilio 1991 , pp. viii–ix, 8–9. Jump up ^ Rose 1964 , p. 261. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , pp. 47–48, 109. Jump up ^ Emilio 1995 , pp. 130–131, 136–138. ^ Jump up to: a b c McPherson 1964 , pp. 217–218. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Lt. Col. Henry N. Hooper, 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry\" . Florida Department of Environmental Protection – Recreation and Parks and the Olustee Battlefield Historic State Park Citizens Support Organization . Retrieved April 30, 2013 . Jump up ^ Fuller 2001 , p. 40. ^ Jump up to: a b c Joseph R. Laplante, Standard Times staff writer. \"The 54th Regiment: Black soldiers remembered in bronze, prose and song\" . South Coast Today . Retrieved April 30, 2013 . Jump up ^ Fischer, Diane P. (1999). Paris 1900: The \"American School\" at the Universal Exposition . Rutgers University Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-8135-2640-X . Jump up ^ Emilio, title page verso Jump up ^ Garvin, 165. Jump up ^ Burchard 1989 , p. 143. Jump up ^ Buescher, John. \"Robert Gould Shaw\" . Teachinghistory.org . Retrieved 12 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Brown 1867 , p. 380. Jump up ^ Glory on IMDb Jump up ^ Tierney McAffee (January 14, 2009). \"54th Mass. Regiment to march in inaugural parade\" . The Bay State Banner . Sources [ edit ] Berlin, Ira (1992). Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War . Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. OCLC 748551423 . Bielakowski, Alexander M. (2013). Ethnic and Racial Minorities in the U.S. Military: An Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-427-6 . Blatt, Martin H. (2009). Hope & Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment . Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 9781558497221 . Bowen, James L. (1889). Massachusetts in the War, 1861–1865 . Springfield, Massachusetts: Clark W. Bryan & Co. OCLC 1986476 . Brown, William Wells (1867). The Negro in the American Rebellion: His Heroism and His Fidelity . Boston: Lee & Shepherd. Burchard, Peter (1989). One Gallant Rush: Robert Gould Shaw and his Brave Black Regiment . New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0312046439 . Cox, Clinton (1991). Undying Glory: The Story of the Massachusetts 54th Regiment . New York: Scholastic. ISBN 978-0590441711 . Dyer, Frederick H. (1908). A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion . Des Moines: Dyer Publishing Co. OCLC 247098372 . Egerton, Douglas (2016). Thunder at the Gates: The Black Civil War Regiments That Redeemed America . Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465096640 . Emilio, Luis Fenollosa (1894). History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863-1865 (2nd Edition, Revised and Correct, with Appendix upon Treatment of Colored Prisoners of WAr) . Boston: The Boston Book Company. Emilio, Luis F. (1995) [1891]. A Brave Black Regiment: the history of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863–1865 . Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306806230 . Fuller, James (2001). Men of Color, To Arms!: Vermont African-Americans in the Civil War . Lincoln, NE: iUniverse. ISBN 978-0595158263 . Garvin, Harry R. (1977). Twentieth-century Poetry, Fiction, Theory . Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. ISBN 9780838719343 . Headley, Phineas C. (1866). Massachusetts in the Rebellion : a Record of the Historical Position of the Commonwealth, and the Services of the Leading Statesmen, the Military, the Colleges, and the People, in the Civil War of 1861-65 . Boston: Walker, Fuller and Co. OCLC 8406829 . McPherson, James (1964). The Struggle for Equality . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Rose, Willie Lee (1964). Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Shepard, Ray Anthony (2017). Now or Never! 54th Massachusetts Infantry's War to End Slavery . Honesdale, Pennsylvani: Calkins Creek. ISBN 9781629793405 . Washington, Booker T. (2012) [1899]. Frederick Douglass: A Biography . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. Further reading [ edit ] Shaw, Robert Gould (1999). Duncan, Russell, ed. Blue-Eyed Child of Fortune: The Civil War Letters of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw . Athens, Ga: University of Georgia Press. External links [ edit ] \"Louisiana and Massachusetts – Abraham Lincoln and Freedom\" . The Lincoln Institute. 2008 . Retrieved 2008-07-18 . \"Exhibit: 54th Mass Casualty List\" . National Archives and Records Administration. 1996 . Retrieved 2008-07-18 . Written in Glory, Letters from the Soldiers and Officers of the 54th Massachusetts 54th Massachusetts at the Battle of Olustee Photograph of Sgt. Major Lewis Douglass Photograph of Charles Douglass History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863–1865 (1894) on the Internet Archive American Civil War Battles of Fort Wagner Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=54th_Massachusetts_Infantry_Regiment&oldid=865867793 \" Categories : African-American military units and formations of the American Civil War Massachusetts Civil War regiments African-American history of the United States military Military units and formations disestablished in 1865 Military units and formations established in 1863 1863 establishments in Massachusetts Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013 Articles with Internet Archive links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Melayu Polski Русский Simple English Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 26 October 2018, at 18:10 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=54th_Massachusetts_Infantry_Regiment&amp;oldid=865867793" }

{ "text": "Yanny or Laurel - Wikipedia Yanny or Laurel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search \"Yanny\" redirects here. For the Greek musician, see Yanni . For other uses, see Yanni (disambiguation) . \"Yanny or Laurel\" This low quality recording of the pronunciation of \"Laurel\", which went viral on Twitter, enhances the illusion according to Brad Story. [1] [ verification needed ] Problems playing this file? See media help . \"Yanny or Laurel\" is an auditory illusion of a re-recording of a vocabulary word plus added background sounds, also mixed into the recording, which became popular in May 2018. [2] In the brief audio recording, 53% of over 500,000 people answered on a Twitter poll that they heard a man saying the original word \"Laurel\", while 47% reported hearing a voice saying the name \"Yanny\". [3] Analysis of the sound frequencies has confirmed that both sets of sounds are present in the mixed recording, [4] but some users focus on the higher frequency sounds in \"Yanny\" and cannot seem to hear the lower sounds of the word \"Laurel\".\nWhen the audio clip has been slowed to lower frequencies, then the word \"Yanny\" has been heard by more listeners, while faster playback loudens \"Laurel\" (see below: Pitch-shifted versions ). Contents 1 Background 2 Pop culture 3 Scientific analysis 3.1 Pitch-shifted versions 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Background [ edit ] The mixed re-recording was created by students who played the sound of the word \"laurel\" (a laurel wreath ), while re-recording the playback amid background noise in the room. [4] The audio clip of the main word \"laurel\" originated in 2007 from a recording of Jay Aubrey Jones, an opera singer, [5] who spoke the word \"laurel\" [6] as one of 200,000 reference pronunciations produced and published by vocabulary.com in 2007. [3] [7] [6] The clip was made at Jones' home using a laptop and microphone, with surrounding foam to help soundproof the recording. [8] The discovery of the ambiguity phenomenon is attributed to Katie Hetzel, a 15-year-old freshman at Flowery Branch High School , [9] near Atlanta , Georgia , who posted a description publicly on Instagram on May 11, 2018. The illusion reached further popularity when the student's friend posted it on Reddit the next day. [3] It was picked up by YouTuber Cloe Feldman on her Twitter account. [7] Pop culture [ edit ] Notable individuals who responded to the auditory illusion included Ellen DeGeneres , Stephen King , and Chrissy Teigen . [10] [11] Laurel Halo and Yanni , whose names are similar to those given in the auditory illusion, also responded. [12] In a video released by the White House , various members of the Trump administration reacted to the meme, and President Donald Trump said, \"I hear covfefe\", as a reference to his \" covfefe \" tweet the previous year. [13] [14] According to The Guardian , the clip was the most divisive subject on the internet since the gold/blue dress controversy in 2015. [15] Several days after the clip became viral, the team at Vocabulary.com added a separate entry for the word \"Yanny\", which contained an audio clip identical to \"Laurel\". [16] [17] Its definition is about the Internet trend. [17] Scientific analysis [ edit ] On May 16, 2018, a report in The New York Times noted a spectrogram analysis confirmed how the extra sounds for \"yanny\" can be graphed in the mixed re-recording. [4] The sounds also were simulated by combining syllables of the same Vocabulary.com voice saying the words \"Yangtze\" and \"uncanny\" as a mash-up of sounds which gave a similar spectrogram as the extra sounds graphed in the laurel re-recording. [4] Benjamin Munson , a professor of audiology at the University of Minnesota , suggested that \"Yanny\" can be heard in higher frequencies while \"Laurel\" can be heard in lower frequencies. [2] Older people, whose ability to hear higher frequencies is more likely to have degraded , usually hear \"Laurel\". Kevin Franck, the director of audiology at the Boston hospital Massachusetts Eye and Ear says that the clip exists on a \"perceptual boundary\" and compared it to the Necker Cube illusion. [18] Professor David Alais from the University of Sydney's school of psychology also compared the clip to the Necker Cube or the face/vase illusion , calling it a \"perceptually ambiguous stimulus\". [15] Brad Story, a professor of speech, language, and audiology at the University of Arizona said that the low quality of the recording creates ambiguity. [1] Dr. Hans Rutger Bosker, psycholinguist and phonetician at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics , showed that it is possible to make the same person hear the same audio clip differently by presenting it in different acoustic contexts: if one hears the ambiguous audio clip after a lead-in sentence without any high frequencies (>1000 Hz), this makes the higher frequencies in the following ambiguous audio clip stand out more, making people report \"Yanny\" where they previously maybe heard \"Laurel\". [19] Pitch-shifted versions [ edit ] \"Yanny or Laurel\" (pitch shifted higher) By pitch shifting the original audio by 20%, \"Laurel\" is clearer Problems playing this file? See media help . By pitch shifting the original audio to higher or lower frequencies, the same listener can report different interpretations. [20] The New York Times released an interactive tool on their website that changes the pitch of the recording in real-time. The interactive slider allows the recording to be played back at any pitch between 3 semitones higher (to help the listener hear \"Laurel\"), and 6 semitones lower (to help the listener hear \"Yanny\"). [4] This change in volume of frequencies has a similar effect in the \"brainstorm - green needle\" auditory illusion. [21] See also [ edit ] 2010s portal Internet portal List of Internet phenomena Malapropism McGurk effect Mondegreen Optical illusion The dress References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Jackson, Amanda (May 16, 2018). \"Laurel or Yanny? What science has to say\" . CNN . Archived from the original on May 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Kirby, Jen (May 16, 2018). \"Why you hear \"Laurel\" or \"Yanny\" in that viral audio clip, explained\" . Vox . Archived from the original on May 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Salam, Maya; Victor, Daniel (May 15, 2018). \"Laurel or Yanny? What We Heard From the Experts\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on May 17, 2018 . Retrieved May 18, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Josh Katz; Jonathan Corum and Jon Huang (May 16, 2018). \"We Made a Tool So You Can Hear Both Yanny and Laurel\" . Retrieved 2018-06-01 . playing the “laurel” clip over speakers and re-recording it introduced noise and exaggerated the higher frequencies. Jump up ^ \"Meet the Voice behind That 'Laurel' (or 'Yanny') Clip That's Driving Everyone Nuts\" . Time.com . Archived from the original on May 19, 2018 . Retrieved May 19, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Laurel\" at vocabulary.com Archived May 16, 2018, at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to: a b Matsakis, Louise (May 16, 2018). \"The True History of 'Yanny' and 'Laurel ' \" . WIRED . Archived from the original on May 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . Jump up ^ Hughes, Virginia (May 27, 2018). \"We Got To The Bottom Of A Geeky Conspiracy Theory About Yanny And Laurel\" . BuzzFeed News . Archived from the original on May 27, 2018 . Retrieved May 27, 2018 . Jump up ^ Katie Hetzel, 15 yr old Flowery Branch High Freshman interview with Francesca Amiker on 11alive.com Archived May 29, 2018, at the Wayback Machine . (published to YouTube on May 18, 2018) Jump up ^ Hoggatt, Aja (May 15, 2018). \"Is your favorite celeb a Yanny or a Laurel?\" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . Jump up ^ O'Kane, Caitlin (May 16, 2018). \"Yanny vs. Laurel: What do you hear?\" . CBS News . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . Jump up ^ Gray, Julia (May 16, 2018). \"Yanny Or Laurel: Yanni And Laurel Halo Weigh In\" . Stereogum . Archived from the original on May 17, 2018 . Retrieved May 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Laurel, Yanny or ... covfefe? White House joins in on debate\" . Chicago Tribune . Associated Press. May 17, 2018 . Retrieved May 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Donald Trump weighs in on the Yanny or Laurel debate\" . YouTube . Guardian News . Retrieved 9 June 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b Watson, Chloe (May 17, 2018). \"Laurel or Yanny debate: why do some people hear a different word?\" . the Guardian . Archived from the original on May 17, 2018 . Retrieved May 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Here's why you're hearing \"Yanny\" – and why it's technically \"Laurel \" \" . CBS News . May 17, 2018. Archived from the original on May 17, 2018 . Retrieved May 17, 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Yanny - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com\" . www.vocabulary.com . Archived from the original on May 17, 2018 . Retrieved May 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ Ducharme, Jamie (May 16, 2018). \"An Audiologist Explains Why You Hear 'Yanny' or 'Laurel' — Or Both\" . Time . Archived from the original on May 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"The Psychology of Laurel and Yanny\" . Psychology Today . Retrieved May 29, 2018 . Jump up ^ Gutman, Rachel (May 15, 2018). \"A Linguist Explains Why 'Laurel' Sounds Like 'Yanny ' \" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on May 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 17, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"We Can't Trust Our Ears Anymore Now The 'Brainstorm'/'Green Needle' Auditory Illusion Is Breaking Our Brains\" . digg.com . Archived from the original on May 21, 2018 . Retrieved May 21, 2018 . External links [ edit ] Vocabulary.com definition for \"yanny\" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yanny_or_Laurel&oldid=854724227 \" Categories : 2007 works 2018 in science Auditory illusions Internet memes Internet memes introduced in 2018 May 2018 events Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from August 2018 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from May 2018 Articles with hAudio microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Esperanto Français Հայերեն Magyar 日本語 Norsk Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 August 2018, at 10:27 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Yanny or Laurel", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Yanny_or_Laurel&amp;oldid=854724227" }

{ "text": "Interwar period - Wikipedia Interwar period From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Between the Wars\" redirects here. For other uses, see Between the Wars (disambiguation) . Europe, 1923 Population densities in Europe, 1923 In the context of the history of the 20th century , the interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War in November 1918 and the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939. Despite the relatively short period of time, this period represented an era of significant changes worldwide. Petroleum and associated mechanisation expanded dramatically leading to the Roaring Twenties (and the Golden Twenties ), a period of economic prosperity and growth for the middle class in North America, Europe and many other parts of the world. Automobiles, electric lighting, radio broadcasts and more became commonplace among populations in the developed world. The indulgences of this era subsequently led to the Great Depression , an unprecedented worldwide economic downturn which severely damaged many of the world's largest economies. Politically, this era saw the rise of communism , starting in Russia with the October Revolution , at the end of World War I, and ultimately the rise of fascism , particularly in Germany . China was in the midst of long period of instability and civil war between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China . The Empires of Britain , France and others faced challenges as imperialism was increasingly viewed negatively in Europe, and independence movements in British India , French Vietnam , Ireland and other regions gained momentum. The former Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and German Empires were dismantled, with the Ottoman and German Empire's colonies redistributed among the Allies . The far western part of the Russian Empire broke into independent states: Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. However, the Communists in Moscow managed to regain control in Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. Ireland was split , with the larger part being independent of Britain. In the Middle East , Egypt and Iraq gained independence, while open conflict erupted in Palestine over the question of a Jewish homeland. During the Great Depression, Latin American countries nationalised many foreign companies (particularly American) in a bid to strengthen their local economies. Japanese , German , Italian and Russian territorial ambitions led to expansions of these empires, which set the stage for the subsequent world war. Contents [ hide ] 1 Turmoil in Europe 2 International relations 3 Roaring Twenties 4 Great Depression 5 Britain and its Empire 6 French Empire 7 Germany 7.1 Weimar Republic 7.2 Nazi era, 1933–39 8 Italy 9 Regional patterns 9.1 East Asia: Japanese dominance 9.2 Latin America 9.2.1 Sports 9.3 Africa and Asia 10 End of an era 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading Turmoil in Europe [ edit ] Main article: Aftermath of World War I Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended World War I, the years 1919–24 were marked by turmoil as affected regions struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War and the destabilising effects of the loss of four large historic empires: the German Empire , Austro-Hungarian Empire , Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire . There were numerous new nations in Eastern Europe, most of them small in size. The United States gained dominance in world finance. Thus, when Germany could no longer afford war reparations to Britain, France and other Allies, the Americans came up with the Dawes Plan and Wall Street invested heavily in Germany, which repaid its reparations to nations that, in turn, used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington. By the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known, especially in Germany, as the \" Golden Twenties \". [1] International relations [ edit ] Main article: International relations (1919–1939) The important stages of interwar diplomacy and international relations included resolutions of wartime issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and boundaries; American involvement in European finances and disarmament projects; the expectations and failures of the League of Nations ; the relationships of the new countries to the old; the distrustful relations of the Soviet Union to the capitalist world; peace and disarmament efforts; responses to the Great Depression starting in 1929; the collapse of world trade; The collapse of democratic regimes one by one; the growth of economic autarky; Japanese aggressiveness toward China; Fascist diplomacy, including the aggressive moves by Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany; the Spanish Civil War ; the appeasement of Germany's expansionist moves toward the Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, and the last, desperate stages of rearmament as the second world war increasingly loomed. [2] Roaring Twenties [ edit ] Main articles: 1920s , Roaring Twenties , Golden Twenties , and Années folles The \" Roaring Twenties \" highlighted novel and highly visible social and cultural trends and innovations. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin and London. The Jazz Age began and Art Deco peaked. [3] [4] For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave . The women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers . [5] Not all was new: “normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany. [6] The leftist revolutions in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Spain were defeated by conservatives, but succeeded in Russia, which became the base for Soviet Communism. [7] In Italy the fascists came to power under Mussolini after threatening a march on Rome. [8] Most independent countries enacted women's suffrage in the interwar era , including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. There were a few major countries that held out until after the Second World War (such as France, Switzerland and Portugal). [9] Leslie Hume argues: The women's contribution to the war effort challenged the notion of women's physical and mental inferiority and made it more difficult to maintain that women were, both by constitution and temperament, unfit to vote. If women could work in munitions factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was much more than simply a reward for war work; the point was that women's participation in the war helped to dispel the fears that surrounded women's entry into the public arena. [10] In Europe, according to Derek Aldcroft and Steven Morewood, \"Nearly all countries registered some economic progress in the 1920s and most of them managed to regain or surpass their pre-war income and production levels by the end of the decade.\" The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Greece did especially well, while Eastern Europe did poorly. [11] In advanced economies the prosperity reached middle class households and many in the working class. with radio, automobiles, telephones, and electric lighting and appliances. There was unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie stars. Major cities built large sports stadiums for the fans, in addition to palatial cinemas . Great Depression [ edit ] The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing varied across nations; in most countries it started in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s. [12] It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. [13] The depression originated in the United States, after a slow decline in lofty stock prices and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black Tuesday ). Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession . [14] Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II . [15] The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor . Personal income , tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. [16] Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry . Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. [17] [18] [19] Facing plummeting demand with few alternative sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. [20] the Weimar Republic in Germany gave way to two episodes of political and economic turmoil, the first culminated in the German hyperinflation of 1923 and the failed Beer Hall Putsch of that same year. The second convulsion, brought on by the worldwide depression, resulted in the rise of Nazism . In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regard to China . [21] Democracy and prosperity largely went together in the 1920s. The worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929 led to the collapse of democracy in most of Europe and the rise of expansionary dictatorships in Russia, Italy, Japan and Germany, as well as local dictatorships in Poland, Spain and elsewhere. [22] Britain and its Empire [ edit ] Main article: Interwar Britain The Second British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921 The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy. [23] Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States. The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British pride, its finance and its trade-oriented economy. [24] [25] George V with the British and Dominion prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference India strongly supported the Empire in the First World War. It expected a reward, but failed to get home rule as the Raj kept control in British hands and feared another rebellion like that of 1857. The Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for independence. Mounting tension, particularly in the Punjab region , culminated in the Amritsar Massacre in 1919. Nationalism surged, and centered in the Congress Party led by Gandhi. [26] In Britain public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion. [27] [28] Egypt had been under de facto British control since the 1880s, despite its nominal ownership by the Ottoman Empire. In 1922 it was granted formal independence , though it continued to be a client state following British guidance. Egypt joined the League of Nations. Egypt's King Faud and his son King Farouk , and their conservative allies, stayed in power with lavish life styles thanks to an informal alliance with Britain who would protect them from both secular and Muslim radicalism. [29] Iraq , a British mandate since 1920, gained official independence in 1932 when King Faisal agreed to British terms of a military alliance and an assured flow of oil. [30] [31] In Palestine , Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews. The 1917 Balfour Declaration , which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power. This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936 . As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency . [32] The Dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Ireland) were self-governing and gained semi-independence in the World War. Britain still controlled foreign policy and defence. The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy was recognised in 1923 and formalised by the 1931 Statute of Westminster . Ireland effectively broke all ties with London in 1937. [33] French Empire [ edit ] French Empire in Interwar period Main article: French colonial empire French census statistics from 1931 show an imperial population, outside of France itself, of 64.3 million people living on 11.9 million square kilometers. Of the total population, 39.1 million lived in Africa and 24.5 million lived in Asia; 700,000 lived in the Caribbean area or islands in the South Pacific. The largest colonies were Indochina with 21.5 million (in five separate colonies), Algeria with 6.6 million, Morocco, with 5.4 million, and West Africa with 14.6 million in nine colonies. The total includes 1.9 million Europeans, and 350,000 \"assimilated\" natives. [34] A hallmark of the French colonial project from the late 19th century to the post-World War Two era was the civilising mission ( mission civilisatrice ). The principle was that it was France's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. [35] As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar . Catholicism was a major factor in the civilising mission, and many missionaries were sent. Often they operated schools and hospitals. [36] During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne and Réunion as well as to the residents of the \" Four Communes \" in Senegal. Typically the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese Blaise Diagne , who was elected in 1914. [37] Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a strict separation between \"sujets français\" (all the natives) and \"citoyens français\" (all males of European extraction) with different rights and duties was maintained until 1946. French colonial law held that the granting of French citizenship to natives was a privilege and not a right. Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet in order to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). For the 116 years from 1830 to 1946, only between 3,000 and 6,000 native Algerians were granted French citizenship. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 \"citoyens indigènes\" out of a total population of 15 million. French conservatives had been denouncing the assimilationist policies as products of a dangerous liberal fantasy. In the Protectorate of Morocco, the French administration attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration, with mixed results. After World War II, the segregationist approach modeled in Morocco had been discredited by its connections to Vichyism, and assimilationism enjoyed a brief renaissance. [37] Critics of French colonialism gained an international audience in the 1920s, and often used documentary reportage and access to agencies such as the League of Nations and the International Labour Organization to make their protests heard. The main criticism was the high level of violence and suffering among the natives. Major critics included Albert Londres , Félicien Challaye, and Paul Monet, whose books and articles were widely read. [38] Germany [ edit ] Main article: History of Germany Weimar Republic [ edit ] The humiliating peace terms in the Treaty of Versailles provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime. That Treaty stripped Germany of all of its overseas colonies, of Alsace and Lorraine, and of predominantly Polish districts. The Allied armies occupied industrial sectors in Germany's West, who was not allowed to have a real Army, Navy or Air Force, stationed troops in the Rhineland. Reparations were demanded, especially by France, involving shipments of raw materials, as well as annual payments. [39] When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The German government printed vast quantities of paper money, causing hyperinflation, which also damaged the French economy. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the hyperinflation caused many prudent savers to lose all the money they had saved. Weimar added new internal enemies every year, as anti-democratic Nazis, nationalists and Communists battled each other in the streets. See 1920s German inflation . [40] Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union . Under the Treaty of Rapallo , Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims. In October 1925 the Treaty of Locarno was signed by Germany, France, Belgium, Britain and Italy; it recognised Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of Nations in 1926. [41] Nazi era, 1933–39 [ edit ] Main articles: Nazi Germany and Causes of World War II Hitler came to power in January 1933, and inaugurated an aggressive power designed to give Germany economic and political domination across central Europe. He did not attempt to recover the lost colonies. Until August 1939, the Nazis denounced Communists and the Soviet Union as the greatest enemy, along with the Jews. [42] Japanese poster promoting the Axis cooperation in 1938 Hitler's diplomatic strategy in the 1930s was to make seemingly reasonable demands, threatening war if they were not met. When opponents tried to appease him, he accepted the gains that were offered, then went to the next target. That aggressive strategy worked as Germany pulled out of the League of Nations (1933), rejected the Versailles Treaty and began to re-arm (1935), won back the Saar (1935), remilitarized the Rhineland (1936), formed an alliance (\"axis\") with Mussolini's Italy (1936), sent massive military aid to Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), seized Austria (1938), took over Czechoslovakia after the British and French appeasement of the Munich Agreement of 1938, formed a peace pact with Joseph Stalin 's Soviet Union in August 1939, and finally invaded Poland in September 1939. Britain and France declared war and World War II began – somewhat sooner than the Nazis expected or were ready for. [43] After establishing the \"Rome-Berlin axis\" with Benito Mussolini , and signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan – which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 – Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On 12 March 1938, German troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Austrian-born Hitler entered Vienna , he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation ( Anschluss ) of their country Austria to the German Reich . After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia , where the 3.5 million-strong Sudeten German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the Munich Conference of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by Czechoslovakia . Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed. [44] [45] Italy [ edit ] Main articles: Second Italo-Ethiopian War and Italian invasion of Albania Ambitions of Fascist Italy in Europe in 1936. The map shows territories to become sovereign or dependency territory (in dark-green) and client states (in light-green). Maximum extent of Imperial Italy. In 1922, the leader of the Italian fascist movement, Benito Mussolini , became Prime Minister of Italy after the March on Rome . Mussolini resolved the question of sovereignty over the Dodecanese at the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne , which formalized Italian administration of both Libya and the Dodecanese Islands, in return for a payment to Turkey , the successor state to the Ottoman Empire, though he failed in an attempt to extract a mandate of a portion of Iraq from Britain. The month following the ratification of the Lausanne treaty, Mussolini ordered the invasion of the Greek island of Corfu after the Corfu incident . The Italian press supported the move, noting that Corfu had been a Venetian possession for four hundred years. The matter was taken by Greece to the League of Nations , where Mussolini was convinced by Britain to evacuate Italian troops, in return for reparations from Greece. The confrontation led Britain and Italy to resolve the question of Jubaland in 1924, which was merged into Italian Somaliland . [46] During the late 1920s, imperial expansion became an increasingly favoured theme in Mussolini's speeches. [47] Amongst Mussolini's aims were that Italy had to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean that would be able to challenge France or Britain, as well as attain access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . [47] Mussolini alleged that Italy required uncontested access to the world's oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty. [48] This was elaborated on in a document he later drew up in 1939 called \"The March to the Oceans\", and included in the official records of a meeting of the Grand Council of Fascism . [48] This text asserted that maritime position determined a nation's independence: countries with free access to the high seas were independent; while those who lacked this, were not. Italy, which only had access to an inland sea without French and British acquiescence, was only a \"semi-independent nation\", and alleged to be a \"prisoner in the Mediterranean\": [48] \"The bars of this prison are Corsica , Tunisia , Malta , and Cyprus . The guards of this prison are Gibraltar and Suez . Corsica is a pistol pointed at the heart of Italy; Tunisia at Sicily. Malta and Cyprus constitute a threat to all our positions in the eastern and western Mediterrean. Greece, Turkey, and Egypt have been ready to form a chain with Great Britain and to complete the politico-military encirclement of Italy. Thus Greece, Turkey, and Egypt must be considered vital enemies of Italy's expansion ... The aim of Italian policy, which cannot have, and does not have continental objectives of a European territorial nature except Albania, is first of all to break the bars of this prison ... Once the bars are broken, Italian policy can only have one motto – to march to the oceans.\" — Benito Mussolini, The March to the Oceans [48] In the Balkans , the Fascist regime claimed Dalmatia and held ambitions over Albania , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Vardar Macedonia , and Greece based on the precedent of previous Roman dominance in these regions. [49] Dalmatia and Slovenia were to be directly annexed into Italy while the remainder of the Balkans was to be transformed into Italian client states. [50] The regime also sought to establish protective patron-client relationships with Austria , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria . [49] In both 1932 and 1935, Italy demanded a League of Nations mandate of the former German Cameroon and a free hand in Ethiopia from France in return for Italian support against Germany (see Stresa Front ). [51] This was refused by French Prime Minister Édouard Herriot , who was not yet sufficiently worried about the prospect of a German resurgence. [51] The failed resolution of the Abyssinia Crisis led to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , in which Italy annexed Ethiopia to its empire. Italy's stance towards Spain shifted between the 1920s and the 1930s. The Fascist regime in the 1920s held deep antagonism towards Spain due to Miguel Primo de Rivera 's pro-French foreign policy. In 1926, Mussolini began aiding the Catalan separatist movement, which was led by Francesc Macià , against the Spanish government. [52] With the rise of the left-wing Republican government replacing the Spanish monarchy, Spanish monarchists and fascists repeatedly approached Italy for aid in overthrowing the Republican government, in which Italy agreed to support them in order to establish a pro-Italian government in Spain. [52] In July 1936, Francisco Franco of the Nationalist faction in the Spanish Civil War requested Italian support against the ruling Republican faction, and guaranteed that, if Italy supported the Nationalists, \"future relations would be more than friendly\" and that Italian support \"would have permitted the influence of Rome to prevail over that of Berlin in the future politics of Spain\". [53] Italy intervened in the civil war with the intention of occupying the Balearic Islands and creating a client state in Spain . [54] Italy sought the control of the Balearic Islands due to its strategic position – Italy could use the islands as a base to disrupt the lines of communication between France and its North African colonies and between British Gibraltar and Malta. [55] After the victory by Franco and the Nationalists in the war, Allied intelligence was informed that Italy was pressuring Spain to permit an Italian occupation of the Balearic Islands. [56] Italian newspaper in Tunisia that represented Italians living in the French protectorate of Tunisia . After the United Kingdom signed the Anglo-Italian Easter Accords in 1938, Mussolini and foreign minister Ciano issued demands for concessions in the Mediterranean by France, particularly regarding Djibouti , Tunisia and the French-run Suez Canal . [57] Three weeks later, Mussolini told Ciano that he intended for Italy to demand an Italian takeover of Albania. [57] Mussolini professed that Italy would only be able to \"breathe easily\" if it had acquired a contiguous colonial domain in Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian Oceans, and when ten million Italians had settled in them. [47] In 1938, Italy demanded a sphere of influence in the Suez Canal in Egypt , specifically demanding that the French-dominated Suez Canal Company accept an Italian representative on its board of directors . [58] Italy opposed the French monopoly over the Suez Canal because, under the French-dominated Suez Canal Company, all Italian merchant traffic to its colony of Italian East Africa was forced to pay tolls on entering the canal. [58] In 1939, Italy invaded and captured Albania and made it a part of the Italian Empire as a separate kingdom in personal union with the Italian crown . The region of modern-day Albania had been an early part of the Roman Empire , which had actually been held before northern parts of Italy had been taken by the Romans, but had long since been populated by Albanians , even though Italy had retained strong links with the Albanian leadership and considered it firmly within its sphere of influence . [59] It is possible that Mussolini simply wanted a spectacular success over a smaller neighbour to match Germany's absorption of Austria and Czechoslovakia . [59] Italian King Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown , and a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci was established to rule over Albania . Regional patterns [ edit ] East Asia: Japanese dominance [ edit ] Latin America [ edit ] The Great Depression posed a great challenge to the region. The collapse of the world economy meant that the demand for raw materials drastically declined, undermining many of the economies of Latin America. Intellectuals and government leaders in Latin America turned their backs on the older economic policies and turned toward import substitution industrialization . The goal was to create self-sufficient economies, which would have their own industrial sectors and large middle classes and which would be immune to the ups and downs of the global economy. Despite the potential threats to United States commercial interests, the Roosevelt administration (1933–1945) understood that the United States could not wholly oppose import substitution. Roosevelt implemented a Good Neighbor policy and allowed the nationalization of some American companies in Latin America. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized American oil companies, out of which he created Pemex . Cárdenas also oversaw the redistribution of a quantity of land, fulfilling the hopes of many since the start of the Mexican Revolution. The Platt Amendment was also repealed, freeing Cuba from legal and official interference of the United States in its politics. The Second World War also brought the United States and most Latin American nations together, with Argentina the main hold out. [60] Sports [ edit ] Sports became increasingly popular, drawing enthusiastic fans to large stadia. [61] The International Olympic Committee (IOC) worked to encourage Olympic ideals and participation. Following the 1922 Latin American Games in Rio de Janeiro, the IOC helped to establish national Olympic committees and prepare for future competition. In Brazil, however, sporting and political rivalries slowed progress as opposing factions fought for control of international sport. The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics games in Amsterdam saw greatly increased participation from Latin American athletes. [62] English and Scottish engineers brought futebol (soccer) to Brazil in the late 1800s. The International Committee of the YMCA of North America and the Playground Association of America played major roles in training coaches. [63] Across the globe after 1912, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) played the chief role in the transformation of association football into a global game, working with national and regional organizations, and setting up the rules and customs, and establishing championships such as the World Cup. [64] Africa and Asia [ edit ] End of an era [ edit ] The interwar period ended in September 1939 with the German invasion of Poland and the start of World War II . [65] See also [ edit ] 1920s 1930s European Civil War References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Bärbel Schrader, and Jürgen Schebera. The\" golden\" twenties: art and literature in the Weimar Republic (1988). Jump up ^ Norman Rich, Great Power Diplomacy since 1914 (2003) pp. 70–248. Jump up ^ Blake, Jody. Le Tumulte Noir: modernist art and popular entertainment in jazz-age Paris, 1900–1930. Penn State Press, 1999. Jump up ^ Alastair Duncan, Art Deco Complete: the definitive guide to the decorative arts of the 1920s and 1930s (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009). Jump up ^ Price, S (1999). \"What made the twenties roar?\". 131 (10): 3–18. Jump up ^ Charles D. Maier, Recasting bourgeois Europe: stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the decade after World War I (1975) Jump up ^ Gordon Martel, ed. (2011). A Companion to Europe 1900–1945 . pp. 449–50. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Kevin Passmore, Fascism: A very short introduction (Oxford UP, 2014) pp. 50–61. Jump up ^ Garrick Bailey; James Peoples (2013). Essentials of Cultural Anthropology . Cengage Learning. p. 208. Jump up ^ Leslie Hume (2016). The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies 1897-1914 . Routledge. p. 281. Jump up ^ Derek Howard Aldcroft; Steven Morewood (2013). The European Economy Since 1914 . Routledge. pp. 44, 46. Jump up ^ John A. Garraty, The Great Depression (1986) Jump up ^ Charles Duhigg, \"Depression, You Say? Check Those Safety Nets\", The New York Times , March 23, 2008. Jump up ^ Roger Lowenstein, \"History Repeating,\" Wall Street Journal Jan 14, 2015 Jump up ^ Garraty, Great Depression (1986) ch 1 Jump up ^ Frank, Robert H.; Bernanke, Ben S. (2007). Principles of Macroeconomics (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. p. 98. ISBN 0-07-319397-6 . Jump up ^ \"Commodity Data\" . US Bureau of Labor Statistics . Retrieved 2008-11-30 . Jump up ^ Cochrane, Willard W. (1958). \"Farm Prices, Myth and Reality\": 15. Jump up ^ \"World Economic Survey 1932–33\". League of Nations : 43. Jump up ^ Mitchell, Depression Decade Jump up ^ C. L. Mowat, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945 (1968) Jump up ^ Stephen J. Lee, European Dictatorships 1918–1945 (Routledge, 2016). Jump up ^ Judith Brown and Wm Roger Louis, eds., The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century (1999) pp. 1–46. Jump up ^ Stephen J. Lee Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995 (1996) p p. 305. Jump up ^ William Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization (2006) pp. 294–305. Jump up ^ Donald Anthony Low and Rajat Kanta Ray, Congress and the Raj: facets of the Indian struggle, 1917–47 (Oxford UP, 2006). Jump up ^ Derek Sayer, \"British reaction to the Amritsar massacre 1919–1920.\" Past & Present 131 (1991): 130–64. Jump up ^ Mowat, C. L. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945 (2nd ed.). – 25 chapters; 845 pp Jump up ^ Hugh McLeave, The Last Pharaoh: Farouk of Egypt (1970_. Jump up ^ Gerald De Gaury, Three kings in Baghdad, 1921–1958 (1961). Jump up ^ Bulliet, Richard (2010). The earth and its peoples: A global history. Vol. 2: Since 1500 . et al. (5th ed Cengage Learning ed.). excerpt pp. 774–845 Jump up ^ Mowat 12:269–96. Jump up ^ Mowat, 12:373–402. Jump up ^ Herbert Ingram Priestley, France overseas: a study of modern imperialism (1938) pp. 440–41. Jump up ^ Raymond F. Betts (2005). Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914 . University of Nebraska Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780803262478 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Foster, Faith in Empire: Religion, Politics, and Colonial Rule in French Senegal, 1880–1940 (2013) ^ Jump up to: a b Spencer Segalla, The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956 . 2009) Jump up ^ J.P. Daughton, \"Behind the Imperial Curtain: International Humanitarian Efforts and the Critique of French Colonialism in the Interwar Years,\" French Historical Studies, (2011) 34#3 pp. 503–28 Jump up ^ Ian Kershaw, Weimar: Why did German Democracy Fail? Jump up ^ Eric D. Weitz, Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy (2013) Jump up ^ Wolfgang Elz, \"Foreign policy\" in Anthony McElligott, ed., Weimar Germany (2009) pp. 50–77 Jump up ^ Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (2005) and Evans, The Third Reich in Power (2006). Jump up ^ Gerhard L. Weinberg, Hitler's foreign policy 1933–1939: The road to World War II. (2013), Originally published in two volumes. Jump up ^ Donald Cameron Watt, How war came: the immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938–1939 (1989). Jump up ^ R.J. Overy, The Origins of the Second World War (2014). Jump up ^ Lowe, pp. 191–199 ^ Jump up to: a b c Smith, Dennis Mack (1981). Mussolini , p. 170. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Salerno, Reynolds Mathewson (2002). Vital crossroads: Mediterranean origins of the Second World War, 1935–1940 , pp. 105–106 . Cornell University Press ^ Jump up to: a b Robert Bideleux, Ian Jeffries. A history of eastern Europe: crisis and change . London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 1998. Pp. 467. Jump up ^ Allan R. Millett, Williamson Murray. Military Effectiveness, Volume 2 . New edition. New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2010. P. 184. ^ Jump up to: a b Burgwyn, James H. (1997). Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940 , p. 68 . Praeger Publishers. ^ Jump up to: a b Robert H. Whealey. Hitler And Spain: The Nazi Role In The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 . Paperback edition. Lexington, Kentucky, USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2005. P. 11. Jump up ^ Sebastian Balfour, Paul Preston. Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 1999. P. 152. Jump up ^ R. J. B. Bosworth. The Oxford handbook of fascism . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009. Pp. 246. Jump up ^ John J. Mearsheimer. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. W. W. Norton & Company, 2003. Jump up ^ The Road to Oran: Anglo-Franch Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940. Pp. 24. ^ Jump up to: a b Reynolds Mathewson Salerno. Vital Crossroads: Mediterranean Origins of the Second World War, 1935–1940. Cornell University, 2002. p 82–83. ^ Jump up to: a b \"French Army breaks a one-day strike and stands on guard against a land-hungry Italy\", LIFE , 19 Dec 1938. Pp. 23. ^ Jump up to: a b Dickson (2001), pg. 69 Jump up ^ Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence (2nd ed. 2003) pp. 189–231. Jump up ^ David M.K. Sheinin, ed., Sports Culture in Latin American History (2015). Jump up ^ Cesar R. Torres, \"The Latin American 'Olympic Explosion’ of the 1920s: causes and consequences.\" International Journal of the History of Sport 23.7 (2006): 1088–111. Jump up ^ Claudia Guedes, \"‘Changing the cultural landscape’: English engineers, American missionaries, and the YMCA bring sports to Brazil–the 1870s to the 1930s.\" International Journal of the History of Sport 28.17 (2011): 2594–608. Jump up ^ Paul Dietschy, \"Making football global? FIFA, Europe, and the non-European football world, 1912–74.\" Journal of Global History 8.2 (2013): 279. Jump up ^ Overy, R J (2015) [1st pub. 2010:Longman]. The Inter-war Crisis, 1919-1939 (2nd revised ed.). London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1381-379-36 . OCLC 949747872 . Further reading [ edit ] Albrecht-Carrié, René. (1958). A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna . – 736 pp; basic survey Dailey, Andy, and David G. Williamson. (2012) Peacemaking, Peacekeeping: International Relations 1918–36 (2012) 244 pp; textbook, heavily illustrated with diagrams and contemporary photographs and colour posters. Duiker, William J., and Jackson J. Spielvogel. (2013). World History, Volume II: Since 1500 (Cengage Learning ed.). pp. 678–736. Grenville, J.A.S. (2000). A History of the World in the Twentieth Century . pp. 77–254. Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1994). The age of extremes: a history of the world, 1914–1991 . – a view from the Left. Kaiser, David E. (1980). Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France, and Eastern Europe, 1930–1939 . Princeton University Press . Keylor, William R. (2001). The Twentieth-century World: An International History (4th ed.). Marks, Sally (2002). The Ebbing of European Ascendancy: An International History of the World 1914–1945 . Oxford University Press . pp. 121–342. Mowat, C. L. ed. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945 (2nd ed.). – 25 chapters by experts; 845 pp Seton-Watson, Hugh. (1945) Eastern Europe Between The Wars 1918–1941 (1945) online Somervell, D.C. (1936). The Reign of King George V (PDF) . – 550 pp; wide-ranging political, social and economic coverage of Britain, 1910–35 [ hide ] v t e History of Europe Prehistory Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe Classical antiquity Classical Greece Roman Republic Hellenistic period Roman Empire Early Christianity Crisis of the Third Century Fall of the Western Roman Empire Late antiquity Middle Ages Early Middle Ages Migration Period Christianization Francia Byzantine Empire Maritime republics Viking Age Kievan Rus' Holy Roman Empire High Middle Ages Feudalism Crusades Mongol invasion Late Middle Ages Hundred Years' War Kalmar Union Renaissance Early modern Reformation Age of Discovery Baroque Thirty Years' War Absolute monarchy Ottoman Empire Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire Early modern France Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Swedish Empire Dutch Republic British Empire Habsburg Monarchy Russian Empire Age of Enlightenment Modern Great Divergence Industrial Revolution French Revolution Napoleonic Wars Nationalism Revolutions of 1848 World War I Russian Revolution Interwar period World War II Cold War European integration See also Art of Europe Genetic history of Europe History of the Mediterranean region History of the European Union History of Western civilization Maritime history of Europe Military history of Europe Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interwar_period&oldid=808686435 \" Categories : Interwar period Aftermath of World War I Former polities of the interwar period 1918 1919 1920s 1930s Chronology of World War II Modern history 20th century in Africa 20th century in Asia 20th century in Europe 20th century in Oceania 20th century in North America 20th century in South America Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list Use British English from December 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Къарачай-малкъар Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 November 2017, at 13:46. 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{ "text": "You'll Never Walk Alone - Wikipedia You'll Never Walk Alone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see You'll Never Walk Alone (disambiguation) . \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" Song Published 1945 Genre Show tune Composer(s) Richard Rodgers Lyricist(s) Oscar Hammerstein II \" You'll Never Walk Alone \" is a show tune from the 1945 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel .\nIn the second act of the musical, Nettie Fowler, the cousin of the protagonist Julie Jordan, sings \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" to comfort and encourage Julie when her husband, Billy Bigelow, the male lead, falls on his knife and dies after a failed robbery attempt. It is reprised in the final scene to encourage a graduation class of which Louise (Billy and Julie's daughter) is a member. The now invisible Billy, who has been granted the chance to return to Earth for one day in order to redeem himself, watches the ceremony and is able to silently motivate the unhappy Louise to join in the song. The song is also sung at association football clubs around the world, where it is performed by a massed chorus of supporters on matchday; this tradition began at Liverpool F.C. after the chart success of the 1963 single of the song by the local Liverpool group Gerry and the Pacemakers . [1] Contents 1 Background 2 Subsequent history 3 Sporting anthem 4 Recorded versions 5 References 6 External links Background [ edit ] Christine Johnson , who created the role of Nettie Fowler, introduced the song in the original Broadway production. [2] Later in the show Jan Clayton , as Julie Jordan, reprised it, with the chorus joining in. In the film, it is first sung by Claramae Turner as Nettie. The weeping Julie Jordan ( Shirley Jones ) tries to sing it but cannot; it is later reprised by Julie and those attending the graduation. Subsequent history [ edit ] Besides the recordings of the song on the Carousel cast albums and the film soundtrack, the song has been recorded by many artists, with notable hit versions made by Roy Hamilton , [3] Frank Sinatra , Billy Eckstine , Gerry and the Pacemakers , Judy Garland , Elvis Presley , Johnny Cash , Andy Williams , Johnny Maestro and The Brooklyn Bridge , Olivia Newton-John and Doris Day . Progressive rock group Pink Floyd took a recording by the Liverpool Kop choir, and \"interpolated\" it into their own song, \" Fearless \", on their 1971 album Meddle . From 1964 through 2010, Jerry Lewis concluded the annual Jerry Lewis Labor Day MDA Telethon by singing the song. [4] After the end of a concert by the rock band Queen , the audience spontaneously sang this song, according to lead guitarist Brian May , [5] and this helped to inspire the creation of their songs \" We Are the Champions \" and \" We Will Rock You \". Italian-American tenor Sergio Franchi sang a notable version accompanied by the Welsh Men's Choir on the 9 June 1968 telecast of The Ed Sullivan Show . [6] He also covered this song in his 1964 RCA Victor album The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi. [7] American singer and songwriter Barbra Streisand sang this song in a surprise appearance at the close of the 2001 Emmy Awards , in honor of the victims of the 11 September 2001 attacks . [8] In 1990 at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium London, the audience spontaneously broke out into a mass rendition. Mandela turned to Adelaide Tambo who accompanied him onto the stage and asked what the song was. She replied, \"A football song\". Renée Fleming sang the song at the Concert for America, which marked the first anniversary of 9/11 (11/9), [9] [10] [ better source needed ] and for the Inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009. [11] In 2010, this was sung during the festivities of the Last Night of the Proms , with the choir at the Royal Albert Hall joined by crowds of the public from Hillsborough Castle, Northern Ireland; Caird Hall, Dundee; Hyde Park, London; Salford, Greater Manchester; and Wales, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the death of Oscar Hammerstein II. [ citation needed ] In the second season of American Horror Story , this song was recited as a poem. It has been the song of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps song since 1954, where they first performed it as a part of their first field show in 1954. Challenged by the Rosemont Cavaliers singing \" Over the Rainbow \" in 1957, the corps responded with \"You'll Never Walk Alone\", and it has been the official corps song ever since. Punk band Dropkick Murphys covered the song for their 2017 album 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory . Vocalist/bassist Ken Casey said in a December 2016 interview discussing the reason behind their version. \"As you may know, opiate overdoses are an epidemic in America now particularly in (the Boston ) area. I've been to thirty wakes in two years, three this week, one being my cousin, Al's lost a brother in law. It's hit home close to us. I was leaving one of the wakes and this song came on and as I was listening to the lyrics it summed up exactly how I was feeling. Sad, but knowing there is hope. You never have to be alone. I hope you like our version\". Sporting anthem [ edit ] \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" Single by Gerry and the Pacemakers from the album How Do You Like It Released October 1963 Recorded 2 July 1963 Studio EMI Studios , London [12] Genre Merseybeat , baroque pop Length 2 : 40 Label Columbia (EMI) (UK), Laurie Records (US) Composer(s) Richard Rodgers Lyricist(s) Oscar Hammerstein II Producer(s) George Martin In the UK, the song's most successful cover was released in 1963 by the Liverpudlian Merseybeat group Gerry and the Pacemakers , peaking at number one on the UK singles chart for four consecutive weeks. Sung by Liverpool fans in 1963, the song quickly became the anthem of Liverpool F.C. and is sung by its supporters moments before the start of each home game with the Gerry and the Pacemakers version played over the public address system . [1] [13] [14] According to former player Tommy Smith , lead vocalist Gerry Marsden presented Liverpool manager Bill Shankly with a recording of his forthcoming cover single during a pre-season coach trip in the summer of 1963. \"Shanks was in awe of what he heard. ... Football writers from the local newspapers were travelling with our party and, thirsty for a story of any kind between games, filed copy back to their editors to the effect that we had adopted Gerry Marsden's forthcoming single as the club song.\" [15] The squad was subsequently invited to perform the track with the band on The Ed Sullivan Show [1] with Marsden stating, \"Bill came up to me. He said, 'Gerry my son, I have given you a football team and you have given us a song'.\" [1] The 'Shankly Gates' entrance to Liverpool's home stadium Anfield Shankly picked the song as his eighth and final selection for the BBC's Desert Island Discs on the eve of the 1965 FA Cup Final . [16] As Liverpool fans sang \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" at Wembley during the 1965 FA Cup Final win over Leeds, commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme referred to it as \"Liverpool's signature tune\". [17] Marsden told BBC Radio how, in the 1960s, the disc jockey at Anfield would play the top ten commercial records in descending order, with the number one single played last, shortly before kickoff. Liverpool fans on the Kop would sing along, but unlike with other hit singles, once \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" dropped out of the top ten, instead of disregarding the song, supporters continued to sing it. [18] [19] The song was adopted by Scottish team Celtic after a 1966 Cup Winners Cup semi-final against Liverpool at Anfield. [1] [17] It is now sung by Celtic fans prior to every home European tie . [1] [17] [20] The song has also been adopted by Dutch team Feyenoord , SC Cambuur , [21] Germany's Borussia Dortmund , [17] 1. FSV Mainz 05 , TSV 1860 Munich , [22] Japan's F.C. Tokyo , [23] Spain's CD Lugo . [24] the Marist St. Pats MSP 80/80 Blues, and Bali United . [25] In ice hockey , the song has been adopted by German Deutsche Eishockey Liga side Krefeld Pinguine and Croatian Medveščak Zagreb . A special recording of the song was made in solidarity with Bradford City following the Valley Parade fire in 1985, when 56 spectators died and many more were seriously injured. The song was performed by The Crowd , which was a supergroup featuring Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney and others, and spent two weeks at number one in the UK. Some years later, after witnessing a rendition of \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" at Anfield in 2007, the President of the Spanish Olympic Committee , Alejandro Blanco, said he felt inspired to seek lyrics to his country's wordless national anthem, the Marcha Real , ahead of Madrid's bid to host the 2016 Olympic Games . [26] [27] During the 2014 Hong Kong protests , legislator Tam Yiu Chung quoted the song during a Legislative Council of Hong Kong meeting, to salute the Hong Kong Police, [28] who had received widespread criticism for using excessive force against pro-democracy protesters. More than 2,000 Liverpool Football Club fans in Hong Kong condemned his inappropriate use of the song, comparing his support of the police action to the police actions in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster , where South Yorkshire Police were found to have distorted facts relating to the unlawful killing by negligence of 96 Liverpool supporters. [29] [30] [31] On 13 March 2016, after Borussia Dortmund 's 2-0 win against 1. FSV Mainz 05 in the German Bundesliga , supporters of both teams performed the song to commemorate a Dortmund fan who died from a cardiac arrest in the stands during the game. [32] Recorded versions [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Adicts [33] Alfie Boe (\"Onward\") (2007) Alicia Keys ( Hurricane Katrina disaster relief , 2005) André Rieu (2009 Maastricht concert) Andy Williams (with orchestra conducted by Archie Bleyer) Aretha Franklin (1972, on the live album Amazing Grace ) Barry Manilow & Cilla Black (1993) [34] Bela B. & the Tikiwolves feat. Gary'o'Wolf [22] (official FC St. Pauli Stadionhymn, 1992) Bernadette Peters Billy Eckstine (1960): Live album No Cover, No Minimum , recorded in Las Vegas. Production was by Teddy Reig. The album was originally released by Roulette Records, but is also available on the Blue Note label. Bryn Terfel (1996) – Something Wonderful: Bryn Terfel Sings Rodgers and Hammerstein Charice (2008) Celtic Woman ( Believe 2011) Chris de Burgh (2008) Christy Gibson (Thai Language Version) (2001) – Soo Yod Kao Christine Johnson on the Carousel Original Cast Album (1945) Claramae Turner on the Carousel film soundtrack (1956) The Crowd (1985) The Crusaders (1966) David Campbell (2010) David Phelps on the album Classic (2012) Die Toten Hosen (2000, Bayern ep) Dionne Warwick (1967, On Stage and in the Movies album track) Doris Akers (1963) Doris Day (on the You'll Never Walk Alone album) (1962) Dropkick Murphys (appears on their album 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory ) (2017) Dudu Fisher (2006) Elha Mae Nympha (2015, performed on the Live Semi-finals on the second season of The Voice Kids , and was moved to the grand finals) Elvis Presley (1968 single release) Engelbert Humperdinck (1972 album \"Live at the Riviera\", in Las Vegas) Frank Sinatra (1945) (1963) Frankie Vaughan (1979) Gene Vincent (1958) ( Gene Vincent Rocks and the Blue Caps Roll album track) Gerry & The Pacemakers (1963) Glen Campbell (1970) Hayley Westenra (2001) Il Divo ( A Musical Affair , 2013) Jackie Wilson (1965) Jerry Reed (1971) ( Ko-Ko Joe album track) Jo Stafford and Gordon MacRae (1963) John Barrowman (2010) ( John Barrowman album track) John Farnham (1998) - The Spirit of Christmas (compilation album) Johnny Cash (2003) Johnny Preston (1960) [35] Johnny Maestro & the Brooklyn Bridge (1969) Joseph Calleja (Last Night of the Proms, 2012) [36] Josh Groban (2015) [37] Joyce DiDonato (2012) [38] Juan Diego Flórez ( Live 8 – Berlin) (2005) Judy Garland (1960) [39] Katherine Jenkins (2005) Kevin Rowland (1999) Kiri Te Kanawa with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (1990) – Songs of Inspiration The Knickerbockers (1966) Lee Greenwood Lee Towers (1976) [40] The Lettermen (1964) [41] Tammy Wynette (1969 Inspiration) Liverpool F.C. (1977) (FA Cup single: A-side - \"We Can Do It\" / \"Liverpool Lou\" B-side - \"We Shall Not Be Moved\" / \"You'll Never Walk Alone\") Los Fastidios Louis Armstrong (1954) in a medley with Tenderly Mahalia Jackson Malena Ernman (2013) Malcolm Vaughan (1959) Mark Vincent (2010) Mario Lanza (1952 and 1956) Maureen Forrester on the Carousel MCA Classics album (1987) Melanie Chisholm (2012) Michael Crawford (1987) Mormon Tabernacle Choir (1971) Nina Simone (1960, At Newport ) Olivia Newton-John (1989) – Warm and Tender Patricia Neway in the soundtrack of the 1967 television adaptation of Carousel (1967) Patti Labelle & The Blue Belles (1964) Patti LaBelle (1980's) Pink Floyd (1971) – \" Fearless \" Pips, Chips & Videoclips ( Dernjava album, 1995) The Priests (2009) Perry Como (1951) (with Mitchell Ayres Orchestra) Ray Charles ( Ingredients in a Recipe for Soul album track, July 1963) Regine Velasquez (1992) Renée Fleming (2003) The Righteous Brothers (1965) Riverdale Cast featuring main vocals of Madelaine Petsch (2018), appeared on Riverdale [42] Robin S (appears on the 1998 movie soundtrack, Welcome to Woop Woop ) Robson & Jerome (1996) Roy Hamilton (1954) [3] Roy Orbison (1969) recorded (2015) [Released]] Samuel Ramey (1989) Sergio Franchi recorded on 1964 RCA album, The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi The Shadows ( Reflection album track, 1990) Shirley Bassey (1962, single B-side to \"Ave Maria\") [43] Shirley Jones recorded it on the original movie soundtrack of Carousel and again on her 1989 album Silent Strength Sissel Kyrkjebø (2004) Smoking Popes The Soldiers (2011) Steven Houghton (1997) – Steven Houghton Susan Boyle ( Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage , 2012) The Three Tenors ( The Three Tenors: Paris 1998 , 1998) Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (2009) – Paradise Blue Tom Jones (1969) Trisha Yearwood (2016) - The Passion Vocal Majority (1997) – How Sweet the Sound Wayne Hussey and Julianne Regan (as Hussey-Regan ) (2011) (in support of Liverpool F.C.'s disability charity, Respect 4 All ) [44] Keith Jack (2008) References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Hart, Simon (25 October 2013). \"Anfield's 50 years of never walking alone\" . The Independent . Retrieved 6 April 2015 . Jump up ^ \"You'll Never Walk Alone (original version 1945)\" . Youtube . Retrieved April 20, 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b Gilliland, John (1969). \"Show 3 - The Tribal Drum: The rise of rhythm and blues. [Part 1]\" (audio) . Pop Chronicles . University of North Texas Libraries . Jump up ^ \"Milestones: Retiring: Jerry Lewis\", Time magazine, May 30, 2011, p. 17 Jump up ^ Interview with Tom Browne for BBC Radio One, broadcast Christmas Eve and Boxing Day 1977 Jump up ^ \"SOFA Entertainment - Ed Sullivan Show\" . www.edsullivan.com . Jump up ^ \"Discogs - Database and Marketplace for Music on Vinyl, CD, Cassette a…\" . July 13, 2014. Archived from the original on July 13, 2014. Jump up ^ Streisand's stage fright spiked with thought of terror , By Edna Gundersen, USA Today, December 12, 2001 Jump up ^ Scott Simon (April 28, 2018). \" ' Carousel' Returns To Broadway\" . Weekend Edition Saturday . NPR . Retrieved April 30, 2018 . :\n\"SIMON: ... 'You'll Never Walk Alone' - you sang this at the Obama inauguration too, didn't you?\nFLEMING: Yes, and also the 9/11 memorial a year after the attacks.\" Jump up ^ Video on YouTube Jump up ^ Gallo, Phil (January 18, 2009). \"We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration\" . Variety . RBI . Retrieved February 8, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Gerry's Datebook\" . www.britbands.bravepages.com . Jump up ^ Nik Brumsack. The story of 'You'll Never Walk Alone' , independent.co.uk, April 14, 2014. Jump up ^ Liverpool vs. Leeds United on YouTube , F.A. Cup Final, BBC, 1965. \"The song was covered by Liverpool group Gerry & The Pacemakers in 1963. At this time, supporters standing on the Spion Kop terrace at Anfield began singing popular chart songs of the day. The mood was captured on camera by a BBC Panorama camera crew in 1964. One year later, when Liverpool faced Leeds in the cup final, the travelling Kop sang the same song and match commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme commended the 'Liverpool signature tune'.\" Paul Coslett, You'll Never Walk Alone BBC Online. June 9, 2008. Jump up ^ Smith, Tommy. Anfield Iron , Bantam Press, p. 68-69 Jump up ^ Bill Shankly, Desert island Discs BBC, Mon April 26, 1965. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Why Liverpool fans sing 'You'll Never Walk Alone' . FourFourTwo . Retrieved 10 October 2016 Jump up ^ Cavanagh, John. \"The History of You'll Never Walk Alone\", BBC Songlines, 2006. Jump up ^ Morgan, John. \"The Other Mersey Sound\", BBC Panorama, 1964. Jump up ^ Aldred, Jessica. Liverpool or Celtic: who Walked Alone first? The Guardian . March 12, 2003. Jump up ^ Whyatt, Chris. McClaren's new charges BBC. August 13, 2008. ^ Jump up to: a b Bela B. & The Tikiwolves feat. Gary 'O' Wolf: You'll Never Walk Alone (FC St. Pauli hymn) at Discogs (list of releases) Jump up ^ Nagatomo tells Japan \"You'll never walk alone\" , The mainichi Daily News . March 2011. Jump up ^ anfieldcarro (June 30, 2011). \" \" You´ll never walk alone\" polo Anfield Carro PUNTO PELOTA\" – via YouTube. Jump up ^ Chants, North Side Boys 12. \"Bali United YNWA\" . Youtube . Youtube . Retrieved 1 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Liverpool fans inspire Spain to write words to anthem , Reuters. June 5, 2005 Jump up ^ Spain to add lyrics to wordless national anthem , MSNBC. June 26, 2007. Jump up ^ Legistrative Council Record . Jump up ^ 香港特別行政區立法會 (October 16, 2014). \"立法會會議 (2014/10/16) - IV. 立法會休會待續議案 - 根據《議事規則》第16(2)條動議的立法會休會待續議案 (第五部分)\" – via YouTube. Jump up ^ \"利迷聯署強烈譴責：譚耀宗勿侮辱YNWA - Yahoo奇摩新聞\" . Jump up ^ Hong Kong Legislative Council Record 08:07:18 - 08:07:35 Jump up ^ Whaling, James (13 March 2016). \"Borussia Dortmund fan dies from heart attack during Bundesliga match against Mainz\" . Daily Mirror . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . Jump up ^ John The Punk. \"Welcome to The Adicts Official Website!\" . Adicts.us. Archived from the original on May 4, 2011 . Retrieved April 20, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Cilla Black Discography: You'll Never Walk Alone (duet with Barry Manilow) – Single\" . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . Jump up ^ Johnny Preston, Running Bear Retrieved September 10, 2015 Jump up ^ \"Richard Rogers: You'll Never Walk Alone - Last Night of the BBC Proms 2012\" . BBC YouTube channel. September 8, 2012 . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Stages — Josh Groban\" . iTunes Store . Apple Inc . Retrieved March 10, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Joyce contributes to highly anticipated new recording: Rogers & Hammerstein at the Movies\" . .joycedidonato.com. August 22, 2012 . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . Jump up ^ Recorded for Capitol Records Archived April 30, 2008, at the Wayback Machine . Judy Garland with Orchestra conducted, by Norrie Paramor, August 3, 1960. Jump up ^ It's Raining In My Heart [ permanent dead link ] (LP/MC) (Goud & Platina) 1976 Jump up ^ \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" . Thelettermen.com. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011 . Retrieved April 20, 2011 . Jump up ^ https://genius.com/Riverdale-cast-youll-never-walk-alone-lyrics Jump up ^ Columbia Catalog Number DB4816\" Jump up ^ \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" . Youtube.com (Liverpool FC's Channel). Retrieved December 27, 2011. External links [ edit ] Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics show v t e Rodgers and Hammerstein Stage musicals Oklahoma! Carousel Allegro South Pacific The King and I Me and Juliet Pipe Dream Flower Drum Song The Sound of Music A Grand Night for Singing State Fair Cinderella Productions I Remember Mama Annie Get Your Gun Happy Birthday John Loves Mary Show Boat The Happy Time Burning Bright Films State Fair (1945) Oklahoma! Carousel The King and I South Pacific Flower Drum Song State Fair (1962) The Sound of Music Cinderella Television Cinderella The Sound of Music Live! Songs \" Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin' \" \" The Surrey with the Fringe on Top \" \" Kansas City \" \" I Cain't Say No \" \" Many a New Day \" \" It's a Scandal! It's a Outrage! \" \" People Will Say We're in Love \" \" Lonely Room \" \" The Farmer and the Cowman \" \" All Er Nuthin' \" \" Oklahoma \" \" If I Loved You \" \" Soliloquy \" \" You'll Never Walk Alone \" \" It Might as Well Be Spring \" \" That's for Me \" \" A Fellow Needs a Girl \" \" So Far \" \" Some Enchanted Evening \" \" There Is Nothing Like a Dame \" \" Bali Ha'i \" \" I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair \" \" I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy \" \" Younger Than Springtime \" \" Happy Talk \" \" You've Got to Be Carefully Taught \" \" I Whistle a Happy Tune \" \" Hello, Young Lovers \" \" Getting to Know You \" \" We Kiss in a Shadow \" \" Something Wonderful \" \" I Have Dreamed \" \" Shall We Dance? \" \" No Other Love \" \" I Enjoy Being a Girl \" \" The Sound of Music \" \" Maria \" \" My Favorite Things \" \" Do-Re-Mi \" \" Sixteen Going on Seventeen \" \" The Lonely Goatherd \" \" Climb Ev'ry Mountain \" \" So Long, Farewell \" \" No Way to Stop It \" \" Edelweiss \" Related articles \" Something Good \" The Sound of Music (1965 soundtrack) The Sound of Music: Music from the NBC Television Event show v t e Liverpool Football Club Honours Managers Seasons Records and statistics Reserves & Academy Current season History 1892–1959 1959–85 1985–present Europe Founding Fathers of Merseyside Football Home stadium Anfield Training ground Melwood The Academy Players 100+ appearances 25–99 appearances 1–24 appearances Rivalries League record by opponent Merseyside derby Manchester United rivalry Tragedies Heysel disaster Hillsborough disaster Supporters Reclaim The Kop Spirit of Shankly Media LFC TV Being: Liverpool Liverpool (video game) Well Red magazine Books 43 Years with the Same Bird Red or Dead Films Fifteen Minutes That Shook the World One Night in Istanbul Will Songs \" Anfield Rap \" \" The Fields of Anfield Road \" \" You'll Never Walk Alone \" Related articles 2005–06 UEFA Champions League qualification A.F.C. Liverpool The Boot Room Fenway Sports Group Liverpool F.C. Women Respect 4 All Spice Boys Spion Kop Superleague Formula team 1915 British football betting scandal Book Category WikiProject show v t e Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom Films Liliom (1930) Liliom (1934) Carousel (1955) Other Carousel (1945 musical) Carousel (2002 ballet) Carousel Music \" If I Loved You \" \" Soliloquy \" \" You'll Never Walk Alone \" Related Sin of a Beautiful Woman show v t e Roy Hamilton Singles \" You'll Never Walk Alone \" \" Ebb Tide \" \" Hurt \" \" Unchained Melody \" \" So Long \" \" Don't Let Go \" \" Pledging My Love \" \" You Can Have Her \" show v t e The Bachelors Studio albums The Bachelors and 16 Great Songs Songs \" (I'll Be With You) In Apple Blossom Time \" \" Charmaine \" \" Far Away Places \" \" Diane \" \" I Believe \" \" Ramona \" \" In the Chapel in the Moonlight \" \" Hello, Dolly! \" \" The Sound of Silence \" \" The Unicorn \" \" I'll Walk with God \" \" Turn Around, Look at Me \" \" Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day) \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=You%27ll_Never_Walk_Alone&oldid=855754231 \" Categories : 1945 songs 1964 singles Songs with music by Richard Rodgers Songs with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II Songs from Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals Shirley Jones songs Gerry and the Pacemakers songs Barbra Streisand songs Labelle songs Andy Williams songs Jane Morgan songs Johnny Preston songs Glen Campbell songs Song recordings produced by George Martin Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs number-one singles UK Singles Chart number-one singles Irish Singles Chart number-one singles Liverpool F.C. songs Feyenoord songs Celtic F.C. songs Football songs and chants Protest songs Mahalia Jackson songs Roy Hamilton songs Columbia Graphophone Company singles Laurie Records singles Number-one singles in Scotland Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Use mdy dates from December 2014 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from July 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2013 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles needing additional references from March 2017 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Piemontèis Polski Português Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 23 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 August 2018, at 16:15 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Venus - Wikipedia Venus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Venus (disambiguation) . Venus A real-colour image of Venus taken by Mariner 10 processed from two filters. The surface is obscured by thick sulfuric acid clouds. Designations Pronunciation / ˈ v iː n ə s / ( listen ) Adjectives Venusian or (rarely) Cytherean , Venerean Orbital characteristics [2] [4] Epoch J2000 Aphelion 7011108939114216059♠ 0.728 213 AU 7011108939000000000♠ 108,939,000 km Perihelion 7011107477094225708♠ 0.718 440 AU 7011107477000000000♠ 107,477,000 km Semi-major axis 7011108208927009172♠ 0.723 332 AU 7011108208000000000♠ 108,208,000 km Eccentricity 0.006772 [1] Orbital period 7007194141664000000♠ 224.701 d [2] 6999615198000000000♠ 0.615 198 yr 1.92 Venus solar day Synodic period 583.92 days [2] Average orbital speed 35.02 km/s Mean anomaly 50.115° Inclination 6998592465977223492♠ 3.394 58 ° to ecliptic 3.86° to Sun 's equator 2.19° to invariable plane [3] Longitude of ascending node 76.680° [1] Argument of perihelion 54.884° Satellites None Physical characteristics Mean radius 7006605180000000000♠ 6,051.8 ± 1.0 km [5] 6999949900000000000♠ 0.9499 Earths Flattening 0 [5] Surface area 7014460229999999999♠ 4.6023 × 10 8 km 2 0.902 Earths Volume 7020928430000000000♠ 9.2843 × 10 11 km 3 0.866 Earths Mass 7024486749999999999♠ 4.8675 × 10 24 kg [6] 0.815 Earths Mean density 7003524300000000000♠ 5.243 g/cm 3 Surface gravity 7000886999999999999♠ 8.87 m/s 2 0.904 g Escape velocity 10.36 km/s (6.44 mi/s) [7] Sidereal rotation period 2992790026400000000♠ −243.025 d ( retrograde ) [2] Equatorial rotation velocity 6.52 km/h (1.81 m/s) Axial tilt 2.64° (for retrograde rotation) 177.36° (to orbit) [2] [note 1] North pole right ascension 18 h 11 m 2 s 272.76° [8] North pole declination 67.16° Albedo 0.689 ( geometric ) [2] 0.77 ( Bond ) [2] 0.65 ( visual geometric ) Surface temp. min mean max Kelvin 737 K [2] Celsius 462 °C Apparent magnitude −4.9 [9] [10] (crescent) to −3.8 [11] (full) Angular diameter 9.7″–66.0″ [2] Atmosphere Surface pressure 92 bar (9.2 MPa ) Composition by volume 96.5% carbon dioxide 3.5% nitrogen 0.015% sulfur dioxide 0.007% argon 0.002% water vapour 0.0017% carbon monoxide 0.0012% helium 0.0007% neon trace carbonyl sulfide trace hydrogen chloride trace hydrogen fluoride Jump up ^ Defining the rotation as retrograde, as done by NASA space missions and the USGS, puts Ishtar Terra in the northern hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 2.64°. Following the right-hand rule for prograde rotation puts Ishtar Terra in the southern hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 177.36°. Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. [12] It has the longest rotation period (243 days) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets. It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6 – bright enough to cast shadows at night and, rarely, visible to the naked eye in broad daylight. [13] [14] Orbiting within Earth's orbit , Venus is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8°. Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth's \"sister planet\" because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96% carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface temperature of 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F), even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past, [15] [16] but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . [17] The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . [18] Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky, Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed. It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures, and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the \"morning star\" and \"evening star\". Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky, as early as the second millennium BC. [19] As the closest planet to Earth, Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration. It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962), and the first to be successfully landed on (by Venera 7 in 1970). Venus's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light, and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991. Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions, but they are hindered by Venus's hostile surface conditions. Contents [ hide ] 1 Physical characteristics 1.1 Geography 1.2 Surface geology 1.3 Internal structure 1.4 Atmosphere and climate 1.5 Magnetic field and core 2 Orbit and rotation 3 Observation 3.1 Phases 3.2 Transits 3.3 Pentagram of Venus 3.4 Daylight apparitions 3.5 Ashen light 4 Studies 4.1 Early studies 4.2 Ground-based research 4.3 Exploration 5 In culture 5.1 Symbol 6 Habitability 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links 10.1 Cartographic resources Physical characteristics Size comparison with Earth Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in size and mass, and is often described as Earth's \"sister\" or \"twin\". [20] The diameter of Venus is 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)—only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less than Earth's—and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's. Conditions on the Venusian surface differ radically from those on Earth because its dense atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide , with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen . [21] Geography Main article: Mapping of Venus The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by planetary science in the 20th century. Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks. [22] The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–91. The ground shows evidence of extensive volcanism , and the sulfur in the atmosphere may indicate that there have been some recent eruptions. [23] [24] About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains. [25] Two highland \"continents\" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar , the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. Maxwell Montes , the highest mountain on Venus, lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak is 11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation. [26] The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra , after the Greek goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area. [27] The absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible calderas remains an enigma. The planet has few impact craters , demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, approximately 300–600 million years old. [28] [29] Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called \" farra \", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to 3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called \"novae\"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as \" arachnoids \"; and \"coronae\", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin. [30] Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women. [31] Exceptions are Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell , and highland regions Alpha Regio , Beta Regio , and Ovda Regio . The latter three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union , the body which oversees planetary nomenclature . [32] The longitudes of physical features on Venus are expressed relative to its prime meridian . The original prime meridian passed through the radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south of Alpha Regio. [33] After the Venera missions were completed, the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne. [34] [35] Surface geology Main articles: Geology of Venus and Volcanology of Venus False-colour image of Maat Mons with a vertical exaggeration of 22.5 Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km (62 mi) across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. [30] :154 This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates , and has an average age of about 100 million years, [36] whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old. [28] [30] Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. During the Soviet Venera program, the Venera 9 orbiter obtained spectroscopic evidence of lightning on Venus, [37] and the Venera 12 descent probe obtained additional evidence of lightning and thunder . [38] [39] The European Space Agency 's Venus Express in 2007 detected whistler waves further confirming the occurrence of lightning on Venus. [40] [41] One possibility is that ash from a volcanic eruption was generating the lightning. Another piece of evidence comes from measurements of sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, which dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again declined 10-fold. [42] This may mean that levels had been boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions. [43] [44] In 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express , in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma , [45] [n 1] near the shield volcano Maat Mons . Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions. [46] [47] The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to have been in the 800–1,100 K (527–827 °C; 980–1,520 °F) range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K (467 °C; 872 °F). [48] Impact craters on the surface of Venus (false-colour image reconstructed from radar data) Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300–600 million years ago, [28] [29] followed by a decay in volcanism. [49] Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust. [30] Venusian craters range from 3 to 280 km (2 to 174 mi) in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater. [50] Incoming projectiles less than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground. [51] Internal structure The internal structure of Venus – the crust (outer layer), the mantle (middle layer) and the core (yellow inner layer) Without seismic data or knowledge of its moment of inertia , little direct information is available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus. [52] The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests they share a similar internal structure: a core , mantle , and crust . Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate. [53] The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth's. [54] The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus, possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous . This results in reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field . [55] Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events. [28] Atmosphere and climate Cloud structure in the Venusian atmosphere in 1979, revealed by observations in the ultraviolet band by Pioneer Venus Orbiter Global radar view of Venus (without the clouds) from Magellan between 1990 and 1994 Main article: Atmosphere of Venus Venus has an extremely dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide , 3.5% nitrogen , and traces of other gases, most notably sulfur dioxide . [56] The mass of its atmosphere is 93 times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 92 times that at Earth's—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) under Earth's oceans. The density at the surface is 65 kg/m 3 , 6.5% that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 293 K (20 °C; 68 °F) at sea level. The CO 2 -rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F). [12] [57] This makes Venus's surface hotter than Mercury 's, which has a minimum surface temperature of 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) and maximum surface temperature of 693 K (420 °C; 788 °F), [58] even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's distance from the Sun and thus receives only 25% of Mercury's solar irradiance . This temperature is higher than that used for sterilization . The surface of Venus is often said to resemble traditional accounts of Hell . [59] [60] Studies have suggested that billions of years ago Venus's atmosphere was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but after a period of 600 million to several billion years, [61] a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere. [62] Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earthlike life that may have formed before this event, there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (31 mi) up from the surface, where the temperature ranges between 303 and 353 K (30 and 80 °C; 86 and 176 °F) but the environment is acidic. [63] [64] [65] Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the temperature of Venus's surface does not vary significantly between the night and day sides, despite Venus's extremely slow rotation. Winds at the surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust and small stones across the surface. This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through, even if the heat, pressure, and lack of oxygen were not a problem. [66] Above the dense CO 2 layer are thick clouds consisting mainly of sulfuric acid droplets. The clouds also contain sulfur aerosol, about 1% ferric chloride [67] and some water. [68] [69] Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate , aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride . Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions. [67] These clouds reflect and scatter about 90% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space, and prevent visual observation of Venus's surface. The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground. Strong 300 km/h (185 mph) winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to five Earth days. [70] Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation, whereas Earth's fastest winds are only 10–20% rotation speed. [71] The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal ; it retains a constant temperature not only between day and night sides but between the equator and the poles. [2] [72] Venus's minute axial tilt —less than 3°, compared to 23° on Earth—also minimises seasonal temperature variation. [73] The only appreciable variation in temperature occurs with altitude. The highest point on Venus, Maxwell Montes , is therefore the coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 °C; 715 °F) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar). [74] [75] In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow. This substance likely formed from a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature. Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide ( galena ). [76] The clouds of Venus may be capable of producing lightning . [77] The existence of lightning in the atmosphere of Venus has been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes . In 2006–07, Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves , the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to these measurements, the lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth. [40] In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric vortex exists at the south pole. [78] [79] Venus Express also discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus. [80] On 29 January 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to \"the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions.\" [81] [82] In December 2015 and to a lesser extent in April and May 2016, researchers working on Japan's Akatsuki mission observed bow shapes in the atmosphere of Venus. This was considered direct evidence of the existence of perhaps the largest stationary gravity waves in the solar system. [83] [84] [85] Atmospheric composition Absorption spectrum of a simple gas mixture corresponding to Earth's atmosphere The composition of the atmosphere of Venus based on HITRAN data [86] created using HITRAN on the Web system. [87] Green colour – water vapour, red – carbon dioxide, WN – wavenumber (other colours have different meanings, lower wavelengths on the right, higher on the left). Magnetic field and core In 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind , [88] [89] rather than by an internal dynamo as in the Earth's core . Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against cosmic radiation . The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field at Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size, and was expected also to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid, rotation, and convection . The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo. [90] [91] This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much hotter than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust. This caused the mantle temperature to increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field. Instead, the heat from the core is being used to reheat the crust. [92] One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, [93] or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulfur , which is unknown at present. [92] The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of neutral molecules from ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient velocity to escape Venus's gravity field. This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more likely to be retained. Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind probably led to the loss of most of Venus's water during the first billion years after it formed. [94] The erosion has increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system. [95] Orbit and rotation Main article: Orbit of Venus Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 108 million kilometres (about 0.7 AU ) and completes an orbit every 224.7 days. Venus is the second planet from the Sun and orbits the Sun approximately 1.6 times (yellow trail) in Earth's 365 days (blue trail) Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU (108 million km ; 67 million mi ), and completes an orbit every 224.7 days. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical , Venus's orbit is the closest to circular , with an eccentricity of less than 0.01. [2] When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction , it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km (25 million mi). [2] The planet reaches inferior conjunction every 584 days, on average. [2] Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth's orbit , the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years. From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km; then there are none for about 60,158 years. [96] All the planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in an anti-clockwise direction as viewed from above Earth's north pole. Most planets also rotate on their axes in an anti-clockwise direction, but Venus rotates clockwise in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days—the slowest rotation of any planet. Because its rotation is so slow, Venus is very close to spherical. [97] A Venusian sidereal day thus lasts longer than a Venusian year (243 versus 224.7 Earth days). Venus's equator rotates at 6.52 km/h (4.05 mph), whereas Earth's rotates at 1,669.8 km/h (1,037.6 mph). [98] Venus's rotation has slowed down in the 16 years between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits; each Venusian sidereal day has increased by 6.5 minutes in that time span. [99] Because of the retrograde rotation, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day, at 116.75 Earth days (making the Venusian solar day shorter than Mercury 's 176 Earth days). [100] One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days. [101] To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east, [101] although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface. [102] Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity, reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere, a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years. The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun's gravitation, which tends to slow rotation, and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere. [103] [104] The 584-day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days, [105] but the hypothesis of a spin–orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted. [106] Venus has no natural satellites. [107] It has several trojan asteroids : the quasi-satellite 2002 VE 68 [108] [109] and two other temporary trojans, 2001 CK 32 and 2012 XE 133 . [110] In the 17th century, Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following 7009631152000000000♠ 200 years , but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and David Stevenson 's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago. [111] About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus. [112] If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets. [107] Observation Venus is always brighter than all other planets or stars as seen from Earth. The second brightest object on the image is Jupiter. To the naked eye , Venus appears as a white point of light brighter than any other planet or star (apart from the Sun). [113] Its brightest apparent magnitude , −4.9, [10] occurs during crescent phase, only 36 days before or after inferior conjunction. [114] Venus will be brightest on 30 April 2017, then grow dimmer for nearly a year. Venus fades to about magnitude −3 when it is backlit by the Sun. [9] The planet is bright enough to be seen in a clear midday sky [115] and is more easily visible when the Sun is low on the horizon or setting. As an inferior planet , it always lies within about 47° of the Sun . [11] Venus \"overtakes\" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun. [2] As it does so, it changes from the \"Evening Star\", visible after sunset, to the \"Morning Star\", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury , the other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset. As the brightest point-like object in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported \" unidentified flying object \". Phases Main article: Phases of Venus The phases of Venus and evolution of its apparent diameter As it orbits the Sun, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet appears as a small and \"full\" disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun (at superior conjunction ). Venus shows a larger disc and \"quarter phase\" at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and appears its brightest in the night sky. The planet presents a much larger thin \"crescent\" in telescopic views as it passes along the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus displays its largest size and \"new phase\" when it is between Earth and the Sun (at inferior conjunction). Its atmosphere is visible through telescopes by the halo of sunlight refracted around it. [11] Transits Main articles: Transit of Venus and Transit of Venus, 2012 2004 transit of Venus The Venusian orbit is slightly inclined relative to Earth's orbit; thus, when the planet passes between Earth and the Sun, it usually does not cross the face of the Sun. Transits of Venus occur when the planet's inferior conjunction coincides with its presence in the plane of Earth's orbit. Transits of Venus occur in cycles of 7009766849680000000♠ 243 years with the current pattern of transits being pairs of transits separated by eight years, at intervals of about 7009332932680000000♠ 105.5 years or 7009383424840000000♠ 121.5 years —a pattern first discovered in 1639 by the English astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks . [116] The latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012 . The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions. [117] The preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882; the following pair will occur in December 2117 and December 2125. [118] The oldest film known is the 1874 Passage de Venus , showing the 1874 Venus transit of the sun. Historically, transits of Venus were important, because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit , and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Horrocks in 1639 . [119] Captain Cook 's exploration of the east coast of Australia came after he had sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to observe a transit of Venus. [120] [121] Pentagram of Venus The pentagram of Venus. Earth is positioned at the centre of the diagram, and the curve represents the direction and distance of Venus as a function of time. The pentagram of Venus is the path that Venus makes as observed from Earth . Successive inferior conjunctions of Venus repeat very near a 13:8 orbital resonance (Earth orbits 8 times for every 13 orbits of Venus), shifting 144° upon sequential inferior conjunctions. The resonance 13:8 ratio is approximate. 8/13 is approximately 0.615385 while Venus orbits the Sun in 0.615187 years. [122] Daylight apparitions Naked eye observations of Venus during daylight hours exist in several anecdotes and records. Astronomer Edmund Halley calculated its maximum naked eye brightness in 1716, when many Londoners were alarmed by its appearance in the daytime. French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte once witnessed a daytime apparition of the planet while at a reception in Luxembourg . [123] Another historical daytime observation of the planet took place during the inauguration of the American president Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C. , on 4 March 1865. [124] Although naked eye visibility of Venus ' phases is disputed, records exist of observations of its crescent. [125] Ashen light A long-standing mystery of Venus observations is the so-called ashen light —an apparent weak illumination of its dark side, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase. The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643, but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed. Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere, but it could be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object. [126] [38] Studies Early studies The \" black drop effect \" as recorded during the 1769 transit Venus was known to ancient civilizations both as the \"morning star\" and as the \"evening star\", names that reflect the early assumption that these were two separate objects. The ancient Sumerians , who recognized Venus as a single object, [127] believed that it was their goddess Inanna . [127] [128] [129] Inanna's movements in several of her myths, including Inanna and Shukaletuda and Inanna's Descent into the Underworld appear to parallel the motion of the planet Venus. [127] The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , believed to have been compiled around the mid-seventeenth century BCE, [130] shows the Babylonians understood the two were a single object, referred to in the tablet as the \"bright queen of the sky\", and could support this view with detailed observations. [131] The ancient Greeks thought that Venus was two separate stars: Phosphorus and Hesperus . Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BCE, [132] while Diogenes Laertius argued that Parmenides was probably responsible. [133] The ancient Chinese referred to the morning Venus as \"the Great White\" ( Tai-bai 太白 ) or \"the Opener (Starter) of Brightness\" ( Qi-ming 啟明 ), and the evening Venus as \"the Excellent West One\" ( Chang-geng 長庚 ). The Romans designated the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer , literally \"Light-Bringer\", and the evening aspect as Vesper , both literal translations of the respective Greek names. In the second century, in his astronomical treatise Almagest , Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus are located between the Sun and the Earth. The 11th century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed the transit of Venus , [134] which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy's theory. [135] In the 12th century, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed \"two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun\", which were later identified as the transits of Venus and Mercury by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century. [136] [n 2] Galileo 's discovery that Venus showed phases (although remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky) proved that it orbits the Sun and not Earth When the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei first observed the planet in the early 17th century, he found it showed phases like the Moon, varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa. When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky, it shows a half-lit phase , and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky, it shows as a crescent or full phase. This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun, and this was among the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth. [139] [140] The 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend, William Crabtree , at each of their respective homes, on 4 December 1639 (24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time). [141] The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov . [142] [143] Venus's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter . Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent, the cusps extended through more than 180°. He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere. Later, American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction , providing further evidence for an atmosphere. [144] The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet, and observers such as Italian-born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 7004864000000000000♠ 24 h from the motions of markings on the planet's apparent surface. [145] Ground-based research Modern telescopic view of Venus from Earth's surface Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century. Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like, and it was only with the development of spectroscopic , radar and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed. The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s, when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation. He suggested this was due to a dense, yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it. [146] Spectroscopic observations in the 1900s gave the first clues about the Venusian rotation. Vesto Slipher tried to measure the Doppler shift of light from Venus, but found he could not detect any rotation. He surmised the planet must have a much longer rotation period than had previously been thought. [147] Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde. Radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s, and provided the first measurements of the rotation period, which were close to the modern value. [148] Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time. Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m (980 ft) radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory , and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions, designated the Alpha and Beta regions. The observations also revealed a bright region attributed to mountains, which was called Maxwell Montes . [149] These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names. [32] Exploration Main article: Observations and explorations of Venus Artist's impression of Mariner 2 , launched in 1962, a skeletal, bottle-shaped spacecraft with a large radio dish on top The first robotic space probe mission to Venus, and the first to any planet, began with the Soviet Venera program in 1961. [150] The United States' exploration of Venus had its first success with the Mariner 2 mission on 14 December 1962, becoming the world's first successful interplanetary mission , passing 34,833 km (21,644 mi) above the surface of Venus, and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere. [151] [152] 180-degree panorama of Venus's surface from the Soviet Venera 9 lander, 1975. Black-and-white image of barren, black, slate-like rocks against a flat sky. The ground and the probe are the focus. Several lines are missing due to a simultaneous transmission of the scientific data On 18 October 1967, the Soviet Venera 4 successfully entered the atmosphere and deployed science experiments. Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated, at almost 500 °C, determined that the atmosphere is 95% carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ), and discovered that Venus's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4 's designers had anticipated. [153] The joint Venera 4 – Mariner 5 data were analysed by a combined Soviet–American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year, [154] in an early example of space cooperation. [155] In 1974, Mariner 10 swung by Venus on its way to Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere. Global view of Venus in ultraviolet light done by Mariner 10 . In 1975, the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus, which were in black and white. In 1982 the first colour images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers. NASA obtained additional data in 1978 with the Pioneer Venus project that consisted of two separate missions: [156] Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Pioneer Venus Multiprobe . [157] The successful Soviet Venera program came to a close in October 1983, when Venera 15 and 16 were placed in orbit to conduct detailed mapping of 25% of Venus's terrain (from the north pole to 30°N latitude) [158] Several other Venus flybys took place in the 1980s and 1990s that increased the understanding of Venus, including Vega 1 (1985), Vega 2 (1985), Galileo (1990), Magellan (1994), Cassini–Huygens (1998), and MESSENGER (2006). Then, Venus Express by the European Space Agency (ESA) entered orbit around Venus in April 2006. Equipped with seven scientific instruments, Venus Express provided unprecedented long-term observation of Venus's atmosphere. ESA concluded that mission in December 2014. As of 2016, Japan's Akatsuki is in a highly elliptical orbit around Venus since 7 December 2015, and there are several probing proposals under study by Roscosmos , NASA, and India's ISRO . In 2016, NASA announced that it was planning a rover, the Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments , designed to survive for an extended time in Venus' environmental conditions. It would be controlled by a mechanical computer and driven by wind power. [159] In culture See also: Venus in fiction and Observations and explorations of Venus § Historical observations and impact Venus is a primary feature of the night sky, and so has been of remarkable importance in mythology , astrology and fiction throughout history and in different cultures. Classical poets such as Homer , Sappho , Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light. [160] Romantic poets such as William Blake , Robert Frost , Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it. [161] With the invention of the telescope, the idea that Venus was a physical world and possible destination began to take form. The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth, it possessed a substantial atmosphere. Closer to the Sun than Earth, the planet was frequently depicted as warmer, but still habitable by humans. [162] The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s, at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus, but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions. Findings from the first missions to Venus showed the reality to be quite different, and brought this particular genre to an end. [163] As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, so science fiction authors tried to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus . [164] Symbol Main article: Venus symbol The astronomical symbol for Venus is the same as that used in biology for the female sex: a circle with a small cross beneath. [165] The Venus symbol also represents femininity , and in Western alchemy stood for the metal copper. [165] Polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity, and the symbol for Venus has sometimes been understood to stand for the mirror of the goddess. [165] Habitability Main article: Life on Venus See also: Colonization of Venus The speculation of the existence of life on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s, when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth. The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F), the atmospheric pressure is ninety times that of Earth, and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely. A few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere. [166] [167] [168] The atmospheric pressure and temperature fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface. This has led to proposals to use aerostats (lighter-than-air balloons) for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent \"floating cities\" in the Venusian atmosphere. [169] Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights. [169] See also Solar System portal Book: Venus Book: Solar System Aspects of Venus Geodynamics of Venus Outline of Venus Venus zone Notes Jump up ^ Misstated as \"Ganiki Chasma\" in the press release and scientific publication. [46] Jump up ^ Several claims of transit observations made by medieval Islamic astronomers have been shown to be sunspots. [137] Avicenna did not record the date of his observation. There was a transit of Venus within his lifetime, on 24 May 1032, although it is questionable whether it would have been visible from his location. [138] References ^ Jump up to: a b Simon, J.L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). \"Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets\". Astronomy and Astrophysics . 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode : 1994A&A...282..663S . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Williams, David R. (15 April 2005). \"Venus Fact Sheet\" . NASA . 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Mikhail Lomonosov and the discovery of the atmosphere of Venus during the 1761 transit . Proceedings of IAU Colloquium No. 196 . Preston, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 209–219. Bibcode : 2005tvnv.conf..209M . doi : 10.1017/S1743921305001390 . Jump up ^ \"Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov\" . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Retrieved 12 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Russell, H. N. (1899). \"The Atmosphere of Venus\". Astrophysical Journal . 9 : 284–299. Bibcode : 1899ApJ.....9..284R . doi : 10.1086/140593 . Jump up ^ Hussey, T. (1832). \"On the Rotation of Venus\". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 2 : 78–126. Bibcode : 1832MNRAS...2...78H . doi : 10.1093/mnras/2.11.78d . Jump up ^ Ross, F. E. (1928). \"Photographs of Venus\". Astrophysical Journal . 68–92: 57. Bibcode : 1928ApJ....68...57R . doi : 10.1086/143130 . Jump up ^ Slipher, V. M. (1903). \"A Spectrographic Investigation of the Rotation Velocity of Venus\". Astronomische Nachrichten . 163 (3–4): 35–52. Bibcode : 1903AN....163...35S . doi : 10.1002/asna.19031630303 . Jump up ^ Goldstein, R. M.; Carpenter, R. L. (1963). \"Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements\". Science . 139 (3558): 910–911. Bibcode : 1963Sci...139..910G . doi : 10.1126/science.139.3558.910 . PMID 17743054 . Jump up ^ Campbell, D. B.; Dyce, R. B.; Pettengill G. H. (1976). \"New radar image of Venus\". Science . 193 (4258): 1123–1124. Bibcode : 1976Sci...193.1123C . doi : 10.1126/science.193.4258.1123 . PMID 17792750 . Jump up ^ Mitchell, Don (2003). \"Inventing The Interplanetary Probe\" . The Soviet Exploration of Venus . Retrieved 27 December 2007 . Jump up ^ Mayer; McCullough & Sloanaker (January 1958). \"Observations of Venus at 3.15-cm Wave Length\". The Astrophysical Journal . 127 : 1. Bibcode : 1958ApJ...127....1M . doi : 10.1086/146433 . Jump up ^ Jet Propulsion Laboratory (1962). \"Mariner-Venus 1962 Final Project Report\" (PDF) . SP-59. NASA. Jump up ^ Mitchell, Don (2003). \"Plumbing the Atmosphere of Venus\" . The Soviet Exploration of Venus . Retrieved 27 December 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Report on the Activities of the COSPAR Working Group VII\". Preliminary Report, COSPAR Twelfth Plenary Meeting and Tenth International Space Science Symposium . Prague, Czechoslovakia: National Academy of Sciences . 11–24 May 1969. p. 94. Jump up ^ Sagdeev, Roald; Eisenhower, Susan (28 May 2008). \"United States-Soviet Space Cooperation during the Cold War\" . Retrieved 19 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Colin, L.; Hall, C. (1977). \"The Pioneer Venus Program\". Space Science Reviews . 20 (3): 283–306. Bibcode : 1977SSRv...20..283C . doi : 10.1007/BF02186467 . Jump up ^ Williams, David R. (6 January 2005). \"Pioneer Venus Project Information\" . NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center . Retrieved 19 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Greeley, Ronald ; Batson, Raymond M. (2007). Planetary Mapping . Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-521-03373-2 . Retrieved 19 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Hall, Loura (1 April 2016). \"Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments (AREE)\" . NASA . Retrieved 29 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Aaron J. Atsma. \"Eospheros & Hespheros\" . Theoi.com . Retrieved 15 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Dava Sobel (2005). The Planets . Harper Publishing . pp. 53–70. ISBN 978-0-14-200116-5 . Jump up ^ Miller, Ron (2003). Venus . Twenty-First Century Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7613-2359-4 . Jump up ^ Dick, Steven (2001). Life on Other Worlds: The 20th-Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate . Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-521-79912-6 . Jump up ^ Seed, David (2005). A Companion to Science Fiction . Blackwell Publishing. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-1-4051-1218-5 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Stearn, William (May 1968). \"The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology\". Taxon . 11 (4): 109–113. doi : 10.2307/1217734 . JSTOR 1217734 . Jump up ^ Clark, Stuart (26 September 2003). \"Acidic clouds of Venus could harbour life\" . New Scientist . Retrieved 30 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Redfern, Martin (25 May 2004). \"Venus clouds 'might harbour life'\" . BBC News . Retrieved 30 December 2015. Jump up ^ Dartnell, Lewis R.; Nordheim, Tom Andre; Patel, Manish R.; Mason, Jonathon P.; et al. (September 2015). \"Constraints on a potential aerial biosphere on Venus: I. Cosmic rays\" . Icarus . 257 : 396–405. Bibcode : 2015Icar..257..396D . doi : 10.1016/j.icarus.2015.05.006 . Retrieved 20 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Landis, Geoffrey A. (2003). \"Colonization of Venus\" . AIP Conference Proceedings . 654 . pp. 1193–1198. doi : 10.1063/1.1541418 . Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Venus . Wikiquote has quotations related to: Venus Find more about Venus at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Venus profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site Missions to Venus and Image catalog at the National Space Science Data Center Soviet Exploration of Venus and Image catalog at Mentallandscape.com Venus page at The Nine Planets Transits of Venus at NASA.gov Geody Venus , a search engine for surface features Cartographic resources Map-a-Planet: Venus by the U.S. Geological Survey Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Venus by the International Astronomical Union Venus crater database by the Lunar and Planetary Institute Map of Venus by Eötvös Loránd University Google Venus 3D , interactive map of the planet [ show ] v t e The Solar System The Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris Planets Terrestrial planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars Giant planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Dwarf planets Ceres Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris Rings Jovian Saturnian ( Rhean ) Charikloan Chironean Uranian Neptunian Haumean Moons 1 Terrestrial (Moon) Other near-Earth objects 2 Martian Phobos Deimos 69 Jovian Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 62 Saturnian Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 27 Uranian Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 14 Neptunian Triton Proteus Nereid all 5 Plutonian Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx 2 Haumean Hiʻiaka Namaka 1 Makemakean (S/2015 (136472) 1) 1 Eridian (Dysnomia) Lists Solar System objects By size By discovery date Minor planets Gravitationally rounded objects Possible dwarf planets Natural satellites Comets Small Solar System bodies Meteoroids Minor planets moons Comets Damocloids Mercury-crossers Venus-crossers Venus trojans Near-Earth objects Earth-crossers Earth trojans Mars-crossers Mars trojans Asteroid belt Asteroids first discovered: Ceres Pallas Juno Vesta Families Notable asteroids Kirkwood gap Main-belt comets Jupiter trojans Jupiter-crossers Centaurs Saturn-crossers Uranus trojans Uranus-crossers Neptune trojans Cis-Neptunian objects Trans-Neptunian objects Neptune-crossers Plutoids Kuiper belt Plutinos Cubewanos Scattered disc Detached objects Sednoids Hills cloud Oort cloud Hypothetical objects Vulcan Vulcanoids Phaeton Planet V Theia Fifth giant Planets beyond Neptune Tyche Nemesis Planet Nine Exploration ( outline ) Discovery Astronomy Timeline Spaceflight Robotic spacecraft Human spaceflight Colonization List of probes Timeline Mercury Venus Moon Mars Ceres Asteroids Mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Outline of the Solar System Portals Solar System Astronomy Earth sciences Mars Jupiter Uranus Cosmology Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow ( → ) may be read as \"within\" or \"part of\". [ show ] v t e Venus Outline of Venus Geography General Arachnoid Atmosphere Dune fields Features Regions Regio Alpha Regio Asteria Regio Beta Regio Ovda Regio Terrae Aphrodite Terra Ishtar Terra Lada Terra Mountains and volcanoes Abeona Mons Akna Montes Anala Mons Artemis Corona Ba'het Corona Boala Corona Ciuacoatl Mons Fand Mons Fotla Corona Gula Mons Heng-O Corona Iaso Tholus Irnini Mons Jaszai Patera Maat Mons Maxwell Montes Nightingale Corona Onatah Corona Quetzalpetlatl Corona Pancake dome Renpet Mons Sacajawea Patera Sachs Patera Sapas Mons Santa Corona Scalloped margin dome Siddons Patera Sif Mons Skadi Mons Theia Mons Ushas Mons Zisa Corona List of coronae on Venus Plains and plateaus Guinevere Planitia Lakshmi Planum Sedna Planitia Canyons and valleys Aikhulu Chasma Artemis Chasma Baltis Vallis Dali Chasma Devana Chasma Diana Chasma Ganis Chasma Craters Addams Adivar Agnesi Alcott Ariadne Aurelia Balch Barton Buck Cleopatra Cunitz Danilova De Lalande Dickinson Goeppert-Mayer Golubkina Grimke Gregory Guilbert Isabella Jeanne Maria Celeste Mariko Mead Meitner Merit Ptah Mona Lisa Nanichi Riley Ruth Stefania Wanda Wheatley Yablochkina Other Geodynamics Geology Surface features Venus snow Venusquake Moons Neith (hypothetical moon) Astronomy General Aspects Orbit Phases Transits 1639 1769 1874 1882 2004 2012 Asteroids Venus-crosser asteroid 2002 VE 68 Exploration Past Sputnik programme Sputnik 7 Venera program Venera 1 Sputnik 19 Sputnik 20 Sputnik 21 Kosmos 21 Venera 1964A Kosmos 27 Venera 2 Venera 3 Kosmos 96 Venera 4 Kosmos 167 Venera 5 Venera 6 Venera 7 Venera 8 Kosmos 482 Venera 9 Venera 10 Venera 11 Venera 12 Venera 13 Venera 14 Venera 15 Venera 16 Mariner program Mariner 1 Mariner 2 Mariner 5 Mariner 10 Zond program Zond 1 Pioneer Venus Pioneer Venus Orbiter / Pioneer 12 Pioneer Venus Multiprobe / Pioneer 13 Vega program Vega 1 Vega 2 Magellan Galileo Cassini–Huygens IKAROS MESSENGER Shin'en Venus Express Current Akatsuki Planned BepiColombo Venera-D Proposed European Venus Explorer Mercury-P Venus In Situ Explorer VISAGE Indian Venusian orbiter mission Proposed manned Colonization Inspiration Mars (flyby) Terraforming Other Geological mapping of Venus Artificial objects on Venus Related Cytherean Fiction Hesperus Life Mythology Phosphorus Venusians Book Category Portal [ show ] v t e Spacecraft missions to Venus Orbiters Akatsuki Magellan Pioneer Venus Orbiter Venera 9 Venera 10 Venera 15 Venera 16 Venus Express Flybys Venera 1 † Mariner 2 Zond 1 † Venera 2 † Mariner 5 Mariner 10 Venera 11 Venera 12 Venera 13 Venera 14 Vega 1 Vega 2 Galileo Cassini–Huygens MESSENGER IKAROS Shin-en † Descent probes Venera 3 † Venera 4 Venera 5 Venera 6 Pioneer Venus Multiprobe Landers Venera 7 Venera 8 Venera 9 Venera 10 Venera 11 Venera 12 Venera 13 Venera 14 Vega 1 Vega 2 Pioneer Venus Small Probes Balloon probes Vega 1 Vega 2 Failed at launch Tyazhely Sputnik Mariner 1 2MV-1 No.1 2MV-1 No.2 2MV-2 No.1 Kosmos 21 3MV-1 No.2 Kosmos 27 Kosmos 96 Kosmos 167 Kosmos 482 Planned flybys Parker Solar Probe BepiColombo Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer Proposed Orbiters and probes DAVINCI VERITAS HAVOC Venera-D VICI VISAGE Indian Venusian orbiter mission Flybys Europa Clipper Inspiration Mars Mercury-P Laplace-P Uranus orbiter and probe Cancelled TMK-Mavr Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar Vesta European Venus Explorer Program overviews Venera 3MV Mariner Pioneer Venus Vega Related Colonization Observations and explorations List of artificial objects on Venus List of missions Manned Venus Flyby Terraforming VeSpR Italics indicates active current missions. † indicates failure en-route or before any data returned. 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{ "text": "Rush to the Dead Summer (TV series) - Wikipedia Rush to the Dead Summer (TV series) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Rush to the Dead Summer Drama poster Also known as Love till the End of Summer Genre Romance Teen Coming of age Based on Rush to the Dead Summer by Guo Jingming Written by Liu Fei Liu Chenguang Shi She Directed by Han Yang Starring Cheney Chen Zheng Shuang Bai Jingting Country of origin China Original language(s) Mandarin No. of seasons 1 No. of episodes 46, 48 (Hunan TV ver) Production Location(s) Xiamen , Shanghai Production company(s) China Syndication Hunan TV Release Original network Hunan TV First shown in China Original release June 11 ( 2017-06-11 ) – July 8, 2017 ( 2017-07-08 ) Rush to the Dead Summer Simplified Chinese 夏至未至 [ show ] Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Xia Zhi Wei Zhi Rush to the Dead Summer ( Chinese : 夏至未至) is a 2017 Chinese television series based on Guo Jingming 's novel of the same name ; starring Cheney Chen , Zheng Shuang and Bai Jingting . [1] [2] The series aired on Hunan TV from 11 June to 8 July 2017. [3] Contents [ hide ] 1 Synopsis 2 Cast 2.1 Main 2.2 Supporting 2.2.1 Qian Chuan Secondary 2.2.2 Others 3 Production 4 Soundtrack 5 Ratings 6 References 7 External links Synopsis [ edit ] This is a youthful story which spans the period of ten years and focuses on friendship, alienation, and one ultimate betrayal that breaks the group of close friends, each going their own way and entering society. Despite growing up poor, Li Xia works hard and wins a scholarship into Qian Chuan secondary school where she meets Fu Xiaosi and Lu Zhiang, two boys who are the most popular in their batch. Love booms in more ways than one, and the group of youth quickly became good friends. After graduation, everyone goes their separate ways. Fu Xiaosi becomes a well-known artist, and Li Xia becomes Xiaosi's assistant and other half. Cheng Qiqi won a singing competition and becomes a famous idol, and Yu Jian heads overseas to realize her dreams of becoming a singer. Everyone is still fighting for their dreams. However, with the onslaught of adversities: the death of Lu Zhiang's mother and his imprisonment, Cheng Qiqi's betrayal and Li Xia's eventual departure, and Yu Jian's loss; the warm and bright summer starts to fade away. Everyone is changing and they become doubtful about the origin of their friendship. A span of ten years make them realize that other than memories, nothing can be eternal, but they learnt to love and grow. Cast [ edit ] Main [ edit ] Actor Character Introduction Cheney Chen Fu Xiaosi A talented artist who is perceived as a legend in the eyes of others. He is sensitive, quiet and not good at expressing himself. Though he loves Li Xia, he has hurt her deeply through various occasions; forcing their relationship to come to an end. He decides to remain at Qian Chuan and waits for Li Xia to return to his side. Zheng Shuang Li Xia Kind, pure and sincere, she is a hardworking girl who also loves drawing. She falls in love with Fu Xiaosi, and becomes his assistant after graduation. However, their relationship was destroyed by Cheng Qiqi's betrayal, and Li Xia chooses to leave him. A few years later, Li Xia becomes engaged with another man. Bai Jingting Lu Zhiang A cheerful guy who is always smiling and full of life; and a loyal and protective friend to both Fu Xiaosi and Li Xia. Later because of his mother's death, he becomes quiet and introverted. He was imprisoned after attacking a man who insulted Fu Xiaosi. After his early release from imprisonment, he proposes to Yan Mo and marries her. Supporting [ edit ] Qian Chuan Secondary [ edit ] Actor Character Introduction Xia Xintong Yu Jian An orphan whose independent nature causes her to be seen a problematic student. She possesses a beautiful voice, and is determined to realise her dreams of becoming a singer despite all odds. She is also a loyal friend to Li Xia, whom she considers as her best friend. Chai Biyun Cheng Qiqi The \"perfect\" girl who seemingly lives a life envied by others, but is actually really lonely and insecure deep down. She is Li Xia's best friend since they were young, and befriends Fu Xiaosi and Lu Zhiang due to Li Xia. However, her selfishness and possessive love for Fu Xiaosi eventually caused her to be estranged from her friends. Wang Yuwen Li Yanran A proud and haughty \"princess\" who grew up together with Fu Xiaosi and is caught in a one-sided love for him. She tries to ruin Li Xia and Fu Xiaosi's relationship in hopes Fu Xiaosi would stop liking Li Xia on various occasions. Zhao Yami Song Yingying Li Xia's dorm mate and classmate. A cheerful and loud girl who loves to eat and ogle at handsome guys. Jin Liting Ren Xiaofei Li Xia's dorm mate and classmate. A quiet and shy girl who aspires to become a manga artist. Jessie Li Chen Wenjing Li Xia's dorm mate and classmate. A girl who likes to gossip and proclaims herself as the head of Lu Zhiang's fanclub. She transferred away to another school after the first semester. He Jiaxuan Luo Xun Student of 1-03, who is seen as a childish troublemaker. He has had a crush on Cheng Qiqi since they were young. Hu Yitian Ou Jun Student of 1-03. Luo Xun's table mate. Wang Xinting Yao Nana Student of 1-03. Zhao Zimeng Liu Yang Student of 1-03. Ni Jingyang Wen Ren Form teacher of 1-03. A strict but loving teacher to her students. Wang Jinkun Wu Kai PE teacher. He loves Wen Ren and becomes her boyfriend. Li Dong Department Head Mao Zhou Yunshen Teacher Luo Chemistry teacher. Others [ edit ] Actor Character Introduction Pang Hanchen Duan Qiao An architecture student who is kind-hearted and helpful man, and understands girls well. He gets together with Yu Jian but a fatal car accident breaks the two apart. Juck Zhang Qing Tian A singer at a bar. Yu Jian's first love and former boyfriend who separated with her due to the realism of life. Zheng He Hui Zi Yan Mo A goddess in the eyes of many. She is a talented artist who returns overseas from Japan. She loves Lu Zhiang and marries him later. Li Xian Qing Yun Li Xia's fiance. Zhang Liao Jie Xun A determined and hardworking man who eventually fulfills his dream of becoming a rock star. Liu Tao Fu Xiaosi's father. Zhao Qian Fu Xiaosi's mother. Zhang Li Li Xia's mother. A strong and resilient lady who works several jobs to provide the best for her child. Song Tao Lu Zhiang's father, and also Yu Jian's biological father. Li Lin Lu Zhiang's mother. A caring and understanding lady who respects his child's opinions and dreams. Fu Heng Cheng Qiqi's father. A capable businessman who is harsh toward his children and discourages Qiqi's dreams of becoming a singer. Lin Jing Cheng Qiqi's mother. A meek lady who always chooses to give in. Guo Qiucheng Li Yanran's father. Rong Rong Li Yanran's mother. Jiang Bing Aron Yan Mo's father. The head of a large company in Shanghai, who runs Fu Xiaosi's art career. Shang Kan Carol Cheng Qiqi's manager. Yang Shuwen Ding Yiyang The culprit who maligned Lu Zhiang. Yan Qingyu CEO He Production [ edit ] The actors' original voices are used in this drama, with no dubbing. [4] Filming began on August 5, 2016 at Guankou Middle School and ended on November 24. [5] [6] Guo Jingming acts as the artistic director of this series. [7] Soundtrack [ edit ] Rush to the Dead Summer - Original Television Soundtrack ( 夏至未至 电视剧原声音乐大碟) No. Title Music Length 1. \" My First Memory (最初的记忆)\" Lala Hsu 2. \" That Boy (那個男孩)\" Silence Wang 3. \" Rush to the Dead Summer (夏至未至)\" Hu Xia 4. \" Chaser of the Light (追光者)\" Yoyo Sham 5. \" Starlight before Yesterday's Night (昨夜以前的星光)\" Zhang Yang Yang 6. \" Haven't End (未至)\" Yisa Yu 7. \" I Miss (我想念)\" Jin Zhiwen 8. \" A Person's Scenery (一个人的风景)\" Milk Coffee Ratings [ edit ] Episode # Original broadcast date Average audience share (CSM52) Average audience share (National Average) Ranking in its timeslot (National) Ratings Audience share Ratings Audience share 1-2 June 11, 2017 1.144 3.951 1.44 5.43 1 3-4 June 12, 2017 1.050 3.606 1.59 5.95 1 5-6 June 13, 2017 1.110 3.785 1.64 6.04 1 7-8 June 14, 2017 1.122 3.93 1.64 6.04 1 9-10 June 15, 2017 1.224 4.248 1.79 6.66 1 11 June 16, 2017 0.842 3.161 1.17 4.89 2 12 June 17, 2017 0.754 2.813 1.18 5.13 2 13-14 June 18, 2017 1.089 3.772 1.5 5.59 2 15-16 June 19, 2017 1.105 3.864 1.49 5.46 2 17-18 June 20, 2017 1.027 3.603 1.67 6.29 2 19-20 June 21, 2017 0.961 3.31 1.69 6.26 2 21-22 June 22, 2017 1.07 3.702 1.77 6.58 2 23 June 23, 2017 0.855 3.058 1.31 5.37 3 24 June 24, 2017 0.843 3.031 1.19 4.83 2 25-26 June 25, 2017 1.104 3.735 1.7 6.38 1 27-28 June 26, 2017 1.133 3.994 1.66 6.38 3 29-30 June 27, 2017 1.124 4.011 1.8 6.9 3 31-32 June 28, 2017 1.082 3.861 1.8 6.87 2 33-34 June 29, 2017 1.215 4.246 2.1 7.78 2 35 June 30, 2017 0.648 2.303 1.56 ? 2 36 July 1, 2017 0.661 2.384 1.15 4.69 2 37-38 July 2, 2017 0.936 3.175 1.69 6.25 1 39-40 July 3, 2017 0.935 3.264 1.54 5.8 3 41-42 July 4, 2017 1.032 3.603 1.77 6.55 3 43-44 July 5, 2017 1.107 3.798 1.91 6.93 2 45-46 July 6, 2017 1.229 4.116 1.93 6.9 2 47 July 7, 2017 0.916 3.386 1.46 6.1 2 48 July 8, 2017 0.893 3.209 1.61 6.66 1 Average 1.05 3.66 1.6 6.08 - References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"《夏至未至》发布会 郭敬明及群星共赴夏至之约\" . Tencent . 2 August 2016. Jump up ^ \"陈学冬郑爽主演郭敬明新剧\" . NetEase . 8 August 2016. Jump up ^ \"《夏至未至》定档6.11 陈学冬郑爽同绘萤火盛夏\" . Tencent . 5 June 2017. Jump up ^ \"《夏至未至》陈学冬郑爽重回校园 原声配音显诚意\" . Sina . 14 March 2017. Jump up ^ \"电视剧《夏至未至》开机 陈学冬郑爽现开机仪式\" . Tencent . 5 October 2016. Jump up ^ \"《夏至未至》杀青 郑爽不仅仅是胖了\" . Xinhua . 23 November 2016. Jump up ^ \"《夏至未至》问候青春版海报曝光 郭敬明任艺术总监唤醒青春回忆\" . ylq.com . 28 April 2016. External links [ edit ] [ show ] v t e Hunan Television Golden Eagle Theatre 2003 Bai Ling Gong Yu Digital Army Duan Chou Gu The Lost Paradise Sunrise The Story of a Noble Family Black Money Green Flower My Fair Princess How Can I Rescue My Love Goddess of Mercy Xiaozhuang Mishi Woman in Hot Spring Bao Feng Fa Ting Qing Yi Jun Ge Liao Liang Feng Sheng He Lei Yin Xing Li Ming 2004 My Fair Princess III Black Fog Gongan Juzhang The World Feels Love Huo Yuanjia Xue Ling Long Wang Zhong Wang 13th Princess Defend Love Affair of Half a Lifetime One Meter Sunshine Buyi Tianzi The Blue Lotus The Luckiest Man Bring your smile along Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils Sui Tang Heroes 2005 Lady Wu: The First Empress The Young Emperor Envoy Eighteen Year Old Sky Warriors of the Yang Clan The Prince of Han Dynasty 2 Dae Jang Geum 2006 Dae Jang Geum (re-broadcast) War and Beauty Green Grass by the River Tears in Heaven Oshin A Cheng The Tattooed Flower Between the Water Clouds Zuo Ye Xing Chen War and Beauty (re-broadcast) The Prince's Shadow The Duke of Mount Deer Hong Yun Gao Zhao At the Threshold of an Era Revolving Doors of Vengeance Fist of Fury Master Ma Sad Love Story 2007 Ming Dynasty in 1566 Vengeance Ming Dynasty in 1566 (re-broadcast) Flaming Brothers Sunlight Upon Me Lovers in Prague Fireworks We Were Young Nine refers to the bride Flower of Bitter Love Dreams Link Green Forest, My Home Legend of Star Apple Tokyo Juliet Go to The Beach Fantasies Behind the Pearly Curtain Lengthy Inch of Grass Ren Changxia The Drive of Life Perfect Love Legend of Xiangxi Misleading Track Central Affairs 2008 Hong Kong Express Devil Beside You Smiling Pasta My Girl Glittering Days Land of Wealth Ōoku Luert Kadtiya Mr. Good-Bye Song loud and clear Masked Angel Super Rookie The Secret Lovers Love Needs a Miracle Miss Kim's Million Dollars Quest Romantic Princess Couple or Trouble Dal-ja's Spring Ugly Wudi Love Strategy Dancer Marrying a Millionaire Only You Fireworks (re-broadcast) One Fine Day 2009 Sassy Girl Chun-hyang Ugly Wudi 2 Rolling Love They Kiss Again Love or Bread Famous Princesses To Grow with Love Central Affairs 2 Shooting Star My Girl (re-broadcast) Smile in My Heart Pretty Ugly Miss No Good Meteor Shower Ugly Wudi 3 Ba Bai Li Dong Ting Wo De Jia Ba Qian Xiang Nu Shang Tian Shan Famous Princesses (re-broadcast) Precious Family 2010 Fated to Love You Hot Shot Ugly Wudi Finale Angel's Wings Brilliant Legacy The Legend of Yang Guifei Foolish Love The Girl in Blue It Started with a Kiss ToGetHer Strands of Love Meteor Shower II Summer's Desire Single Princesses and Blind Dates Momo Love Hello! 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Dad Divas Hit the Road Laugh Out Loud Grade One Wonderful Friends Takes a Real Man Up Idol Run for Time Fresh Sunday Chinese Restaurant Notable dramas 1998–2012 My Fair Princess (1998-1999) My Fair Princess III (2003) Meteor Shower (2009–2010) The Girl in Blue (2010) New My Fair Princess (2011) Palace (2011) Scarlet Heart (2011) The Glamorous Imperial Concubine (2011) Palace II (2012) Xuan-Yuan Sword: Scar of Sky (2012) The Queen of SOP (2012) 2013–2015 Swordsman (2013) Legend of Lu Zhen (2013) Swords of Legends (2014) Sound of the Desert (2014) The Empress of China (2014-2015) The Romance of the Condor Heroes (2014-2015) Legend of Fragrance (2015) Love Weaves Through a Millennium (2015) Cruel Romance (2015) The Four (2015) The Journey of Flower (2015) The Whirlwind Girl (2015) Love Yunge from the Desert (2015) The Disguiser (2015) 2016–Present Legend of Nine Tails Fox (2016) God of War, Zhao Yun (2016) The Interpreter (2016) Decoded (2016) Ice Fantasy (2016) Noble Aspirations (2016) Sparrow (2016) Stay with Me (2016) General and I (2017) The Starry Night, The Starry Sea (2017) Rush to the Dead Summer (2017) Princess Agents (2017) Tribes and Empires: Storm of Prophecy (2017) Music EE-Media Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rush_to_the_Dead_Summer_(TV_series)&oldid=799241484 \" Categories : Hunan Television dramas Chinese romance television series Chinese drama television series Adaptations of works by Guo Jingming 2017 Chinese television series debuts High school television series Hidden categories: Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Track listings with deprecated parameters Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 September 2017, at 14:37. 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{ "text": "Literal and figurative language - Wikipedia Literal and figurative language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Linguistics Theoretical Cognitive Constraint-based Generative Structuralist Quantitative Functional theories of grammar Phonology Morphology Morphophonology Syntax Lexis Semantics Pragmatics Graphemics Orthography Semiotics Descriptive Anthropological Comparative Historical Etymology Graphetics Phonetics Sociolinguistics Cherology Applied and experimental Computational Contrastive Evolutionary Forensic Internet Language acquisition Second-language acquisition Language assessment Language development Language education Linguistic anthropology Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics Related articles History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved linguistics problems Origin of language Origin of speech Linguistics portal v t e Literal and figurative language is a distinction within some fields of language analysis, in particular stylistics , rhetoric , and semantics . Literal language uses words exactly according to their conventionally accepted meanings or denotation . Figurative (or non-literal ) language uses words in a way that deviates from their conventionally accepted definitions in order to convey a more complicated meaning or heightened effect. [1] Figurative language is often created by presenting words in such a way that they are equated, compared, or associated with normally unrelated meanings. Literal usage confers meaning to words, in the sense of the meaning they have by themselves, outside any figure of speech. [2] It maintains a consistent meaning regardless of the context, [3] with the intended meaning corresponding exactly to the meaning of the individual words. [4] Figurative use of language is the use of words or phrases that implies a non-literal meaning which does make sense or that could [also] be true . [5] Aristotle and later the Roman Quintilian were among the early analysts of rhetoric who expounded on the differences between literal and figurative language. [6] In 1769, Frances Brooke 's novel The History of Emily Montague was used in the earliest Oxford English Dictionary citation for the figurative sense of literally ; the sentence from the novel used was, \"He is a fortunate man to be introduced to such a party of fine women at his arrival; it is literally to feed among the lilies .\" [7] This citation was also used in the OED's 2011 revision. [7] Within literary analysis, such terms are still used; but within the fields of cognition and linguistics, the basis for identifying such a distinction is no longer used. [8] Contents [ hide ] 1 Figurative language in literary analysis 2 Standard pragmatic model of comprehension 3 Reddy and contemporary views 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Figurative language in literary analysis [ edit ] This section possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Figurative language can take multiple forms, such as simile or metaphor . [9] Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia Of Literature says that figurative language can be classified in five categories: resemblance or relationship, emphasis or understatement , figures of sound, verbal games, and errors. [10] A simile [11] is a comparison of two things, indicated by some connective, usually \"like\", \"as\", \"than\", or a verb such as \"resembles\" to show how they are similar. [12] Example: \"His cheeks were like roses , his nose like a cherry .../And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow. \" (emph added)—Clement Clark Moore [13] A metaphor [14] is a figure of speech in which two \"essentially unlike things\" are shown to have a type of resemblance or create a new image. [15] The similarities between the objects being compared may be implied rather than directly stated. [15] Example: \"Fog comes on little cat feet\"— Carl Sandburg [16] An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is continued over multiple sentences. [17] [18] Example: \"The sky steps out of her daywear/Slips into her shot-silk evening dress./An entourage of bats whirr and swing at her hem, ...She's tried on every item in her wardrobe.\" Dilys Rose [19] Onomatopoeia is a word designed to be an imitation of a sound. [20] Example: “Bark! Bark!” went the dog as he chased the car that vroomed past. Personification [21] is the attribution of a personal nature or character to inanimate objects or abstract notions, [22] especially as a rhetorical figure. Example: \"Because I could not stop for Death,/He kindly stopped for me;/The carriage held but just ourselves/And Immortality.\"— Emily Dickinson . Dickinson portrays death as a carriage driver. [22] An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which a pair of opposite or contradictory terms is used together for emphasis. [23] Examples: Organized chaos, Same difference, Bittersweet. A paradox is a statement or proposition which is self-contradictory, unreasonable, or illogical. [24] Example: This statement is a lie. Hyperbole is a figure of speech which uses an extravagant or exaggerated statement to express strong feelings. [25] Example: They had been walking so long that John thought he might drink the entire lake when they came upon it. Allusion is a reference to a famous character or event. Example: A single step can take you through the looking glass if you're not careful. An idiom is an expression that has a figurative meaning unrelated to the literal meaning of the phrase. Example: You should keep your eye out for him. To keep an eye out for someone means to watch out for them. A pun is an expression intended for a humorous or rhetorical effect by exploiting different meanings of words. Example: I wondered why the ball was getting bigger. Then it hit me. \"Then it hit me.\" has two different meanings Standard pragmatic model of comprehension [ edit ] Prior to the 1980s, the \"standard pragmatic\" model of comprehension was widely believed. In that model, it was thought the recipient would first attempt to comprehend the meaning as if literal, but when an appropriate literal inference could not be made, the recipient would shift to look for a figurative interpretation that would allow comprehension. [26] Since then, research has cast doubt on the model. In tests, figurative language was found to be comprehended at the same speed as literal language; and so the premise that the recipient was first attempting to process a literal meaning and discarding it before attempting to process a figurative meaning appears to be false. [27] Reddy and contemporary views [ edit ] Beginning with the work of Michael Reddy in his 1979 work \" The Conduit Metaphor \", many linguists now reject that there is a valid way to distinguish between a \"literal\" and \"figurative\" mode of language. [28] See also [ edit ] Metaphor Metonymy Connotation (semiotics) Denotation Denotation (semiotics) Signified and signifier Biblical literalism Figures of speech Frances Brooke Imagery Linguistics Philosophy of language Rhetoric Semantics Semiotics Trope (literature) Asperger syndrome References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \" Figure of speech .\" Merriam-Webster Dictionary . Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2015. Jump up ^ Jaszczolt, Katarzyna M..; Turner, Ken (2003-03-01). Meaning Through Language Contrast. Volume 2 . John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 141–. ISBN 9781588112071 . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Glucksberg, Sam (2001-07-26). Understanding Figurative Language:From Metaphor to Idioms: From Metaphor to Idioms . Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195111095 . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Harley, Trevor A. (2001). The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory . Taylor & Francis. pp. 293–. ISBN 978-0-863-77867-4 . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Montgomery, Mar; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Tom Furniss; Sara Mills (2007). Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature . Taylor & Francis. pp. 117–. ISBN 9780415346337 . Retrieved 23 December 2012 . Jump up ^ M.H. Abrams; Geoffrey Harpham (2011). A Glossary of Literary Terms (10 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495898023 . ^ Jump up to: a b [1] Jump up ^ Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert J (2009-11-20). Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics . Elsevier. pp. 230–. ISBN 9780080965000 . Retrieved 23 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Montgomery, Martin; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Tom Furniss; Sara Mills (2007-01-09). Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature . Routledge. pp. 117–. ISBN 9780203597118 . Retrieved 3 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster, inc. (1995). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia Of Literature . Merriam-Webster. p. 415 . ISBN 9780877790426 . Retrieved 23 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Origin: 1350–1400; Middle English < Latin: image, likeness, comparison, noun use of neuter of similis similar. \"Simile\" . simile, n . Oxford English Dictionary. Jump up ^ Kennedy, X. J., and Dana Gioia . An Introduction To Poetry . 13th ed. Longman Pub Group, 2007. Pg 594. Jump up ^ Terban, Marvin; joi, Giulio Maestro, (1993). It Figures!: Fun Figures of Speech . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 12–. ISBN 9780395665916 . Retrieved 23 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Origin: 1525–35; < Latin metaphora < Greek metaphorá a transfer, akin to metaphérein to transfer. See meta-, -phore \"Metaphor\" . metaphor, n . Oxford English Dictionary. ^ Jump up to: a b Miller, Carol Rawlings (2001-03-01). Irresistible Shakespeare: 6 Sensational Scenes from Favorite Plays and Dozens of Fun Ideas That Introduce Students to the Wonderful Works of Shakespeare . Scholastic Inc. pp. 25–. ISBN 9780439098441 . Retrieved 23 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Fandel, Jennifer (2005-07-30). Metaphors, Similes, And Other Word Pictures . The Creative Company. pp. 30–. ISBN 9781583413401 . Retrieved 3 April 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Extended Metaphor\" . extended metaphor . Dictionary.com. Jump up ^ Oliver, Mary (1994). Poetry Handbook . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 103–. ISBN 9780156724005 . Retrieved 6 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Liddell, Gordon F.; Gifford, Anne (2001-07-26). New Scottish poetry . Heinemann. pp. 131–. ISBN 9780435150983 . Retrieved 3 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Origin: 1570–80; < Late Latin < Greek onomatopoiía making of words = onomato- (combining form of ónoma name) + poi- (stem of poieîn to make; see poet) + -ia -ia \"Onomatopoeia\" . onomatopoeia, n . Oxford English Dictionary. Jump up ^ Origin: 1745–55; personi(fy) + -fication \"Personification\" . personification, n . Oxford English Dictionary. ^ Jump up to: a b Moustaki, Nikki (2001-04-01). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Writing Poetry . Penguin. pp. 146–. ISBN 9781440695636 . Retrieved 23 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Origin: < post-classical Latin oxymoron, figure of speech in which a pair of opposed or markedly contradictory terms are placed in conjunction for emphasis (5th cent.; also oxymorum ) < ancient Greek ὀξυ-oxy- comb. form1+ μωρόςdull, stupid, foolish (see moron n.2). \"Oxymoron\" . oxymoron . Oxford English Dictionary. Jump up ^ Origin: < Middle French, French paradoxe (1495 as noun; 1372–4 in plural paradoxesas the title of a work by Cicero; paradoxon (noun) philosophical paradox in post-classical Latin also a figure of speech < ancient Greek παράδοξον, especially in plural παράδοξαStoical paradoxes, use as noun of neuter singular of παράδοξος (adjective) contrary to received opinion or expectation < παρα-para- prefix1+ δόξαopinion (see doxology n.), after ancient Greek παρὰ δόξανcontrary to expectation \"Paradox\" . paradox, n . Oxford English Dictionary. Jump up ^ Origin: < Greek ὑπερβολήexcess (compare hyperbola n.), exaggeration; the latter sense is first found in Isocrates and Aristotle. Compare French hyperbole(earlier yperbole). \"Hyperbole\" . hyperbol e, n . Oxford English Dictionary. Jump up ^ Katz, Albert N. (1998). Figurative Language and Thought . Oxford University Press. pp. 166–. ISBN 9780195109634 . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Eysenck, Michael William; Keane, Mark T. (2005). Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook . Taylor & Francis. pp. 369–. ISBN 9781841693590 . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Ortony, Andrew (1993-11-26). Metaphor and Thought . Cambridge University Press. pp. 204–. ISBN 9780521405614 . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . External links [ edit ] The Word We Love To Hate. Literally. from Slate Magazine Figures of Speech from Silva Rhetoricae Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Literal_and_figurative_language&oldid=843420845 \" Categories : Semantics Conceptual distinctions Hidden categories: Articles that may contain original research from August 2010 All articles that may contain original research Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Euskara Français Bahasa Melayu Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018, at 01:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Literal and figurative language", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Literal_and_figurative_language&amp;oldid=843420845" }

{ "text": "Edward VIII abdication crisis - Wikipedia Edward VIII abdication crisis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Instrument of abdication signed by Edward VIII and his three brothers, Albert , Henry and George , 10 December 1936 In 1936, a constitutional crisis in the British Empire arose when King-Emperor Edward VIII proposed to marry Wallis Simpson , an American socialite who was divorced from her first husband and was pursuing a divorce of her second. The marriage was opposed by the governments of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth . Religious, legal, political and moral objections were raised. As British monarch , Edward was the nominal head of the Church of England , which did not then allow divorced people to remarry in church if their ex-spouses were still alive. For this reason, it was widely believed that Edward could not marry Simpson and remain on the throne. [a] Simpson was perceived to be politically and socially unsuitable as a prospective queen consort because of her two failed marriages. It was widely assumed by the Establishment that she was driven by love of money or position rather than love for the King. Despite the opposition, Edward declared that he loved Simpson and intended to marry her whether his governments approved or not. The widespread unwillingness to accept Simpson as the King's consort and Edward's refusal to give her up led to his abdication in December 1936. [b] He was succeeded by his brother George VI . Edward was given the title His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor following his abdication, and he married Simpson the following year. They remained married until his death 35 years later. Contents [ hide ] 1 Prelude 2 Opposition 2.1 Social and moral 2.2 Religious and legal 2.3 Political 3 Options considered 4 Legal manoeuvres 5 Abdication 6 Post-abdication 7 Notes 8 Sources 9 References 10 External links Prelude [ edit ] Edward in 1932 Edward had been introduced to Wallis Simpson , an American citizen and wife of British shipping executive Ernest Aldrich Simpson , by Lady Furness on 10 January 1931. Ernest Simpson was Wallis's second husband; her first marriage, to U.S. Navy pilot Win Spencer , had ended in divorce in 1927. It is generally accepted that Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales became lovers in 1934, while Lady Furness (who was also in a relationship with the prince) was visiting relatives in America. However, Edward adamantly insisted to his father that he was not physically intimate with Simpson and that it was inappropriate to describe her as his mistress. [2] Edward's relationship with Simpson further weakened his poor relationship with his parents. Although King George V and Queen Mary met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935, [3] they later refused to receive her. [4] Edward and Simpson were secretly followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch , who produced reports on the nature of their relationship and their investigations into Wallis Simpson's private life that included the \"pursuit of vicious gossip\" and the identification of a \"secret lover\". [5] The prospect of having an American divorcee with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures. [6] Edward VIII succeeded his father on 20 January 1936, after which Simpson attended more official functions as the King's guest. Despite her name appearing regularly in the Court Circular , the name of her husband was conspicuously absent. [7] In the summer of that year, the King eschewed the traditional prolonged stay at Balmoral in favour of a holiday with Simpson in the eastern Mediterranean that was widely covered in the American and continental European press, but not by the British press, which maintained a self-imposed silence. Nevertheless, Canadians and expatriate Britons, who had access to the foreign reports, were largely scandalised by the coverage. [8] Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson in the Mediterranean, 1936 By October, it was rumoured in high society and abroad that Edward intended to marry Simpson as soon as she was free to do so. [9] At the end of that month, the crisis came to a head when she filed for divorce and the American press announced that marriage between her and the King was imminent. [10] The King's private secretary, Alec Hardinge , wrote to him on 13 November, warning: \"The silence in the British Press on the subject of Your Majesty's friendship with Mrs Simpson is not going to be maintained ... Judging by the letters from British subjects living in foreign countries where the Press has been outspoken, the effect will be calamitous.\" [11] Senior British ministers knew that Hardinge had written to the King and may have helped him draft the letter. [12] The King invited Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace the following Monday (16 November) and informed him that he intended to marry Simpson. Baldwin replied that such a marriage would not be acceptable to the people, stating: \"... the Queen becomes the Queen of the country. Therefore in the choice of a Queen the voice of the people must be heard.\" [13] Baldwin's view was shared by the Australian High Commissioner in London, Stanley Bruce , who was a former Australian prime minister . On the same day that Hardinge wrote to the King, Bruce met Hardinge and then wrote to Baldwin, expressing horror at the idea of a marriage between the King and Simpson. [14] Nevertheless, the British press remained quiet on the subject until Alfred Blunt , Bishop of Bradford , gave a speech to his diocesan conference on 1 December, which alluded to the King's need of divine grace : \"We hope that he is aware of his need. Some of us wish that he gave more positive signs of his awareness.\" [15] The press took this for the first public comment by a notable person on the crisis and it became front page news the following day. When asked about it later, however, the bishop claimed he had not heard of Simpson at the time he wrote the speech. [16] Acting on the advice of Edward's staff, Simpson left Britain for the south of France two days later in an attempt to escape intense press attention. Both she and the King were devastated by the separation. At a tearful departure, the King told her, \"I shall never give you up.\" [17] Opposition [ edit ] Opposition to the King and his marriage came from several directions. Edward's desire to modernise the monarchy and make it more accessible, though appreciated by many of the public, [18] was distrusted by the British Establishment. [19] Edward upset the aristocracy by treating their traditions and ceremonies with disdain, and many were offended by his abandonment of accepted social norms and mores. [20] Social and moral [ edit ] Wallis Simpson, 1936 Government ministers and the royal family found Wallis Simpson's background and behaviour unacceptable for a potential queen. Rumours and innuendo about her circulated in society. [21] The King's mother, Queen Mary, was even told that Simpson might have held some sort of sexual control over Edward, as she had released him from an undefined sexual dysfunction through practices learnt in a Chinese brothel. [22] This view was partially shared by Alan Don , Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury , who wrote that he suspected the King \"is sexually abnormal which may account for the hold Mrs. S. has over him\". [23] Even Edward VIII's official biographer, Philip Ziegler , noted that: \"There must have been some sort of sadomasochistic relationship ... [Edward] relished the contempt and bullying she bestowed on him.\" [24] Police detectives following Simpson reported back that, while involved with Edward, she was also involved with a married car mechanic and salesman named Guy Trundle. [25] This may well have been passed on to senior figures in the establishment, including members of the royal family. [26] Joseph Kennedy , the American ambassador, described her as a \"tart\", and his wife, Rose , refused to dine with her. [27] Wallis was perceived to be pursuing Edward for his money; his equerry wrote that she would eventually leave him, \"having secured the cash\". [28] The future prime minister Neville Chamberlain (then Chancellor of the Exchequer) wrote in his diary that she was \"an entirely unscrupulous woman who is not in love with the King but is exploiting him for her own purposes. She has already ruined him in money and jewels ...\" [29] Relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were strained during the inter-war years and the majority of Britons were reluctant to accept an American as queen consort . [30] At the time, some members of the British upper class looked down on Americans with disdain and considered them socially inferior. [31] In contrast, the American public was clearly in favour of the marriage, [32] as was most of the American press. [33] Religious and legal [ edit ] In Edward's lifetime, the Church of England disapproved of divorced people remarrying in church while a former spouse was still living. The monarch was required to be in communion with the Church of England, and was its nominal head or Supreme Governor . If Edward married Wallis Simpson, a divorcee who would soon have two living ex-husbands, in a civil ceremony, it would directly conflict with Church teaching and his role as the Church's ex officio head. [34] [c] Wallis's first divorce (in the United States on the grounds of \"emotional incompatibility\") was not recognised by the Church of England and, if challenged in the English courts, might not have been recognised under English law . At that time, the church and English law considered adultery to be the only grounds for divorce. Consequently, under this argument, her second marriage, as well as her marriage to Edward, would be considered bigamous and invalid. [35] Political [ edit ] Fort Belvedere, Surrey , Edward's residence in Windsor Great Park When Edward visited depressed mining villages in Wales, his comment that \"something must be done\" [36] led to concerns among elected politicians that he would interfere in political matters, traditionally avoided by constitutional monarchs. Ramsay MacDonald , Lord President of the Council , wrote of the King's comments: \"These escapades should be limited. They are an invasion into the field of politics & should be watched constitutionally.\" [37] Although Edward's comments had made him popular in Wales, [38] he became extremely unpopular with the public in Scotland following his refusal to open a new wing of Aberdeen Royal Infirmary , saying he could not do so because he was in mourning for his father. The day after the opening he was pictured in newspapers on holiday: he had turned down the public event in favour of meeting Simpson. [39] As Prince of Wales , Edward had publicly referred to Labour county councillors as \"cranks\" [40] and made speeches counter to government policy. [41] During his reign as king, his refusal to accept the advice of ministers continued: he opposed the imposition of sanctions on Italy after its invasion of Ethiopia , refused to receive the deposed Emperor of Ethiopia , and would not support a strengthening of the League of Nations . [42] Members of the British government became further dismayed by the proposed marriage after being told that Wallis Simpson was an agent of Nazi Germany . The Foreign Office obtained leaked dispatches from the German Reich's Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Joachim von Ribbentrop , which revealed his strong view that opposition to the marriage was motivated by the wish \"to defeat those Germanophile forces which had been working through Mrs. Simpson\". [43] It was rumoured that Simpson had access to confidential government papers sent to Edward, which he left unguarded at his Fort Belvedere residence. [44] While Edward was abdicating, the personal protection officers guarding Simpson in exile in France sent reports to Downing Street suggesting that she might \"flit to Germany\". [45] Options considered [ edit ] As a result of these rumours and arguments, the belief strengthened among the British establishment that Simpson could not become a royal consort. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin explicitly advised Edward that the majority of people would be opposed to his marrying Simpson, indicating that if he did, in direct contravention of his ministers' advice, the government would resign en masse . The King responded, according to his own account later: \"I intend to marry Mrs. Simpson as soon as she is free to marry ... if the Government opposed the marriage, as the Prime Minister had given me reason to believe it would, then I was prepared to go .\" [46] Under pressure from the King, and \"startled\" [46] at the suggested abdication, Baldwin agreed to take further soundings on three options: Edward and Simpson marry and she become queen (a royal marriage); Edward and Simpson marry, but she not become queen, instead receiving some courtesy title (a morganatic marriage ); or Abdication for Edward and any potential heirs he might father, allowing him to make any marital decisions without further constitutional implications. Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (left) and his British counterpart Stanley Baldwin (right), 1926 The second option had European precedents, including Edward's own great-grandfather, Duke Alexander of Württemberg , but it had no parallel in British constitutional history. The prime ministers of the five Dominions (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa , and the Irish Free State ) were consulted, and the majority agreed that there was \"no alternative to course (3)\". [47] William Lyon Mackenzie King ( Prime Minister of Canada ), Joseph Lyons ( Prime Minister of Australia ), and J. B. M. Hertzog ( Prime Minister of South Africa ) opposed options 1 and 2. Mackenzie King told Edward to do \"what he believed in his own heart was right\" [48] and the Canadian government appealed to the King to put his duty before his feelings for Simpson. [49] Governor General of Canada Lord Tweedsmuir told Buckingham Palace and Baldwin that Canadians held deep affection for the King, but also that Canadian public opinion would be outraged if Edward married a divorcee. [50] Michael Joseph Savage ( Prime Minister of New Zealand ) rejected option 1 and thought that option 2 \"might be possible ... if some solution along these lines were found to be practicable\", but \"would be guided by the decision of the Home government\". [51] In communications with the British government, Éamon de Valera ( President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State ) remarked that as a Roman Catholic country, the Irish Free State did not recognise divorce. He supposed that if the British people would not accept Wallis Simpson then abdication was the only possible solution. [52] On 24 November, Baldwin consulted the three leading opposition politicians in Britain: Leader of the Opposition Clement Attlee , Liberal leader Sir Archibald Sinclair , and Winston Churchill . Sinclair and Attlee agreed that options 1 and 2 were unacceptable, and Churchill pledged to support the government. [53] Churchill did not support the government, however. In July, he had advised the King's legal counsel, Walter Monckton , against the divorce, but his advice was ignored. [54] As soon as the affair became public knowledge, Churchill started to pressure Baldwin and the King to delay any decisions until parliament and the people had been consulted. [55] In a private letter to Geoffrey Dawson , the editor of The Times newspaper, Churchill suggested that a delay would be beneficial because, given time, the King might fall out of love with Simpson. [56] Baldwin rejected the request for delay, presumably because he preferred to resolve the crisis quickly. Supporters of the King alleged a conspiracy between Baldwin, Geoffrey Dawson, and Cosmo Gordon Lang , the Archbishop of Canterbury . [57] The royal physician Bertrand Dawson was possibly involved in a plan to force the prime minister to retire on the grounds of heart disease, but he eventually accepted, on the evidence of an early electrocardiograph , that Baldwin's heart was sound. [58] Political support for the King was scattered and comprised politicians outside of the mainstream parties such as Churchill, Oswald Mosley , and the Communists . [59] David Lloyd George also supported the King despite disliking Simpson. He was, however, unable to take any active role in the crisis because he was on holiday in Jamaica with his mistress. [60] In early December, rumours circulated that the King's supporters would join together in a \"King's Party\", led by Churchill. However, there was no concerted effort to form an organised movement and Churchill had no intention of leading one. [61] Nevertheless, the rumours damaged the King and Churchill severely, as members of parliament were horrified at the idea of the King interfering in politics. [62] The letters and diaries of working-class people and ex-servicemen generally demonstrate support for the King, while those from the middle and upper classes tend to express indignation and distaste. [63] The Times , The Morning Post , Daily Herald , and newspapers owned by Lord Kemsley , such as The Daily Telegraph , opposed the marriage. On the other hand, the Express and Mail newspapers, owned by Lord Beaverbrook and Lord Rothermere , respectively, appeared to support a morganatic marriage. [64] The King estimated that the newspapers in favour had a circulation of 12.5 million, and those against had 8.5 million. [65] On 3 December, Edward had a \"tense\" meeting with Baldwin. [66] Backed by Churchill and Beaverbrook, Edward proposed to broadcast a speech via the BBC . The proposed text invoked the \"ancient custom\" for a King to \"address his public utterances to his people\". [66] Edward proposed to remind his listeners: \"I am still the same man whose motto was ' Ich Dien ', I serve.\" [66] In the proposed speech, Edward indicated his desire to remain on the throne or to be recalled to it if forced to abdicate, while marrying Simpson morganatically. In one section, Edward proposed to say: Neither Mrs. Simpson nor I have ever sought to insist that she should be queen. All we desired was that our married happiness should carry with it a proper title and dignity for her, befitting my wife. Now that I have at last been able to take you into my confidence, I feel it is best to go away for a while, so that you may reflect calmly and quietly, but without undue delay, on what I have said. [67] Baldwin blocked the speech, saying that it would shock many people and would be a grave breach of constitutional principles. [66] By modern convention, the sovereign could only act with the advice and counsel of ministers. In seeking the people's support against the government, Edward was opting to oppose binding ministerial advice and instead act as a private individual. Edward's British ministers felt that, in proposing the speech, Edward had revealed his disdainful attitude towards constitutional conventions and threatened the political neutrality of the Crown. [68] Cabinet Office files released in 2013 show that on or before 5 December 1936, the Home Secretary, Sir John Simon , had ordered the General Post Office (which controlled British telephone services) to intercept \"telephone communications between Fort Belvedere and Buckingham Palace on the one hand and the continent of Europe on the other.\" [69] On 5 December, having in effect been told that he could not keep the throne and marry Simpson, and having had his request to broadcast to the Empire to explain \"his side of the story\" blocked on constitutional grounds, [70] Edward chose the third option. [71] Legal manoeuvres [ edit ] Following Simpson's divorce hearing on 27 October 1936, her solicitor, John Theodore Goddard , became concerned that there would be a \"patriotic\" citizen's intervention (a legal device to block the divorce), and that such an intervention would be successful. [72] The courts could not grant a collaborative divorce (a dissolution of marriage consented to by both parties), and so the case was being handled as if it were an undefended at-fault divorce brought against Ernest Simpson, with Wallis Simpson as the innocent, injured party. The divorce action would fail if the citizen's intervention showed that the Simpsons had colluded by, for example, conniving in or staging the appearance of his adultery so that she could marry someone else. On Monday 7 December 1936, the King heard that Goddard planned to fly to the south of France to see Wallis Simpson. The King summoned him and expressly forbade him to make the journey, fearing that the visit might put doubts in Simpson's mind. Goddard went straight to Downing Street to see Baldwin, as a result of which he was provided with an aeroplane to take him directly to Cannes . [72] Upon his arrival, Goddard warned his client that a citizen's intervention, should it arise, was likely to succeed. It was, according to Goddard, his duty to advise her to withdraw her divorce petition. [72] Simpson refused, but they both telephoned the King to inform him that she was willing to give him up so that he could remain king. It was, however, too late; the King had already made up his mind to go, even if he could not marry Simpson. Indeed, as the belief that the abdication was inevitable gathered strength, Goddard stated that: \"[his] client was ready to do anything to ease the situation but the other end of the wicket [Edward VIII] was determined\". [73] Goddard had a weak heart and had never flown before, so he asked his doctor, William Kirkwood, to accompany him on the trip. As Kirkwood was a resident at a maternity hospital, his presence led to false speculation that Simpson was pregnant, [74] and even that she was having an abortion. The press excitedly reported that the solicitor had flown to Simpson accompanied by a gynaecologist and an anaesthetist (who was actually the lawyer's clerk). [75] Abdication [ edit ] \"The Year of the Three Kings\", postcard 1936 At Fort Belvedere , on 10 December, Edward signed his written abdication notices, [d] witnessed by his three younger brothers: Prince Albert, Duke of York (who succeeded Edward as George VI ); Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester ; and Prince George, Duke of Kent . The following day, it was given effect by Act of Parliament : His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . [76] Under changes introduced in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster , a single Crown for the entire empire had been replaced by multiple crowns, one for each Dominion, worn by a single monarch in an organisation then known as the British Commonwealth . [49] Though the British government, hoping for expediency and to avoid embarrassment, wished the Dominions to accept the actions of the home government, the Dominions held that Edward's abdication required the consent of each Commonwealth state. [77] This was duly given; by the Parliament of Australia, which was at the time in session, and by the governments of the other Dominions, whose parliaments were in recess. [49] The government of the Irish Free State , taking the opportunity presented by the crisis and in a major step towards its eventual transition to a republic, passed an amendment to its constitution on 11 December to remove references to the Crown. [78] The King's abdication was recognised a day later in the External Relations Act of the Irish Free State and legislation eventually passed in South Africa declared that the abdication took effect there on 10 December. [49] [79] As Edward VIII had not been crowned, his planned coronation date became that of George VI instead. Edward's supporters felt that he had \"been hounded from the throne by that arch humbug Baldwin\", [80] but many members of the establishment were relieved by Edward's departure. Mackenzie King wrote in his diary on 8 December 1936 that Edward's \"sense of right or wrong has been largely obliterated by the jazz of life he has led for years\" [48] and, upon receiving news of Edward's final decision to abdicate, \"if that is the kind of man he is it is better he should not be longer on the Throne.\" [81] Edward's own Assistant Private Secretary, Alan Lascelles , had told Baldwin as early as 1927: \"I can't help thinking that the best thing that could happen to him, and to the country, would be for him to break his neck.\" [82] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Abdication speech On 11 December 1936, Edward made a BBC radio broadcast from Windsor Castle ; having abdicated, he was introduced by Sir John Reith as \"His Royal Highness Prince Edward\". [83] [84] The official address had been polished by Churchill and was moderate in tone, speaking about Edward's inability to do his job \"as I would have wished\" without the support of \"the woman I love\". [85] Edward's reign had lasted 327 days, the shortest of any British monarch since the disputed reign of Lady Jane Grey over 380 years earlier. The day following the broadcast he left Britain for Austria. Post-abdication [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor, formerly Edward VIII, 1945 George VI gave his elder brother the title of Duke of Windsor with the style His Royal Highness on 12 December 1936. [86] On 3 May the following year, the Simpsons' divorce was made final. The case was handled quietly and it barely featured in some newspapers. The Times printed a single sentence below a separate, and seemingly unconnected, report announcing the Duke's departure from Austria. [87] Edward married Wallis in France on 3 June 1937. She became the Duchess of Windsor, but, much to Edward's disgust, George VI issued letters patent that denied her the style of Her Royal Highness . [88] The couple settled in France, and the Duke received a tax-free allowance from his brother, which Edward supplemented by writing his memoirs and by illegal currency trading. [89] He also profited from the sale of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House to George VI. Both estates are private property and not part of the Royal Estate, and were therefore inherited and owned by Edward, regardless of the abdication. [90] In October 1937, the Duke and Duchess visited Germany, against the advice of the British government, and met Hitler at his Obersalzberg retreat. The visit was much publicised by the German media. During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes . [91] In an article for the New York Daily News and Chicago Tribune of 13 December 1966 the Duke wrote that in 1937 Hitler persuaded him \"it was in Britain's interest and in Europe's too, that Germany be encouraged to strike east and smash Communism forever ... I thought the rest of us could be fence-sitters while the Nazis and the Reds slogged it out.\" [92] After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Edward was assigned to the British Military Mission in France. [93] In February 1940, the German ambassador in The Hague , Count Julius von Zech-Burkersroda , claimed that Edward had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium. [94] When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940, the Duke and Duchess fled to Lisbon . [95] Under the code name Operation Willi , Nazi agents, principally Walter Schellenberg , plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal, and contemplated kidnapping him. [96] Lord Caldecote warned Churchill that the Duke \"is well-known to be pro-Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue\". [97] Churchill threatened the Duke with a court-martial if he did not return to British soil. [98] In July 1940, Edward was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . [99] Edward reportedly told an acquaintance, \"After the war is over and Hitler will crush the Americans ... we'll take over ... They [the British] don't want me as their king, but I'll be back as their leader.\" [100] He was reported as saying that \"it would be a tragic thing for the world if Hitler was overthrown\". [100] Comments like these reinforced the belief that the Duke and Duchess held Nazi sympathies and the effect of the abdication crisis of 1936 was to force off the throne a man with extreme political opinions. [101] Claims that Edward would have been a threat or that he was removed by a political conspiracy to dethrone him remain speculative and \"persist largely because since 1936 the contemporary public considerations have lost most of their force and so seem, wrongly, to provide insufficient explanation for the King's departure\". [102] After the war, the Windsors returned to France and spent the remainder of their lives essentially in retirement; Edward never took another official role. The Windsors remained married until Edward's death in 1972. Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ In 2002, the Church of England decided to allow divorced people to remarry in church under certain conditions. [1] Jump up ^ The instrument of abdication was signed on 10 December, and given legislative form by His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 the following day. The parliament of the Union of South Africa retroactively approved the abdication with effect from 10 December. The Irish Free State recognised the abdication on 12 December. Jump up ^ Although Henry VIII famously separated the Church of England from Rome in order to end his first marriage, he never actually divorced; his marriages were annulled. Three of Henry's six marriages were annulled, i.e. declared under canon law to be null and void. Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was annulled on the grounds that the marriage was incestuous (Catherine had been married previously to Henry's elder brother ). Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn was declared invalid after Catherine's death and Anne's conviction for treason. Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves was not consummated and was annulled six months after the wedding on the pretext that Anne had been promised to another. In contrast, Mrs Simpson's divorces were legal terminations under civil law of legally valid marriages. A person with an annulment has not been married, whereas a person with a divorce has been married already. Jump up ^ There were 15, including one for each Dominion, India, the British House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Sources [ edit ] Jump up ^ Divorce , Church of England, 2015 Jump up ^ Ziegler, p. 233 Jump up ^ Windsor, p. 255 Jump up ^ Bradford, p. 142 Jump up ^ Bowcott, Owen; Bates, Stephen (30 January 2003), \"Car dealer was Wallis Simpson's secret lover\" , The Guardian , London , retrieved 1 May 2010 Jump up ^ Ziegler, pp. 231–234 Jump up ^ Broad, p. 37. Jump up ^ Broad, p. 47. Jump up ^ Beaverbrook, pp. 28–33; Windsor, p. 314; Ziegler, pp. 292–295. Jump up ^ Broad, p. 56; Williams, p. 85. Jump up ^ Broad, p. 71. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 93–94. Jump up ^ Broad, p. 75. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 101. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 134. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 146. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 149–151. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 8–11. Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, p. 136. Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, p. 301; Beaverbrook, p. 14; Williams, pp. 70–71. Jump up ^ See, for example, Virginia Woolf 's diary quoted in Williams, p. 40. Jump up ^ Ziegler, p. 236. Jump up ^ Howarth, p. 61. Jump up ^ Quoted in Jones, Chris (29 January 2003), Profile: Wallis Simpson , BBC , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 96–97. Jump up ^ Vickers, p. 163. Jump up ^ Vickers, p. 185. Jump up ^ John Aird 's diary, quoted in Ziegler, p. 234. Jump up ^ Ziegler, p. 312. Jump up ^ Pope-Hennessy, James (1959), Queen Mary , London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd, p. 574 Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 40–41. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 266. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 90; Ziegler, p. 296. Jump up ^ \"A Historic Barrier Drops\" , Time , 20 July 1981 , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ Bradford, p. 241. Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, p. 338. Jump up ^ Ramsay MacDonald's diary, quoted in Williams, p. 60. Jump up ^ See, for example, Williams, p. 59. Jump up ^ Vickers, p. 140; Ziegler, p. 288. Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, p. 253. Jump up ^ Beaverbrook, p. 20. Jump up ^ Ziegler, pp. 271–272. Jump up ^ Howarth, p. 62. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 196–197; Ziegler, pp. 273–274. Jump up ^ Bowcott, Owen; Bates, Stephen (30 January 2003), \"Fear that Windsors would 'flit' to Germany\" , The Guardian , retrieved 2 May 2010 ^ Jump up to: a b The Duke of Windsor, p. 332. Jump up ^ Éamon de Valera quoted in Bradford, p. 188. ^ Jump up to: a b The Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King , Library and Archives Canada, 8 December 1936, p. 555 ^ Jump up to: a b c d Heard, Andrew (1990), Canadian Independence , Vancouver: Simon Fraser University , retrieved 6 May 2009 Jump up ^ Hubbard, R. H. (1977), Rideau Hall , Montreal and London: McGill-Queen's University Press, p. 187, ISBN 978-0-7735-0310-6 Jump up ^ Williams, p. 130. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 130–131. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 113. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 173; Ziegler, p. 291. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 173–176. Jump up ^ Williams, p. 177. Jump up ^ Evans, W. (1968), Journey to Harley Street , London: David Rendel, p. 219. Jump up ^ Evans, p. 221. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 179–181. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 198–199. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 181–182. Jump up ^ Williams, pp. 199–200. Jump up ^ See, for example, Williams, pp. 138–144. Jump up ^ Beaverbrook, p. 68; Broad, p. 188; Ziegler, p. 308. Jump up ^ Ziegler, p. 308; The Duke of Windsor, p. 373. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Casciani, Dominic (30 January 2003), King's abdication appeal blocked , BBC News , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, p. 361. Jump up ^ Beaverbrook, p. 71; Williams, p. 156. Jump up ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (23 May 2013), \"Ministers ordered bugging of King Edward VIII's phones, records reveal\" , The Guardian , retrieved 23 May 2013 Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, pp. 378–379. Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, pp. 386–387. ^ Jump up to: a b c Cretney, Stephen (September 2003), \"Edward, Mrs. Simpson and the Divorce Law: Stephen Cretney Investigates Whether the Government Colluded in the Suppression of Evidence That Might Have Prevented Wallis Simpson's Divorce and Royal Marriage\" , History Today , 53 : 26 ff. , retrieved 2 May 2010 (subscription required). Jump up ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard; Evans, Rob (2 March 2000), \"Edward and Mrs. Simpson cast in new light\" , The Guardian , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ \"Duchess of Windsor\" , Time , 21 December 1936 , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ Beaverbrook, p. 81; Williams, p. 217. Jump up ^ \"No. 34350\" . The London Gazette . 15 December 1936. p. 8117. Jump up ^ Anne Twomey (18 September 2014). Professor Anne Twomey – Succession to the Crown: foiled by Canada? (Digital video). London: University College London. Jump up ^ Constitution (Amendment No. 27) Act, 1936 , Government of Ireland , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ Executive Authority (External Relations) Act, 1936 , Government of Ireland , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ David Lloyd George quoted in Williams, p. 241. Jump up ^ The Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King , Library and Archives Canada, 9 December 1936, p. 561 Jump up ^ Lascelles, Sir Alan 'Tommy' (20 November 2006), \"Prince Charmless: A damning portrait of Edward VIII\" , Daily Mail , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, p. 413; Ziegler, p. 331. Jump up ^ Stuart, Charles, ed. (1975), The Reith Diaries , London: Collins, pp. 192–193, ISBN 0-00-211174-8 Jump up ^ The Duke of Windsor, pp. 409–413. Jump up ^ \"No. 34350\" . The London Gazette . 15 December 1936. p. 8115. Jump up ^ \"Mrs. Ernest Simpson's Divorce\". The Times , Tuesday, 4 May 1937, p. 5, col. C; \"The Duke of Windsor: Departure from Austria\", The Times , Tuesday, 4 May 1937, p. 5, col. C. Jump up ^ Ziegler, p. 529. Jump up ^ Roberts, Andrew (2000), Antonia Fraser , ed., The House of Windsor , London: Cassell and Co, p. 53, ISBN 0-304-35406-6 Jump up ^ Ziegler, pp. 376–378. Jump up ^ Donaldson, pp. 331–332 Jump up ^ \" Windsor Helpless as World Drifts to War \", Chicago Tribune , 13 December 1966, p. 2 Jump up ^ Matthew, H. C. G. (September 2004; online edition January 2008) \"Edward VIII, later Prince Edward, duke of Windsor (1894–1972)\" , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Oxford University Press, doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/31061 , retrieved 1 May 2010 (Subscription required) Jump up ^ Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945 Series D, Volume VIII, quoted in Bradford, p. 434 Jump up ^ Bloch, p. 91 Jump up ^ Bloch, pp. 86, 102; Ziegler, pp. 430–432 Jump up ^ Ziegler, p. 434 Jump up ^ Bloch, p. 93 Jump up ^ Bloch, pp. 93–94, 98–103, 119 ^ Jump up to: a b Walker, Andrew (29 January 2003), Profile: Edward VIII , BBC News , retrieved 2 May 2010 Jump up ^ Ziegler, pp. 434 ff. Jump up ^ Williamson, Philip (2007), Olechnowicz, Andrzej, ed., \"The monarchy and public values 1910–1953\", The monarchy and the British nation, 1780 to the present , Cambridge University Press, p. 225, ISBN 978-0-521-84461-1 References [ edit ] Beaverbrook, Lord (1966), A. J. P. Taylor , ed., The Abdication of King Edward VIII , London: Hamish Hamilton Bradford, Sarah (1989), King George VI , London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-79667-4 Broad, Lewis (1961), The Abdication , London: Frederick Muller Howarth, Patrick (1987), George VI , London: Hutchinson, ISBN 0-09-171000-6 Vickers, Hugo (2006), Elizabeth, the Queen Mother , London: Arrow Books, ISBN 978-0-09-947662-7 Williams, Susan (2003), The People's King: The True Story of the Abdication , London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-7139-9573-4 Windsor, HRH The Duke of (1951), A King's Story , London: Cassell and Co, OCLC 1903717 Ziegler, Philip (1991), King Edward VIII , New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-394-57730-2 External links [ edit ] Pathé Newsreel recording of Edward's abdication speech (requires Flash ) [ hide ] v t e Edward VIII abdication crisis Edward VIII Wallis Simpson People Prince Albert (Edward VIII's brother, later George VI) Stanley Baldwin (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) Alfred Blunt (Bishop of Bradford) John Theodore Goddard (Mrs. Simpson's solicitor) Alec Hardinge (Edward VIII's private secretary) J. B. M. Hertzog (Prime Minister of South Africa) Cosmo Gordon Lang (Archbishop of Canterbury) Joseph Lyons (Prime Minister of Australia) William Lyon Mackenzie King (Prime Minister of Canada) Queen Mary (Edward VIII's mother) Walter Monckton (advisor to Edward VIII) Michael Joseph Savage (Prime Minister of New Zealand) Ernest Simpson (Mrs. Simpson's husband) Éamon de Valera (President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State) Legal documents His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 (United Kingdom) Executive Authority (External Relations) Act 1936 (Ireland) His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937 (South Africa) Succession to the Throne Act 1937 (Canada) Cultural depictions Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978) The Woman He Loved (1988) Wallis & Edward (2005) The King's Speech (2010) W.E. (2012) Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_VIII_abdication_crisis&oldid=802140870 \" Categories : Edward VIII abdication crisis Royal scandals Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from July 2015 Featured articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 24 September 2017, at 07:05. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "Edward VIII abdication crisis", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Edward_VIII_abdication_crisis&amp;oldid=802140870" }

{ "text": "Just Before the Battle, Mother - Wikipedia Just Before the Battle, Mother From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Cover of the 1864 sheet music for \"Just Before the Battle, Mother\" \" Just before the Battle, Mother \" was a popular song during the American Civil War , particularly among troops in the Union Army . It was written and published by Chicago -based George F. Root . It was also a popular song with adherents of the Primrose League in England , and was a central part of Victoria Day celebrations in Canada during the late 19th and early-to-mid 20th centuries. Lyrics [ edit ] Just before the battle, mother, I am thinking most of you, While upon the field we're watching With the enemy in view. Comrades brave are 'round me lying, Filled with thoughts of home and God For well they know that on the morrow, Some will sleep beneath the sod. CHORUS: Farewell, mother, you may never Press me to your heart again, But, oh, you'll not forget me, mother, If I'm numbered with the slain. Oh, I long to see you, mother, And the loving ones at home, But I'll never leave our banner, Till in honor I can come. Tell the traitors all around you That their cruel words we know, In every battle kill our soldiers By the help they give the foe. CHORUS: Farewell, mother, you may never Press me to your heart again, But, oh, you'll not forget me, mother, If I'm numbered with the slain. Hark! I hear the bugles sounding, 'Tis the signal for the fight, Now, may God protect us, mother, As He ever does the right. Hear the \"Battle-Cry of Freedom,\" How it swells upon the air, Oh, yes, we'll rally 'round the standard, Or we'll perish nobly there. CHORUS: Farewell, mother, you may never Press me to your heart again, But, oh, you'll not forget me, mother, If I'm numbered with the slain. Lyrics are in the public domain. References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] \"Just Before the Battle, Mother\" , Stanley & Burr (Indestructible Record 1460, 1911).— Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project . Lyrics and midi from Project Gutenberg Sheet music from Project Gutenberg Sheet Music from the library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Just_Before_the_Battle,_Mother&oldid=796953842 \" Categories : Songs of the American Civil War Songs written by George Frederick Root Hidden categories: Year of song missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2017, at 02:17. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Just Before the Battle, Mother", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Just_Before_the_Battle,_Mother&amp;oldid=796953842" }

{ "text": "Black-tailed deer - Wikipedia Black-tailed deer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Black-tailed deer Male black-tailed deer ( Olympic National Park ) Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Family: Cervidae Subfamily: Capreolinae Genus: Odocoileus Species: O. hemionus Subspecies: O. h. columbianus Trinomial name Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson, 1829) Two forms of black-tailed deer or blacktail deer that occupy coastal woodlands in the Pacific Northwest are subspecies of the mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ). They have sometimes been treated as a species, but virtually all recent authorities maintain they are subspecies. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] The Columbian black-tailed deer ( Odocoileus hemionus columbianus ) is found in western North America, from Northern California into the Pacific Northwest and coastal British Columbia . [8] The Sitka deer ( Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis ) is found coastally in British Columbia, Southeast Alaska and Southcentral Alaska (as far as Kodiak Island ). [8] [9] [10] [11] Contents [ hide ] 1 Range 2 Taxonomy 3 Ecology 4 Behavior 5 Controversy over habitat management 6 References 7 External links Range [ edit ] Black-tailed deer once lived at least as far east as Wyoming. In Francis Parkman 's The Oregon Trail, an eyewitness account of his 1846 trek across the early West, while within a two-day ride from Fort Laramie , Parkman writes of shooting what he believes to be an elk , only to discover he has killed a black-tailed deer. [12] The black-tailed deer is currently common in California, [13] western Oregon, Washington, in coastal and interior British Columbia , and north into the Alaskan panhandle. It is a popular game animal. Taxonomy [ edit ] Though it has been argued that the black-tailed deer is a species, virtually all recent authorities maintain it as a subspecies of the mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ). [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Strictly speaking, the black-tailed deer group consists of two subspecies, as it also includes O. h. sitkensis ( Sitka black-tailed deer ). [2] The black-tailed deer group and the mule deer group ( sensu stricto ) hybridize , and mule deer appear to have evolved from the black-tailed deer group. [6] Despite this, the mtDNA of the white-tailed deer and mule deer are similar, but differ from that of the black-tailed deer. [6] This may be the result of introgression , although hybrids between the mule deer and white-tailed deer are rare in the wild (apparently more common locally in West Texas ), and the hybrid survival rate is low even in captivity. [4] [6] Ecology [ edit ] This species thrives on the edge of the forest, as the dark forest lacks the underbrush and grasslands the deer prefers as food, and completely open areas lack the hiding spots and cover it prefers for harsh weather. One of the plants that black-tailed deer browse is western poison oak , despite its irritant content. [14] This deer often is most active at dawn and dusk, and is frequently involved in collisions with automobiles. Behavior [ edit ] The characteristic black tail of a black-tailed deer. Deer are browsers. During the winter and early spring, they feed on Douglas-fir, western red cedar, red huckleberry, salal, deer fern, and lichens growing on trees. Late spring to fall, they consume grasses, blackberries, apples, fireweed, pearly everlasting, forbs, salmonberry, salal, and maple. The mating or 'rutting' season occurs during November and early December. Bucks can be observed running back and forth across the roads in the pursuit of does. After the rut, the bucks tend to hide and rest, often nursing wounds. They suffer broken antlers, and have lost weight. They drop their antlers between January and March. Antlers on the forest floor provide a source of calcium and other nutrients to other forest inhabitants. Bucks regrow their antlers beginning in April through to August. The gestation period for does is six to seven months, with fawns being born in late May and into June. Twins are the rule, although young does often have only single fawns. Triplets can also occur. Fawns weigh 2.7 to 4 kilograms (6.0 to 8.8 lb) and have no scent for the first week or so. This enables the mother to leave the fawn hidden while she goes off to browse and replenish her body after giving birth. She must also eat enough to produce enough milk to feed her fawns. Although does are excellent mothers, fawn mortality rate is 45 to 70%. Does are very protective of their young and humans are viewed as predators. Deer communicate with the aid of scent and pheromones from several glands located on the lower legs. The metatarsal (outside of lower leg) produces an alarm scent, the tarsal (inside of hock) serves for mutual recognition and the interdigital (between the toes) leave a scent trail when deer travel. Deer have excellent sight and smell. Their large ears can move independently of each other and pick up any unusual sounds that may signal danger. At dawn and dusk and moonlit nights, deer are seen browsing on the roadside. Wooded areas with forests on both sides of the road and open, grassy areas, i.e. golf courses, attract deer. Caution when driving is prudent because often as one deer crosses, another one or two follow. Controversy over habitat management [ edit ] In Southeast Alaska, the Sitka black-tailed deer is the primary prey of the rare Alexander Archipelago wolf ( Canis lupus ligoni ), which is endemic to the region. [15] In the mid-1990s, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service evaluated a petition to list this wolf species as threatened, and decided a listing was not warranted in August 1997, largely on the basis of provisions the Forest Service had included to protect the viability of the wolf species in its Forest Plan for the Tongass National Forest , adopted three months earlier. [16] The Tongass NF is important in wolf conservation because it includes about 80% of the region's land area. The protections for the wolf included a standard and guideline intended to retain, in the face of logging losses, enough habitat carrying capacity for deer in winter to assure the viability of the Alexander Archipelago wolf and an adequate supply of deer for hunters. The needed carrying capacity was originally specified as 13 deer per square mile, but was corrected in 2000 to 18. Use of a deer model is specified for determining carrying capacity, and is the only tool available for the purpose. [17] [18] However, the Forest Service's implementation of the deer provision in the Tongass wolf standard and guideline has been controversial for many years, and led to a lawsuit by Greenpeace and Cascadia Wildlands in 2008, over four logging projects. The data set the Forest Service was using in the deer model was known through the agency's own study (done in 2000) to generally overestimate the carrying capacity for deer and underestimate the impacts of logging. [19] The study showed the data set (called Vol-Strata) is not correlated to habitat quality. [20] [21] Also, a conversion factor, known as the \"deer multiplier\" (used in calculating carrying capacity) was incorrectly applied, causing — by itself – a 30% overestimation of carrying capacity and corresponding underestimation of impacts. [19] The combined effect of the two errors is variable because Vol-Strata is not correlated to habitat quality. Regarding the Traitors Cove Timber Sales project, in 2011 the plaintiffs noted in oral arguments before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals that the difference is between a claimed 21 deer per square mile carrying capacity in the project EIS, and 9.5 deer per square mile (about half of the Tongass Forest Plan's requirement) according to unpublished corrections the agency made in 2008. [22] The 9th Circuit panel ruled unanimously on August 2, 2011 in favor of the plaintiffs, remanding the four timber sale decisions to the Forest Service and giving guidance for what is necessary during reanalysis of impacts to deer. [23] The ruling says in part: \"We do not think that USFS has adequately explained its decision to approve the four logging projects in the Tongass. ... USFS has failed to explain how it ended up with a table that identifies 100 deer per square mile as a maximum carrying capacity, but allows 130 deer per square mile as a potential carrying capacity. 'The agency is obligated to articulate a rational connection between the facts found and the choices made,' which the agency has not done here. Pac. Coast Fed’n of Fisherman’s Ass’ns v. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 426 F.3d 1082, 1091 (9th Cir. 2005)...\" [23] \"We have similar questions about USFS’s use of VolStrata data, which identifies total timber volume and not forest structure, to approve the projects, where forest structure—and not total timber volume—is relevant to the habitability of a piece of land. USFS itself has recognized the limitations in the VolStrata data. ... Because we must remand to the agency to re-examine its Deer Model, we need not decide whether the use of the VolStrata data was arbitrary and capricious. We anticipate that, in reviewing the proposed projects, USFS will use the best available data ...\" [23] In a statement to the press, a spokesman for the plaintiffs said the errors in this lawsuit apply to every significant Tongass timber sale decision between 1996 and 2008, before the Forest Service corrected errors in the deer model when the agency issued its revised Tongass Forest Plan in 2008. But he said despite those corrections, the agency still fails to address cumulative impacts to deer, especially on Prince of Wales Island, as is being challenged in the Logjam timber sale lawsuit, by ignoring substantial logging on nonfederal lands. [24] In September 2013, under the same litigation, the U.S. District Court in Anchorage made a second remand to the Forest Service because the agency's further work under the first remand had not resolved the modeling issues. Activity on the four timber sales involved in the litigation has been suspended since 2008. [25] [26] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Sanchez Rojas, G. & Gallina Tessaro, S. (2008). \" Odocoileus hemionus \" . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 1 March 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0 . OCLC 62265494 . ^ Jump up to: a b Novak, R. M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World. 6th edition. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9 ^ Jump up to: a b c Heffelfinger, J. (version 2 March 2011). Tails with a dark side: The truth about whitetail – mule deer hybrids. Archived November 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to: a b Reid, F. A. (2006). Mammals of North America. 4th edition. ISBN 978-0-395-93596-5 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Geist, V. (1998). Deer of the world: their evolution, behaviour, and ecology. ISBN 978-0-8117-0496-0 ^ Jump up to: a b Feldhamer, G. A., B. C. Thompson, and J. A. Chapman, editors (2003). Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and conservation . 2nd edition. ISBN 978-0-8018-7416-1 ^ Jump up to: a b B.C. Ministry of Env., Lands & Parks. (Undated) Mule and black-tailed deer in British Columbia. Jump up ^ B.C. Ministry of Forests. 1996–1998. Coastal Black-Tailed Deer Study , linking to five reports. Jump up ^ MacDonald, S. and Cook, J. (2007) Mammals and Amphibians of Southeast Alaska . Jump up ^ Wildlife . U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. Last updated: April 6, 2011. Jump up ^ Parkman, Francis (1910) The Oregon Trail , Ginn and company Jump up ^ Livezey KB. 1991. Home range, habitat use, disturbance, and mortality of Columbian black-tailed deer in Mendocino National Forest. California Fish and Game 77:201–209. Jump up ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2008) Western poison-oak: Toxicodendron diversilobum Archived July 21, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ., GlobalTwitcher, ed. Nicklas Stromberg. Jump up ^ Person, D.K. (Univ. Alaska); Kirchhoff, M. (ADF&G); van Ballenberghe, V. (USFS-FSL); Iverson, G.C. (USFS); Grossman, E. (USF&WS). 1996. \"The Alexander Archipelago Wolf: A Conservation Assessment,\" Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-384. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. Jump up ^ USF&WS. 1997 (August 28) 12-month finding, re: Petition to List the Alexander Archipelago Wolf under Provisions of the Endangered Species Act. Jump up ^ 1997 TLMP Wolf standard and guideline: reproduced at Wildlife Habitat Planning: WILD112, XI.A.3 in [1] . The 13 deer per square mile carrying capacity was an error, corrected in 1998 to 17, and in 2002 to 18 deer per square mile. Jump up ^ Tongass Forest Plan Implementation Clarification, 1998; and directive of Tom Puchlerz, Tongass Forest Supervisor, August 6, 2002. See also: Background Archived December 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine .. USDA Forest Service – Tongass National Forest ^ Jump up to: a b \"Suit Filed to Stop Four Timber Sales on Largest National Forest\" – Sit News . Sitnews.us (2008-07-11). Retrieved on 2012-06-10. Jump up ^ Caouette, J.; Kramer, M.; Nowacki, G. 2000. Deconstructing the Tongass Timber Paradigm . USDA Forest Service. Jump up ^ US Forest Service, 2008 Final Environmental Impact Statement for Tongass Land Management Plan Archived July 24, 2011, at the Wayback Machine .. Vol. 1 (January 2008) pp. 3–265 to 3–266. Jump up ^ Audio recording of oral arguments before 9th Circ. Ct. of Appeals , May 3, 2011. Hear: argument by Chris Winter (Crag Law Center) attorney for Greenpeace v. Cole plaintiffs generally, and at 13:20 concerning Traitors Cove. Recording includes arguments by Winters and federal attorney Charles Scott, and Winter's rebuttal. ^ Jump up to: a b c Memorandum. Issued unanimously by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals panel of Judges Alarcon, Graber and Bybee . August 2, 2011. Jump up ^ Jonathan Grass, Appeals court overturns 4 Tongass logging projects . Juneau Empire, August 3, 2011. Jump up ^ SitNews (2013). Court Decision Stops Four Tongass National Forest Logging Projects , 27 Sept. 2014 Jump up ^ KFSK (2013). Court sends four timber sale plans back for reworking , by Joe Viechnicki. 2 Oct. 2014. External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Odocoileus hemionus columbianus . Excerpts from the book Black-tailed Deer of California Black-tailed Deer at BritishColumbia.com Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-tailed_deer&oldid=800431671 \" Categories : Mammals described in 1829 Deer Mammals of North America Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands Fauna of the Western United States Mammals of Canada Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with 'species' microformats Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Languages Italiano Polski Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2017, at 14:19. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "Black-tailed deer", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Black-tailed_deer&amp;oldid=800431671" }

{ "text": "Better Man (Little Big Town song) - Wikipedia Better Man (Little Big Town song) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Better Man\" Single by Little Big Town from the album The Breaker Released October 20, 2016 ( 2016-10-20 ) Format Digital download Genre Country Length 4 : 21 Label Capitol Nashville Songwriter(s) Taylor Swift Producer(s) Jay Joyce [1] Little Big Town singles chronology \"One of Those Days\" (2016) \" Better Man \" (2016) \" Happy People \" (2017) \"One of Those Days\" (2016) \" Better Man \" (2016) \" Happy People \" (2017) Music video \"Better Man\" on YouTube \" Better Man \" is a song performed by American country group Little Big Town , released on October 20, 2016. [2] It served as the lead single from the group's eighth studio album, The Breaker , which was released on February 24, 2017. [3] The song was written by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift and produced by American producer Jay Joyce . \"Better Man\" was first performed live at the 50th CMA Awards on November 2, 2016. The song won Song of the Year and was nominated for Single of the Year, and Music Video of the Year at the 2017 CMA Awards. [4] The song won Best Country Duo/Group Performance for Little Big Town and was also nominated for Best Country Song for Swift, at the 60th annual Grammy Awards. [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Music video 3 Reception 3.1 Accolades 4 Commercial performance 5 Other versions 6 Charts and certifications 6.1 Charts 6.2 Year-end charts 6.3 Certifications 7 References Background [ edit ] The song was written about the breakup of a relationship by Taylor Swift . According to group member Karen Fairchild, Swift thought of the group because of the harmonies, and sent the song to them. [6] \"Better Man\" has a play length of 4 minutes and 21 seconds. The song is in a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute , written with a 4/4 time signature. It is in the key of F major , with a chord pattern of F-C-B ♭ -B ♭ 2 -B ♭ . Karen Fairchild's lead vocal spans from F 3 to B ♭ 4 . [7] Music video [ edit ] An accompanying music video was directed by Becky Fluke and Reid Long and premiered on November 1, 2016. [8] Set in a rural household, the video depicts three generations of single parents whose partners ultimately leave them. [9] The cycle is presumably broken at the end, when Philip Sweet's character has a baby girl and makes an effort to be a better role model. [9] Reception [ edit ] Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe rated the song \"A\", saying that \"It’s a concept that is grounded in so much truth that I’m amazed I’ve never heard it approached this way before\" and \"The writers do a great job of capturing both why [the song's narrator] stayed so long and why she had to leave, and all of the conflicting feelings that go along with that.\" [10] Taste of Country writer Billy Dukes also praised the song, saying that \"This song isn’t as jarring as some of the quartet’s most recent hits. In fact, the mistreatment of women is only vaguely alluded to — there’s no one line that burns the hair off the back of your neck. Jay Joyce’s arrangement is soft but not stark. It’s among his more mainstream productions. Still, it’s clear Fairchild’s protagonist is reeling from a love that went very, very wrong.\" [11] Accolades [ edit ] Year Association Category Result 2017 Billboard Music Awards [12] Top Country Song Nominated CMT Music Awards [13] Group Video of the Year Won Video of the Year Nominated CMA Awards [4] Single of the Year Nominated Song of the Year Won Music Video of the Year Nominated 2018 Grammy Awards [14] Best Country Duo/Group Performance Won Best Country Song Nominated ACM Awards [15] Single Record of the Year Nominated Commercial performance [ edit ] The song sold 6,000 copies on its first day of release, enough to allow the song to enter the Hot Country Songs chart at No. 41. [16] [17] It sold 20,000 the following week, and rose to No. 20 in the chart. [17] [18] In its third week it sold a further 47,000 copies and climbed further to No. 6. [19] On the Hot Country Songs chart dated February 11, 2017, \"Better Man\" reached number one, earning the group their third leader. It spent two weeks at No. 1 before being dethroned by \" Body Like A Back Road \" by Sam Hunt . [20] The song was certified platinum in the United States by the RIAA on August 23, 2017. [21] The song has sold 772,000 copies in the United States as of February 2018. [22] Other versions [ edit ] On February 4, 2017, Taylor Swift performed it at Club Nomadic in Houston as part of the DirecTV Special, Super Saturday Night. On February 15, 2017, Chase Bryant recorded a cover version of the song, which changed the grammatical narrative from second person to first. Bryant's rendition was described favorably by both Billboard and Rolling Stone for the change in the song's perspective, as well as the harmonies provided by Runaway June . [23] [24] Charts and certifications [ edit ] Charts [ edit ] Chart (2016–17) Peak position Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) [25] 56 Canada Country ( Billboard ) [26] 1 US Billboard Hot 100 [27] 34 US Country Airplay ( Billboard ) [28] 1 US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) [29] 1 Year-end charts [ edit ] Chart (2017) Position Canada Country (Billboard) [30] 8 US Country Airplay (Billboard) [31] 34 US Hot Country Songs (Billboard) [32] 10 Certifications [ edit ] Region Certification Certified units /Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) [33] Gold 5,000 ^ United States ( RIAA ) [21] Platinum 772,000 [22] * sales figures based on certification alone ^ shipments figures based on certification alone References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Hear Little Big Town's Melancholy New Song 'Better Man ' \" . rollingstone.com . Retrieved July 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Black, Lauren Jo (November 1, 2016). \"Little Big Town Reveals Taylor Swift as 'Better Man' Songwriter\" . Sounds Like Nashville . SpinMedia . Retrieved November 2, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Better Man - Little Big Town | Release Info\" . AllMusic . All Media Network . Retrieved November 2, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Weatherby, Taylor (September 4, 2017). \"Keith Urban & Miranda Lambert Lead 2017 CMA Awards Nominees, Taylor Swift Earns First Nomination in Three Years\" . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Staff, Los Angeles Times (November 29, 2017). \"Grammys 2018 Complete List of Nominees\" . LA Times . LA Times . Retrieved November 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ Vulpo, Mike (November 1, 2016). \"Who Did Taylor Swift Write \"Better Man\" About? We Investigate the Lyrics for Little Big Town's New Single\" . E! Online . Jump up ^ \" ' Better Man' sheet music\" . musicnotes.com . Retrieved February 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Little Big Town | Better Man | Music Video | MTV\" . MTV . Viacom . Retrieved February 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Wicks, Amanda (November 1, 2016). \"Little Big Town Premiere 'Better Man' Music Video\" . Radio.com . CBS Corporation . Retrieved February 5, 2017 . Jump up ^ Coyne, Kevin John (October 27, 2016). \"Single Review: Little Big Town, \"Better Man \" \" . Country Universe . Retrieved February 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ Dukes, Billy. \"Little Big Town, 'Better Man' [Listen]\" . Taste of Country . Retrieved February 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ Stefano, Angela (May 21, 2017). \"2017 Billboard Music Awards Country Winners List\" . The Boot . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Stefano, Angela (June 7, 2017). \"2017 CMT Music Awards Winners List\" . The Boot . Retrieved September 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ USA Today Staff (January 28, 2018). \"Grammy Awards 2018: The winners' list\" . USA Today . Retrieved January 28, 2018 . Jump up ^ Stefano, Angela (April 15, 2018). \"2018 ACM Awards Winners List\" . The Boot . Retrieved April 16, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Hot Country Songs\" . Billboard . November 5, 2016. (Subscription required ( help )) . ^ Jump up to: a b Bjorke, Matt (November 1, 2016). \"Top 30 Digital Singles Sales Report: November 1, 2016\" . Roughstock . Jump up ^ \"Hot Country Songs\" . Billboard . November 12, 2016. Jump up ^ Bjorke, Matt (November 7, 2016). \"Top 30 Digital Country Singles Chart: November 7, 2016\" . Roughstock . Jump up ^ Asker, Jim (January 31, 2016). \"Little Big Town Leads Hot Country Songs With Taylor Swift-Written 'Better Man ' \" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved February 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"American single certifications – Little Big Town – Better Man\" . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved September 22, 2017 . If necessary, click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH ^ Jump up to: a b Bjorke, Matt (February 5, 2017). \"TOP 30 Digital Country Singles Sales Chart: February 5, 2017\" . Roughstock . Retrieved February 8, 2017 . Jump up ^ Aniftos, Rania (February 15, 2017). \"Chase Bryant Shares Introspective Cover of Little Big Town's Taylor Swift-Penned 'Better Man': Listen\" . Billboard . Retrieved February 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ Freeman, Jon (February 15, 2017). \"See Chase Bryant's Solemn Cover of Little Big Town's 'Better Man ' \" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved February 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Little Big Town Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)\" . Billboard . Retrieved January 18, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Little Big Town Chart History (Canada Country)\" . Billboard . Retrieved February 28, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Little Big Town Chart History (Hot 100)\" . Billboard . Retrieved February 7, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Little Big Town Chart History (Country Airplay)\" . Billboard . Retrieved February 22, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Little Big Town Chart History (Hot Country Songs)\" . Billboard . Retrieved January 30, 2017. Jump up ^ \"Billboard Canada Year-End Country Airplay of 2017\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Country Airplay Songs – Year-End 2017\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Hot Country Songs – Year-End 2017\" . Billboard . Retrieved December 18, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Canadian single certifications – Little Big Town – Better Man\" . Music Canada . Retrieved November 14, 2017 . Preceded by \" Dirt on My Boots \" by Jon Pardi Billboard Canada Country number-one single March 11–18, 2017 Succeeded by \" Fast \" by Luke Bryan Preceded by \" Blue Ain't Your Color \" by Keith Urban Billboard Hot Country Songs number-one single February 11–18, 2017 Succeeded by \" Body Like a Back Road \" by Sam Hunt Preceded by \" Seein' Red \" by Dustin Lynch Billboard Country Airplay number-one single March 4–11, 2017 Succeeded by \" Sober Saturday Night \" by Chris Young featuring Vince Gill [ show ] v t e Little Big Town Studio albums Little Big Town The Road to Here A Place to Land The Reason Why Tornado Pain Killer Wanderlust The Breaker Singles as a lead artist \" Don't Waste My Time \" \" Boondocks \" \" Bring It On Home \" \" Good as Gone \" \" A Little More You \" \" I'm with the Band \" \" Fine Line \" \" Little White Church \" \" Pontoon \" \" Tornado \" \" Your Side of the Bed \" \" Sober \" \" Day Drinking \" \" Girl Crush \" \" Pain Killer \" \" Better Man \" \" Happy People \" \" When Someone Stops Loving You \" Guest singles \" Smokin' and Drinkin' \" (with Miranda Lambert ) Karen Fairchild's guest singles \" Home Alone Tonight \" (with Luke Bryan ) Other songs \" Go Tell It on the Mountain \" \" Life in a Northern Town \" (with Sugarland and Jake Owen ) Related articles Discography [ show ] v t e Taylor Swift songs Discography Taylor Swift \" Tim McGraw \" \" Picture to Burn \" \" Teardrops on My Guitar \" \" Should've Said No \" \" Our Song \" Fearless \" Fearless \" \" Fifteen \" \" Love Story \" \" White Horse \" \" You Belong with Me \" \" Breathe \" \" You're Not Sorry \" \" Forever & Always \" \" Change \" Speak Now \" Mine \" \" Sparks Fly \" \" Back to December \" \" Speak Now \" \" Mean \" \" The Story of Us \" \" Innocent \" \" Ours \" \" Dear John \" Red \" State of Grace \" \" Red \" \" I Knew You Were Trouble \" \" All Too Well \" \" 22 \" \" We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together \" \" The Last Time \" \" Everything Has Changed \" \" Begin Again \" 1989 \" Welcome to New York \" \" Blank Space \" \" Style \" \" Out of the Woods \" \" Shake It Off \" \" Bad Blood \" \" Wildest Dreams \" \" Wonderland \" \" New Romantics \" Reputation \" ...Ready for It? \" \" End Game \" \" Delicate \" \" Look What You Made Me Do \" \" Gorgeous \" \" Call It What You Want \" \" New Year's Day \" Songs as a featured artist \" Two Is Better Than One \" \" Half of My Heart \" \" Both of Us \" \" Highway Don't Care \" \" Babe \" Other songs \" Crazier \" \" Today Was a Fairytale \" \" Safe & Sound \" \" Long Live \" \" Eyes Open \" \" Ronan \" \" Sweeter Than Fiction \" \" I Don't Wanna Live Forever \" \" Best Days of Your Life \" \" Better Man \" \" This Is What You Came For \" \" You'll Always Find Your Way Back Home \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Better_Man_(Little_Big_Town_song)&oldid=836708979 \" Categories : 2016 songs 2016 singles Little Big Town songs Songs written by Taylor Swift Song recordings produced by Jay Joyce Capitol Records Nashville singles Billboard Hot Country Songs number-one singles Country ballads Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Use mdy dates from July 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadacountry Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardcountryairplay Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for United States Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Português Русский Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018, at 11:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Better Man (Little Big Town song)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Better_Man_(Little_Big_Town_song)&amp;oldid=836708979" }

{ "text": "Bank holiday - Wikipedia Bank holiday From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about public holidays in the United Kingdom and Ireland. For bank holidays elsewhere and all other uses, see Bank holiday (disambiguation) . A bank holiday is a colloquial term for a public holiday in the United Kingdom , some Commonwealth countries , Hong Kong and the Republic of Ireland . There is no automatic right to time off on these days, although banks close and the majority of the working population is granted time off work or extra pay for working on these days, depending on their contract. [1] The first official bank holidays were the four days named in the Bank Holidays Act 1871 , but today the term is colloquially used for Good Friday and Christmas Day which were already public holidays under common law and therefore not official bank holidays in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. [2] Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 In the United Kingdom 2.1 Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971 2.2 Royal proclamation 2.3 In Scotland 2.4 Campaigns for extra bank holidays 2.5 Proposed move of May Day Bank Holiday (England and Wales) 2.6 1968 Emergency Bank Holiday 2.7 UK Bank Holiday sales 2.7.1 Boxing Day 3 List of current holidays in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Isle of Man 4 In Australia 5 In Hong Kong 6 In India 7 In Ireland 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History [ edit ] Until 1834, the Bank of England observed about 33 saints' days and religious festivals as holidays, but in that year this was reduced to four: 1 May (May Day), 1 November ( All Saints' Day ), Good Friday and Christmas Day. In 1871, the first legislation relating to bank holidays was passed when Liberal politician and banker Sir John Lubbock introduced the Bank Holidays Act 1871 , which specified the days in the table below. [3] Under the Act, no person was compelled to make any payment or to do any act upon a bank holiday which he would not be compelled to do or make on Christmas Day or Good Friday, and the making of a payment or the doing of an act on the following day was equivalent to doing it on the holiday. [4] People were so grateful that some called the first Bank Holidays St Lubbock's Days for a while. [5] Scotland was treated separately because of its separate traditions: for example, New Year is a more important holiday there. [ citation needed ] Bank holidays 1871 England, Wales and Ireland Scotland New Year's Day Easter Monday Good Friday Whit Monday First Monday in May First Monday in August First Monday in August Boxing Day / St Stephen's Day Christmas Day The Act did not include Good Friday and Christmas Day as bank holidays in England, Wales, or Ireland because they were already recognised as common law holidays: they had been customary holidays since time immemorial . [3] In 1903, the Bank Holiday (Ireland) Act added 17 March, Saint Patrick's Day , as a bank holiday for Ireland only. [6] New Year's Day did not become a bank holiday in England until 1 January 1974. In the United Kingdom [ edit ] Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971 [ edit ] Commencing in 1965, on an experimental basis, the August Bank Holiday weekend was observed at the end of August \"to give a lead in extending British holidays over a longer summer period\". [7] Each year's date was announced in Parliament on an ad-hoc basis, to the despair of the calendar and diary publishing trade. [8] The rule seems to have been to select the weekend of the last Saturday in August, so that in 1968 [9] and 1969 [10] Bank Holiday Monday actually fell in September. A century after the 1871 Act, the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971, which currently regulates bank holidays in the UK, was passed. [11] The majority of the current bank holidays were specified in the 1971 Act: however New Year's Day and May Day were not introduced throughout the whole of the UK until 1974 and 1978 respectively. [12] The date of the August bank holiday was changed from the first Monday in August to the last Monday in August, and the Whitsun bank holiday (Whit Monday) was replaced by the Late Spring Bank Holiday, fixed as the last Monday in May. [13] In 1978 the first Monday in May in the rest of the UK, and the final Monday of May in Scotland, were designated as bank holidays. [14] In January 2007, the St Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007 was given royal assent , making 30 November (or the nearest Monday if a weekend) a bank holiday in Scotland. [15] Royal proclamation [ edit ] Under the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971, bank holidays are proclaimed each year by the legal device of a royal proclamation . Royal proclamation is also used to move bank holidays that would otherwise fall on a weekend. In this way, public holidays are not 'lost' in years when they coincide with weekends. These deferred bank holiday days are termed a 'bank holiday in lieu ' of the typical anniversary date. In the legislation they are known as 'substitute days'. The movement of the St Andrew's Day Scottish holiday to the nearest Monday when 30 November is a weekend day is statutory and does not require a proclamation. In Scotland [ edit ] Main article: Public and bank holidays in Scotland A number of differences apply in Scotland relative to the rest of the United Kingdom. For example, Easter Monday is not a bank holiday. Also, although they share the same name, the Summer Bank Holiday falls on the first Monday of August in Scotland, as opposed to the last Monday in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Despite this, it is custom and practice to follow the rest of the UK and banks close on the last Monday and not the first. Bank holidays do not, however, assume the same importance in Scotland as they do elsewhere. Whereas they have effectively become public holidays elsewhere in the United Kingdom, in Scotland there remains a tradition of public holidays based on local tradition and determined by local authorities (for example, the Glasgow Fair and the Dundee Fortnight ). In 1996, Scottish banks made the business decision to harmonise their own holidays with the rest of the United Kingdom, with the result that 'bank holidays' in Scotland are neither public holidays nor the days on which banks are closed. Campaigns for extra bank holidays [ edit ] The number of holidays in the UK is relatively small compared to many other European countries. However, direct comparison is inaccurate since the 'substitute day' scheme of deferment does not apply in most European countries, where holidays that coincide with a weekend (29% of fixed-date holidays) are 'lost'. In fact, the average number of non-weekend holidays in such countries is only marginally higher (and in some cases lower) than the UK. Worth mentioning is that public holidays in Europe which fall on Thursday or Tuesday typically become \" puente \" or \"bridge\" four-day or even six-day extended holiday weekends as people tend to use one or two days from their holiday entitlement to take off Monday and/or Friday. There have been calls for more bank holidays. [16] Among the most notable dates absent from the existing list are the feast days of patron saints ; 23 April ( St George's Day and widely regarded [17] as the birthday of William Shakespeare ) in England and 1 March ( St David's Day ) in Wales are not currently recognised. 17 March ( St Patrick's Day ) is a public holiday in Northern Ireland and, since 2008, 30 November ( St Andrew's Day ) is a bank holiday in Scotland. St Piran's Day (patron saint of Cornwall) on 5 March is already given as an unofficial day off to many government and other workers in the county, and there are renewed calls for the government to recognise this as an official bank holiday there. [18] [19] Proposed move of May Day Bank Holiday (England and Wales) [ edit ] After the election of the Coalition Government in May 2010, the Department of Culture, Media and Sport launched a pre-consultation in 2011 which included the suggestion of moving the May Day Bank Holiday to October, to be a \"UK Day\" or \"Trafalgar Day\" (21 October) or to St David's Day and St George's Day. [20] It is suggested that a move from the May bank holiday to a St Piran's Day bank holiday in Cornwall, on 5 March, would benefit the Cornish economy by £20–35 million. [21] 1968 Emergency Bank Holiday [ edit ] During the sterling crisis of 1968 , Prime Minister Harold Wilson convened a meeting of the privy council in the early hours of 14 March to declare 15 March a non-statutory bank holiday. This allowed the UK government to close the London gold market to stem the losses being suffered by the British pound. [22] It was this meeting that triggered the resignation of Foreign Secretary George Brown . UK Bank Holiday sales [ edit ] In the UK every bank holiday retailers display large sales to entice people to shop on their bank holiday days off. Sales can reach up to 70% off across certain stores. Customers will normally wait for these sales to purchase their home electronics and furniture. [ citation needed ] The sales are on every year but the bank holiday sales dates can change from year to year. In the UK Argos , Currys and Amazon are the largest retailers that not only have the biggest sales but also see the most revenue over these days. Boxing Day [ edit ] Boxing Day is a holiday celebrated in Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and other Commonwealth countries. Boxing Day originated in England in the middle of the nineteenth century under Queen Victoria. For years in which the holiday falls on a weekend, the celebration is moved to make sure workers still get a day off (except in Canada, where it remains 26 Dec.) In the UK it is classed as a Bank Holiday. List of current holidays in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Isle of Man [ edit ] See also: Public holidays in the United Kingdom , Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland , and Public holidays in the Isle of Man Current bank and public holidays Date Name England and Wales [23] (8) Scotland [23] (9) Northern Ireland [24] (10) Republic of Ireland [25] (9) Isle of Man [26] (10) 1 January [1] New Year's Day Y Y Y Y Y 2 January [1] 2 January Y 17 March [1] St Patrick's Day Y Y The Friday before Easter Sunday Good Friday Y Y Y Y The Monday after Easter Sunday Easter Monday Y Y Y Y First Monday in May [2] [3] May Day , Early May Bank Holiday Y Y Y Y Y Last Monday in May [4] [5] Spring Bank Holiday Y Y Y Y First Monday in June June Bank Holiday Y First Friday in June TT Bank Holiday Y 5 July Tynwald Day Y 12 July [1] The Twelfth , Battle of the Boyne Y First Monday in August Summer Bank Holiday Y Y Last Monday in August Late Summer Bank Holiday, August Bank Holiday Y Y Y Last Monday in October October Bank Holiday Y 30 November [1] St Andrew's Day Y 25 December [1] Christmas Day Y Y Y Y Y 26 December [1] Boxing Day , St Stephen's Day Y Y Y Y Y In 1995 the May Bank Holiday was moved to 8 May for the 50th anniversary of VE Day In the past, additional one-off bank holidays have included: (i) Wednesday 14 November 1973, to celebrate the Wedding of Princess Anne and Captain Mark Phillips at Westminster Abbey, (ii) Tuesday 7 June 1977, to celebrate The Queen’s Silver Jubilee, (iii) Wednesday 29 July 1981 to celebrate the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer at St. Paul's Cathedral, [27] (iv) Friday 31 December 1999 to enable people to prepare for the festivities to mark the arrival of the new millennium. [6] (v) Monday 3 June 2002 to celebrate the Queen's Golden Jubilee (Spring Bank Holiday was moved to Tuesday 4 June 2002) [28] (vi) Friday, 29 April 2011, to celebrate the wedding of Prince William and Kate Middleton. Notes ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g When the stated date falls on a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday is normally designated a public holiday instead. When Christmas Day falls on a Saturday (and thus 26 December on a Sunday), Monday 27 December and Tuesday 28 December are the designated substitute public holidays. Jump up ^ In 1995 this holiday was moved to 8 May – to commemorate the 50th anniversary of VE Day . Jump up ^ In 2011 an additional public holiday was declared to ensure that most people would have a chance to celebrate the Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton , making a four-day weekend as May day was on the following Monday. \"Royal Wedding: Prince William and Kate set date\" . BBC. 23 November 2010. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010 . Retrieved 23 November 2010 . Jump up ^ In 2002 this holiday was moved to 4 June. This caused it to follow an extra bank holiday on 3 June, making a four-day weekend to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . Jump up ^ In 2012 this holiday was moved to 4 June. It was then followed by an extra holiday on 5 June, making a four-day weekend to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . Jump up ^ House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 3 June 1998 , Hansard, 3 June 1998 , retrieved 28 January 2012 . In Australia [ edit ] See also: Public holidays in Australia § Other holidays Public holidays are not generally known as \"bank holidays\" in Australia, except in the state of Victoria , where all statutory holidays, their substitutes, and Saturdays are legally defined as \"bank holidays\". [29] In two other states there are two particular public holidays, for specific occupations only, which are officially known as \"Bank Holiday\": in New South Wales has a \"Bank Holiday\" on the first Monday in August – for bank employees only. in Tasmania , Easter Tuesday is a holiday for bank and government employees only. In Hong Kong [ edit ] Main article: Public holidays in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, the term \"bank holiday\" is used colloquially to refer to public holidays, since banks are normally closed on these days, along with government offices, the legislature, courts, and educational institutions. Hong Kong has maintained a distinction between public holidays and statutory holidays, only the latter of which are mandatory for all employees; the number of days for the latter is fewer by five days. In India [ edit ] Main article: Bank holidays in India In India , 15 of the public holidays are bank holidays. In Ireland [ edit ] Main article: Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland In Ireland, \"bank holiday\" is a colloquial term, sometimes used incorrectly for what are officially \"public holidays\". A bank holiday in Ireland are only days in which Bank employees are off, e.g. Good Friday is a Bank Holiday, but not a Public Holiday. See also [ edit ] List of holidays by country References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Bank holidays and British Summer Time : Directgov – Government, citizens and rights\" . Direct.gov.uk. 29 April 2011. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011 . Retrieved 17 May 2011 . Jump up ^ \"UK bank holidays – GOV.UK\" . gov.uk. 17 March 2014 . Retrieved 9 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Anon (22 May 2007). \"Bank Holiday Fact File\" (PDF) . TUC press release . TUC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2013 . Retrieved 12 January 2010 . Jump up ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \" Bank Holidays \". Encyclopædia Britannica . 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 320. Jump up ^ Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History , p.170. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-80164-7 . Jump up ^ \"Bank Holidays (Ireland) Bill\" . Hansard, the Official Report of debates in Parliament . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 24 February 2010 . Retrieved 26 March 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Bank Holiday on the Last Monday in August\" . The Times Digital Archive. 5 March 1964 . Retrieved 21 June 2013 . Jump up ^ \"1969 Dilemma on Diary Dates\" . The Times Digital Archive. 27 January 1967 . Retrieved 21 June 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Bank Holiday Dates For 1967 And 1968\" . The Times Digital Archive. 4 June 1965 . Retrieved 21 June 2013 . Jump up ^ \"1969 Bank Holidays\" . The Times Digital Archive. 22 March 1967 . Retrieved 21 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Ready, Nigel P.; Brooke, Richard (2002), Brooke's notary (12 ed.), Sweet & Maxwell, p. 479, ISBN 978-0-421-67280-2 Jump up ^ Scrope, Henry; Barnett, Daniel (2008), Employment Law Handbook (4 ed.), Henry Scrope, p. 135, ISBN 978-1-85328-674-2 Jump up ^ McWhirter, Norris; Stowe, Moira F. (1980), The Guinness book of answers: a handbook of general knowledge (3 ed.), Guinness Superlatives, p. 7, ISBN 978-0-85112-202-1 Jump up ^ Morrow, Thomas. \"Bank Holidays a history\" . Bank Holidays a history by Thomas Morrow . Retrieved 27 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Great Britain Parliament House of Lords European Union Committee (2007), Modernising European Union labour law: has the UK anything to gain?, report with evidence, 22nd report of session 2006–07 , The Stationery Office, p. 100, ISBN 978-0-10-485171-5 Jump up ^ Union leaders are campaigning for an extra bank holiday BBC News 27 October 2004 Jump up ^ Schoenbaum 1987 , 24–6. Jump up ^ \"Renewed call for St Piran holiday\" . BBC News . 5 March 2009 . Retrieved 26 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Gledhill, Ruth (5 March 2009). \"Cornwall workers given an unofficial day off for St Pirans Day\" . The Times . London . Retrieved 31 March 2010 . Jump up ^ http://www.culture.gov.uk/consultations/8068.aspx Jump up ^ \"Cornish National Holiday worth £35m\" . Western Morning News . 23 November 2011. Jump up ^ \"Statesman who bottled out: 'Tired and Emotional: The Life of Lord George Brown ' \" . The Independent . 9 May 1993. ^ Jump up to: a b Bank holidays and British Summer Time , Directgov, 8 February 2012 , retrieved 15 April 2012 Jump up ^ Bank holidays , NIDirect, 6 April 2012 , retrieved 15 April 2012 Jump up ^ Public holidays , Citizens Information Board , retrieved 15 April 2012 Jump up ^ http://www.gov.im/treasury/finance/bank_holidays.xml Jump up ^ http://touchstoneblog.org.uk/2010/11/royal-wedding-give-workers-a-day-off-to-toast-will-and-kate/ Jump up ^ https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/uk/2002 Jump up ^ \" Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic) s. 9\" (PDF) . Victorian Legislation and Parliamentary Documents . Parliament of Victoria . Retrieved 23 May 2015 . External links [ edit ] Text of the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk Annual leave and public holidays (Ireland) Calendar of all legal Public and Bank Holidays worldwide, until 2050 FirstCaribbean International Bank: Bank Holidays in the Caribbean region Bank Holidays 2016 in India List of Bank Holidays and other significant days for the UK Bank Holiday dates for the UK, Scotland and Northern Ireland Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bank_holiday&oldid=807934680 \" Categories : Public holidays in the United Kingdom British culture Irish culture Holidays Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica EngvarB from March 2017 Use dmy dates from March 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara Italiano Nederlands Norsk Polski Русский Simple English Svenska தமிழ் 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 October 2017, at 22:39. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Bank holiday", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Bank_holiday&amp;oldid=807934680" }

{ "text": "I Believe (When I Fall in Love It Will Be Forever) - Wikipedia I Believe (When I Fall in Love It Will Be Forever) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) \"I Believe (When I Fall in Love It Will Be Forever)\" Song by Stevie Wonder from the album Talking Book Released October 28, 1972 ( 1972-10-28 ) Recorded 1972 Genre Soul Length 4 : 53 Label Tamla Composer(s) Stevie Wonder Lyricist(s) Stevie Wonder , Yvonne Wright Producer(s) Stevie Wonder \" I Believe (When I Fall in Love It Will Be Forever) \" is a soul song co-written and performed by American singer-songwriter Stevie Wonder and Yvonne Wright, for Wonder's fifteenth studio album Talking Book (1972). The song features in the 2000 comedy-drama High Fidelity starring John Cusack and Jack Black , and is included on its soundtrack. Contents [ hide ] 1 E'voke version 1.1 Versions 2 Cover versions 3 References 4 External links E'voke version [ edit ] \"I Believe\" Single by E'voke B-side \"It's My Life\" Released 1994 Format CD , 7\" vinyl , 12\" vinyl , Digital download Genre House music Length 5 : 41 Label FFRR Pinball Records Songwriter(s) Stevie Wonder Producer(s) Barry Leng & Duncan Hannant This song was also recorded by E'voke in 1994 as their debut single (with the title being shortened to \"I Believe\"). A B-side to the track entitled \"It's My Life\" written by E'voke producers Barry Leng and Duncan Hannant was recorded. Though the track was not a commercial hit (it reached #79 in the UK charts and no video was filmed for the track), it was a club hit and E'voke moved on to FFRR's sister label Ffrreedom for their next single \" Runaway \". The CD single release of the track was released digitally by Pinball records in 2011. Versions [ edit ] Edited version 4:03 12\" mix 5:38 A Tin Tin Out mix 7:38 Tall Paul mix 6:39 The Gems for Jem mix 7:51 \"It's My Life\" (B-side) 5:25 Cover versions [ edit ] In the spring of 1974 a rendition by Songbird - entitled \"I Believe\" - was the second single release on the Mushroom label and became the label's first charting single reaching #75 on the Canadian chart (despite its low peak, the single reportedly sold close to 30,000 units). (Songbird was a studio group consisting of producer Mike Flicker , Howard Leese and Rob Deans). [1] Also in 1974, Colleen Hewett had an Australian single release of the song - entitled \"I Believe When I Fall in Love\"; issued in July 1974 Hewett's rendition charted nationally with a #51 peak and was featured on Hewett's album release M'Lady . The song was also covered by Peter Frampton in 1973 on his Frampton's Camel album, by Sérgio Mendes in 1975 on his album Sergio Mendes , and by Tina Arena on her debut album Strong as Steel . In 1994 Kate Ceberano recorded a version for her 1994 album Kate Ceberano and Friends , and Mike + The Mechanics included it on their 1995 release Beggar on a Beach of Gold . Petra Haden and Bill Frisell covered it on their 2003 collaboration album Petra Haden & Bill Frisell . It was also covered by Art Garfunkel on his 1975 album Breakaway and by Michael McDonald on his 2003 album Motown . Icelandic singer Friðrik Ómar included an Icelandic version of the song on his 2006 album Annan Dag , under the title Þvílíkt líf . A live performance of the song by George Michael was featured as the b-side to his 1991 hit with Elton John Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me . It was later included as a bonus track on the 2011 remastered edition of Faith . Josh Groban covered the song for his album All That Echoes , released in 2013 and released as a single that entered the Adult Contemporary chart and peaked at #20. Lee Mead covered the song for his Love Songs album released in 2012. Clair Marlo released her version of the song on her 1989 album Let it Go . Portions of the song are sampled in \"Don'tcha Wanna\" by Anastacia from the album Freak of Nature (2002). June 4, 2012 saw this song also covered by Darren Percival during Episode 13 of The Voice (Australia season 1) . In January 2014 this song was covered by X Factor (UK) finalist Daniel Evans on his official website. [ citation needed ] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Billboard vol 86 #49 (7 December 1974) p.63 [ hide ] v t e Colleen Hewett Studio albums Colleen Hewett M'Lady Colleen Tenterfield Dreams Black & White Compilation albums Greatest Hits Notable singles \" Superstar \" \" Day by Day \" \" Carry That Weight \" \" Waltzing Matilda \" \" Sit Yourself Down \" \" I Believe When I Fall in Love \" \" If You Could Read My Mind \" \" Dreaming My Dreams with You \" \" The Wind Beneath My Wings \" \" I Hope I Never \" Related articles The Incredible Penguins External links [ edit ] Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Believe_(When_I_Fall_in_Love_It_Will_Be_Forever)&oldid=818981058 \" Categories : 1972 songs 1974 singles Stevie Wonder songs Colleen Hewett songs Songs written by Stevie Wonder 1994 singles FFRR Records singles Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2016 All articles needing additional references Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 6 January 2018, at 18:25. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "I Believe (When I Fall in Love It Will Be Forever)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=I_Believe_(When_I_Fall_in_Love_It_Will_Be_Forever)&amp;oldid=818981058" }

{ "text": "Christopher Kimball - Wikipedia Christopher Kimball From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Christopher Kimball Christopher Kimball in 2016 Born ( 1951-06-05 ) June 5, 1951 (age 67) Rye, New York , U.S. [1] Education Columbia University (B.A., 1973) [1] [2] Spouse(s) Melissa Lee Baldino (m. 2013) (1 child) Adrienne Kimball (m. 1987–2012) (4 children) [3] [4] [5] Culinary career Television show(s) [show] Hosts Christopher Kimball's Milk Street (2016-present) America's Test Kitchen (2000–2015) Cook's Country from America's Test Kitchen (2008–2015) Appears On Weekend Today , The Early Show Website https://www.177milkstreet.com/ Christopher Kimball (born June 5, 1951) is an American chef, editor, publisher, and radio/TV personality. Contents [ hide ] 1 Early life and education 2 Career 2.1 Early career 2.2 America's Test Kitchen 2.3 Christopher Kimball's Milk Street 2.4 Other 3 Personal life 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading 7 External links Early life and education [ edit ] Kimball was born and raised in Westchester County, New York , the son of Mary Alice White and Edward Norris Kimball. [6] The family had a cabin in southwestern Vermont. [1] He graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy and then Columbia University (1973) with a degree in Primitive Art. [1] [2] Career [ edit ] Early career [ edit ] After graduating from Columbia, he went to work with his stepbrother in a publishing company. Soon after, he worked for The Center for Direct Marketing in Westport, Connecticut and also started taking cooking courses. [1] After securing $100,000 in angel investments from friends and family, he started Cook’s Magazine from a tiny office in Weston, Connecticut in 1980 when he was 29 years old. [1] He sold the magazine to the Bonnier Group in 1989 and moved on to other publishing ventures. [1] America's Test Kitchen [ edit ] Kimball was a co-founder and has been editor and publisher of America's Test Kitchen, which produces television and radio shows, and publishes magazines, including Cook's Illustrated , [6] which Kimball launched in 1993. It also publishes Cook's Country magazine, which was launched in 2004, [1] and former publisher of the now-defunct Cook's Magazine . [ citation needed ] The company's revenue comes from its readers, rather than advertisers, which differentiates them from the competitors. [1] Its cookbook publisher division is Two Pigs Farm. Boston Common Press, a private partnership between Kimball, Eliot Wadsworth II, and George P. Denny III, owns Kimball’s publishing activities. [1] Kimball also hosted the syndicated Public Television cooking shows America's Test Kitchen and Cook's Country from America's Test Kitchen . On November 16, 2015, a news release from Boston Common Press, parent company of Cooks Country/Cooks Illustrated/America's Test Kitchen, announced the departure of Christopher Kimball. The 2016 TV programs had already been filmed and Kimball appeared as host, but his direct participation in the company ended immediately. [7] He remains a minority stockholder in the closely held company. Christopher Kimball's Milk Street [ edit ] Main article: Christopher Kimball's Milk Street In 2016, he embarked on a new venture, Christopher Kimball's Milk Street, located on Milk Street in Boston, Massachusetts. [8] On October 31, 2016, the company behind America's Test Kitchen and Cook's Illustrated Magazine filed a lawsuit against Kimball in Suffolk Superior Court , claiming that Kimball \"literally and conceptually ripped off\" his former employer. [9] In the lawsuit, America's Test Kitchen claims that Kimball built his new venture while still on their payroll, using company resources in the form of recipes and databases to help shape Milk Street Kitchen into a direct competitor [10] [11] . Other [ edit ] He is the author of The Cook's Bible , The Yellow Farmhouse Cookbook , Dear Charlie , The Dessert Bible and Fannie's Last Supper , and is a columnist for the New York Daily News and the Boston-based Tab Communications . Other television appearances include This Old House and the morning shows Weekend Today and The Early Show . He is a regular contributor on National Public Radio . On January 8, 2011, Kimball began hosting WGBH-FM 's America's Test Kitchen Radio distributed by PRX. Personal life [ edit ] He has been married three times. He had a son and three daughters with his second wife, Adrienne. They divorced in December 2012. [3] [4] [5] On June 30, 2013, Kimball married Melissa Lee Baldino, executive producer of the America's Test Kitchen television show. [6] She is now co-founder of Christopher Kimball's Milk Street. [12] Their son, Oliver Kimball, was born on May 4, 2017. References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Frieswick, Kris, \"Perfection, Inc.\" , The Boston Globe , August 2, 2009. ( PDF version ) ^ Jump up to: a b Lui, Claire, \"Cooking 101: Chris Kimball ’73 brings recipes that work from America’s Test Kitchen to your kitchen\" , Columbia College Today , July/August 2010 ^ Jump up to: a b \"Country Style - Boston Magazine\" . Boston Magazine . 15 May 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b \"A Down-Home Thanksgiving on the Kimball Farm\" . NPR . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Thanksgiving Answers From Chris Kimball\" . WBUR . ^ Jump up to: a b c Laskey, Margaux, \"Melissa Baldino, Christopher Kimball: All the Ingredients Were There\" , The New York Times , June 30, 2013 Jump up ^ \"Christopher Kimball to Leave America's Test Kitchen\" . Cook's Illustrated . November 16, 2015 . Retrieved 2016-03-04 . Jump up ^ Healy, Beth; Nanos, Janelle, \"Chris Kimball to launch Milk Street Kitchen cooking venture\" , The Boston Globe , May 31, 2016 Jump up ^ \"America's Test Kitchen sues Christopher Kimball over celebrity chef's new venture - The Boston Globe\" . BostonGlobe.com . Retrieved 2016-11-02 . Jump up ^ Krystal, Becky (2016-11-02). \"Six take-aways from America's Test Kitchen's lawsuit against Christopher Kimball\" . Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 2018-03-22 . Jump up ^ Severson, Kim (2016-11-03). \"Food Fight Heats Up as America's Test Kitchen Sues a Founder\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2018-03-22 . Jump up ^ \"A day in the life of Christopher Kimball's Milk Street - The Boston Globe\" . BostonGlobe.com . Retrieved 2018-04-08 . Sources [ edit ] Metcalf, Stephen (October 13, 2003). \"Sexy Food Nerds: Cooking geeks get hot on America's Test Kitchen\" . Slate . \"In the Test Kitchen With Christopher Kimball\" . Powell's Books . \"Tour the Test Kitchen: Cast Biographies\" . America's Test Kitchen . americastestkitchen.com. Further reading [ edit ] Toasting Fannie Farmer With An Epic Victorian Feast , NPR , October 14, 2010 Halberstadt, Alex, \"The secret to Christopher Kimball's success\" , The New York Times Magazine , October 14, 2012. External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christopher Kimball . Cook's Illustrated Magazine America's Test Kitchen Christopher Kimball on IMDb Authority control WorldCat Identities ISNI : 0000 0000 3180 4053 LCCN : n95121855 VIAF : 63264387 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Kimball&oldid=849672877 \" Categories : Living people American magazine founders Phillips Exeter Academy alumni Columbia University alumni American television personalities 1951 births People from Rye, New York PBS people Hidden categories: Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Add links This page was last edited on 10 July 2018, at 15:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Christopher Kimball", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Christopher_Kimball&amp;oldid=849672877" }

{ "text": "Visa policy of Russia - Wikipedia Visa policy of Russia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 29 August 2018 . Jump to navigation Jump to search Russian transit visa with entry and exit stamps in a Swedish passport Entry stamp in the Russian federation The visa policy of Russia deals with the requirements which a foreign national wishing to enter the Russian Federation must meet to obtain a visa , which is a permit to travel to, enter and remain in the country. Visa exemptions are based on bilateral or multilateral agreements. Russia has agreements with scores of countries whose citizens are either exempt from visa, or can purchase a visa online. Citizens of countries without such an agreement with Russia must obtain a visa in advance from a Russian diplomatic mission or visa centre. Contents 1 Visa exemption 1.1 Ordinary passports 1.1.1 Fan ID 1.1.2 Tour groups 1.1.3 Land border with Belarus 1.1.4 Common visa 1.1.5 Visa-free visits for up to 72 hours for cruise ship and ferry passengers 1.1.6 Visa-free zones 1.1.7 Crew members 1.2 E-visa to visit certain regions 1.3 Visa-free transit 1.4 Diplomatic and service category passports 1.5 APEC Business Travel Card 2 Closed cities 3 Areas closed to foreigners 4 Crimea 5 Future changes 6 Agreements 7 Visa 7.1 Types of visa 7.2 Applying for visa 7.3 Exit 7.4 Costs for visa 7.5 Fingerprinting 8 Statistics 9 History 9.1 General Rules 9.1.1 International events 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Visa exemption [ edit ] Russia The disputed Crimean Peninsula under visa policy of Russia Freedom of movement Visa waiver countries and territories Visa required for entry to Russia Ordinary passports [ edit ] Travelers who are nationals of the following 49 nations are not required to obtain a visa prior to visit Russia as long as their trip lasts no more than the visa waiver limit listed below. [1] From 2014, citizens of the countries, except Belarus, who have the right to a visa-free entry to Russia must not stay longer than 90 days within any 180-day period . Resetting the allowed period by leaving and re-entering the country is no longer allowed. Overstaying up to 180 days is punishable by a three-year entry ban, on 180–270 days by a five-year entry ban, over 270 days by ten-year entry ban. [2] Unlimited period Belarus 1 South Ossetia 1 [3] 90 days Abkhazia 1 [4] Armenia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan 1 Kyrgyzstan 1 Moldova Tajikistan Ukraine 1 2 Uzbekistan Estonia (holders of an alien passport ) Latvia (holders of a non-citizen passport ) Non-commercial purposes Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador El Salvador Fiji Grenada Guatemala Guyana Honduras Israel Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis South Africa Uruguay Vanuatu Venezuela 60 days for non-commercial purposes Mauritius Samoa South Korea 30 days for non-commercial purposes Bosnia and Herzegovina Cuba Laos Macao Macedonia 3 Mongolia Montenegro Serbia Seychelles Thailand 14 days for non-commercial purposes Brunei Hong Kong Nauru Notes ^ Internal passport/national identification card accepted. ^ On 18 February 2017 the President of Russia has signed the decree \"About Recognition of the Documents Issued to the Citizens of Ukraine and Persons Without Citizenship Living in Territories of Certain Districts of the Donetsk and Luhansk Regions of Ukraine\". Holders of passports of Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic can carry out entry into the Russian Federation and departure from the Russian Federation without execution of visas. The decree is applied temporarily, for the period before political settlement of a situation in certain districts of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions of Ukraine on the basis of the Minsk Agreement . [5] ^ If holding a letter of guarantee/invitation and a tourist voucher. show Date of visa changes Armenian, Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Kazakhstani, Kyrgyzstani, Moldovan, Tajik, Ukrainian and Uzbekistani citizens have never needed a visa to gain access to Russia 29 July 1994: Cuba [6] 24 March 2007: Thailand 20 September 2008: Israel 31 October 2008: Macedonia [7] 21 November 2008: Montenegro [8] 6 March 2009: Venezuela 10 June 2009: Serbia [9] 29 June 2009: Argentina 1 July 2009: Hong Kong 7 June 2010: Brazil 3 July 2010: Nicaragua [10] 18 January 2011: Chile [11] 11 Mar 2011: Colombia [12] 25 April 2011: South Ossetia [13] 26 April 2011: Abkhazia [14] 21 June 2011: Peru [15] 27 December 2011: Uruguay [16] 29 February 2012: Guatemala [17] 30 September 2012: Macao 24 November 2012: Ecuador [18] 1 May 2013: Bosnia and Herzegovina [19] [20] 1 January 2014: South Korea [21] 29 July 2014: Fiji 20 October 2014: Paraguay [22] 14 November 2014: Mongolia [23] (resumed under different terms) 8 February 2015: Panama [24] 14 May 2015: Nauru [25] 11 July 2015: Honduras [26] 27 November 2015: Guyana [27] 14 December 2015: Seychelles [28] 10 April 2016: Mauritius [29] 27 August 2016: El Salvador [30] 3 October 2016: Bolivia [31] 21 October 2016: Vanuatu 30 March 2017: South Africa [32] 9 July 2017: Samoa [33] 21 November 2017: Saint Kitts and Nevis [34] 2 December 2017: Laos [35] 24 December 2017: Grenada [36] 8 January 2018: Brunei Cancelled: As the Soviet Union East Germany : 1990 [37] As the Russian Federation Estonia and Latvia: 12 May 1993 [38] Vietnam: 20 February 1994 [39] Lithuania: 19 April 1994 [40] Mongolia: 5 May 1995 [41] (was resumed in 2014) North Korea: 22 May 1997 [42] Turkmenistan: 17 July 1999 Slovenia: 1 December 1999 [43] Georgia: 3 December 2000 Czech Republic: 29 May 2000 [44] Slovakia: 1 January 2001 [45] Hungary: 14 June 2001 Bulgaria: 7 May 2002 Poland: 1 October 2003 Cyprus: 1 January 2004 [46] Romania: 1 March 2004 Croatia: 31 March 2013 [43] Turkey: 1 Jan 2016 [47] Fan ID [ edit ] FAN ID 2018 FIFA World Cup holders of tickets for matches of the championship could to enter Russia without a visa with personalized card of viewer (also known as the passport of a fan or fan-ID) and national passport from 4 June to 15 July 2018. Holders of Fan ID previously had to leave Russia no later than 26 July 2018. Russia extended its visa-free travel regime for foreign soccer fans until the end of 2018. [48] The Fan-ID system will be used for visitors to international events in the future. Tour groups [ edit ] Citizens of China may visit Russia without a visa for up to 15 days if traveling as part of a tour group (from 5 to 50 persons) that is accompanied by a representative of a tour operator registered in both countries. Land border with Belarus [ edit ] Citizens of third countries aren't allowed to cross the Belarus–Russia land border due to a lack of international border crossing points, because passports must be stamped. [49] [50] Visitors are advised [51] to enter mainland Russia via other countries such as Terehova –Burachki and Senkivka –Novye Yurkovichi. The simplified border crossing regime is applied from 4 June to 25 July 2018 for holders of a fan passports or FAN IDs of FIFA. [52] Common visa [ edit ] Russia and Belarus plan to sign an agreement on recognition of visas. Holders of a visa of Belarus will be visa exempt in 2018. [53] Visa-free visits for up to 72 hours for cruise ship and ferry passengers [ edit ] Since May 2009 international tourists entering by regular ferry via several ports have been able to stay in Russia visa-free for up to 72 hours, provided that they spend the night on-board or in accommodation specifically approved by the travel agency. [54] In addition tourists entering by tourist cruise ships can leave the ship visa-free on tours organized by any authorized local tour company, when entering Russia through the ports of Anadyr , Kaliningrad , Korsakov , Novorossiysk , Murmansk , Sevastopol , Sochi , Saint Petersburg ( Big port Saint Petersburg and Passenger Port of St. Petersburg ), Vladivostok , Vyborg , Zarubino . [55] [56] [57] Entry to the port of St. Petersburg by regular ferry can be done only from the ports of Tallinn (Estonia) or Helsinki (Finland). It is also possible to travel visa-free for 72 hours from the port of Stockholm with the stop in Helsinki. [58] [59] Visa-free zones [ edit ] Japan — Group travel to central and southern Kuril Islands for pre-approved lists of the Foreign Ministry. Visits are carried out on the basis of identity cards and inserts. [60] No visas for citizens of Japan who visit the burial place of relatives located in the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin Island . By pre- authorized list in the regional Russian-Japanese consultations. [61] United States — Residents of Alaska who are members of the indigenous population do not require a visa to visit Chukotka Autonomous Okrug if they have relatives (blood relatives, members of the same tribe, native people who have similar language and cultural heritage) in Chukotka. Individuals must be invited by a relative in Chukotka and must leave Chukotka within 90 days. Entry points are in Anadyr , Provideniya , Lavrentiya and Uelen . [62] [63] Local border traffic Latvia — 90 days within any 180-day period for holders of border traffic permit [64] [65] [66] Agreement on the abolition of the 180 day total period of stay was signed on 14 November 2017 but are not yet ratified. [67] show The territory covered by the agreement. Latvia Alūksne Municipality Alsviķi parish , Alūksne town, Anna parish , Jaunalūksne parish , Jaunanna parish , Jaunlaicene parish , Liepna parish , Maliena parish , Mālupe parish , Mārkalne parish , Pededze parish , Veclaicene parish , Ziemeri parish Baltinava Municipality Balvi Municipality Balvi parish , Balvi town, Bērzkalne parish , Bērzpils parish , Briežuciems parish , Krišjāņi parish , Kubuli parish , Lazduleja parish , Tilža parish , Vectilža parish , Vīksna parish . Cibla Municipality Blonti parish , Cibla parish , Līdumnieki parish , Pušmucova parish , Zvirgzdene parish . Dagda Municipality Bērziņi parish , Ezernieki parish , Ķepova parish , Svariņi parish , Šķaune parish Kārsava Municipality Goliševa parish , Kārsava town, Malnava parish , Mērdzene parish , Mežvidi parish , Salnava parish . Ludza Municipality Briģi parish , Cirma parish , Isnauda parish , Istra parish , Ludza town, Nirza parish , Ņukši parish , Pilda parish , Pureņi parish , Rundēni parish . Rēzekne Municipality Bērzgale parish , Dricāni parish , Gaigalava parish , Ilzeskalns parish , Lendži parish , Nautrēni parish , Strūžāni parish . Rugāji Municipality Lazdukalns parish , Rugāji parish . Viļaka Municipality Kuprava parish , Medņeva parish , Susāji parish , Šķilbēni parish , Vecumi parish , Viļaka town, Žīguri parish . Zilupe Municipality Lauderi parish , Pasiene parish , Zaļesje Parish , Zilupe town. Russia Pskov Oblast Krasnogorodsky District : Krasnogorodsk , Pogranichnaya Volost, Krasnogorodskaya Volost, Partizanskaya Volost. Opochetsky District : Varyginskaya Volost, Makushinskaya Volost, Prigorodnaya Volost. Ostrovsky District : Ostrov , Berezhanskaya Volost, Gorayskaya Volost. Palkinsky District : Palkino , Kachanovskaya Volost, Rodonskaya Volost, Palkinskaya Volost, Novousitovskaya Volost, Vasilyevskaya Volost, Cherskaya Volost. Pechorsky District : Pechory , Lavrovskaya Volost, Kruppskaya Volost, Novoizborskaya Volost, Izborskaya Volost, Panikovskaya Volost. Pytalovsky District : Pytalovo , Gavrovskaya Volost, Linovskaya Volost, Nosovskaya Volost, Skalinskaya Volost, Vyshgorodskaya Volost, Tulinskaya Volost, Utroinskaya Volost. Sebezhsky District : Sebezh , Sosnovy Bor , Sebezhskaya Volost, Mostischenskaya Volost. Norway — 15 days for holders of border traffic permit [68] [69] [70] show The territory covered by the agreement. Norway Finnmark county : municipality of Sør-Varanger , within a zone of 30 km from the border + area of Neiden . Russia Pechengsky District : Korzunovo municipality, Zapolyarny municipality and the territory of Pechenga municipality and Nickel municipality within a zone of 30 km from the border. Poland — 30 days, for a maximum total stay of 90 days within a 180-day period for holders of border traffic permit [71] [72] The agreement was suspended indefinitely from 4 July 2016. [73] [74] show The territory covered by the agreement. Poland Pomeranian Voivodeship Towns: Gdańsk , Gdynia , Sopot . Gdańsk County , Malbork County , Nowy Dwór Gdański County , Puck County . Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship Towns: Elbląg , Olsztyn . Bartoszyce County , Braniewo County , Elbląg County , Giżycko County , Gołdap County , Kętrzyn County , Lidzbark County , Mrągowo County , Olecko County , Olsztyn County , Węgorzewo County . Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Crew members [ edit ] Visa is not required for crew members of airlines, sea crew, river crew, rail crew that have a bilateral agreement with the Russian government exempting crew members from visa requirements. [75] [76] Citizens of following countries may visit Russia without a visa if they are travelling as part of the airline crew : Afghanistan , [77] Algeria , [78] Austria , [79] Belgium , [80] Bulgaria , [81] Canada , [82] China , [83] Croatia , [84] [85] Cyprus , [86] Czech Republic , [87] Denmark , [88] Egypt , [89] France , [90] Greece [91] Iceland , [92] India , [93] Iraq , [94] Italy , [95] Japan , [96] Jordan , [97] North Korea , [98] Lebanon , [99] [100] Libya , [101] Lithuania , [102] Macedonia , [103] Netherlands , [104] Norway , [105] Oman [106] Poland , [107] Portugal [108] Romania [109] Spain , [110] Sri Lanka , [111] Sweden , [112] Turkmenistan , [113] United Kingdom [114] Vietnam . [115] Agreements signed with Finland , [116] Italy [117] and Luxembourg [118] and are yet to be ratified. Russian Government has instructed the Foreign Ministry to sign an agreement with Georgia [119] and Tunisia . [120] Citizens of following countries may visit Russia without a visa if they are travelling as part of the sea crew : Bulgaria , [81] China , 1 [83] Croatia , [84] [85] Cyprus , [86] DR Congo , [121] Egypt , [122] France , [90] Iran , [123] Iraq [124] North Korea , [98] Lithuania , 1 [102] Poland , [107] Tunisia , [125] Turkey , Turkmenistan , 1 [126] Vietnam . [115] 1 - including riverboats crew Citizens of following countries may visit Russia without a visa if they are travelling as part of the railway crew : China , [83] North Korea , [127] Turkmenistan . [128] E-visa to visit certain regions [ edit ] From 8 August 2017, citizens of the following 18 countries can get e-visa to visit to regions in the Russian Far East . [129] [130] Eligible countries Russia The disputed Crimean Peninsula under visa policy of Russia Visa-free access Access to some regions with e-visa Algeria Bahrain Brunei [131] China India Iran Japan North Korea Kuwait Mexico Morocco Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Tunisia Turkey United Arab Emirates Conditions for issuing: e-visa is a single-entry visa and issued for 30 calendar days from the date of its issuance. The permitted stay in Russia with an e-visa is up to 8 days starting from the date of entry, within its validity period e-visa validity and/or the permitted stay under it cannot be extended an e-visa is free invitations, hotel booking confirmations or any other documents that confirm the purpose of your journey to Russia are not required for an e-visa the time period for issuing an e-visa is no longer than 4 calendar days from the date of submission of the complete application e-visas can be of the following categories only: ordinary business visa (purpose of journey is business), ordinary tourist visa (purpose of journey is tourism), and ordinary humanitarian visa (purposes of journey are sports, cultural, scientific and technological ties) foreign nationals will have the right to freedom of movement within the territory of the region near the point of entry with the exception of territories, organizations and facilities, to enter which a special permission is required in accordance with federal laws of the Russian Federation. foreign citizens who have arrived to Russia with e-visas have the right to freedom of movement within the territory of the constituent entity of Russia which they entered, with the exception of territories, organizations and facilities, to enter which a special permission is required in accordance with federal laws of Russia. foreign citizens should leave the territory of Russia only through checkpoints of the constituent entity of Russia which they entered application form for an e-visa can be filled not earlier than 20 days and no later than 4 days before the intended date of entry into Russia passport must be valid for at least 6 months from the date of application foreign citizens are required to have a medical insurance Regions Russian e-visa for the Far East regions Primorsky Krai Kamchatka Krai Sakhalin Oblast Eligible border crossing points of entry Port of entry Areas permitted to stay Effective date Vladivostok International Airport Primorsky Krai 8 August 2017 Sea passenger terminal of Vladivostok Sea port of Posyet 1 January 2018 Sea port of Zarubino Railway checkpoints: Khasan , Makhalino, Pogranichny Road checkpoints: Poltavka, Turiy Rog Sea port of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky Kamchatka Krai Sea port of Korsakov Sakhalin Oblast Blagoveshchensk Airport Amur Oblast 1 September 2018 [132] Khabarovsk Airport Khabarovsk Krai Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky Airport Kamchatka Krai Ugolny Airport Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Airport Sakhalin Oblast Khrabrovo Airport Kaliningrad Oblast 1 July 2019 [133] [134] Visa-free transit [ edit ] Direct airside transit Passengers travelling through international airports do not need a visa for a transit of less than 24 hours (except to/from countries of the Eurasian Custom Union, including Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan), [135] provided a confirmed onward ticket is held and the traveller remains in the international transit area (without clearing passport control). [136] The following international Russian airports do not have international transit areas, meaning a transit visa is required to connect there: Khabarovsk Airport (KHV) Krasnodar Airport (KRR) Mineralnye Vody Airport (MRV) Rostov Airport (ROV) Sochi Airport (AER) Vladivostok Airport (VVO) Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Airport (UUS) Saimaa canal In accordance with a treaty between Russia and Finland , though there are passport controls at borders, a visa is not required for just passing through the Russian part of the Saimaa canal without leaving the vessel. [137] Värska–Ulitina road The road from Värska to Ulitina in Estonia , traditionally the only road to the Ulitina area, goes through Russian territory for one kilometre (0.6 mi) of its length, an area called Saatse Boot . This road has no border control, but there is no connection to any other road in Russia. It is not permitted to stop or walk along the road. This area is a part of Russia but is also a de facto part of the Schengen area. Diplomatic and service category passports [ edit ] Russia The disputed Crimean Peninsula under visa policy of Russia Visa-free for holders of diplomatic and service category passports Visa-free for holders of diplomatic passports Under reciprocal agreements, holders of diplomatic or various categories of service passports (official, service, special, consular) issued by the following countries and territories are allowed to enter and remain in Russia for up to 90 days (unless otherwise noted) without a visa: [1] [138] All European Union citizens 3 D * (excluding Ireland and United Kingdom) Abkhazia [139] D S Albania D S Angola D S Argentina 2 D S O Armenia D Azerbaijan D S Bahrain 3 D S Sp Bangladesh 6 D O Belarus 1 D S Benin D S Bolivia 2 D S O Bosnia and Herzegovina D S Botswana D S Brazil D S Brunei 7 D O Burkina Faso D S Burundi 3 D S Cape Verde D S Cambodia D S Chile 2 D S China 6 D S Sp Colombia D O Congo D S O Costa Rica 2 D S Cuba 6 D S Dominican Republic D S Ecuador 4 D S O Egypt D S Sp El Salvador D O Ethiopia D S Fiji D Sp Gabon D S Gambia D S Grenada 3 D O Guatemala 2 D O C Guinea D S Guyana D S Honduras D O Iceland 3 D * India D S O Indonesia 7 D S Iran 6 D S Jamaica D S Jordan 3 D S Sp Kazakhstan D S Kuwait 3 D Sp Kyrgyzstan D S Laos 6 D S Liechtenstein 3 D * Macedonia D S Mali D S Mauritius 5 D Mexico D S O Moldova D S Monaco 3 D * Mongolia 6 D S Montenegro D S Morocco D S Mozambique 6 D S Myanmar D S O Nauru 7 D O Nepal D S Nicaragua D S O North Korea D S Norway 3 D * Oman D S Sp Pakistan D S Panama D S O Sp C Paraguay 2 D S O Sp Peru D S Sp Philippines D S O Qatar D * Saint Kitts and Nevis 3 D O Samoa D O Senegal D S Serbia D S Seychelles 6 D O Singapore D S O South Africa D S O South Korea D S O South Ossetia [140] 1 D S Sri Lanka 6 D S O Switzerland 3 D * Syria D S Sp Tajikistan D S Thailand D S Tunisia 3 D S Sp Turkey D * Turkmenistan 6 D S Ukraine D S United Arab Emirates D * Uruguay 2 D O Uzbekistan D Vanuatu D S Vatican 3 D * Venezuela D S Vietnam D S Zimbabwe 8 D S * - diplomatic passport only (diplomatic and service passports for Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia) D — diplomatic passports S — service passports O — official passports Sp — special passports C — consular passports 1 — Unlimited 2 – 3 months 3 – 90 days within any 180-day period 4 – 90 days within any one-year period 5 – 60 days 6 – 30 days 7 – 14 days 8 – not for tourism or transit, only for employees of official institutions of the country on the territory of Russia Holders of diplomatic or service category passports of Israel require a visa. APEC Business Travel Card [ edit ] Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the \"RUS\" code on the reverse that it is valid for travel to Russia can enter visa-free for business trips for up to 90 days within any 180-day period. [1] [141] [142] ABTCs are issued to nationals of: [143] Australia Brunei Chile China Hong Kong Indonesia Japan South Korea Malaysia Mexico New Zealand Papua New Guinea Peru Philippines Singapore Taiwan Thailand Vietnam Closed cities [ edit ] Several closed cities in Russia require special authorization. [144] Areas closed to foreigners [ edit ] Due to the Government Decree of 1992, parts of 19 subjects of Russian Federation closed for foreigners without special permits. [145] This restriction is not applicable for Russian citizens. Part of them: 1. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug , all 2. In Leningrad Oblast - all Russian islands of Gulf of Finland , except Gogland , and 20-km strip along South coast of Gulf of Finland. 3. The Republic of North Ossetia-Alania , 85% of territory. Transit to border with Georgia and to border with South Ossetia are possible along the main roads. Tsey Gorge is opened for foreigners from 2012. 4. Part of Kaliningrad Oblast , approx. 15%. 5. Part of Moscow Oblast , approx. 10%. 6. Part of Arkhangelsk Oblast , include Novaya Zemlya , approx. 30%. 7. Part of Murmansk Oblast , approx. 15%. Transit to/from Norway is possible by main road. 8. Part of Kamchatka Krai . 9. Part of Primorsky Krai . Crimea [ edit ] As of 2014 the disputed territory of Crimea is under Russian control and Russia enforces its visa policy there. [146] However, Ukraine requires that foreigners should comply with Ukrainian visa regime including obtaining a Ukrainian visa if one is necessary. Otherwise, Ukraine may impose sanctions for \"support of the temporary occupation of the Ukrainian territory\". [147] Future changes [ edit ] The Russian Government has instructed the Foreign Ministry to sign an agreement on visa waiver with the following countries: Dominica – 90 days within any 180-day period for all passports [148] Jamaica – 90 days within any year period for ordinary passports [149] Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – 90 days within any 180-day period for all passports [150] Suriname – 90 days within any 180-day period for all passports [151] Visa waiver agreements have already been signed with the following countries but are not yet ratified or applied: Algeria – 90 days within any 180-day period for diplomatic and service passports [152] Costa Rica – 90 days within any 180-day period for ordinary passports [153] [154] Cuba – 90 days within any 180-day period for all passports [155] [156] Equatorial Guinea – 90 days within any 180-day period for diplomatic and service passports [157] [158] Iran – 15 days for tourist groups [159] Micronesia – 30 days for all passports [160] Sudan – 90 days within any 180-day period for diplomatic passports [161] [162] United Arab Emirates – 90 days within any 180-day period for all passports [163] [164] Agreements [ edit ] The Russian Federation has visa waiver agreements with 130 jurisdictions. In the table, red indicates agreements signed but not ratified or temporarily not applied. show Valid bilateral and multilateral visa waiver agreements Country or territory Duration of stay by type of passport Date of signing Effective date Citation Diplomatic Service Official Special Consular Ordinary Abkhazia 90 days 2 Oct 2009 26 Apr 2011 [165] Albania 90 days 7 Apr 1993 6 Aug 1993 [166] Algeria 90 days within any 180-day period 19 Feb 2018 [167] Angola 90 days 26 Feb 1999 16 Jun 2006 [168] Argentina 3 months 16 May 1994 27 Sep 1994 [169] 90 days within any 180-day period 11 Mar 2009 18 Mar 2009 29 Jun 2009 [170] Armenia 90 days 25 Sep 2000 25 Sep 2000 [171] [172] Azerbaijan 90 days 3 Jul 1997 4 May 1998 [173] Bahrain 90 days within any 180 day-period 16 Dec 2015 26 Jun 2016 [174] Bangladesh 30 days 22 Sep 2016 12 Feb 2017 [175] Belarus Unlimited 30 Nov 2000 7 Jun 2002 [176] Benin 90 days 21 Jun 2001 20 Aug 2001 [177] Bolivia 3 month 11 Apr 1995 28 Apr 1997 [178] 90 days within any 180-day period 12 Apr 2016 3 Oct 2016 [179] [180] Bosnia and Herzegovina 90 days 30 days within any 60-day period 31 May 2013 20 Oct 2013 [181] Botswana 90 days 10 Feb 2005 11 Apr 2005 [182] Brazil 90 days 16 Apr 1991 2 16 May 1991 [183] 90 days within any 180-day period 26 Nov 2008 7 Jun 2010 [184] Brunei 14 days 7 Oct 2009 12 Oct 2009 2 11 Nov 2009 [185] [186] 14 days, for a maximum total stay of 90 days within any 180-day period 8 Nov 2017 8 Jan 2018 [187] Bulgaria 90 days within any 180-day period 5 Mar 2002 7 May 2002 [188] Burkina Faso 90 days 2 Mar 2000 2 Mar 2000 [189] Burundi 90 days within any 180-day period 6 Feb 2018 30 June 2018 [190] Cape Verde 90 days 14 Jul 1995 14 Sep 1995 [191] Cambodia 90 days 17 Mar 1988 28 May 1988 [192] Chile 3 months 14 Feb 1995 1 Oct 1996 [193] 3 months 4 Oct 2002 12 Feb 2004 [194] 90 days within any 180-day period 24 Sep 2010 18 Jan 2011 [195] China 30 days 22 Mar 2013 26 Apr 2014 [196] 15 days for tourist groups 4 29 Feb 2000 9 Nov 2000 [197] Colombia 90 days 26 Nov 1997 28 Mar 1998 [198] 90 days within any 180-day period 24 Sep 2010 11 Mar 2011 [199] Congo 90 days 18 Dec 2014 1 Jan 2016 [200] Costa Rica 3 month 16 Oct 1997 30 Apr 1998 [201] 90 days within any 180-day period 3 May 2018 28 May 2018 [202] Croatia 90 days within any 6-month period 2 Mar 2010 31 Mar 2013 [85] Cuba 30 days 3 Dec 1993 29 Jul 1994 [203] 90 days within any 180 day period 22 May 2018 [204] Cyprus 90 days within any half-year period 8 Jun 2005 20 May 2006 [205] Denmark 90 days within any 180-day period 27 May 2008 1 Oct 2009 [206] Dominican Republic 90 days 9 Sep 2009 9 Apr 2010 [207] Ecuador 90 days within any year period 18 Feb 1999 15 May 1999 [208] 90 days within any 180-day period 24 Sep 2010 24 Nov 2012 [209] Egypt 90 days 17 Jul 2003 17 Jul 2003 [210] El Salvador 90 days 25 Jan 1999 29 Jan 1999 2 30 Mar 1999 [211] 90 days within any 180-day period 26 Mar 2015 27 Aug 2016 [212] Equatorial Guinea 90 days within any 180-day period 7 Apr 2017 [213] Ethiopia 90 days 11 Dec 2002 11 Jan 2003 [214] European Union countries 25 states [show] Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden (excluding Denmark, Ireland and United Kingdom) 90 days within any 180-day period 25 May 2006 1 Jun 2007; for Croatia from 1 Jul 2013 [215] Fiji 90 days 1 28 Jun 2013 29 Jul 2014 [216] Gabon 90 days 5 Apr 2011 25 Sep 2011 [217] Gambia 90 days 4 May 2017 15 Aug 2018 [218] Grenada 90 days within any 180-day period 20 Sep 2017 24 Dec 2017 [219] Guatemala 3 months 24 May 1999 24 Jul 1999 [220] 90 days within any 180-day period 22 Sep 2011 29 Feb 2012 [221] Guinea 90 days 7 Jan 1998 8 Mar 1998 [222] Guyana 90 days 3 Nov 2005 12 Feb 2006 [223] [224] 90 days 7 Jun 2017 24 Jul 2017 2 17 Nov 2017 90 days within any 180-day period 27 Sep 2015 27 Nov 2015 [225] Honduras 90 days 21 Sep 1999 2 20 Nov 1999 [226] 90 days within any 180-day period 26 Sep 2014 11 Jul 2015 [227] Hong Kong 14 days 1 23 Apr 2009 1 Jul 2009 [228] Hungary 90 days 14 Jun 2001 14 Jun 2001 [229] Iceland 90 days within any 180-day period 24 Sep 2008 1 Mar 2010 [230] India 90 days 3 Dec 2004 15 Feb 2005 [231] Indonesia 14 days 1 Dec 2006 22 Mar 2008 [232] Iran 30 days 29 Mar 1993 28 Apr 1993 [233] 15 days for tourist groups 4 28 Mar 2017 [234] Israel 90 days within any 180-day period 20 Mar 2008 20 Sep 2008 [235] Jamaica 90 days 23 Jun 2000 1 Sep 2000 [236] Jordan 90 days within any 180-day period 11 Sep 2017 25 Jan 2018 [237] Kazakhstan 90 days 30 Nov 2000 7 Jun 2002 [176] Kuwait 90 days within any 180-day period 10 Nov 2015 10 Apr 2016 [238] Kyrgyzstan 90 days 30 Nov 2000 7 Jun 2002 [176] Laos 30 days 29 Nov 2004 30 Dec 2004 [239] 30 days, for a maximum total stay of 90 days within any 180-day period 8 Sep 2016 2 Dec 2017 [240] Liechtenstein 90 days within any 180-day period 12 Nov 2013 1 Apr 2015 [241] Macao 30 days 1 19 Jun 2012 30 Sep 2012 [242] Macedonia 90 days 30 days 19 Jun 2008 31 Oct 2008 [243] Mali 90 days 27 May 2009 27 May 2009 [244] Mauritius 60 days, for a maximum total stay of 90 days within any 180-day period 23 Dec 2015 10 Apr 2016 [245] [246] Mexico 90 days 28 Jan 1997 5 Jul 1997 [247] Micronesia 30 days 1 21 Sep 2017 [248] Moldova 90 days 30 Nov 2000 30 Nov 2000 [249] Mongolia 30 days, for a maximum total stay of 90 days within any 180-day period 3 Sep 2014 14 Nov 2014 [250] Montenegro 90 days 30 days 24 Sep 2008 21 Nov 2008 [251] Morocco 90 days 15 Oct 2002 15 Oct 2002 [252] Mozambique 30 days 30 Dec 2009 30 May 2010 [253] Myanmar 90 days 3 Jul 2000 3 Aug 2000 [254] Nauru 14 days 1 24 Sep 2014 14 May 2015 [255] Nepal 90 days 16 Apr 2002 16 May 2002 [256] Nicaragua 90 days 28 Nov 1997 2 13 Jan 1998 [257] 90 days within any 180-day period 28 Jul 2009 3 Jul 2010 [258] North Korea 90 days 24 Jan 1997 22 May 1997 [259] Norway 90 days within any 180-day period 8 Jun 2007 1 Dec 2008 [260] Oman 90 days 3 Feb 2016 27 Oct 2016 [261] Pakistan 90 days 4 Jun 1994 4 Jul 1994 [262] Panama 90 days 16 Jun 1995 22 Jun 1995 2 20 Aug 1995 [263] 90 days within any 180-day period 3 Dec 2014 9 Dec 2014 2 8 Feb 2015 [264] Paraguay 3 months 20 Nov 1995 2 Feb 1997 [265] 90 days within any 180-day period 25 Sep 2013 20 Oct 2014 [266] Peru 90 days 14 Jul 1999 19 Nov 1999 [267] 90 days within any 180-day period 13 Nov 2010 21 Jun 2011 [268] Philippines 90 days 3 Aug 2007 22 Dec 2008 [269] Poland 90 days 18 Sep 2003 1 Oct 2003 [270] Qatar 90 days 18 Jan 2016 14 Aug 2016 [271] Romania 90 days 26 Aug 2002 1 Mar 2004 [272] Saint Kitts and Nevis 90 days within any 180-day period 21 Sep 2017 21 Nov 2017 [273] Samoa 60 days 1 4 Apr 2017 9 July 2017 [274] Senegal 90 days 2 Jul 2015 6 Feb 2017 [275] [276] Serbia 90 days 30 days 20 Feb 2009 10 Jun 2009 [277] Seychelles 30 days 1 2 Sep 2015 14 Dec 2015 [278] Singapore 90 days 17 Nov 2015 2 Jan 2016 [279] Slovakia 90 days 29 Dec 2000 29 Dec 2000 [280] South Africa 90 days 5 Aug 2010 15 Dec 2010 [281] 90 days 24 Jan 2017 27 Feb 2017 2 30 Mar 2017 [282] South Korea 90 days 21 Sep 2004 21 Nov 2004 [283] 90 days 17 Oct 2006 31 Dec 2006 [284] 60 days, for a maximum total stay of 90 days within any 180-day period 13 Nov 2013 1 Jan 2014 [285] South Ossetia Unlimited; 90 days until 30 Jul 2015 1 Feb 2010 25 Apr 2011 [286] Sri Lanka 30 days 13 Aug 2015 24 Oct 2015 [287] Sudan 90 days within any 180-day period 24 Nov 2017 [288] Syria 90 days [289] 20 Mar 2008 2 Jul 2008 [290] [291] Switzerland 90 days within any 180-day period 21 Sep 2009 1 Feb 2011 [292] Tajikistan 90 days 30 Nov 2000 7 Jun 2002 [176] Thailand 90 days 17 Oct 2002 6 Mar 2003 [293] 30 days 13 Dec 2005 24 Mar 2007 [294] Tunisia 90 days within any 180-day period 28 Jun 2012 13 Feb 2013 [295] Turkey 90 days 5 Nov 1999 6 Jan 2000 [296] 30 days (temporarily not applied from 15 Apr 2016) 12 May 2010 16 Apr 2011 [297] 30 days (temporarily not applied from 1 Jan 2016) Turkmenistan 30 days 17 Jul 1999 17 Jul 1999 [298] Ukraine 90 days 16 Jan 1997 10 Mar 1997 [299] United Arab Emirates 90 days 27 Jun 2010 31 Mar 2013 [300] 90 days within any 180-day period 6 July 2018 [301] Uruguay 3 months 13 Jul 1999 3 Oct 1999 [302] 90 days within any 180-day period 26 Sep 2011 27 Dec 2011 [303] Uzbekistan 90 days 30 Nov 2000 24 Nov 2009 [304] Vanuatu 90 days 1 20 Sep 2016 21 Oct 2016 [305] Vatican 90 days within any 180-day period 22 Aug 2017 29 Dec 2017 [306] Venezuela 90 days 28 Jun 1993 2 1 Nov 1993 [307] 90 days within any 180-day period 26 Nov 2008 6 Mar 2009 [308] [309] Vietnam 90 days 28 Oct 1993 20 Feb 1994 [310] Zimbabwe 90 days 23 Jan 1991 31 Jan 1991 2 31 Jan 1991 [311] Notes: ^ Agreement include the item \"Total period of permitted stay in the territory of the state for a certain period of time is set in accordance with the laws of the state.\" From 2014, it is 90 days within any 180-day period. ^ Agreement concluded through an exchange of diplomatic notes. ^ Agreement between Russia and EU. Article 14 \" ...the provisions <of the agreement> shall prevail over the provisions of any bilateral or multilateral agreements or arrangements between the Russian Federation and the Member States... ^ Only for group tourism (from 5 to 50 persons) organized by accredited travel agencies in both countries. show Unilateral visa waiver concessions Country Type of passport Duration of stay Date of signing Effective date Citation Estonia Alien's passport 90 days within any 180-day period 17 Jun 2008 17 Jun 2008 [312] [313] Latvia Non-citizen passport 90 days within any 180-day period Monaco Diplomatic passport 90 days within any 180-day period 3 Sep 2017 3 Sep 2017 [314] [315] Russia has concluded agreements that facilitate procedures for issuing visas to both Russian citizens and citizens of the partner jurisdiction on a reciprocal basis. Such agreements are in force with the following countries or political associations: show Visa facilitation agreements Country Entry into force Bulgaria 2002 [316] Croatia 2013 [85] Cyprus 2006 [317] China 2014 [318] Denmark 2009 [206] Egypt 2011 [319] European Union (excluding Denmark, Ireland and United Kingdom) 2007 [215] France 2005 [320] Germany 2004 [321] Iceland 2010 [230] India 2011, [322] 2015, [323] 2016 [324] Indonesia 1990 [325] Iran 1996, [326] 2016 [327] Israel 2002, [328] 2016 [329] Italy 2005 [330] Japan 2013, [331] 2017 [332] Latvia 1995 [333] 2013 [66] Liechtenstein 2015 [334] Lithuania 2003 [335] Norway 2012 [336] [69] 2017 [70] Poland 2003 [337] 2012 [72] Romania 2004 [338] South Africa 1996 [339] South Korea 1992, [340] 2002, [341] 2010 [342] Spain 1990, [343] 2015 [344] Switzerland 2011 [292] Turkmenistan 1999 [345] United Kingdom 1989 [346] United States 2012, [347] [348] 2013 [349] Vietnam 1994, [350] 2005 [351] Yemen 1988 [352] Russia has agreements on cancellation of consular fees, for execution of visas, with the following countries: Algeria (1965), [353] Angola (15 Apr 1985), [354] Cambodia (26 Sep 1983), [355] Iran (15 Feb 1966), [356] Japan (1 Apr 1965), [357] Mauritania (1967), [358] New Zealand (1 Apr 1962). [359] Agreements were denounced in 2017–2018 with Bangladesh [360] [361] and Pakistan. [362] [363] Visa waiver agreements which ceased to apply show Canceled agreements Country or territory Duration of stay by type of passport Date of signing Effective date Cancellation date Citation Diplomatic Service category Ordinary Bosnia and Herzegovina 90 days 90 days with an invitation 30 days with a voucher 24 Sep 2007 1 May 2008 20 Oct 2013 [364] Bulgaria During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For a private trips with an invitation Transit without a visa 2 Nov 1978 6 Jul 1979 7 May 2002 [365] During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For a private trip with an invitation up to 90 days 3 Nov 1969 24 Jan 1970 6 Jul 1979 [366] About private trips 20 May 1965 1 Jun 1965 24 Jan 1970 no text CIS countries 9 states [show] Armenia Belarus Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Moldova Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan (excluding Azerbaijan and Ukraine) Unlimited 9 Oct 1992 9 Oct 1992; for Georgia 1 Aug 1995 3 Dec 2000; for Turkmenistan 19 Jun 1999 [367] China 30 days 29 Feb 2000 25 May 2001 25 Apr 2014 [368] Yes Including passport for public affairs 29 Dec 1993 29 Jan 1994 25 May 2001 [369] Yes (on duty) Including passport for public affairs 15 Jul 1988 14 Aug 1988 29 Jan 1994 Yes 13 Jun 1985 13 Jul 1985 14 Aug 1988 Cuba During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For a private trip with an invitation 10 Jan 1985 29 Jul 1994 [370] For tourism trips 7 Jul 1981 24 Sep 1981 24 Sep 1981 1985 Cyprus During a term of official trips 90 days 27 Dec 1994 15 Jun 1995 1 Jan 2004 [371] Czech Republic During a term of official trips 30 days for all passports 7 Dec 1994 3 Sep 1995 29 May 2000 [372] Czechoslovakia During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation Transit without a visa 17 Dec 1981 30 May 1982 for Czech Republic 28 Sep 1995; for Slovakia 7 Aug 1994 [373] During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation up to 90 days Transit without a visa 16 Sep 1969 16 Sep 1969 30 May 1982 [374] 90 days with an invitation 17 Sep 1965 17 Sep 1965 15 Sep 1969 [375] 18 Dec 1962 17 Sep 1965 East Germany During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation Transit without a visa 6 Apr 1979 30 Aug 1979 3 Oct 1990 [376] During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation up to 90 days Transit without a visa 28 Nov 1969 12 Jan 1970 30 Aug 1979 [377] Hungary During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For a private trips with an invitation Transit without a visa 24 Nov 1978 14 Jun 2001 [378] During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation up to 90 days 4 Mar 1969 11 Jun 1969 [379] North Korea During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation 22 Jan 1986 17 Sep 1986 22 May 1997 [380] Laos Yes 20 Dec 1984 30 Dec 2004 [381] Lithuania 30 days for the Kaliningrad region 24 Feb 1995 25 Jun 1995 1 Jan 2003 [382] Mongolia During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation 20 December 1979 5 May 1995 [383] During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation up to 90 days 26 Jan 1971 23 May 1971 [384] Poland During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation Transit without a visa 13 Dec 1979 22 May 1980 1 Oct 2003 [385] During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation up to 90 days 5 Feb 1970 12 May 1970 22 May 1980 [386] Romania Yes 11 Mar 1991 24 October 1991 1 Mar 2004 [387] During an office mission For tourism trips with tourist documents For private trips with an invitation up to 45 days 30 Jun 1969 1 Jan 1970 24 October 1991 [388] Without visas on office affairs For a private trips with an invitation up to 45 days within year Transit on private affairs without visa 4 Mar 1966 23 Jun 1966 1 Jan 1970 [389] About trips for a visit to close relatives 1963 23 Jun 1966 no text About visa-free trips of citizens on diplomatic, service, all-civil passports and collective certificates 1956 23 Jun 1966 no text Slovakia 30 days for all passports During a term of official trips 13 Feb 1995 25 Aug 1995 1 Jan 2001 [390] 1 Jun 1994 7 Aug 1994 25 Aug 1995 no text Vietnam During a term of official trips For tourism trips with tourist documents Visa free transit for tourism and official purposes 15 Jul 1981 14 Aug 1982 20 Feb 1994 no text Yugoslavia During a term of official trips For tourism trips with a voucher For private trips with an invitation up to 90 days 31 Oct 1989 26 Apr 1990 for Croatia 31 Mar 2013; for Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 May 2008; for Macedonia 31 Oct 2008; for Montenegro 21 Nov 2008; for Slovenia 1 Dec 1999; for Serbia 10 Jun 2009 [391] For tourism trips with a voucher 3 June 1967 27 Nov 1967 27 Dec 1967 26 Apr 1990 Yes Yes On duty 26 Oct 1965 25 Jan 1966 Visa [ edit ] The Russian visa is a machine-readable document , which is placed in the holder’s passport . All fields are indicated in both Russian and English, but are filled out only in Russian. The holder’s name appears in both the Roman and Cyrillic alphabets. The name that appears in the machine-readable zone at the bottom of the visa represents the holder’s Cyrillic name mapped into the Roman alphabet. This allows Russian computer systems to read the Cyrillic name, despite the machine readers only being able to read Roman alphabet letters. As a result, the spelling of a name in the machine-readable zone does not necessarily reflect its spelling in the visa’s name field. For example, the name “Christoph” would appear in the field as “Kpиcтoф/Christoph”, but the MRZ would contain the name “Kristof”. Contrary to guidelines for machine-readable documents, the issuing country’s ISO code (RUS) is not shown at positions 3-5 (i.e. V<RUS). Instead, the first line is formatted as: VSURNAME<<GIVEN<NAMES. While not necessarily printed on the visa (depending on the embassy), a photo is required in the visa application. The visa application form may be filled online and submitted to the diplomatic mission. [392] Types of visa [ edit ] Depending on the purpose of entry into the Russian Federation and the purposes of stay, visas are categorized as: Private Business Tourist Educational Working Humanitarian Entry (for receiving shelter or to obtain citizenship in Russia) [393] Diplomatic visa A diplomatic visa shall be issued to a foreign citizen holding a diplomatic passport. A diplomatic visa is issued: to foreign heads of state, foreign heads of government, members of the foreign official delegations, family members of such persons traveling with them or accompanying them - for a period of up to one year. to diplomatic agents of diplomatic missions and consular officials of consular establishments, the staff of representations of the international organizations in the Russian Federation which have the diplomatic status in the Russian Federation, to family members of specified persons for a period of up to one year. to foreign diplomatic and consular couriers for the term of business trip. to officials of the foreign states who have the official status in the Russian Federation have the right to a diplomatic visa and who come for a working visit to diplomatic missions or consular establishments of the foreign states in the Russian Federation or to the international organizations or their representations in the Russian Federation, for a period of up to one year. Service visa A service visa is issued to the foreign citizen having service (consular, official, special) passport. A service visa is issued: to members of foreign official delegations, family members of such persons traveling with them or accompanying them - for a period of up to one year. to administrative and technical and service personnel of diplomatic missions, consular employees and service personnel of consular establishments of the foreign states in the Russian Federation, representations of the international organizations in the Russian Federation and to family members of such persons for a period of up to one year. to military personnel of armed forces of the foreign states and family members of such persons for a period of up to one year. Extension of term of stay in the Russian Federation by issuance of the multiple entry visa for a period of validity of the foreign trade contract registered in accordance with the established procedure, but no more than for five years is allowed to the military personnel of armed forces of the foreign states driving to the Russian Federation for implementation of international treaties of the Russian Federation and (or) decisions of public authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of military and technical cooperation, and family members of such persons. to foreign state officials who have the official status in the Russian Federation have the right to be issued a service visa and those who travel for a working visit to diplomatic missions or consular establishments of the foreign states in the Russian Federation or in the international organizations or their representations in the Russian Federation, for a period of up to one year. Ordinary visa Depending on the purpose of entry of the foreign citizen into the Russian Federation and the purpose of his stay in the Russian Federation ordinary visas are subdivided on private, business, tourist, educational, working, humanitarian and entry visas to the Russian Federation for temporary residence or citizenship ceremony: An ordinary private visa is issued for a period of up to three months or on the basis of the principle of reciprocity for a period of up to one year to foreign citizens traveling to Russia for a short visit on the basis of an invitation letter. An ordinary business visa is issued for a period of up to one year to foreign citizens traveling to Russia for a business trip. An ordinary tourist visa is issued for a period of up to one month or on the basis of the principle of reciprocity for a period of up to six months to foreign citizens traveling to Russia as tourists, if holding an invitation letter by a Russian tour operator. Invitations can be issued by many hotels on request (sometimes for a fee) or through various online services associated with Russian tour operators. An ordinary tourist group visa is issued for a period of up to one month to foreign citizens traveling to Russia as a tourist in an organized tourist group (not less than five people), of holding a confirmation by an organization in the unified federal register of tour operators. An ordinary student visa is issued for a period of up to one year to foreign citizens traveling to Russia for training in the educational institution. An ordinary work visa is issued to foreign citizens visiting Russia for work purposes for a period of validity of the employment contract or civil contract for performance of work (rendering services), but no more than for one year. An ordinary humanitarian visa is issued for a period of up to one year or on the basis of the principle of reciprocity for a period of up to five years to foreign citizens visiting Russia for a scientific, cultural, political or a sport visit, religious communication and contacts, pilgrimage, charity, delivery of humanitarian aid. An ordinary entry visa to Russia for receiving a shelter is issued to foreign citizens for a period of up to three months if holding a decision of the federal executive authority authorized on implementation of functions on control and supervision in the sphere of migration on recognition of this foreign citizen as a refugee on the territory of Russia. An ordinary entry visa to Russia to obtain citizenship of the Russian Federation is issued to foreign citizens for a period of up to one year if holding a decision on recognition of such foreign citizen as a native speaker of Russian. An ordinary entry visa to Russia to obtain permission for temporary resident is issued to foreign citizens for a period of up to four months. Transit visa A Transit visa is issued for a period of up to ten days to the foreign citizen for transit through the territory of Russia. Visa of temporary living person A visa of temporarily living person is issued for four months to the foreign citizen to whom entry into Russia is allowed for temporary residence, within a quota of delivery of permissions to temporary residence. Applying for visa [ edit ] Entry and exit passport stamps issued at Saint Petersburg port. All types of Russian entry visas are received through Russian embassies and consulates. Provided all the documents are ready, the process usually takes no more than 3-10 workdays for Russian travel visa. [394] Russian Tourist Visa requirements: [395] Original passport One photo (colour, passport size photo) Tourist invitation Russian Consulate Application Form The Russian Consulate requires the visa application form to be printed on A4 paper with right and bottom margins of 5mm. A failure to meet these requirements invalidates the form. Exit [ edit ] Russia requires that an alien who needs a visa on entry be in possession of a valid visa upon exit. To satisfy this formal requirement, exit visas sometimes need to be issued. Russia requires an exit visa if a visitor stays well past the expiration date of their visa. They must then extend their visa or apply for an exit visa and are not allowed to leave the country until they show a valid visa or have a permissible excuse for overstaying their visa (e.g., a note from a doctor or a hospital explaining an illness, missed flight, lost or stolen visa). In some cases, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs can issue a Return-Home certificate that is valid for ten days from the embassy of the visitor's native country, thus eliminating the need for an exit visa. [396] [397] [398] A foreign citizen granted a temporary residence permit in Russia needs a temporary resident visa to take a trip abroad (valid for both exit and return). It is also colloquially called an exit visa . Costs for visa [ edit ] Some Russian embassies and consulates, but not all, require visa applications to be submitted in person to visa processing centres instead of directly to the consular section. Costs differ per administration center. Fingerprinting [ edit ] From January 2015 visa applicants from the United Kingdom , Denmark , Myanmar and Namibia will be obliged to provide fingerprint scans. After a trial period it will be decided whether to expand this to other countries as well. [399] Russia plans to require, from 1 July 2019, fingerprinting and photographing of all foreign citizens entering the Russian Federation without a visa and staying for more than 30 days. [400] Statistics [ edit ] Visitor statistics According to the Border Service of the Federal Security Service and the Federal State Statistics Service , most visitors arriving to Russia were from the following countries of nationality: [401] show Nationality Total (includes all types of purposes of visits) 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 Ukraine 9,817,008 9,737,405 10,314,757 9,842,990 7,080,991 6,502,543 6,072,775 4,198,030 Kazakhstan 4,137,613 4,686,059 5,180,246 4,215,161 3,848,899 3,630,342 3,049,406 2,747,358 Uzbekistan 2,350,007 2,116,480 2,163,256 2,353,140 2,967444 2,677,322 2,086,359 1,584,086 China 1,780,200 1,565,524 1,353,051 1,125,098 1,071,515 978,988 845,588 747,640 Tajikistan 1,350,356 1,293,270 1,200,972 1,202,260 1,348,868 1,134,150 955,455 830,160 Azerbaijan 1,143,243 1,156,703 1,071,324 1,021,204 1,196,759 1,116,238 1,045,525 979,778 Finland 1,063,348 1,376,646 1,476,412 1,446,169 1,388,036 1,375,614 1,211,520 1,012,621 Armenia 857,212 833,577 850,137 794,098 882,864 700,332 550,349 459,040 Kyrgyzstan 836,946 792,042 842,396 725,664 763,418 623,970 592,960 552,909 Moldova 803,916 699,112 770,965 923,625 1,374,690 1,194,291 1,073,637 988,084 Poland 765,544 1,056,013 1,766,612 1,823,143 1,644,657 1,190,003 704,610 394,872 Germany 629,082 613,370 595,200 635,153 686,557 671,676 629,391 611,367 Abkhazia 436,368 415,606 422,130 362,811 293,429 273,964 202,440 52,289 Estonia 432,803 433,926 382,031 363,942 430,164 494,282 519,402 474,949 Mongolia 416,293 542,196 505,429 225,972 226,673 365,236 212,117 157,367 Belarus 382,022 320,372 424,531 495,999 418,207 372,942 267,233 259,191 Latvia 330,266 360,603 348,338 374,701 391,304 461,162 571,374 569,300 Stateless persons 318,393 321,383 326,841 349,400 463,640 523,333 618,705 679,757 United States 293,011 248,990 242,104 257,070 305,954 286,551 275,239 262,060 South Korea 276,560 181,024 153,189 135,676 107,942 94,922 91,335 90,622 Lithuania 256,009 281,168 270,600 487,206 539,308 553,896 622,740 760,728 France 211,673 201,260 191,643 219,210 225,860 225,343 213,473 194,248 Italy 206,860 208,689 204,710 219,976 225,933 212,411 207,476 198,002 United Kingdom 193,522 190,278 190,775 228,346 259,676 231,670 221,418 212,847 Israel 185,426 182,438 165,003 152,853 136,827 123,974 114,380 100,291 Turkey 181,285 120,035 323,039 361,416 385,147 305,429 249,109 196,704 Philippines 172,278 160,734 163,010 162,990 149,213 130,541 99,405 81,385 South Ossetia 137,427 115,382 125,444 117,283 94,159 73,863 47,739 33,409 India 130,400 108,498 95,527 94,259 95,542 80,127 60,191 53,364 Spain 118,642 116,032 110,247 100,206 109,089 101,536 129,730 110,601 Georgia 117,204 65,378 69,095 58,264 48,440 35,511 30,415 24,568 Japan 114,207 95,675 93,550 105,220 102,408 86,806 76,204 78,188 Iran 91,862 75,203 46,760 29,743 20,657 23,085 21,575 20,576 Serbia 87,899 79,575 79,406 87,048 107,601 70,371 57,177 47,939 Vietnam 77,391 66,939 60,882 75,840 81,073 62,961 53,529 50,823 Netherlands 73,729 68,017 63,469 80,543 86,402 81,212 87,549 80,720 Turkmenistan 65,749 56,258 51,170 47,002 40,238 43,720 39,579 35,017 Austria 59,501 56,663 57,242 67,392 74,277 71,863 70,388 67,606 Canada 53,890 43,158 43,663 53,370 61,234 54,730 52,238 48,559 Norway 53,197 46,631 49,535 57,423 54,433 50,115 48,614 45,340 Switzerland 53,167 52,656 46,200 50,838 54,898 52,852 47,978 44,964 Thailand 52,697 32,222 29,482 25,585 23,919 19,375 17,023 15,192 Australia 49,259 43,940 39,613 46,072 46,861 43,105 34,868 30,583 Czech Republic 49,232 47,288 46,432 68,875 76,530 62,980 46,776 40,565 Greece 41,205 46,730 41,210 46,450 48,280 36,474 33,569 33,396 Bulgaria 39,191 41,290 37,035 42,230 47,154 45,312 42,031 38,446 Belgium 38,868 37,492 33,714 37,441 40,316 37,025 36,430 33,571 Brazil 38,344 29,704 35,531 33,301 37,386 33,647 29,840 21,950 Sweden 32,095 39,153 40,424 49,908 53,340 58,900 60,840 54,253 Cuba 30,711 26,667 12,349 11,609 9,625 5,293 4,099 4,053 Mexico 27,713 21,071 22,922 18,223 21,527 16,431 16,759 13,767 Romania 26,330 23,684 25,970 28,391 30,886 24,792 21,993 17,884 Argentina 25,892 19,944 17,322 13,614 15,944 13,976 12,316 9,044 Hungary 25,659 25,313 24,849 28,421 27,155 23,047 23,241 20,736 Indonesia 25,425 20,211 18,100 20,330 21,088 18,572 18,313 14,448 Slovakia 25,213 23,555 19,876 24,962 27,554 24,161 20,445 18,512 Portugal 20,347 17,729 15,475 15,181 14,952 15,398 15,814 18,434 North Korea 19,641 22,036 20,893 23,902 23,604 22,071 18,901 21,167 Total N/A N/A 33,729,187 32,421,490 30,792,091 28,176,502 24,932,016 N/A Visa statistics Most visas were issued in the following countries: [402] [403] Location Number of visas issued in 2015 Number of visas issued in 2016 Germany 299,791 153,727 China 357,040 129,744 France 119,314 61,999 Finland 112,655 55,415 Italy 117,123 52,107 United Kingdom 87,863 42,524 United States 85,974 46,180 Estonia 77,953 37,445 Latvia 70,328 30,933 Spain 57,001 25,262 History [ edit ] Main article: Visa history of Russia General Rules [ edit ] Visa policy of the Russian Federation Russia Visa free access The law \"On the legal status of foreign citizens in the USSR\" was used by the Russian Federation. Action extended from 1 January 1993. \nChapter III of the law \"entry into the USSR and exit from the USSR Foreign citizens\" was replaced adopted the Federal Law No.114-FZ 1996 \"On the Order of Exit from the Russian Federation\".\nThe law was repealed with the adoption of the Federal Law 115-FZ on 25 Jul 2002 On the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian Federation.\nThe laws establishes that as a general rule all foreign citizens and stateless persons need visas for entry and exit from the territory of Russia and the period of temporary stay (90 days within any 180 days). It also establishes a number of exceptions addressing certain groups of travelers.\nIt should be noted that the basis of the legal status of foreign citizens and stateless persons are secured primarily by the Constitution of the Russian Federation 1993 - Art. 62 and Art. 63. [404] According to the Russian Constitution, international treaties of Russia override the domestic legislation. Russia has concluded a number of bilateral or multilateral treaties on visa abolishing or simplification and is seeking to negotiate new such treaties. \nThe visa policy Russia applies the principle of reciprocity, the principle of specular. Visa-free 72-hour transit In September, 2013 the president of Russia has sent the bill of introduction of 72-hour visa-free transit to parliament. The list of the airports and the list of the states which citizens will be able to use visa-free transit in the tourist purposes, will be approved by the Government of the Russian Federation after ratification. In 2014 the parliament has suspended ratification of the bill for an indefinite term. [405] Crimea In April 2014 Crimea’s Tourism Minister proposed a visa-free regime for foreign tourists staying at Crimean resorts for up to 12 days and a 72-hour visa-free stay for cruise passengers. [406] Visa-free access for Chinese citizens was proposed in June 2014. [407] Visa-free entrance in cruise courts to Sevastopol began to be carried out from September 2015 [56] Other of the proposals has been not realized. International events [ edit ] Art events Participants and members of delegations coming to participate in the musical events are either provided with a simplified visa regime (e.g. Eurovision Song Contest 2009 ) or the right of visa-free entry (e.g. International Tchaikovsky Competition 2015). [408] Currently (September 2015) the law providing permanent visa abolition for participants and jury members of art competitions is being planned by the Government of Russia. The focus of this regulation will be on the International Tchaikovsky Competition. [409] Economic events Participants of the 1st Eastern Economic Forum in Vladivostok did not require a visa. Entrance was allowed with passport and the accreditation certificate only. [410] Participants of East Economic Forum in Vladivostok can visit an event without visas from 8 to 15 September 2018. [411] Sporting events Prior to the adoption of a special law, participants and members of delegations arriving to sporting events, could count on a visa-free entry or visa facilitation (determined by law for each event which has to pass ratification in parliament and to be signed by the president). For the 2008 Champions League Final held in Moscow, also spectators were given such visa-free entry. On 13 May 2013 the presidential decree on the abolition of visas for athletes, coaches, team leaders and members of foreign official delegations, as well as judges from the international sports competitions came into effect. It envisages entry on the basis of passport and accreditation certificate. [412] The order of the President or the Government of Russia is sufficient for visa abolition or simplification of registration of visas. Visas were abolished for participants of the 2013 Summer Universiade , [413] the 2014 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships in Moscow , the 2014 World Judo Championships in Chelyabinsk and the 16th FINA World Championships in Kazan . [414] Participants of the XVI World Aquatics Championships in the Masters category were exempted from visa fees. [415] The right to enter Russia without a visa was also given to visitors during the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi if they were in a possession of tickets for the event. [416] Players of 2016 IIHF World Championship were able to obtain visas on arrival, for the fans were simplified procedure for issuing visas. [417] 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup holders of tickets for matches of the championship could enter Russia without a visa with personalized card of viewer (also known as the passport of a fan or fan-ID) and national passport from 7 June to 12 July 2017, if holding a laminated FIFA FAN ID card; from 14 June to 2 July 2017, if holding a printed FIFA FAN ID electronic format card. The foreign citizens could use their FAN IDs for multiple visa-free entry into and exit from the Russian Federation. [418] 2018 FIFA World Cup holders of tickets for matches of the championship were able to enter Russia without a visa with personalized card of viewer (also known as the passport of a fan or fan-ID) and national passport from 4 June to 25 July 2018. Foreigners participating in events and athletes included in the lists of FIFA, will have to obtain visas, but in a simplified manner. In particular, visas for this category of citizens will be issued within 3 working days from the date of filing and without consular fees. This procedure will be applied until 31 December 2018.\nForeigners involved in activities and not participating in sporting events, will travel to and from Russia by an ordinary multiple-entry work visas that will be issued for a period of 1 year. Foreigners, attracted by the FIFA, its subsidiaries and contractors, confederations, national football associations, the Russian football Union, organizing Committee \"Russia-2018\" will be entitled to work in Russia without obtaining a patent. [419] See also [ edit ] Russia portal Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Russia . Visa requirements for Russian citizens List of diplomatic missions of Russia Foreign relations of Russia Visa history of Russia References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Country information (visa section)\" . Timatic . International Air Transport Association (IATA) through Olympic Air . Retrieved 1 April 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Федеральный закон \"О внесении изменений в статью 27 Федерального закона \"О порядке выезда из Российской Федерации и въезда в Российскую Федерацию\" от 31.12.2014 N 524-ФЗ (действующая редакция, 2016) / КонсультантПлюс\" . Consultant.ru. 2014-12-31 . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ limited recognition state Jump up ^ limited recognition state Jump up ^ \"Указ о признании документов, выданных гражданам Украины и лицам без гражданства, проживающим на территориях отдельных районов Донецкой и Луганской областей Украины\" [The decree on recognition of the documents issued to the citizens of Ukraine and persons without citizenship living in territories of certain districts of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions of Ukraine]. Kremlin.ru (in Russian). Официальный сайт Президента России / Official site of the President of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Previous visa-free agreements under different terms were applied in period 1981-1985 and 1985-1994. Jump up ^ Previous visa-free agreement was applied in period 1990-2008. Jump up ^ Previous visa-free agreement under different terms was applied in period 1990-2008. Jump up ^ Previous visa-free agreement under different terms were applied in period 1965 (on duty)/1967 (for tourism)-1990 as Yugoslavia and 1990-2009. Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Никарагуа об отмене визовых требований при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Республики Никарагуа\" [About entry into force of the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua on the abolition of visa requirements for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Nicaragua]. Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России / The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Чили об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Республики Чили\" [About entry into force of the Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Chile on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Chile]. Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России / The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Колумбии об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Республики Колумбии\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Южная Осетия о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан Российской Федерации и Республики Южная Осетия\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Абхазия о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан Российской Федерации и Республики Абхазия\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Перу об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Республики Перу\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О предстоящем вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Восточной Республики Уругвай об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Восточной Республики Уругвай\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу соглашения о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан России и Гватемалы\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-эквадорского Соглашения о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Previous visa-free agreements under different terms were applied in period 1990-2008 and 2008-2013. Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Советом министров Боснии и Герцеговины об условиях взаимных поездок граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Боснии и Герцеговины\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Корея о взаимной отмене визовых требований\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Между Россией и Парагваем с 20 октября вводится безвизовый режим\" . Tourism.interfax.ru (in Russian). Интерфакс . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-монгольского Соглашения об условиях взаимных поездок граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О подписании Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Панама об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан двух стран\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-науруанского Соглашения о взаимной отмене визовых требований\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-гондурасского Соглашения о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-гайанского Соглашения о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Россия и Сейшелы взаимно отменили визы\" . Tourism.interfax.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-маврикийского соглашения о взаимной отмене визовых требований\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-сальвадорского Соглашения о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-боливийского Соглашения о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-южноафриканского Протокола о взаимной отмене визовых требований\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу российско-самоанского Соглашения о взаимной отмене визовых требований для граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Независимого Государства Самоа\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Российской Федерацией и Федерацией Сент-Китс и Невис от 21 сентября 2017 года о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О Соглашении между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Лаосской Народно-Демократической Республики о взаимной отмене визовых требований для владельцев заграничных паспортов\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О вступлении в силу Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Гренады от 20 сентября 2017 года о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан\" . Mid.ru (in Russian). Министерство Иностранных Дел России/The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Visa-free agreements were applied in period 1970-1979, 1979-1990 Jump up ^ \"Постановление Совета Министров - Правительства РФ от 13.04.1993 N 309 \"О введении визового (разрешительного) порядка въезда граждан Латвийской Республики и Эстонской Республики на территорию Российской Федерации \" \" . base.garant.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Was applied from 14 August 1982. Jump up ^ \"Постановление Правительства РФ от 29.03.1994 N 241 \"О введении визового (разрешительного) порядка въезда граждан Литовской Республики на территорию Российской Федерации \" \" . base.garant.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Was applied from 23 May 1971. Jump up ^ Was applied from 22 January 1986. ^ Jump up to: a b Was applied as Yugoslavia from 26 April 1990. Jump up ^ Visa-free agreements under different terms were applied in period 1962-1965, 1965-1969, 1969-1982, 1982-1995 as Czechoslovakia and 1995-2000. Jump up ^ Visa-free agreements under different terms were applied in period 1962-1965, 1965-1969, 1969-1982, 1982-1994 as Czechoslovakia and 1994-1995, 1995-2001. Jump up ^ Was applied from 15 June 1995. Jump up ^ Was applied from 16 April 2011. Jump up ^ [1] Jump up ^ \"РСТ: иностранные туристы не смогут въехать в Россию через пропускной пункт под Смоленском\" . Tourism.interfax.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.dw.com/ru/почему-граждане-ес-больше-не-могут-въехать-в-россию-через-беларусь/a-36007927 Jump up ^ \"Crossing Russia-Belarus border\" . Polish Embassy in Belarus. 2016-08-25. Jump up ^ [2] Jump up ^ [3] Jump up ^ \"Постановление Правительства РФ N 397 О порядке пребывания на территории РФ иностранных граждан и лиц без гражданства, прибывающих в Российскую Федерацию в туристических целях на паромах\" . Travel.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Information For Cruise Ship Passengers\" . Petersburg CITY . Retrieved 2 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Sevastopol included into list of ports for visa-free entry of ferry passengers\" . En.portnews.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Пассажиры туристических паромов теперь могут посетить Мурманскую область без виз | Правительство Мурманской области\" . Gov-murman.ru. 2016-11-22 . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Visa free rule - Peterline\" . Stpeterline.com . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Russian visa: how to visit Russia visa-free?\" . Tripsget Travel Blog . 2016-02-19 . Retrieved 2016-04-28 . Jump up ^ The intergovernmental agreement on visa-free exchanges between the USSR and Japan (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Министерство инвестиций и внешних связей Сахалинской области\" . Mininvest.admsakhalin.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Безвизовый режим введен для коренных жителей Чукотки и Аляски | РИА Новости - события в России и мире: темы дня, фото, видео, инфографика, радио\" . Ria.ru. 2015-07-23 . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ http://чукотка.рф/en/authorities/visa-registration/ Jump up ^ \"More visa-free traveling in the Baltic\" . Barentsobserver.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Home\" . Liia.lv . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Latvian Republic on facilitation of mutual trips of residents of border territories of the Russian Federation and the Latvian Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ [4] Jump up ^ \"Visa-free zone between Norway and Russia\" . Visahouse.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on facilitation of mutual trips of residents of border territories of the Russian Federation and Kingdom of Norway (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b Protocol on amendments to the Annex to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on facilitation of mutual trips of residents of border territories of the Russian Federation and Kingdom of Norway (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"EU makes visa exception for Kaliningrad\" . Barentsobserver.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Poland on rules of local border traffic (in Russian) Jump up ^ 01.07.2016 12:58. \"Польша временно останавливает действие соглашения о местном приграничном передвижении\" . Gov39.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ @ [5] Jump up ^ [6] Jump up ^ See Agreement section Jump up ^ From 1968 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Afganistan (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1974 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Algeria (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1 Jul 1990; for Austrian Airlines from 1986 Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Austrian Federal Government on a simplified procedure of entry, departure and temporary stay of members of crews of aircraft of the Soviet and Austrian airlines (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 28 Apr 2014 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Belgium on simplified rules of entry, stay, departure of the first crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Belgium (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b From 7 May 2002 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Bulgaria on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 20 Dec 1989 Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of Canada on a simplified procedure of entry and departure of crew members of aircraft of Aeroflot and Canadian Airlines International Ltd. (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b c From 26 Apr 2014 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the people's Republic of China about simplification of trips of citizens (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b From 31 Mar 2013 ^ Jump up to: a b c d Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Croatia on mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Croatia (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b From 20 Jan 2006 Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Cyprus on conditions of trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and Citizens of the Republic of Cyprus (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 21 Jul 2014 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Czech Republic about the simplified rules of entry, stay and exit the territory of their States members of crews of aircraft of airlines of the Russian Federation and the Czech Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1 Jan 1993 Agreement between the government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark on the establishment of a simplified procedure of entry and departure of crew members of airlines of Russia and Denmark (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1997 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Egypt (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b From 1 May 2005 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the French Republic to facilitate on a mutual basis of conditions of entrance, trips and departure of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the French Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 15 Jun 2017 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Hellenic Republic about the simplified rules of entry, stay and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Hellenic Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 5 Jun 2013 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Iceland on simplified rules of entry, stay and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and Iceland (scan copy, in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Двусторонние договоры\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ From 1972 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Iraq (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 29 Jan 1990, for Alitalia only Agreement between the Government of the USSR and the Government of the Italian Republic on visa issues (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 22 Jun 1969, 25 Dec 1996, for Japan Airlines only The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Japan (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 8 Apr 2014 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on simplified rules of entry, stay and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b From 22 May 1997 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Democratic People's Republic of Korea on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1987 Jump up ^ The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Lebanon (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1980, for Libyan Airlines , for Tripoli-Moscow line only The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Libya (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b From 1 Jan 2003 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 31 Oct 2008 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Macedonia on the conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Macedonia (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 30 Jul 2009 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, on simplifying the rules of entry and exit for crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of the Netherlands (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1 Jan 1993 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on the facilitation of entry and exit of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of Russia and Norway (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Султаната Оман об упрощенных правилах въезда, пребывания и выезда для членов экипажей воздушных судов авиапредприятий Российской Федерации и Султаната Оман (заключено путем обмена нотами от 15 июля 2013 года и 3 июля 2017 года, вступило в силу 28 марта 2018 года)\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 2 April 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b From 1 Oct 2003 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Poland on conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Poland (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 24 May 2015 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Portuguese Republic about the simplified rules of entry, stay and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Portuguese Republic (scan copy, in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1 Mar 2004 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and government of Romania on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 13 July 2015; for Iberia from 26 Oct 1990 The Memorandum between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Kingdom of Spain on the procedure of issuing visas (in Russian) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Spain on amending the Memorandum between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Kingdom of Spain on the procedure of issuing visas on 26 October 1990 (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 4 Dec 2012 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka on simplified rules of entry, stay and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 3 Jan 1993 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Sweden on the establishment of the simplified order of entrance and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of Russia and Sweden (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 17 Jul 1999 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Turkmenistan on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 28 Dec 1990 Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics concerning the Entry and Exit Procedures for Aircraft Crews on Flights between the USSR and the UK ^ Jump up to: a b From 20 Feb 1994 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam about conditions of mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Двусторонние договоры\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation the government of the Italian Republic about the simplified rules of entry, stay and departure of crew members of aircraft of the airlines of the Russian Federation and the Italian Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Двусторонние договоры\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ From 19 May 1979 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Democratic Republic of Congo (in Russian) Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Executive Council of the Republic of Zaire on the shipping industry (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1975 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Egypt (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 6 Feb 2016 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran on simplification of conditions of mutual trips of certain categories of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 1974 The regulatory framework of bilateral consular relations with Iraq (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 24 Sep 1984 Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the government of the Tunisian Republic on Maritime navigation (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 17 Jul 1999 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Turkmenistan on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ From 22 May 1997 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Democratic People's Republic of Korea on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Turkmenistan on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) From 17 Jul 1999 Jump up ^ \"E-visa\" . electronic-visa.kdmid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"О начале выдачи электронных виз иностранным гражданам для посещения свободного порта Владивосток\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Under visa waiver agreement from 8 January 2018 Jump up ^ [7] Jump up ^ [8] Jump up ^ [9] Jump up ^ -- Visas \"Transit Visas\" Check |url= value ( help ) . Embassy of the Russian Federation, The Netherlands . Retrieved 30 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Transit Visa\" . Consular Information -- Visas . Embassy of the Russian Federation, Washington D.C . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Treaty between the Russian Federation and the Finnish Republic on leasing to the Finnish Republic of the Russian part of Saimaa canal and adjoining territory and on the conditions of navigation through Saimaa canal , article 6, paragraph 3. Jump up ^ \"Консульский Департамент МИД России\" . Kdmid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ limited recognition state Jump up ^ limited recognition state Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Law onб═entry into Russia ofб═foreign nationals holders ofб═APEC Business Travel Cards Б─╒ President ofб═Russia\" . En.kremlin.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"ABTC Summary - APEC Business Travel Card\" . travel.apec.org . Archived from the original on 19 October 2016 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Russian Federation Country Specific Information - Entry/Exit Requirements for U.S. Citizens\" . Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013 . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Постановление Правительства РФ от 04.07.1992 N 470 \"Об утверждении Перечня территорий Российской Федерации с регламентированным посещением для иностранных граждан\" (с изменениями и дополнениями)\" . base.garant.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Foreigners need visas to travel to Crimea - Apr. 01, 2014\" . Kyivpost.com . 1 April 2014 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Ukraine insists on right of issuing Crimean visa\" . News.xinhanet.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Правительство Российской Федерации\" (PDF) . government.ru . Retrieved 27 August 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 10 July 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 22 March 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 22 August 2018 . Jump up ^ [10] Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 18 April 2018 . Jump up ^ О подписании Соглашения об отмене виз для граждан России и Коста-Рики при взаимных поездках Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 22 March 2018 . Jump up ^ http://tass.ru/politika/5222850 Jump up ^ \"Официальное опубликование правовых актов в электронном виде\" . Publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Двусторонние договоры\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Двусторонние договоры\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Press release on Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov's meeting with high representatives of small island states of the South Pacific\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Официальное опубликование правовых актов в электронном виде\" . Publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 22 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Встреча Дмитрия Медведева с Президентом Судана Омаром Баширом\" . government.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 6 July 2018 . Jump up ^ [11] Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Abkhazia on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Abkhazia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Albania on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Алжирской Народной Демократической Республики о взаимной отмене визовых требований для владельцев дипломатических или служебных паспортов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 20 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Angola on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Argentine Republic on visa-free trips on diplomatic, official or service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Argentinian Republic on visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Argentinian Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Armenia on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Armenia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Armenia on amending the agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Armenia on mutual visa-free for citizens of the Russian Federation of citizens of the Republic of Armenia, dated 25 September 2000 (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Azerbaijan on visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Azerbaijan (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Bahrain on mutual abolition of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic, service and special passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b c d Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Belarus, the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan on mutual visa-free trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Benin on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Bolivia on visa-free trips on diplomatic, official or service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Plurinational State of Bolivia on visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Plurinational State of Bolivia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Plurinational State of Bolivia on visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Plurinational State of Bolivia (in Spanish) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Council of Ministers Bosnia and Herzegovina on terms of mutual trips of citizens The Russian Federation and citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Botswana on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil about refusal from visa requirements for short trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Brazil (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Brunei Darussalam concerning the abolition of visa formalities for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports in the implementation of short trips in the form of an exchange of notes between the Ministry of foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation and the Embassy of Brunei Darussalam (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Brunei Darussalam concerning the abolition of visa formalities for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports in the implementation of short trips in the form of an exchange of notes between the Ministry of foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation and the Embassy of Brunei Darussalam (Scan in English, in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Его Величества Султана и Янг ди-Пертуана Государства Бруней-Даруссалам о взаимной отмене визовых требований для владельцев обычных паспортов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 31 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Bulgaria on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Burkina Faso on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Бурунди о взаимном отказе от визовых формальностей для владельцев дипломатических и служебных паспортов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 6 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Cape Verde on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Engaged in the agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the government of the People's Republic of Kampuchea on visa-free regime for citizens of both countries, sourcause official trips on diplomatic or service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Chile on visa-free trips on diplomatic passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Chile on the abolition of visas for holders of service Russian passports and official Chilean passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Chile on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Chile (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the people's Republic of China about simplification of trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the People's Republic of China on visa-free group tourist trips (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Colombia on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic, service or official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Republic of Colombia on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Colombia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Congo on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic and official passports (scan in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Costa Rica on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and service oassports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Коста-Рика об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Республики Коста-Рика\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 28 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Cuba on mutual trips of citizens of both countries. With amendments dated 25 October 1996 (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Куба об условиях отказа от визовых формальностей при взаимных поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Республики Куба\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 22 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports .rtf (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark on simplification of issue of visas to citizens of the Kingdom of Denmark of the Russian Federation (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Dominican Republic on mutual abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Ecuador on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and official Russian and diplomatic, official and special passports of Ecuador (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Ecuador on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Ecuador (in Russian) Jump up ^ Memorandum between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt on visa-free trips on diplomatic, service and special passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of El Salvador on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports of the Russian Federation and the diplomatic and official passports of the Republic of El Salvador. It concluded by an exchange of notes (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of El Salvador on conditions of abolition of visa formalities at mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of El Salvado\" . Kdmid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Экваториальная Гвинея о безвизовых поездках владельцев дипломатических, официальных и служебных паспортов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 29 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on visa-free trips for diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the European Community and the Russian Federation on the facilitation of the issuance of visas to the citizens of the European Union , Article 11 (in English) \"Соглашение между Российской Федерацией и Европейским Сообществом об упрощении выдачи виз гражданам Российской Федерации и Европейского Союза (статья 11)\" . kdmid.ru . Retrieved 31 January 2018 . (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Fiji on mutual abolition of visa requirements for citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Fiji (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Gabonese Republic on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Гамбии о безвизовых поездках владельцев дипломатических или служебных паспортов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 6 July 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Grenada on the waiver of visa requirements for mutual visits of the nationals of the Russian Federation and the nationals of Grenada (in Russian, in English) Jump up ^ Agreement in the form exchange of notes between Government of the Russian Federation and the Government the Republic of Guatemala on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and official passports the Russian Federation and of diplomatic, consular and official of passports the Republic of Guatemala (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Guatemala on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Guatemala (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government the Republic of Guinea on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana of the visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic and service Russian passports and diplomatic Guyanese passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana on amendments to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana of the visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic and service Russian passports and diplomatic Guyanese passports: Note No. 1653/KD-n 7 Jun 2017; Note No. 1135/2017 24 July 2017 (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana PDF. Scan. (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government the Republic of Honduras on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports citizens of the Russian Federation and the diplomatic and the official passports citizens of the Republic Honduras (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Honduras on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic Hondura (scan in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Special Administrative region of Hong Kong, People's Republic of China on mutual abolition of visa requirements for citizens of the Russian Federation and permanent residents of the Special Administrative region of Hong Kong, People's Republic of China (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Hungarian Republic on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Iceland on the simplification of issuing visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and Iceland (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on mutual trips for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia on the waiver of visa formalities for the exercise by holders of diplomatic and official passports, short-term trips (in Russian) Jump up ^ Memorandum between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran of visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Исламской Республики Иран о безвизовых групповых туристических поездках граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Исламской Республики Иран\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 6 July 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the state of Israel on waiver of visa requirements for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the State of Israel (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Jamaica on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on the abolition of visa regime for holders of diplomatic, special or service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the State of Kuwait on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic, service and special passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Lao people's Democratic Republic about mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian and the Government of the Lao people's Democratic Republic on mutual abolition of visa requirements for holders of foreign passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein on simplification of procedure of issue of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and Principality of Liechtenstein (scan in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Agreement between the Government of the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Russian Federation on mutual exemption of visa requirements\" . Retrieved 12 July 2016 . (in Russian, in English) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Macedonia on the conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Macedonia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Mali on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Mauritius on mutual abolition of visa requirements (in English) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Mauritius on mutual abolition of visa requirements (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the United Mexican States on visa-free trips on diplomatic, service and official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Федеративных Штатов Микронезии о взаимной отмене визовых требований для граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Федеративных Штатов Микронезии\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 6 July 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Moldova on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Moldova (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Mongolia on conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Mongolia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Montenegro on conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Montenegro (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Kingdom of Morocco on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Mozambique on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Union of Myanmar concerning the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic, service and official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Nauru on mutual abolition of visa requirements for citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Nauru (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Nepal concerning the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic and official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua on visa-free trips on diplomatic, service and official passports. (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua on the abolition of visa requirements for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Nicaragua (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Democratic People's Republic of Korea on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on simplification of issue of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Norway (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Sultanate of Oman on mutual visa abolition for holders of diplomatic, special and service passports (doc.) (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Republic of Panama on visa-free trips on diplomatic, official, consular, official and special passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Panama about the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Panama (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Paraguay on visa-free trips on diplomatic, service or official Russian Paraguayan passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Paraguay on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Paraguay (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Peru on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic, service and special passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Peru on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Peru (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of the Philippines on terms of mutual trips for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Poland on mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Poland (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the State of Qatar on waiver of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Romania on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Independent State of Samoa on mutual abolition of visa requirements for citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Independent State of Samoa (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Senegal on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic or service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Diplomatic note on 28 September 2015 between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Senegal about introduction of amendments to the agreement (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Serbia on the conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Serbia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Seychelles on the abolition of visa requirements for short trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Seychelles (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Singapore on mutual abolition of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Slovak Republic on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic passports or service passports (in Slovak) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the South African Republic on the waiver of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic and service/official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Republic of South Africa on mutual abolition of visa requirements for holders of foreign passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Korea on the abolition of visa formalities for holders of diplomatic passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Korea on mutual abolition of visas for holders of service/official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Korea on mutual abolition of visa requirements (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of South Ossetia on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Republic of South Ossetia (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka on visa-free travel for holders of diplomatic and service (official) passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Республики Судан о безвизовых поездках владельцев дипломатических паспортов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 6 July 2018 . Jump up ^ 30 days until 6 May 2010 Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic on visa-free travel for holders of diplomatic, service and special passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Консульский Департамент МИД России\" . Kdmid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Federal Council of the Swiss Confederation on simplification of issue of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and Swiss Confederation (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Thailand on mutual waiver of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Thailand on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and subjects of the Kingdom of Thailand (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Tunisia on the abolition of visa regime for holders of diplomatic, special or service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Turkey on visa-free trips on diplomatic passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Turkey on conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and Republic of Turkey (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Turkmenistan on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Ukraine on visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and Ukraine (edition of 14.03.2007) (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the United Arab Emirates on the mutual abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Объединенных Арабских Эмиратов о взаимной отмене визовых требований для граждан Российской Федерации и граждан Объединенных Арабских Эмиратов\" . mid.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 14 Aug 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay on the abolition of visas for holders of diplomatic, service and official passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay on the conditions of waiver of visa formalities for mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Vanuatu on mutual abolition of visa requirements for citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Vanuatu (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Vatican Secretariat of State (Holy See) on visa-free trips for holders of diplomatic passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Venezuela on visa-free trips on diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela on waiver of visa requirements for mutual visits of nationals of the two countries (in English) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela on waiver of visa requirements for mutual visits of nationals of the two countries (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam on the conditions of mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Republic of Zimbabwe on visa-free regime for citizens of the Soviet Union and Zimbabwe, engaged in mutual travel for diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Decree of the Russian President \"On the procedure of entry to the Russian Federation and departure from Russian Federation of persons without the citizenship, consisting in citizenship of the USSR and living in the Latvian Republic or the Estonian Republic\" (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Decree of the Russian President on 3 September 2017 No. 409 \"On the order of entry to the Russian Federation and exit from the Russian Federation for citizens of the Principality of Monaco\" (in Russian) Jump up ^ Citizens of Monaco carry out entry into Russia and departure from Russia according to the procedure similar to the procedure provided for citizens of the foreign State Parties of the Agreement Russia - European Community Agreement between the European Community and the Russian Federation on the facilitation of the issuance of visas to the citizens of the European Union (in English) Agreement between the Russian Federation and the European Community on the facilitation of the issuance of visas to the citizens of the European Union (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Bulgaria on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Cyprus on conditions of trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and Citizens of the Republic of Cyprus (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the People's Republic of China on simplification of trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt on the facilitation of the issuance of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Arab Republic of Egypt (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the French Republic to facilitate on a mutual basis of conditions of entrance, trips and departure of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the French Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the government of the Federal Republic of Germany on simplification of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Federal Republic of Germany (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on simplification of mutual trips of certain categories of citizens of the two countries (in Russian) Jump up ^ The Protocol on amendments to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on simplification of mutual trips of certain categories of citizens of the two countries (in Russian) Jump up ^ Diplomatic notes on the arrangement of issuing six-month multiple entry tourist visas for citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of India on mutual basis (in Russian) Jump up ^ Memorandum of understanding between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia on the simplified order of issue of visas (in Russian) Jump up ^ Memorandum of understanding between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran on visa questions (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran on simplification of conditions of mutual trips of certain categories of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the State of Israel on terms and order of issue of visas for owners of diplomatic and service passports (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement in the form of exchange of notes between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Israel and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation about a registration order on the basis of the principle of reciprocity of multi-visas for up to 90 days to citizens of the State of Israel – the owners of diplomatic and service passports following in a long business trip to the Russian Federation (in English, in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Italy on simplification of issue of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Italy (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Japan on simplification of procedure of issuing visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Japan (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement in the form of an exchange of diplomatic notes between the Russian Federation and Japan for extradition on a reciprocal basis, multiple-entry six-month tourist visas, multiple annual private visas, as well as multiple five-year business and humanitarian visas for citizens of Japan (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Latvia on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein on simplification of procedure of issue of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and Principality of Liechtenstein (.doc file in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on simplification of issue of visas to citizens of the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Norway (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of the Republic of Poland on conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of the Republic of Poland (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and government of Romania on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Protocol between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of South Africa on consular questions (in Russian) Jump up ^ Memorandum of understanding between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Korea concerning issue of visas (with changes for 29 May 2002) (in Russian) Jump up ^ Protocol on modification of the Memorandum of understanding between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Korea concerning issue of visas of 18 March 1992 (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Korea on simplification of the procedure of issue of visas for implementation of mutual short-term trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Memorandum between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Kingdom of Spain of an order of issue of visas (with changes for 7 November 2014) (in Russian) Jump up ^ greement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Spain on modification of the Memorandum between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Kingdom of Spain on an order of issue of visas of 26 October 1990 (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Federation and Government of Turkmenistan on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ The memorandum of understanding between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning issue of visas to citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of Russian Federation and the United States on the simplification of visa procedures for citizens of the two countries (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement on the recommendatory list of documents for the consideration of visa applications of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement on reduce consular fees for issuing visas on a reciprocal basis (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam about conditions of mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement in the form of exchange of notes on introduction of amendments to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam about conditions of mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ [12] (in Russian) Jump up ^ [13] Jump up ^ Protocol on exchange of Notes between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic Angola and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics about mutual refusal of collection of consular fees for commission of consular actions by citizens and the HPA and USSR organizations (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the People's Republic Kampuchea and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on mutual refusal of collection of consular fees for commission of all consular actions (in Russian) Jump up ^ Exchange of letters between the ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the USSR in Iran and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Iran about mutual to cancellation of collection of consular fees for issue of visas (in Russian) Jump up ^ Exchange of letters between the ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the USSR in Japan and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Japan on mutual refusal of consular fees for issue of visas (in Russian) Jump up ^ http://www.kdmid.ru/docs.aspx?lst=country_wiki&it=/Нормативная%20база%20двусторонних%20консульских%20отношений%20с%20Мавританией.aspx Jump up ^ Exchange of diplomatic notes between the Mission of the USSR in New Zealand and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of New Zealand about the mutual termination of collection of consular fees for issue of visas (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between USSR and Bangladesh on 19 May 1973 Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Agreement between USSR and Pakistan on 13 April 1965 Jump up ^ \"Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации\" . publication.pravo.gov.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and Council of ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina on conditions of mutual trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Government of the National Republic of Bulgaria on conditions of mutual visa-free trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement on an order of mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and citizens of the National Republic of Bulgaria (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement on visa-free movement of citizens of the Commonwealth of Independent States on the territory of its participants (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Китайской Народной Республики о взаимных поездках граждан (прекратило действие с 26.04.2014 на основании международного соглашения от 22.03.2013), Международное соглашение от 29 февраля 2000 года\" . Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Китайской Народной Республики о безвизовых поездках по дипломатическим и служебным паспортам (прекратило действие с 25.05.2001 на основании международного соглашения от 29.02.2000), Международное соглашение от 29 декабря 1993 года\" . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of the Republic of Cuba on mutual trips of citizens (scan in Russian) Jump up ^ \"Двусторонние договоры\" . Mid.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Dohody mezi vládou České republiky a vládou Ruské federace o bezvízových cestách občanů\" (in Czech). Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Союза Советских Социалистических Республик и Правительством Чехословацкой Социалистической Республики об условиях взаимных поездок граждан обоих государств (утратило силу на основании Соглашения от 07.12.94), Международное соглашение от 17 декабря 1981 года\" . Jump up ^ Agreement on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and citizens of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ Protocol on refusal of visa requirements for citizens of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics at private trips to the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (in Slovak) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Союза Советских Социалистических Республик и Правительством Германской Демократической Республики об условиях взаимных безвизовых поездок граждан обоих государств\" (in Russian) . Retrieved 11 January 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Союза Советских Социалистических Республик и Правительством Германской Демократической Республики о взаимных безвизовых поездках граждан обоих государств\" (in Russian) . Retrieved 10 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Government of the Hungarian National Republic on conditions of mutual visa-free trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement on an order of mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and citizens of the Hungarian National Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government Democratic People's Republic of Korea about mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) (PDF, scan copy) Jump up ^ \"Соглашение между Правительством Союза Советских Социалистических Республик и Правительством Лаосской Народно-Демократической Республики о безвизовом режиме для граждан обоих государств, совершающих служебные поездки ... (прекратило действие), Международное соглашение от 20 декабря 1984 года\" . Jump up ^ \"Временное соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Литовской Республики о взаимных поездках граждан, Международное соглашение от 20 февраля 1995 года, Международный договор от 20 февраля 1995 года\" . Jump up ^ \"Угода між Урядом Союзу Радянських Соціалістичних Республік та Урядом Монгольської Народної Республіки про умови взаємних безвізових поїздок громадян\" . Zakon3.rada.gov.ua . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Agreement on an order of mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and citizens of the Monolsky National Republic (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Abkhazia on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Abkhazia Agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Government of the Polish National Republic on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of both states (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Government of the Polish National Republic on mutual visa-free trips of citizens of both states (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of Romania on the abolition of visa regime (in Russian) Jump up ^ The agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Romania on visa abolition for office, tourist, private and transit trips (in Russian) Jump up ^ The agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Romania on cancellation of the entrance - exit visas at trips on office affairs, on a visit to relatives and acquaintances and about cancellation of transit visas (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Slovak Republic on visa-free travel (in Russian) Jump up ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Allied Executive Veche of Skupstina of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on mutual trips of citizens (in Russian) Jump up ^ \"visa.kdmid.ru\" . visa.kdmid.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ Federal law on the procedure for exiting and entering the Russian Federasion (in Russian) Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"Getting your Russian travel visa - tips and tricks\" . Moscow Russia Insider's Guide. Archived from the original on 2010-08-04 . Retrieved 2011-03-10 . Jump up ^ \"Russia Visa requirements\" . SSCvisa. Jump up ^ \"Russian Visa – problems and solutions\" . Visahouse.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ [14] Archived 2015-08-31 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"What is a visa to Russia: all about visas and invitations\" . Visalink-russia.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Interfax (29 September 2014). \"Russia to introduce fingerprint scanning for visa applicants in UK, Denmark, Myanmar, Namibia\" . Rbth.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"МВД с 2019 года введет обязательную дактилоскопию для въезжающих в РФ без визы иностранцев\" . Tass.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Въезд иностранных граждан в РФ\" . Fedstat.ru. 2017-10-18 . Retrieved 2017-10-18 . Jump up ^ [15] Jump up ^ [16] Jump up ^ \"Federal Law No. 114-FZ OF August 15, 1996 On the Procedure for Exiting and Entring the Russian Federation\" . Retrieved 2013-12-19 . Jump up ^ \"Автоматизированная система обеспечения законодательной деятельности\" (in Russian). Asozd2.duma.gov.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Crimea proposes lifting visas for tourists\" . voiceofrussia.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Crimea visits to be visa-free for Chinese travellers — Russia tourism chief\" . In.rbth.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"СФ одобрил закон об отмене виз для участников международного конкурса имени Чайковского\" . Tass.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Россия отменит визы для артистов\" . Rg.ru . 14 September 2015 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ PrimaMedia. \"Иностранные участники Восточного экономического форума приедут во Владивосток без визы - PrimaMedia\" . Primamedia.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ https://ria.ru/economy/20180704/1523912347.html?referrer_block=index_archive_31 Jump up ^ \"Определён порядок въезда и выезда из страны иностранных граждан – участников международных спортивных соревнований\" . Kremlin.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"ВЗГЛЯД / Медведев отменил визы для участников универсиады в Казани\" . M.vz.ru. 2012-03-30 . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"З-Мнбнярх - Аег Бхг Б Пняяхч Оепбшлх Бзеуюкх Свюярмхйх Велохнмюрю Лхпю Он Цпеаке Х Йюмнщ\" . Kommersant.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ 07:18, 21 марта 2015. \"Участники чемпионата мира по водным видам спорта в Казани получат российские визы бесплатно\" . Interfax.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Владимир Путин: Гости Олимпиады могут приехать в Сочи на Олимпийские игры без виз, а только на основе аккредитации - Новости - Советский Спорт\" . Sovsport.ru . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"Хоккеисты НХЛ, которые приедут на ЧМ в Россию, смогут получить визы прямо в аэропорту - Газета.Ru | Новости\" . Gazeta.ru. 2015-09-29 . Retrieved 2016-12-26 . Jump up ^ \"FAN ID\" . Fan-id.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Путин подписал закон о въезде иностранцев в РФ на ЧМ-2018 по паспорту болельщика\" . Tass.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Visas of Russia . The conditions of entry of foreign citizens in the Russian Federation of diplomatic, service (official, special), regular passport. (in Russian) May 2017 E-visa to visit the free port of Vladivostok. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia Federal Law No.114-FZ On the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian Federation (in English) (without additions) Federal Law No.114-FZ On the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian Federation (in Russian) (with additions) Timatic. Visa & Passport Information show v t e Visa policy by country Visa Passport Travel document Africa Central Angola Cameroon Central African Republic Chad DR Congo R Congo Equatorial Guinea Gabon São Tomé and Príncipe Eastern Burundi Comoros Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Rwanda Seychelles Somalia ( Somaliland ) South Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Northern Algeria Egypt 8 Libya Morocco Sudan Tunisia Southern Botswana Lesotho Namibia Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha 1 South Africa Swaziland Western Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Americas Caribbean Dutch Caribbean (Aruba, Caribbean Netherlands, Curaçao, Sint Maarten) Anguilla 1 Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados British Virgin Islands 1 Cayman Islands 1 Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Haiti Jamaica Montserrat 1 Puerto Rico 11 St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands 1 United States Virgin Islands 11 Central Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama North Bermuda 1 Canada Mexico United States South Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Falkland Islands 1 Guyana Paraguay Peru South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 1 Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Central & North Afghanistan Kazakhstan 6 Kyrgyzstan Russia 3 Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan East China Hong Kong Macau Japan North Korea South Korea Mongolia Taiwan (Republic of China) 10 South Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Southeast ASEAN : Brunei · Cambodia · Indonesia · Laos · Malaysia · Myanmar · Philippines · Singapore · Thailand · Vietnam Other: East Timor Western Abkhazia 5 10 Akrotiri and Dhekelia 1 7 Armenia 7 Artsakh 7 10 Azerbaijan 5 Bahrain Cyprus 7 Egypt 8 Georgia 5 Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Northern Cyprus 7 10 Oman Palestine Qatar Saudi Arabia South Ossetia 5 Syria Turkey 4 United Arab Emirates Yemen Europe European Union/EFTA Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Czech Republic Cyprus 7 Denmark Faroe Islands Estonia Finland France Overseas Germany Gibraltar 1 Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Overseas Norway Svalbard 12 Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Overseas Other Europe Abkhazia 5 10 Akrotiri and Dhekelia 1 7 Albania Andorra Armenia 7 Artsakh 7 10 Azerbaijan 5 Belarus Bosnia and Herzegovina Georgia 5 Kazakhstan 6 Kosovo 10 Macedonia Moldova Monaco 2 Montenegro Northern Cyprus 7 10 Russia 3 San Marino 2 Serbia South Ossetia 5 10 Transnistria 10 Turkey 4 Ukraine Vatican City 2 Oceania American Samoa 11 Australia Cook Islands 9 Fiji Guam 11 Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Niue 9 Northern Mariana Islands 11 Palau Papua New Guinea Pitcairn Islands 1 Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau 9 Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu 1 British Overseas Territories . 2 Open border with Schengen Area . 3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia , therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. 4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace . 5 Azerbaijan ( Artsakh ) and Georgia ( Abkhazia ; South Ossetia ) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus . 6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. 7 Armenia and Cyprus ( Northern Cyprus ; Akrotiri and Dhekelia ) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula . 9 Part of the Realm of New Zealand . 10 Partially recognized. 11 Unincorporated territory of the United States. 12 Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area , special open-border status under Svalbard Treaty show v t e Visa requirements Visa Passport Travel document Africa Central Angolan Cameroonian Central African Republic Chadian DR Congo R Congo Equatorial Guinean Gabonese Santomean Eastern Burundian Comorian Djiboutian Eritrean Ethiopian Kenyan Malagasy Malawian Mauritian Mozambican Rwandan Seychellois Somali ( Somaliland ) South Sudanese Tanzanian Ugandan Zambian Zimbabwean Northern Algerian Egyptian 8 Libyan Moroccan Sudanese Tunisian Southern Botswana Lesotho Namibian Saint Helena 1 South African Swazi Western Beninese Burkinabe Cape Verdean Gambian Ghanaian Guinean Guinea-Bissauan Ivorian Liberian Malian Mauritanian Nigerian Nigerien Senegalese Sierra Leonean Togolese Americas Caribbean Anguillan 1 Antigua and Barbuda Bahamian Barbadian British Virgin Islands 1 Caymanian 1 Cuban Dominica Dominican Republic Grenadian Haitian Jamaican Montserratian 1 Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucian Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands 1 Central Belizean Costa Rican El Salvador Guatemalan Honduran Nicaraguan Panamanian North Bermudian 1 Canadian Mexican United States South Argentine Bolivian Brazilian Chilean Colombian Ecuadorian Guyanese Paraguayan Peruvian Surinamese Uruguayan Venezuelan Asia Central & North Afghanistani Kazakhstani 6 Kyrgyzstani Russian 3 Tajik Turkmen Uzbekistani East Chinese Hong Kongese Macanese Japanese North Korean South Korean Mongolian Taiwanese 9 South Bangladeshi Bhutanese Indian Maldivian Nepalese Pakistani Sri Lankan Southeast Bruneian Cambodian East Timorese Indonesian Laotian Malaysian Myanmar Philippine Singaporean Thai Vietnamese Western Abkhaz 5 9 Armenian 7 Artsakh 7 9 Azerbaijani 5 Bahraini Cypriot 7 Egyptian 8 Georgian 5 Emirati Iranian Iraqi Israeli Jordanian Kuwaiti Lebanese Northern Cypriot 7 9 Omani Palestinian Qatari Saudi South Ossetian 5 9 Syrian Turkish 4 Yemeni Europe European Union Austrian Belgian British ( BOTC · BN(O) · BOC ) Bulgarian Croatian Cypriot 7 Czech Danish Dutch Estonian ( Non-citizens ) Finnish French German Greek Hungarian Irish Italian Latvian ( Non-citizens ) Lithuanian Luxembourg Maltese Polish Portuguese Romanian Slovak Slovenian Spanish Swedish Other Europe Abkhaz 5 9 Albanian Andorran 2 Armenian 7 Artsakh 7 9 Azerbaijani 5 Belarusian Bosnian and Herzegovinian Georgian 5 Gibraltar 1 Icelandic 2 Kazakhstani 6 Kosovan 9 Liechtenstein 2 Macedonia Moldovan Monégasque 2 Montenegrin Northern Cypriot 7 9 Norwegian 2 Russian 3 San Marino 2 Serbian South Ossetian 5 9 Sovereign Military Order of Malta Swiss Transnistrian 9 Turkish 4 Ukrainian Vatican City 2 Oceania Australian Fijian Kiribati Marshallese Micronesian Nauruan New Zealand Palauan Papua New Guinean Pitcairn Islands 1 Samoan Solomon Islands Tongan Tuvaluan Vanuatuan 1 British Overseas Territories . 2 Open border with Schengen Area . 3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia . 4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace . 5 Abkhazia 9 , Azerbaijan , Georgia , and South Ossetia 9 are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus . 6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. 7 Armenia , Artsakh 9 , Cyprus , and Northern Cyprus 9 are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula . 9 Partially recognized. Immigration law Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visa_policy_of_Russia&oldid=856987889 \" Categories : Visa policy by country Foreign relations of Russia Hidden categories: CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Pages with URL errors Articles with Russian-language external links CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2018, at 20:32 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Duke Ellington - Wikipedia Duke Ellington From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Duke Ellington Ellington c. 1940s Background information Birth name Edward Kennedy Ellington Born ( 1899-04-29 ) April 29, 1899 Washington, D.C., U.S. Died May 24, 1974 (1974-05-24) (aged 75) New York City, New York Genres Jazz , swing Occupation(s) Bandleader musician composer conductor Instruments Piano Years active 1914–1974 Associated acts Billy Strayhorn Website dukeellington .com Edward Kennedy \" Duke \" Ellington (April 29, 1899 – May 24, 1974) was an American composer, pianist, and bandleader of a jazz orchestra , which he led from 1923 until his death in a career spanning over fifty years. [1] Born in Washington, D.C., Ellington was based in New York City from the mid-1920s onward and gained a national profile through his orchestra's appearances at the Cotton Club in Harlem. In the 1930s, his orchestra toured in Europe. Although widely considered to have been a pivotal figure in the history of jazz, Ellington embraced the phrase \"beyond category\" as a liberating principle and referred to his music as part of the more general category of American Music rather than to a musical genre such as jazz . [2] Some of the musicians who were members of Ellington's orchestra, such as saxophonist Johnny Hodges , are considered to be among the best players in jazz. Ellington melded them into the best-known orchestral unit in the history of jazz. Some members stayed with the orchestra for several decades. A master at writing miniatures for the three-minute 78 rpm recording format, Ellington wrote more than one thousand compositions; his extensive body of work is the largest recorded personal jazz legacy, with many of his works having become standards . Ellington also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, for example Juan Tizol 's \" Caravan \", and \" Perdido \", which brought a Spanish tinge to big band jazz. After 1941, Ellington collaborated with composer-arranger-pianist Billy Strayhorn , whom he called his writing and arranging companion. [3] With Strayhorn, he composed many extended compositions, or suites, as well as additional short pieces. Following an appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival , in July 1956, Ellington and his orchestra enjoyed a major career revival and embarked on world tours. Ellington recorded for most American record companies of his era, performed in several films, scoring several, and composed stage musicals. Due to his inventive use of the orchestra, or big band, and thanks to his eloquence and charisma, Ellington elevated jazz to an art form. His reputation continued to rise after he died, and he was awarded a posthumous Pulitzer Prize Special Award for music in 1999. [4] Contents 1 Early life 2 Music career 2.1 Early career 2.2 Cotton Club engagement 2.3 The early 1930s 2.4 The later 1930s 2.5 Ellington in the early to mid-1940s 2.6 Early post-war years 2.7 Career revival 2.8 Last years 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Legacy 5.1 Memorials 5.2 Tributes 6 Discography 7 Awards and honors 7.1 Grammy Awards 7.2 Grammy Hall of Fame 7.3 Honors and inductions 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Early life [ edit ] Ellington was born on April 29, 1899, to James Edward Ellington and Daisy (Kennedy) Ellington in Washington, D.C. Both his parents were pianists. Daisy primarily played parlor songs and James preferred operatic arias. They lived with his maternal grandparents at 2129 Ida Place (now Ward Place), NW, in the West End neighborhood of Washington, D.C. [5] Duke's father was born in Lincolnton, North Carolina , on April 15, 1879, and moved to Washington, D.C. in 1886 with his parents. [6] Daisy Kennedy was born in Washington, D.C., on January 4, 1879, the daughter of a former American slave . [5] [7] James Ellington made blueprints for the United States Navy . When Ellington was a child, his family showed racial pride and support in their home, as did many other families. African Americans in D.C. worked to protect their children from the era's Jim Crow laws. [8] At the age of seven, Ellington began taking piano lessons from Marietta Clinkscales. Daisy surrounded her son with dignified women to reinforce his manners and teach him to live elegantly. Ellington's childhood friends noticed that his casual, offhand manner, his easy grace, and his dapper dress gave him the bearing of a young nobleman, [9] and began calling him \"Duke.\" Ellington credited his chum Edgar McEntree for the nickname. \"I think he felt that in order for me to be eligible for his constant companionship, I should have a title. So he called me Duke.\" [10] Though Ellington took piano lessons, he was more interested in baseball. \" President Roosevelt (Teddy) would come by on his horse sometimes, and stop and watch us play\", he recalled. [11] Ellington went to Armstrong Technical High School in Washington, D.C. He gained his first job selling peanuts at Washington Senators baseball games. In the summer of 1914, while working as a soda jerk at the Poodle Dog Café, Ellington wrote his first composition, \"Soda Fountain Rag\" (also known as the \"Poodle Dog Rag\"). He created the piece by ear, as he had not yet learned to read and write music. \"I would play the 'Soda Fountain Rag' as a one-step , two-step , waltz , tango , and fox trot \", Ellington recalled. \"Listeners never knew it was the same piece. I was established as having my own repertoire.\" [12] In his autobiography, Music is my Mistress (1973), Ellington wrote that he missed more lessons than he attended, feeling at the time that playing the piano was not his talent. Ellington started sneaking into Frank Holiday's Poolroom at the age of fourteen. Hearing the poolroom pianists play ignited Ellington's love for the instrument, and he began to take his piano studies seriously. Among the many piano players he listened to were Doc Perry, Lester Dishman, Louis Brown, Turner Layton , Gertie Wells, Clarence Bowser, Sticky Mack, Blind Johnny, Cliff Jackson , Claude Hopkins , Phil Wurd, Caroline Thornton, Luckey Roberts , Eubie Blake , Joe Rochester, and Harvey Brooks. [13] Ellington began listening to, watching, and imitating ragtime pianists, not only in Washington, D.C., but in Philadelphia and Atlantic City , where he vacationed with his mother during the summer months. [12] He would sometimes hear strange music played by those who could not afford much sheet music, so for variations, they played the sheets upside down. [14] Henry Lee Grant, a Dunbar High School music teacher, gave him private lessons in harmony. With the additional guidance of Washington pianist and band leader Oliver \"Doc\" Perry, Ellington learned to read sheet music , project a professional style, and improve his technique. Ellington was also inspired by his first encounters with stride pianists James P. Johnson and Luckey Roberts. Later in New York he took advice from Will Marion Cook , Fats Waller , and Sidney Bechet . Ellington started to play gigs in cafés and clubs in and around Washington, D.C. His attachment to music was so strong that in 1916 he turned down an art scholarship to the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn. Three months before graduating he dropped out of Armstrong Manual Training School, where he was studying commercial art. [15] Working as a freelance sign-painter from 1917, Ellington began assembling groups to play for dances. In 1919 he met drummer Sonny Greer from New Jersey, who encouraged Ellington's ambition to become a professional musician. Ellington built his music business through his day job: when a customer asked him to make a sign for a dance or party, he would ask if they had musical entertainment; if not, Ellington would offer to play for the occasion. He also had a messenger job with the U.S. Navy and State departments, where he made a wide range of contacts. Ellington moved out of his parents' home and bought his own as he became a successful pianist. At first, he played in other ensembles, and in late 1917 formed his first group, \"The Duke's Serenaders\" (\"Colored Syncopators\", his telephone directory advertising proclaimed). [15] He was also the group's booking agent. His first play date was at the True Reformer's Hall, where he took home 75 cents. [16] Ellington played throughout the Washington, D.C. area and into Virginia for private society balls and embassy parties. The band included childhood friend Otto Hardwick , who began playing the string bass, then moved to C-melody sax and finally settled on alto saxophone; Arthur Whetsol on trumpet; Elmer Snowden on banjo; and Sonny Greer on drums. The band thrived, performing for both African-American and white audiences, a rarity in the segregated society of the day. [17] Music career [ edit ] British pressing of \"East St. Louis Toodle-Oo\" (1927) Early career [ edit ] When his drummer Sonny Greer was invited to join the Wilber Sweatman Orchestra in New York City, Ellington made the fateful decision to leave behind his successful career in Washington, D.C., and move to Harlem , ultimately becoming part of the Harlem Renaissance . New dance crazes such as the Charleston emerged in Harlem, as well as African-American musical theater, including Eubie Blake 's Shuffle Along . After the young musicians left the Sweatman Orchestra to strike out on their own, they found an emerging jazz scene that was highly competitive and hard to crack. They hustled pool by day and played whatever gigs they could find. The young band met stride pianist Willie \"The Lion\" Smith , who introduced them to the scene and gave them some money. They played at rent-house parties for income. After a few months, the young musicians returned to Washington, D.C., feeling discouraged. In June 1923, a gig in Atlantic City, New Jersey , led to a play date at the prestigious Exclusive Club in Harlem. This was followed in September 1923 by a move to the Hollywood Club – 49th and Broadway – and a four-year engagement, which gave Ellington a solid artistic base. He was known to play the bugle at the end of each performance. The group was initially called Elmer Snowden and his Black Sox Orchestra and had seven members, including trumpeter James \"Bubber\" Miley . They renamed themselves The Washingtonians. Snowden left the group in early 1924 and Ellington took over as bandleader. After a fire, the club was re-opened as the Club Kentucky (often referred to as the Kentucky Club). Ellington made eight records in 1924, receiving composing credit on three including \"Choo Choo\". [18] In 1925, Ellington contributed four songs to Chocolate Kiddies starring Lottie Gee and Adelaide Hall , [19] an all-African-American revue which introduced European audiences to African-American styles and performers. Duke Ellington and his Kentucky Club Orchestra grew to a group of ten players; they developed their own sound by displaying the non-traditional expression of Ellington's arrangements, the street rhythms of Harlem, and the exotic-sounding trombone growls and wah-wahs, high-squealing trumpets, and sultry saxophone blues licks of the band members. For a short time soprano saxophonist Sidney Bechet played with them, imparting his propulsive swing and superior musicianship to the young band members. Cotton Club engagement [ edit ] In October 1926, Ellington made an agreement with agent-publisher Irving Mills , [20] giving Mills a 45% interest in Ellington's future. [21] Mills had an eye for new talent and published compositions by Hoagy Carmichael , Dorothy Fields , and Harold Arlen early in their careers. After recording a handful of acoustic titles during 1924–26, Ellington's signing with Mills allowed him to record prolifically, although sometimes he recorded different versions of the same tune. Mills often took a co-composer credit. From the beginning of their relationship, Mills arranged recording sessions on nearly every label including Brunswick , Victor , Columbia , OKeh , Pathê (and its Perfect label), the ARC/Plaza group of labels (Oriole, Domino, Jewel, Banner) and their dime-store labels (Cameo, Lincoln, Romeo), Hit of the Week, and Columbia's cheaper labels (Harmony, Diva, Velvet Tone, Clarion) labels which gave Ellington popular recognition. On OKeh, his records were usually issued as The Harlem Footwarmers, while the Brunswick's were usually issued as The Jungle Band. Whoopee Makers and the Ten Black Berries were other pseudonyms. In September 1927, King Oliver turned down a regular booking for his group as the house band at Harlem's Cotton Club ; [22] the offer passed to Ellington after Jimmy McHugh suggested him and Mills arranged an audition. [23] Ellington had to increase from a six to eleven-piece group to meet the requirements of the Cotton Club's management for the audition, [24] and the engagement finally began on December 4. [25] With a weekly radio broadcast, the Cotton Club's exclusively white and wealthy clientele poured in nightly to see them. At the Cotton Club, Ellington's group performed all the music for the revues, which mixed comedy, dance numbers, vaudeville, burlesque, music, and illegal alcohol. The musical numbers were composed by Jimmy McHugh and the lyrics by Dorothy Fields (later Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler ), with some Ellington originals mixed in. (Here he moved in with a dancer, his second wife Mildred Dixon ). Weekly radio broadcasts from the club gave Ellington national exposure, while Ellington also recorded Fields-JMcHugh and Fats Waller – Andy Razaf songs. Adelaide Hall - Adelaide Hall , recorded Creole Love Call with Ellington in 1927. The recording became a worldwide hit. Although trumpeter Bubber Miley was a member of the orchestra for only a short period, he had a major influence on Ellington's sound. [26] As an early exponent of growl trumpet, Miley changed the sweet dance band sound of the group to one that was hotter, which contemporaries termed Jungle Style. In October 1927, Ellington and his Orchestra recorded several compositions with Adelaide Hall . One side in particular, \" Creole Love Call \", became a worldwide sensation and gave both Ellington and Hall their first hit record. [27] [28] Miley had composed most of \" Creole Love Call \" and \" Black and Tan Fantasy \". An alcoholic, Miley had to leave the band before they gained wider fame. He died in 1932 at the age of 29, but he was an important influence on Cootie Williams , who replaced him. In 1929, the Cotton Club Orchestra appeared on stage for several months in Florenz Ziegfeld 's Show Girl, along with vaudeville stars Jimmy Durante , Eddie Foy, Jr. , Ruby Keeler , and with music and lyrics by George Gershwin and Gus Kahn . Will Vodery , Ziegfeld's musical supervisor, recommended Ellington for the show, and, according to John Hasse's Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke Ellington , \"Perhaps during the run of Show Girl, Ellington received what he later termed ' valuable lessons in orchestration from Will Vodery.' In his 1946 biography, Duke Ellington , Barry Ulanov wrote: From Vodery, as he (Ellington) says himself, he drew his chromatic convictions, his uses of the tones ordinarily extraneous to the diatonic scale , with the consequent alteration of the harmonic character of his music, its broadening, The deepening of his resources. It has become customary to ascribe the classical influences upon Duke – Delius , Debussy and Ravel – to direct contact with their music. Actually his serious appreciation of those and other modern composers, came after his meeting with Vodery. [29] Ellington's film work began with Black and Tan (1929), a nineteen-minute all-African-American RKO short [30] in which he played the hero \"Duke\". He also appeared in the Amos 'n' Andy film Check and Double Check released in 1930. That year, Ellington and his Orchestra connected with a whole different audience in a concert with Maurice Chevalier and they also performed at the Roseland Ballroom , \"America's foremost ballroom\". Australian-born composer Percy Grainger was an early admirer and supporter. He wrote \"The three greatest composers who ever lived are Bach , Delius and Duke Ellington. Unfortunately Bach is dead, Delius is very ill but we are happy to have with us today The Duke\". [31] Ellington's first period at the Cotton Club concluded in 1931. The early 1930s [ edit ] Ellington led the orchestra by conducting from the keyboard using piano cues and visual gestures; very rarely did he conduct using a baton. By 1932 his orchestra consisted of six brass instruments, four reeds, and a four-man rhythm section. [32] As a bandleader, Ellington was not a strict disciplinarian; he maintained control of his orchestra with a combination of charm, humor, flattery and astute psychology. A complex, private person, he revealed his feelings to only his closest intimates and effectively used his public persona to deflect attention away from himself. Ellington signed exclusively to Brunswick in 1932 and stayed with them through late 1936 (albeit with a short-lived 1933–34 switch to Victor when Irving Mills temporarily moved him and his other acts from Brunswick). As the Depression worsened, the recording industry was in crisis, dropping over 90% of its artists by 1933. [33] Ivie Anderson was hired as their featured vocalist in 1931. She is the vocalist on \" It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing) \" (1932) among other recordings. Sonny Greer had been providing occasional vocals and continued to do in a cross-talk feature with Anderson. Radio exposure helped maintain Ellington's public profile as his orchestra began to tour. The other records of this era include: \" Mood Indigo \" (1930), \" Sophisticated Lady \" (1933), \" Solitude \" (1934), and \" In a Sentimental Mood \" (1935) While the band's United States audience remained mainly African-American in this period, the Ellington orchestra had a significant following overseas, exemplified by the success of their trip to England and Scotland in 1933 and their 1934 visit to the European mainland. The British visit saw Ellington win praise from members of the serious music community, including composer Constant Lambert , which gave a boost to Ellington's interest in composing longer works. Those longer pieces had already begun to appear. He had composed and recorded Creole Rhapsody as early as 1931 (issued as both sides of a 12\" record for Victor and both sides of a 10\" record for Brunswick), and a tribute to his mother, \"Reminiscing in Tempo\", took four 10\" record sides to record in 1935 after her death in that year. Symphony in Black (also 1935), a short film, featured his extended piece 'A Rhapsody of Negro Life'. It introduced Billie Holiday , and won an Academy Award as the best musical short subject. [34] Ellington and his Orchestra also appeared in the features Murder at the Vanities and Belle of the Nineties (both 1934). For agent Mills the attention was a publicity triumph, as Ellington was now internationally known. On the band's tour through the segregated South in 1934, they avoided some of the traveling difficulties of African-Americans by touring in private railcars. These provided easy accommodations, dining, and storage for equipment while avoiding the indignities of segregated facilities. Competition was intensifying though, as swing bands like Benny Goodman 's, began to receive popular attention. Swing dancing became a youth phenomenon, particularly with white college audiences, and danceability drove record sales and bookings. Jukeboxes proliferated nationwide, spreading the gospel of swing. Ellington's band could certainly swing, but their strengths were mood, nuance, and richness of composition, hence his statement \"jazz is music, swing is business\". [35] The later 1930s [ edit ] From 1936, Ellington began to make recordings with smaller groups (sextets, octets, and nonets) drawn from his then-15-man orchestra and he composed pieces intended to feature a specific instrumentalist, as with \"Jeep's Blues\" for Johnny Hodges , \"Yearning for Love\" for Lawrence Brown , \"Trumpet in Spades\" for Rex Stewart , \" Echoes of Harlem \" for Cootie Williams and \"Clarinet Lament\" for Barney Bigard . In 1937, Ellington returned to the Cotton Club which had relocated to the mid-town Theater District . In the summer of that year, his father died, and due to many expenses, Ellington's finances were tight, although his situation improved the following year. After leaving agent Irving Mills, he signed on with the William Morris Agency . Mills though continued to record Ellington. After only a year, his Master and Variety labels, the small groups had recorded for the latter, collapsed in late 1937, Mills placed Ellington back on Brunswick and those small group units on Vocalion through to 1940. Well known sides continued to be recorded, \" Caravan \" in 1937, and \"I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart\" the following year. Play media Ellington in 1939 Billy Strayhorn , originally hired as a lyricist, began his association with Ellington in 1939. [36] Nicknamed \"Swee' Pea\" for his mild manner, Strayhorn soon became a vital member of the Ellington organization. Ellington showed great fondness for Strayhorn and never failed to speak glowingly of the man and their collaborative working relationship, \"my right arm, my left arm, all the eyes in the back of my head, my brain waves in his head, and his in mine\". [37] Strayhorn, with his training in classical music, not only contributed his original lyrics and music, but also arranged and polished many of Ellington's works, becoming a second Ellington or \"Duke's doppelganger\". It was not uncommon for Strayhorn to fill in for Duke, whether in conducting or rehearsing the band, playing the piano, on stage, and in the recording studio. [38] The 1930s ended with a very successful European tour just as World War II loomed in Europe. Ellington in the early to mid-1940s [ edit ] Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club in New York, May 1943 Some of the musicians who joined Ellington at this time created a sensation in their own right. The short-lived Jimmy Blanton transformed the use of double bass in jazz, allowing it to function as a solo/melodic instrument rather than a rhythm instrument alone. Terminal illness forced him to leave by late 1941 after only about two years. Ben Webster , the Orchestra's first regular tenor saxophonist, whose main tenure with Ellington spanned 1939 to 1943, started a rivalry with Johnny Hodges as the Orchestra's foremost voice in the sax section. Trumpeter Ray Nance joined, replacing Cootie Williams who had defected to Benny Goodman . Additionally, Nance added violin to the instrumental colors Ellington had at his disposal. Recordings exist of Nance's first concert date on November 7, 1940, at Fargo, North Dakota . Privately made by Jack Towers and Dick Burris, these recordings were first legitimately issued in 1978 as Duke Ellington at Fargo, 1940 Live ; they are among the earliest of innumerable live performances which survive. Nance was also an occasional vocalist, although Herb Jeffries was the main male vocalist in this era (until 1943) while Al Hibbler (who replaced Jeffries in 1943) continued until 1951. Ivie Anderson left in 1942 for health reasons after eleven years: the longest term of any of Ellington's vocalists. [39] Once again recording for Victor (from 1940), with the small groups recording for their Bluebird label, three-minute masterpieces on 78 rpm record sides continued to flow from Ellington, Billy Strayhorn, Ellington's son Mercer Ellington , and members of the Orchestra. \" Cotton Tail \", \"Main Stem\", \"Harlem Airshaft\", \"Jack the Bear\", and dozens of others date from this period. Strayhorn's \" Take the \"A\" Train \" a hit in 1941, became the band's theme, replacing \" East St. Louis Toodle-Oo \". Ellington and his associates wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity. [40] Mary Lou Williams , working as a staff arranger, would briefly join Ellington a few years later. Ellington's long-term aim though was to extend the jazz form from that three-minute limit, of which he was an acknowledged master. [41] While he had composed and recorded some extended pieces before, such works now became a regular feature of Ellington's output. In this, he was helped by Strayhorn, who had enjoyed a more thorough training in the forms associated with classical music than Ellington. The first of these, \" Black, Brown, and Beige \" (1943), was dedicated to telling the story of African-Americans, and the place of slavery and the church in their history. Ellington debuted Black, Brown and Beige in Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1943, beginning an annual series of concerts there over the next four years. While some jazz musicians had played at Carnegie Hall before, none had performed anything as elaborate as Ellington's work. Unfortunately, starting a regular pattern, Ellington's longer works were generally not well received. A partial exception was Jump for Joy , a full-length musical based on themes of African-American identity, debuted on July 10, 1941, at the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles. Hollywood luminaries such as actors John Garfield and Mickey Rooney invested in the production, and Charlie Chaplin and Orson Welles offered to direct. [42] At one performance though, Garfield insisted Herb Jeffries, who was light-skinned, should wear make-up. Ellington objected in the interval, and compared Jeffries to Al Jolson . The change was reverted, and the singer later commented that the audience must have thought he was an entirely different character in the second half of the show. [43] Although it had sold-out performances, and received positive reviews, [44] it ran for only 122 performances until September 29, 1941, with a brief revival in November of that year. Its subject matter did not make it appealing to Broadway; Ellington had unfulfilled plans to take it there. [45] Despite this disappointment, a Broadway production of Ellington's Beggar's Holiday , his sole book musical, premiered on December 23, 1946. [46] under the direction of Nicholas Ray . The settlement of the first recording ban of 1942–43 , leading to an increase in royalties paid to musicians, had a serious effect on the financial viability of the big bands, including Ellington's Orchestra. His income as a songwriter ultimately subsidized it. Although he always spent lavishly and drew a respectable income from the Orchestra's operations, the band's income often just covered expenses. [47] Early post-war years [ edit ] World War II brought about a swift end to the big band era as musicians went off to serve in the military and travel restrictions made touring difficult. When the war ended, the focus of popular music shifted towards crooners such as Frank Sinatra and Jo Stafford , so Ellington's wordless vocal feature \"Transblucency\" (1946) with Kay Davis was not going to have a similar reach. With inflation setting in after 1945, the cost of hiring big bands went up and club owners preferred smaller jazz groups who played in new styles such as bebop . Dancing in clubs also subjected club owners to a new wartime tax which continued for many years after, which made small bands more cost-effective for club owners. Ellington poses with his piano at the KFG Radio Studio November 3, 1954. Ellington continued on his own course through these tectonic shifts. While Count Basie was forced to disband his whole ensemble and work as an octet for a time, Ellington was able to tour most of Western Europe between April 6 and June 30, 1950, with the orchestra playing 74 dates over 77 days. [48] During the tour, according to Sonny Greer, the newer works were not performed, though Ellington's extended composition, Harlem (1950) was in the process of being completed at this time. Ellington later presented its score to music-loving President Harry Truman . Also during his time in Europe, Ellington would compose the music for a stage production by Orson Welles . Titled Time Runs in Paris [49] and An Evening With Orson Welles in Frankfurt , the variety show also featured a newly discovered Eartha Kitt , who performed Ellington's original song \"Hungry Little Trouble\" as Helen of Troy . [50] In 1951, Ellington suffered a significant loss of personnel: Sonny Greer, Lawrence Brown, and most importantly Johnny Hodges left to pursue other ventures, although only Greer was a permanent departee. Drummer Louie Bellson replaced Greer, and his \"Skin Deep\" was a hit for Ellington. Tenor player Paul Gonsalves had joined in December 1950 [48] after periods with Count Basie and Dizzy Gillespie and stayed for the rest of his life, while Clark Terry joined in November 1951. [51] During the early 1950s, Ellington's career was at a low point with his style being generally seen as outmoded, but his reputation did not suffer as badly as some artists. André Previn said in 1952: \"You know, Stan Kenton can stand in front of a thousand fiddles and a thousand brass and make a dramatic gesture and every studio arranger can nod his head and say, Oh, yes, that's done like this. But Duke merely lifts his finger, three horns make a sound, and I don’t know what it is!\" [52] However, by 1955, after three years of recording for Capitol , Ellington lacked a regular recording affiliation. Career revival [ edit ] Ellington's appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival on July 7, 1956 returned him to wider prominence and introduced him to a new generation of fans. The feature \" Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue \" comprised two tunes that had been in the band's book since 1937 but largely forgotten until Ellington, who had abruptly ended the band's scheduled set because of the late arrival of four key players, called the two tunes as the time was approaching midnight. Announcing that the two pieces would be separated by an interlude played by tenor saxophonist Paul Gonsalves , Ellington proceeded to lead the band through the two pieces, with Gonsalves' 27-chorus marathon solo whipping the crowd into a frenzy, leading the Maestro to play way beyond the curfew time despite urgent pleas from festival organizer George Wein to bring the program to an end. The concert made international headlines, led to one of only five Time magazine cover stories dedicated to a jazz musician, [53] and resulted in an album produced by George Avakian that would become the best-selling LP of Ellington's career. [54] Much of the music on the vinyl LP was, in effect, simulated, with only about 40% actually from the concert itself. According to Avakian, Ellington was dissatisfied with aspects of the performance and felt the musicians had been under rehearsed. [54] The band assembled the next day to re-record several of the numbers with the addition of artificial crowd noise, none of which was disclosed to purchasers of the album. Not until 1999 was the concert recording properly released for the first time. The revived attention brought about by the Newport appearance should not have surprised anyone, Johnny Hodges had returned the previous year, and Ellington's collaboration with Strayhorn had been renewed around the same time, under terms more amenable to the younger man. [ citation needed ] The original Ellington at Newport album was the first release in a new recording contract with Columbia Records which yielded several years of recording stability, mainly under producer Irving Townsend , who coaxed both commercial and artistic productions from Ellington. [55] In 1957, CBS (Columbia Records' parent corporation) aired a live television production of A Drum Is a Woman , an allegorical suite which received mixed reviews. His hope that television would provide a significant new outlet for his type of jazz was not fulfilled. Tastes and trends had moved on without him. Festival appearances at the new Monterey Jazz Festival and elsewhere provided venues for live exposure, and a European tour in 1958 was well received. Such Sweet Thunder (1957), based on Shakespeare's plays and characters, and The Queen's Suite (1958), dedicated to Britain's Queen Elizabeth II , were products of the renewed impetus which the Newport appearance helped to create, although the latter work was not commercially issued at the time. The late 1950s also saw Ella Fitzgerald record her Duke Ellington Songbook (Verve) with Ellington and his orchestra—a recognition that Ellington's songs had now become part of the cultural canon known as the ' Great American Songbook '. Jimmy Stewart and Ellington in Anatomy of a Murder . Ellington at this time (with Strayhorn) began to work directly on scoring for film soundtracks, in particular Anatomy of a Murder (1959), [32] with James Stewart , in which Ellington appeared fronting a roadhouse combo, and Paris Blues (1961), which featured Paul Newman and Sidney Poitier as jazz musicians. Detroit Free Press music critic Mark Stryker concludes that the work of Billy Strayhorn and Ellington in Anatomy of a Murder a trial court drama film directed by Otto Preminger , is \"indispensable, [although] . . . too sketchy to rank in the top echelon among Ellington-Strayhorn masterpiece suites like Such Sweet Thunder and The Far East Suite , but its most inspired moments are their equal.\" [56] Film historians have recognized the soundtrack \"as a landmark – the first significant Hollywood film music by African Americans comprising non-diegetic music, that is, music whose source is not visible or implied by action in the film, like an on-screen band.\" The score avoided the cultural stereotypes which previously characterized jazz scores and rejected a strict adherence to visuals in ways that presaged the New Wave cinema of the '60s\". [57] Ellington and Strayhorn, always looking for new musical territory, produced suites for John Steinbeck 's novel Sweet Thursday , Tchaikovsky 's Nutcracker Suite and Edvard Grieg 's Peer Gynt . In the early 1960s, Ellington embraced recording with artists who had been friendly rivals in the past, or were younger musicians who focused on later styles. The Ellington and Count Basie orchestras recorded together. During a period when he was between recording contracts, he made records with Louis Armstrong ( Roulette ), Coleman Hawkins , John Coltrane (both for Impulse ) and participated in a session with Charles Mingus and Max Roach which produced the Money Jungle ( United Artists ) album. He signed to Frank Sinatra 's new Reprise label , but the association with the label was short-lived. Musicians who had previously worked with Ellington returned to the Orchestra as members: Lawrence Brown in 1960 and Cootie Williams in 1962. The writing and playing of music is a matter of intent.... You can't just throw a paint brush against the wall and call whatever happens art. My music fits the tonal personality of the player. I think too strongly in terms of altering my music to fit the performer to be impressed by accidental music. You can't take doodling seriously. [12] He was now performing all over the world; a significant part of each year was spent on overseas tours. As a consequence, he formed new working relationships with artists from around the world, including the Swedish vocalist Alice Babs , and the South African musicians Dollar Brand and Sathima Bea Benjamin ( A Morning in Paris , 1963/1997). Ellington wrote an original score for director Michael Langham 's production of Shakespeare's Timon of Athens at the Stratford Festival in Ontario, Canada which opened on July 29, 1963. Langham has used it for several subsequent productions, including a much later adaptation by Stanley Silverman which expands the score with some of Ellington's best-known works. Last years [ edit ] Ellington receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Nixon , 1969. Ellington was shortlisted for the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1965 but no prize was ultimately awarded that year. [58] Then 66 years old, he joked: \"Fate is being kind to me. Fate doesn't want me to be famous too young.\" [59] In 1999 he was posthumously awarded a special Pulitzer Prize \"commemorating the centennial year of his birth, in recognition of his musical genius, which evoked aesthetically the principles of democracy through the medium of jazz and thus made an indelible contribution to art and culture.\" [4] [60] In September 1965, he premiered the first of his Sacred Concerts . He created a jazz Christian liturgy. Although the work received mixed reviews, Ellington was proud of the composition and performed it dozens of times. This concert was followed by two others of the same type in 1968 and 1973, known as the Second and Third Sacred Concerts. These generated controversy in what was already a tumultuous time in the United States. Many saw the Sacred Music suites as an attempt to reinforce commercial support for organized religion, though Ellington simply said it was \"the most important thing I've done\". [61] The Steinway piano upon which the Sacred Concerts were composed is part of the collection of the Smithsonian 's National Museum of American History . Like Haydn and Mozart , Ellington conducted his orchestra from the piano – he always played the keyboard parts when the Sacred Concerts were performed. [62] Duke turned 65 in the spring of 1964 but showed no signs of slowing down as he continued to make vital and innovative recordings, including The Far East Suite (1966), New Orleans Suite (1970), Latin American Suite (1972) and The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse (1971), much of it inspired by his world tours. It was during this time that he recorded his only album with Frank Sinatra , entitled Francis A. & Edward K. (1967). Ellington performed what is considered his final full concert in a ballroom at Northern Illinois University on March 20, 1974. [63] The last three shows Ellington and his orchestra performed were one on March 21, 1973 at Purdue University 's Hall of Music and two on March 22, 1973 at the Sturges-Young Auditorium in Sturgis, Michigan . [64] Personal life [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Ellington in 1973 Ellington married his high school sweetheart, Edna Thompson (d. 1967), on July 2, 1918, when he was 19. The next spring, on March 11, 1919, Edna gave birth to their only son, Mercer Kennedy Ellington . Ellington was joined in New York City by his wife and son in the late twenties, but the couple soon permanently separated. [65] According to her obituary in Jet magazine, she was \"homesick for Washington\" and returned. [66] In 1928, Ellington became the companion of Mildred Dixon , who traveled with him, managed Tempo Music, inspired songs at the peak of his career, and reared his son Mercer. In 1938 he left his family (his son was then 19) and moved in with Beatrice \"Evie\" Ellis, a Cotton Club employee. Their relationship, though stormy, continued after Ellington met and formed a relationship with Fernanda de Castro Monte in the early 1960s. Ellington supported both women for the rest of his life. [67] Mildred Dixon – Ellington's companion; his son Mercer referred to her as his mother Ellington's sister Ruth (1915–2004) later ran Tempo Music, his music publishing company. Ruth's second husband was the bass-baritone McHenry Boatwright , whom she met when he sang at her brother's funeral. [68] As an adult, son Mercer Ellington (d. 1996) played trumpet and piano, led his own band, and worked as his father's business manager. Ellington was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha , freemason and was associated with Prince Hall Freemasonry . [69] Death [ edit ] Ellington died on May 24, 1974, of complications from lung cancer and pneumonia , [70] a few weeks after his 75th birthday. At his funeral, attended by over 12,000 people at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine , Ella Fitzgerald summed up the occasion, \"It's a very sad day. A genius has passed.\" [71] He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery , the Bronx , New York City. [72] Legacy [ edit ] Memorials [ edit ] Numerous memorials have been dedicated to Duke Ellington, in cities from New York and Washington, D.C. to Los Angeles. Ellington is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx , New York City. In Ellington's birthplace, Washington, D.C., the Duke Ellington School of the Arts educates talented students, who are considering careers in the arts, by providing intensive arts instruction and strong academic programs that prepare students for post-secondary education and professional careers. Originally built in 1935, the Calvert Street Bridge was renamed the Duke Ellington Bridge in 1974. Another school is P.S. 004 Duke Ellington in New York. In 1989, a bronze plaque was attached to the newly named Duke Ellington Building at 2121 Ward Place, NW. [73] In 2012, the new owner of the building commissioned a mural by Aniekan Udofia that appears above the lettering \"Duke Ellington\". In 2010 the triangular park, across the street from Duke Ellington's birth site, at the intersection of New Hampshire and M Streets, NW was named the Duke Ellington Park. Ellington's residence at 2728 Sherman Avenue, NW, during the years 1919–1922, [74] is marked by a bronze plaque. On February 24, 2009, the United States Mint issued a coin with Duke Ellington on it, making him the first African American to appear by himself on a circulating U.S. coin. [75] Ellington appears on the reverse (tails) side of the District of Columbia quarter . [75] The coin is part of the U.S. Mint's program honoring the District and the U.S. territories [76] and celebrates Ellington's birthplace in the District of Columbia. [75] Ellington is depicted on the quarter seated at a piano, sheet music in hand, along with the inscription \"Justice for All\", which is the District's motto. [76] In 1986 a United States commemorative stamp was issued featuring Ellington's likeness. [77] Ellington on the Washington, D.C. quarter released in 2009. Ellington lived for years in a townhouse on the corner of Manhattan's Riverside Drive and West 106th Street. After his death, West 106th Street was officially renamed Duke Ellington Boulevard. A large memorial to Ellington, created by sculptor Robert Graham , was dedicated in 1997 in New York's Central Park , near Fifth Avenue and 110th Street , an intersection named Duke Ellington Circle . A statue of Ellington at a piano is featured at the entrance to UCLA's Schoenberg Hall. According to UCLA magazine: When UCLA students were entranced by Duke Ellington's provocative tunes at a Culver City club in 1937, they asked the budding musical great to play a free concert in Royce Hall . 'I've been waiting for someone to ask us!' Ellington exclaimed. On the day of the concert, Ellington accidentally mixed up the venues and drove to USC instead. He eventually arrived at the UCLA campus and, to apologize for his tardiness, played to the packed crowd for more than four hours. And so, \"Sir Duke\" and his group played the first-ever jazz performance in a concert venue. [78] The Essentially Ellington High School Jazz Band Competition and Festival is a nationally renowned annual competition for prestigious high school bands. Started in 1996 at Jazz at Lincoln Center , the festival is named after Ellington because of the large focus that the festival places on his works. Tributes [ edit ] After Duke died, his son Mercer took over leadership of the orchestra, continuing until his own death in 1996. Like the Count Basie Orchestra , this \"ghost band\" continued to release albums for many years. Digital Duke , credited to The Duke Ellington Orchestra, won the 1988 Grammy Award for Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album . Mercer Ellington had been handling all administrative aspects of his father's business for several decades. Mercer's children continue a connection with their grandfather's work. Gunther Schuller wrote in 1989: Ellington composed incessantly to the very last days of his life. Music was indeed his mistress; it was his total life and his commitment to it was incomparable and unalterable. In jazz he was a giant among giants. And in twentieth century music, he may yet one day be recognized as one of the half-dozen greatest masters of our time. [79] Martin Williams said: \"Duke Ellington lived long enough to hear himself named among our best composers. And since his death in 1974, it has become not at all uncommon to see him named, along with Charles Ives , as the greatest composer we have produced, regardless of category.\" [80] In the opinion of Bob Blumenthal of The Boston Globe in 1999: \"[i]n the century since his birth, there has been no greater composer, American or otherwise, than Edward Kennedy Ellington.\" [81] In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Duke Ellington on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans . [82] Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6535 Hollywood Blvd. His compositions have been revisited by artists and musicians around the world both as a source of inspiration and a bedrock of their own performing careers. Dave Brubeck dedicated \"The Duke\" (1954) to Ellington and it became a standard covered by others, [83] including by Miles Davis on Miles Ahead , 1957. The album The Real Ambassadors has a vocal version of this piece, \"You Swing Baby (The Duke)\", with lyrics by Iola Brubeck, Dave Brubeck's wife. It is performed as a duet between Louis Armstrong and Carmen McRae . It is also dedicated to Duke Ellington. Miles Davis created his half-hour dirge \"He Loved Him Madly\" (on Get Up with It ) as a tribute to Ellington one month after his death. Charles Mingus , who had been fired by Ellington decades earlier, wrote the elegy \"Duke Ellington's Sound Of Love\" in 1974, a few months after Ellington's death. Stevie Wonder wrote the song \" Sir Duke \" as a tribute to Ellington in 1976. There are hundreds of albums dedicated to the music of Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn by artists famous and obscure. Sophisticated Ladies , an award-winning 1981 musical revue, incorporated many tunes from Ellington's repertoire. A second Broadway musical interpolating Ellington's music, Play On! , debuted in 1997. Discography [ edit ] Main article: Duke Ellington discography Awards and honors [ edit ] 1960, Hollywood Walk of Fame , contribution to recording industry 1966, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . [4] 1969, the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian award in the US [4] 1971, an Honorary PhD from the Berklee College of Music [4] 1973, the Legion of Honor by France, its highest civilian honors. [4] 1999, posthumous Special Pulitzer Prize for his lifetime contributions to music and culture Grammy Awards [ edit ] Ellington earned 14 Grammy awards from 1959 to 2000, three of which were posthumous and a total of 24 nominations Duke Ellington Grammy Award History [84] [77] Year Category Title Genre Result 1999 Historical Album The Duke Ellington Centennial Edition RCA Victor Recordings (1927–1973) Jazz Winner 1979 Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band Duke Ellington At Fargo, 1940 Live Jazz Winner 1976 Best Jazz Performance By A Big Band The Ellington Suites Jazz Winner 1972 Best Jazz Performance By A Big Band Togo Brava Suite Jazz Winner 1971 Best Jazz Performance By A Big Band New Orleans Suite Jazz Winner 1971 Best Instrumental Composition New Orleans Suite Composing/Arranging Nominated 1970 Best Instrumental Jazz Performance – Large Group or Soloist with Large Group Duke Ellington - 70th Birthday Concert Jazz Nominated 1968 Trustees Award National Trustees Award - 1968 Special Awards Winner 1968 Best Instrumental Jazz Performance – Large Group Or Soloist With Large Group ...And His Mother Called Him Bill Jazz Winner 1967 Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Large Group Or Soloist With Large Group Far East Suite Jazz Winner 1966 Bing Crosby Award - Name changed to GRAMMY Lifetime Achievement Award in 1982. Bing Crosby Award - Name changed to GRAMMY Lifetime Achievement Award in 1982. Special Awards Winner 1966 Best Original Jazz Composition \"In The Beginning God\" Jazz Winner 1966 Best Instrumental Jazz Performance – Group or Soloist with Group Concert Of Sacred Music (Album) Jazz Nominated 1965 Best Instrumental Jazz Performance - Large Group Or Soloist With Large Group Ellington '66 Jazz Winner 1965 Best Original Jazz Composition Virgin Islands Suite Jazz Nominated 1964 Best Original Jazz Composition Night Creature Jazz Nominated 1964 Best Jazz Performance – Large Group (Instrumental) First Time! (Album) Jazz Nominated 1961 Best Instrumental Theme or Instrumental Version of Song Paris Blues Composing/Arranging Nominated 1961 Best Sound Track Album or Recording of Score from Motion Picture or Television Paris Blues (Motion Picture) (Album) Music for Visual Media Nominated 1960 Best Jazz Performance Solo or Small Group Back To Back - Duke Ellington And Johnny Hodges Play The Blues Jazz Nominated 1960 Best Jazz Composition of More Than Five Minutes Duration Idiom '59 Jazz Nominated 1959 Best Performance By A Dance Band Anatomy of a Murder Pop Winner 1959 Best Musical Composition First Recorded And Released In 1959 (More Than 5 Minutes Duration) Anatomy of a Murder Composing Winner 1959 Best Sound Track Album – Background Score From A Motion Picture Or Television Anatomy of a Murder Composing Winner 1959 Best Jazz Performance - Group Ellington Jazz Party (Album) Jazz Nominated Grammy Hall of Fame [ edit ] Recordings of Duke Ellington were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least twenty-five years old, and that have qualitative or historical significance. Duke Ellington: Grammy Hall of Fame Award [85] Year Recorded Title Genre Label Year Inducted 1932 \" It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing) \" Jazz (single) Brunswick 2008 1934 \" Cocktails for Two \" Jazz (single) Victor 2007 1957 Ellington at Newport Jazz (album) Columbia 2004 1956 \" Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue \" Jazz (single) Columbia 1999 1967 Far East Suite Jazz (album) RCA 1999 1944 Black, Brown and Beige Jazz (single) RCA Victor 1990 1928 \" Black and Tan Fantasy \" Jazz (single) Victor 1981 1941 \" Take the \"A\" Train \" Jazz (single) Victor 1976 1931 \" Mood Indigo \" Jazz (single) Brunswick 1975 Honors and inductions [ edit ] Year Category Notes 2009 Commemorative U.S. quarter D.C. and U.S. Territories Quarters Program. [86] [87] 2008 Gennett Records Walk of Fame 2004 Nesuhi Ertegün Jazz Hall of Fame at Jazz at Lincoln Center 1999 Pulitzer Prize Special Citation [4] 1992 Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame 1986 22¢ commemorative U.S. stamp Issued April 29, 1986 [88] 1978 Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame 1973 French Legion of Honor [89] July 6, 1973 1973 Honorary Degree in Music from Columbia University May 16, 1973 1971 Honorary Doctorate Degree from Berklee College of Music 1971 Honorary Doctor of Music from Howard University [90] 1971 Songwriters Hall of Fame 1969 Presidential Medal of Freedom 1968 Grammy Trustees Award Special Merit Award 1967 Honorary Doctor of Music Degree from Yale University [91] [92] 1966 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award 1964 Honorary degree, Milton College , Wisconsin 1959 NAACP Spingarn Medal 1957 Deutscher Filmpreis : Best Music Award won for the movie Jonah with fellow composer Winfried Zillig 1956 Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame inductee Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Biography\" . DukeEllington.com (Official site). 2008 . Retrieved January 26, 2012 . Jump up ^ Tucker 1995 , p. 6 writes: \"He tried to avoid the word 'jazz' preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he embraced a phrase coined by his colleague Billy Strayhorn – 'beyond category' – as a liberating principle.\" Jump up ^ Hajdu, David (1996), Lush Life: A Biography of Billy Strayhorn , New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, ISBN 978-0-86547-512-0 , p. 170. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"The 1999 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Special Awards and Citations\" . The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved December 3, 2013. With reprint of short biography and list of works (selected). ^ Jump up to: a b Lawrence 2001 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Lawrence 2001 , p. 2. Jump up ^ Hasse 1995 , p. 21. Jump up ^ Cohen, Harvey (2010). \"An excerpt from Duke Ellington's America\" . University of Chicago Press. Jump up ^ Terkel 2002 Jump up ^ Ellington 1976 , p. 20. Jump up ^ Ellington 1976 , p. 10. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Ellington, Duke\". Current Biography . H.W. Wilson Company, 1970. Jump up ^ Smith, Willie the Lion (1964). Music on My Mind: The Memoirs of an American Pianist, Foreword by Duke Ellington . New York City: Doubleday & Company Inc. pp. ix. Jump up ^ Mercer Ellington to Marian McPartland , on Piano Jazz , rebroadcast on Hot Jazz Saturday Night , WAMU , 2018 April 28. ^ Jump up to: a b Simmonds, Yussuf (September 11, 2008). \"Duke Ellington\" . Los Angeles Sentinel . Retrieved July 14, 2009 . Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 45. Jump up ^ Cohen, Harvey G. (Autumn 2004). \"The Marketing of Duke Ellington: Setting the Strategy for an African American Maestro\". The Journal of African-American History . Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc. 89 (4): 291–315. doi : 10.2307/4134056 . JSTOR 4134056 . Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 79. Jump up ^ \"Adelaide Hall | CHOCOLATE KIDDIES EUROPEAN TOUR 1925 Photo Album on Myspace\" . Myspace.com . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ Gary Giddins Visions of Jazz: The First Century , New York & Oxford, 1998, pp. 112-13. Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 90. Jump up ^ A. H. Lawrence Duke Ellington and His World , New York & London, 2001, p. 77. Jump up ^ Bill Gutman Duke: The Musical Life of Duke Ellington , New York: E-Rights/E-Reads, 1977 [2001], p. 35. Jump up ^ Duke Ellington Music is my Mistress , New York: Da Capo, 1973 [1976], pp. 75-76. Jump up ^ John Franceschina Duke Ellington's Music for the Theatre , Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2001, p. 16. Jump up ^ Schuller, Gunther (October 1992). \"Jazz and Composition: The Many Sides of Duke Ellington, the Music's Greatest Composer\". Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 46 (1): 36–51. doi : 10.2307/3824163 . JSTOR 3824163 . Jump up ^ \"Adelaide Hall talks about 1920's Harlem and Creole Love Call\" . YouTube . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ Iain Cameron Williams, Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall , Continuum Publishing Int., 2002 (on pages 112–117 Williams talks about \"Creole Love Call\" in depth). Jump up ^ Ulanov, Barry. Duke Ellington , Creative Age Press, 1946. Jump up ^ Stratemann, Dr. Klaus. Duke Ellington: Day by Day and Film by Film , 1992. ISBN 87-88043-34-7 Jump up ^ John Bird, Percy Grainger . ^ Jump up to: a b Hodeir, André. \"Ellington, Duke\" . Oxford Music Online . Oxford University Press . Retrieved September 15, 2016 . Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 166. Jump up ^ Schuller, 1989, p. 94. Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 203. Jump up ^ Stone, Sonjia (ed) (1983). \"WILLIAM THOMAS STRAYHORN\" . Billy Strayhorn Songs . University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on June 22, 2009 . Retrieved July 14, 2009 . CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Ellington 1976 , p. 156. Jump up ^ \"Duke Ellington: Symphony of the Body and Soul\" . Allaboutjazz.com. Archived from the original on July 7, 2012 . Retrieved December 31, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Musician Ivie Anderson (Vocal) @ All About Jazz\" . Musicians.allaboutjazz.com . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Jazz Musicians – Duke Ellington\" . Theory Jazz. Archived from the original on September 3, 2015 . Retrieved July 14, 2009 . Jump up ^ Crawford, Richard (1993). The American Musical Landscape . Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07764-4 . Jump up ^ Harvey G. Cohen, Duke Ellington's America , Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 189. Jump up ^ Cohen 2010, pp. 190-91. Jump up ^ Cohen 2010, pp. 191-92. Jump up ^ Brent, David (February 6, 2008). \"Jump For Joy: Duke Ellington's Celebratory Musical | Night Lights Classic Jazz – WFIU Public Radio\" . Indianapublicmedia.org . Retrieved December 31, 2011 . Jump up ^ A. H. Lawrence, Duke Ellington and His World , New York & London: Routledge, 2001, p. 287. Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 274. ^ Jump up to: a b A. H. Lawrence, 2001, p. 291. Jump up ^ \"Eartha Kitt: Singer who rose from poverty to captivate audiences around the world with her purring voice\" . The Daily Telegraph . December 26, 2008 . Retrieved December 14, 2014 . Jump up ^ Win Fanning (August 13, 1950). \"Eartha Kitt wins raves in Welles' show at Frankfurt\" . Stars and Stripes . Retrieved December 14, 2014 . Jump up ^ Ken Vail Duke's Diary: The Life of Duke Ellington , Lanham, Maryland & Oxford, UK: Scarecrow Press, 2002, p. 28. Jump up ^ Ralph J. Gleason \"Duke Excites, Mystifies Without Any Pretension\", Down Beat , November 5, 1952, reprinted in Jazz Perspectives Vol. 2, No. 2, July 2008, pp. 215–49. Jump up ^ \"Jazzman Duke Ellington\" . TIME . August 20, 1956 . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b Jack Sohmer \"Duke Ellington: Ellington at Newport 1956 (Complete)\" JazzTimes , October 1999. Jump up ^ Wein, George (2003). Myself Among Others: A Life in Music . Da Capo Press. Jump up ^ Stryker, Mark (January 20, 2009). \"Ellington's score still celebrated\" . Detroit Free Press . Archived from the original on February 12, 2009 . Retrieved February 23, 2013 . Jump up ^ Mark Stryker, \"Ellington's score still celebrated\", Detroit Free Press , January 20, 2009; Mervyn Cooke, History of Film Music , 2008, Cambridge University Press. Jump up ^ Gary Giddins , \"How Come Jazz Isn't Dead\", pp. 39–55 in Weisbard 2004 , pp. 41–42. Giddins says that Ellington was denied the 1965 Music Pulitzer because the jury commended him for his body of work rather than for a particular composition, but his posthumous Pulitzer was granted precisely for that life-long body of work. Jump up ^ Tucker, Mark; Duke Ellington (1995). The Duke Ellington reader . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505410-5 . Jump up ^ \"Duke Ellington – Biography\" . The Duke Ellington Society. May 24, 1974. Archived from the original on November 12, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ Ellington 1976 , p. 269. Jump up ^ \"Ellington's Steinway Grand\" . National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on August 10, 2008 . Retrieved August 26, 2008 . Jump up ^ McGowan, Mark (November 3, 2003). \"NIU to rededicate Duke Ellington Ballroom during Nov. 6 NIU Jazz Ensemble concert\" . Northern Illinois University. Archived from the original on June 25, 2009 . Retrieved July 14, 2009 . Jump up ^ Vail, Ken (2002). Duke's Diary: The Life of Duke Ellington . Scarecrow Press. pp. 449–452. ISBN 9780810841192 . Jump up ^ Susan Robinson, \"Duke Ellington\" , Gibbs magazine, n.d. Jump up ^ \"Obituary: Edna Thompson Ellington\" , Jet , 31:17, February 2, 1967, pp. 46–47. Jump up ^ A. H. Lawrence Duke Ellington and His World , New York & London: Routledge, 2001, 356. Jump up ^ Company, Johnson Publishing (January 1983). Ebony . Johnson Publishing Company. Jump up ^ \"The secret history of the jazz greats who were freemasons\" . The Guardian . 2 July 2014. Jump up ^ Jones, Jack (May 25, 1974). \"From the Archives: Jazz Great Duke Ellington Dies in New York Hospital at 75\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved January 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hasse 1993 , p. 385. Jump up ^ \"Duke Ellington\" . Find a Grave . Retrieved September 2, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Program and Invitation entitled \"the Dedication of the Birth Site of Edward Kennedy 'Duke' Ellington\" at 2129 Ward Place, N.W., Washington, D.C., April 29, 1989\" . Felix E. Grant Digital Collection. Archived from the original on January 15, 2016 . Retrieved December 5, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Letter from Curator of the Peabody Library Association of Georgetown, D.C. Mathilde D. Williams to Felix Grant, September 21, 1972\" . Felix E. Grant Digital Collection. Archived from the original on January 15, 2016 . Retrieved December 5, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Jazz man is first African-American to solo on U.S. circulating coin\" . CNN. February 24, 2009. Archived from the original on August 21, 2009 . Retrieved October 3, 2009 . The United States Mint launched a new coin Tuesday featuring jazz legend Duke Ellington, making him the first African American to appear by himself on a circulating U.S. coin. [...] The coin was issued to celebrate Ellington's birthplace, the District of Columbia. (Archived by WebCite at ) ^ Jump up to: a b United States Mint. Coins and Medals. District of Columbia . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Duke Ellington - Artist - www.grammy.com\" . Recording Academy . Retrieved April 12, 2018 . Jump up ^ Maya Parmer, \"Curtain Up: Two Days of the Duke\" , UCLA Magazine , April 1, 2009. Jump up ^ Schuller, Gunther, The Swing Era , New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 0-19-504312-X . p. 157. Jump up ^ Martin Williams, liner notes, Duke Ellington's Symphony in Black , The Smithsonian Jazz Repertory Ensemble conducted by Gunther Schuller , The Smithsonian Collections recording, 1980. Jump up ^ Boston Globe , April 25, 1999. Jump up ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia . Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8 . Jump up ^ \" ' The Duke' by Dave Brubeck: song review, recordings, covers\" . AllMusic . Retrieved March 21, 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Entertainment Awards Database\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"GRAMMY Hall Of Fame\" . GRAMMY.org. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"The United States Mint · About The Mint\" . Usmint.gov . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ Sheridan, Mary Beth (June 20, 2008). \"Ellington Comes Out Ahead in Coin Tossup\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 3, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Featured Exhibition\" . Center for Jazz Arts. Archived from the original on May 18, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"NMAH Archives Center\" . Americanhistory.si.edu. Archived from the original on January 30, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Recipients of Honorary Degrees (By Year)\" . Howard University. Jump up ^ Galston, Arthur (October 2002), \"The Duke & I: A professor explains how jazz legend Duke Ellington became a doctor in 1967\" , Yale Alumni Magazine Jump up ^ \"Yale Honorary Degree Recipients\" . Yale University. Archived from the original on May 21, 2015. References [ edit ] Cohen, Harvey G. Duke Ellington's America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-226-11263-3 Ellington, Duke. Music Is My Mistress . New York: Da Capo, 1976 ISBN 0-7043-3090-3 Ellington, Mercer. Duke Ellington in Person . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978. ISBN 0-395-25711-5 . Hajdu, David, Lush Life: A Biography of Billy Strayhorn . New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1996. ISBN 978-0-86547-512-0 . Hasse, John Edward. Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke Ellington . New York: Da Capo, 1995. ISBN 0-306-80614-2 Lawrence, A. H. Duke Ellington and His World: A Biography . New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-93012-X Schuller, Gunther. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development . New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-19-504043-2 . Especially pp. 318–357. Schuller, Gunther. The Swing Era: The Development Of Jazz, 1930–1945 . New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-507140-5 . Esp. pp. 46–157. Stratemann, Dr. Klaus. Duke Ellington: Day by Day and Film by Film . Copenhagen: JazzMedia, 1992. ISBN 87-88043-34-7 Covers all of Duke's travels and films from the 1929 short film Black and Tan onwards. Teachout, Terry (2015). Duke . New York: Gotham Books. ISBN 978-1592-40749-1 . Terkel, Studs (2002), Giants of Jazz (2nd ed.), New York: The New Press, ISBN 978-1-56584-769-9 . Tucker, Mark. Ellington, The Early Years , University of Illinois Press , 1991. ISBN 0-252-01425-1 Tucker, Mark. The Duke Ellington Reader . New York: Oxford University Press, 1993 ISBN 978-0-19-509391-9 . Ulanov, Barry. Duke Ellington , Creative Age Press, 1946. Weisbard, Eric, ed.. This Is Pop: In Search of the Elusive at Experience Music Project . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-674-01344-1 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Duke Ellington . Wikiquote has quotations related to: Duke Ellington Official website Duke Ellington at Encyclopædia Britannica Duke Ellington in Grove Music Online (by subscription) Duke Ellington Legacy Big Band & Duke Ellington Legacy Band – official website of the family organization Duke Ellington Legacy Duke Ellington on IMDb Duke Ellington at the Internet Broadway Database Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn: Jazz Composers – April–June 2009 exhibition at NMAH Ellingtonia.com – \"Duke Ellington Complete Discography\" The Duke Ellington Society, TDES, Inc Duke Ellington: 20th International Conference , London, May 2008 Duke Ellington Orchestra at Wenig-LaMonica Associates Duke Ellington at Library of Congress Authorities, with 1653 catalog records FBI file on Edward Kennedy Duke Ellington show v t e Duke Ellington Studio albums The Blanton–Webster Band Never No Lament: The Blanton-Webster Band Braggin' in Brass: The Immortal 1938 Year Liberian Suite Great Times! Masterpieces by Ellington Ellington Uptown The Duke Plays Ellington Ellington '55 Dance to the Duke! Ellington Showcase Historically Speaking Duke Ellington Presents... The Complete Porgy and Bess A Drum Is a Woman Studio Sessions, Chicago 1956 Such Sweet Thunder Ellington Indigos Black, Brown and Beige Duke Ellington at the Bal Masque The Cosmic Scene Happy Reunion Jazz Party Back to Back Side by Side Anatomy of a Murder Festival Session Blues in Orbit The Nutcracker Suite Piano in the Background Swinging Suites by Edward E. and Edward G. Unknown Session Piano in the Foreground The Great Summit: The Master Takes Paris Blues First Time! The Count Meets the Duke Duke Ellington & John Coltrane Featuring Paul Gonsalves Studio Sessions 1957 & 1962 Midnight in Paris Duke Ellington Meets Coleman Hawkins Studio Sessions, New York 1962 Money Jungle Afro-Bossa The Symphonic Ellington Duke Ellington's Jazz Violin Session Studio Sessions New York 1963 My People Ellington '65 Duke Ellington Plays Mary Poppins Ellington '66 Concert in the Virgin Islands The Popular Duke Ellington The Far East Suite The Jaywalker Studio Sessions, 1957, 1965, 1966, 1967, San Francisco, Chicago, New York ...And His Mother Called Him Bill Second Sacred Concert Studio Sessions New York, 1968 Latin American Suite The Pianist New Orleans Suite Orchestral Works The Suites, New York 1968 & 1970 The Intimacy of the Blues The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse Studio Sessions New York & Chicago, 1965, 1966 & 1971 The Intimate Ellington The Ellington Suites This One's for Blanton! Up in Duke's Workshop Duke's Big 4 Mood Ellington Live albums Duke Ellington at Fargo, 1940 Live The Carnegie Hall Concerts: January 1943 The Carnegie Hall Concerts: December 1944 The Carnegie Hall Concerts: January 1946 The Carnegie Hall Concerts: December 1947 Ellington at Newport Dance Concerts, California 1958 Dance Dates, California 1958 Newport 1958 Jazz at the Plaza Vol. II Duke Ellington at the Alhambra Live at the Blue Note The Great Paris Concert A Concert of Sacred Music In the Uncommon Market Soul Call Yale Concert 70th Birthday Concert Togo Brava Suite Live at the Whitney Third Sacred Concert Eastbourne Performance Collaborations with Alice Babs Serenade to Sweden with Count Basie First Time! The Count Meets the Duke with Teresa Brewer It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing with Rosemary Clooney Blue Rose with John Coltrane Duke Ellington & John Coltrane with Ella Fitzgerald Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Duke Ellington Song Book Ella at Duke's Place The Stockholm Concert, 1966 Ella and Duke at the Cote D'Azur with Coleman Hawkins Duke Ellington Meets Coleman Hawkins with Frank Sinatra Francis A. & Edward K. Compositions \" African Flower \" \" All Too Soon \" \" Azure \" \" Black and Tan Fantasy \" \" Black, Brown and Beige \" \" C Jam Blues \" \" Cotton Tail \" \" Day Dream \" \" Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue \" \" Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me \" \" Don't Get Around Much Anymore \" \" Drop Me Off in Harlem \" \" Echoes of Harlem \" \" Everything but You \" \" I Ain't Got Nothin' but the Blues \" \" I Didn't Know About You \" \" I Got It Bad (and That Ain't Good) \" \" I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart \" \" I'm Beginning to See the Light \" \" I'm Just a Lucky So-and-So \" \" In a Mellow Tone \" \" In a Sentimental Mood \" \" It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing) \" \" Just A-Sittin' and A-Rockin' \" \" Just Squeeze Me (But Please Don't Tease Me) \" \" The Mooche \" \" Mood Indigo \" \" Prelude to a Kiss \" \" Rocks in My Bed \" \" (In My) Solitude \" \" Sophisticated Lady \" Billy Strayhorn compositions associated with Ellington \" Take the \"A\" Train \" \" Lush Life \" \" Chelsea Bridge \" \" Something to Live For \" \" Satin Doll \" \" Blood Count \" Juan Tizol compositions associated with Ellington \" Caravan \" \" Perdido \" Orchestra members Hayes Alvis Cat Anderson Ivie Anderson Harold Ashby Alice Babs Shorty Baker Butch Ballard Art Baron Aaron Bell Louie Bellson Joe Benjamin Barney Bigard Lou Blackburn Jimmy Blanton Wellman Braud Lawrence Brown Harry Carney Johnny Coles Willie Cook Buster Cooper Kay Davis Wild Bill Davis Wilbur de Paris Bobby Durham Mercer Ellington Rolf Ericson Jimmy Forrest Victor Gaskin Peter Giger Tyree Glenn Paul Gonsalves Sonny Greer Fred Guy Jimmy Hamilton Otto Hardwick Rick Henderson Al Hibbler Johnny Hodges Major Holley Charlie Irvis Quentin Jackson Hilton Jefferson Herb Jeffries Freddie Jenkins Money Johnson Herbie Jones Taft Jordan Al Killian Queen Esther Marrow Wendell Marshall Murray McEachern Louis Metcalf James \"Bubber\" Miley Harold \"Geezil\" Minerve Ray Nance Tricky Sam Nanton Oscar Pettiford Eddie Preston Russell Procope Junior Raglin Betty Roché Ernie Royal Al Sears Joya Sherrill Willie Smith Elmer Snowden Rex Stewart Billy Strayhorn Billy Taylor Clark Terry Juan Tizol Norris Turney Ben Webster Arthur Whetsol Cootie Williams Nelson Williams Skippy Williams Booty Wood Jimmy Woode Britt Woodman Sam Woodyard Filmography Black and Tan Check and Double Check Belle of the Nineties Murder at the Vanities Jam Session Cabin in the Sky Anatomy of a Murder Paris Blues Assault on a Queen Change of Mind Related Mercer Ellington (son) Duke Ellington Bridge Duke Ellington House Duke Ellington School of the Arts Luther Henderson Irving Mills Sophisticated Ladies Play On! Sacred Concerts Discography show v t e Pulitzer Prize Special Citations and Awards (Arts) Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II for Oklahoma! (1944) Roger Sessions (1974) Scott Joplin (1976) Milton Babbitt (1982) William Schuman (1985) George Gershwin (1998) Duke Ellington (1999) Thelonious Monk (2006) John Coltrane (2007) Bob Dylan (2008) Hank Williams (2010) Complete list ( Journalism ) ( Letters ) ( Arts ) ( Service ) Authority control WorldCat Identities BNE : XX854166 BNF : cb13893638w (data) GND : 118529994 ISNI : 0000 0001 0911 0810 LCCN : n50080187 MusicBrainz : 3af06bc4-68ad-4cae-bb7a-7eeeb45e411f NARA : 10583155 NDL : 00438812 NKC : jn20000601477 ICCU : IT\\ICCU\\RAVV\\030940 SELIBR : 185878 SNAC : w6639nkm SUDOC : 030838916 VIAF : 66651610 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_Ellington&oldid=854423890 \" Categories : Duke Ellington 1899 births 1974 deaths 20th-century conductors (music) 20th-century jazz composers African-American conductors African-American jazz composers African-American jazz musicians African-American jazz pianists American Prince Hall Freemasons American autobiographers American conductors (music) American film score composers American jazz composers Male jazz composers American jazz musicians American jazz pianists Big band bandleaders Big band pianists Black conductors Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx) Deaths from cancer in New York (state) Columbia Records artists Deaths from lung cancer Decca Records artists Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Gennett Records artists Grammy Award winners Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Harlem Renaissance Jazz record producers Légion d'honneur recipients Musicians from Washington, D.C. Musicraft Records artists Orchestral jazz musicians Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Pulitzer Prize winners RCA Victor artists Red Baron Records artists Songwriters Hall of Fame inductees Spingarn Medal winners Swing bandleaders Swing composers Swing pianists 20th-century American composers Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list Find a Grave template with ID same as Wikidata Use mdy dates from September 2016 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 Articles needing additional references from January 2018 All articles needing additional references Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Articles with IBDb links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers AC with 14 elements Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 51 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2018, at 07:22 (UTC) . 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{ "text": "Aardwolf - Wikipedia Aardwolf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other uses, see Aardwolf (disambiguation) . Aardwolf Temporal range: Pleistocene – Recent An aardwolf in Namib-Nord, Namibia Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [nb 1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Suborder: Feliformia Family: Hyaenidae Subfamily: Protelinae Genus: Proteles I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire , 1824 Species: P. cristata Binomial name Proteles cristata Sparrman , 1783 Aardwolf range The aardwolf ( Proteles cristata ) is a small, insectivorous mammal , native to East and Southern Africa . Its name means \"earth wolf\" in Afrikaans and Dutch . [2] It is also called \"maanhaar jackal\" [3] (Afrikaans for \" mane jackal\") or civet hyena , based on its habit of secreting substances from its anal gland , a characteristic shared with the civet . [4] The aardwolf is in the same family as the hyena . Unlike many of its relatives in the order Carnivora , the aardwolf does not hunt large animals . It eats insects , mainly termites – one aardwolf can eat about 250,000 termites during a single night, using its long, sticky tongue to capture them. [5] The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is nocturnal , resting in burrows during the day and emerging at night to seek food. Its diet consists mainly of termites and insect larvae . [6] Contents [ hide ] 1 Taxonomy 2 Etymology 3 Physical characteristics 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Behavior 5.1 Feeding 5.2 Breeding 6 Conservation 7 Interaction with humans 8 Notes 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Taxonomy [ edit ] The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the mammalian subfamily Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is monotypic . [7] or can be divided into subspecies P. c. cristatus of Southern Africa and P. c. septentrionalis of East Africa . [4] [8] Recent studies have shown that the aardwolf probably broke away from the rest of the hyena family early on; however, how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years. [9] [nb 2] The aardwolf is generally classified with the Hyaenidae , though it was formerly placed into the family Protelidae. [nb 3] Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena , which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. [11] Etymology [ edit ] The generic name proteles comes from two words both of Greek origin, protos and teleos which combined means \"complete in front\" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear. [4] The specific name, cristatus , comes from Latin and means \"provided with a comb\", relating to their mane. [4] Physical characteristics [ edit ] Detail of head – taken at the Cincinnati Zoo The aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena , but with a more-slender muzzle , black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct mane down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs. [8] The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. [4] Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip. [10] The aardwolf is about 55 to 80 cm (22 to 31 in) long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about 20–30 cm (7.9–11.8 in) long, [2] [10] and stands about 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 in) tall at the shoulders. [12] An adult aardwolf weighs approximately 7–10 kg (15–22 lb), sometimes reaching 15 kg (33 lb). [4] The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about 10 kg (22 lb)), whereas the eastern version weighs more (around 14 kg (31 lb)). [8] The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. [2] [13] The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller, [12] and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. [2] It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. [10] Its ears, which are large, [10] are very similar to those of the striped hyena . [4] As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats. [6] Aardwolf skull Distribution and habitat [ edit ] Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and bushland , avoiding mountainous areas. [10] Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family Hodotermitidae occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs , including farmland . For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time. [6] There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary miombo forests. An adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of 1–4 km 2 (0.39–1.54 sq mi). [14] Behavior [ edit ] Aardwolf at the San Antonio Zoo Aardwolves are shy and nocturnal , sleeping in underground burrows by day. [2] They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat. [15] They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as monogamous pairs with their young. [16] If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to 400 m (1,300 ft) or to the border. [14] If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, [14] a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, [17] hoarse barking, and a type of roar. [18] The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. [18] When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a \"single territory\". [18] The territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in 5-millimetre (0.20 in)-long streaks. [18] Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. [19] They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every 50 m (160 ft). At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, [18] and upwards of 200 per night. [14] An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous middens , within their territory. When they deposit feces at their middens, they dig a small hole and then cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark , springhare , or porcupine dens, [17] or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares. [18] They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day. Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands. [12] Feeding [ edit ] The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on Trinervitermes . [5] This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat T. bettonianus , and in central Africa, they eat T. rhodesiensis , and finally in southern Africa, they eat T. trinervoides . [2] [5] [18] Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the aardvark , which digs into the mound. [15] They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. [18] An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 termites per night using its sticky, long tongue. [5] [6] They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. [17] During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out Hodotermes mossambicus , a type of harvester termite [18] active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. [5] The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera Odontotermes and Macrotermes . [5] They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs, and, some sources say, occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet. [18] Unlike other hyenas , aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. [10] [17] Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles. [10] Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. [10] The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups, [12] but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers, [16] necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, Trinervitermes , forages in small but dense patches of 25–100 cm (9.8–39.4 in). [18] While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about 1 km (0.62 mi) per hour, which translates to 8–12 km (5.0–7.5 mi) per summer night and 3–8 km (1.9–5.0 mi) per winter night. [10] Breeding [ edit ] The breeding season varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. [14] During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, [14] which can result in conflict between rival males. [4] Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into oestrus , they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. [14] Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding \"his\" cubs with her. [14] Copulation lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours. [20] Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days, [4] [14] producing two to five cubs (most often two or three) during the rainy season (November–December), [12] when termites are more active. [2] They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless, [18] and weigh around 200–350 g (7.1–12.3 oz). [4] The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with their parents. [17] The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. [14] [18] After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. [17] By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on. [14] Aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity at one and a half to two years of age. [4] Conservation [ edit ] The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and they are relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if the food is good. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern . [1] In some areas, they are persecuted by man because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. [18] In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides [1] are also common killers of the aardwolf. [17] Interaction with humans [ edit ] Aardwolfs are common sights at zoos. Frankfurt Zoo in Germany was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months. [10] Illustration of Proteles cristatus Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern [1] Jump up ^ The fossil record shows 18–20 mya, and genetic studies indicate roughly 10.6 mya. [9] Jump up ^ Some sources such as Coetzee in Meester and Setzer (1977), Köhler and Ricardson (1990), and Yalden, Largen, and Koch (1980), classify the aardwolf in its own family still. [10] Footnotes [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c Anderson & Mills 2008 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Hoiberg 2010 , p. 4 Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary Online 2013 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Rieger 1990 , pp. 570–571 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Mills & Harvey 2001 , p. 71 ^ Jump up to: a b c d Anon 1998 , p. 144 Jump up ^ Wozencraft 2005 , p. 573 ^ Jump up to: a b c Mills & Harvey 2001 , p. 33 ^ Jump up to: a b Koepfli et al. 2006 , p. 615 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Nowak 2005 , pp. 222–223 Jump up ^ Brottman 2012 , pp. 28–29 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Goodwin 1997 , p. 3 Jump up ^ Brottman 2012 , p. 29 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Mills & Harvey 2001 , pp. 108–109 ^ Jump up to: a b Brottman 2012 , p. 30 ^ Jump up to: a b Koehler & Richardson 1990 , p. 4 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Brottman 2012 , p. 31 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Richardson & Bearder 1984 , pp. 158–159 Jump up ^ Stoeckelhuber, Mechthild, Alexander Sliwa, and Ulrich Welsch. \" Histo‐physiology of the scent‐marking glands of the penile pad, anal pouch, and the forefoot in the aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) .\" The anatomical record 259.3 (2000): 312-326. Jump up ^ Sliwa, Alexander. \" A functional analysis of scent marking and mating behaviour in the aardwolf. \" Proteles cristatus (1996). References [ edit ] Anderson, M.; Mills, G. (2008). \" Proteles cristatus: Aardwolf \" . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 22 March 2009 . Anon (1998). Wildlife Fact File . Group 1. IMP Publishing Ltd. Card 144. ISBN 978-1886614772 . Brottman, Mikita (2012). Burt, Jonathon, ed. Hyena . Animal. London, UK: Reaktion Books. pp. 28–32. ISBN 978-1-86189-9217 . Goodwin, George G. (1997). \"Aardwolf\". In Johnston, Bernard. Collier's Encyclopedia . I: A to Ameland (1st ed.). New York, NY: P.F. Collier. Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). \"Aardwolf\". Encyclopædia Britannica . I: A-Ak - Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8 . Koehler, C. E.; Richardson, P. R. K. (1990). \"Proteles cristatus\". Mammalian Species . American Society of Mammalogists. 363 : 1–6. JSTOR 3504197 . Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Jenks, Susan M.; Eizirik, Eduardo; Zahirpour, Tannaz; Van Valkenburgh, Blaire; Wayne, Robert K. (2006). \"Molecular systematics of the Hyaenidae: Relationships of a Relictual Lineage Resolved by a Molecular Supermatrix\" (PDF) . Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . 38 (3): 603–620. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.529.1977 . doi : 10.1016/j.ympev.2005.10.017 . ISSN 1055-7903 . PMID 16503281 . Mills, Gus; Harvey, Martin (2001). African Predators . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-096-6 . Nowak, Ronald M. (2005). Walker's Carnivores of the World . Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8032-7 . Oxford English Dictionary Online (2013). \"maanhaar\" . Oxford English Dictionary . Retrieved 23 April 2014 . Richardson, Phillip K. R.; Bearder, Simon K. (1984). \"The Hyena Family\". In MacDonald, David. The Encyclopedia of Mammals . New York, NY: Facts on File Publication. ISBN 0-87196-871-1 . Rieger, Ingo (1990). \"Hyenas\". In Parker, Sybil P. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals . 3 . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-909508-9 . Simpson, J. A.; Weiner, E. S. C., eds. (1989). \"aard-wolf\". The Oxford English Dictionary . I: A — Bazouki (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861213-3 . Wozencraft, W.C. (2005). \"Order Carnivora\" . In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 573. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0 . OCLC 62265494 . Further reading [ edit ] Skinner, J. D.; Chimimba, Christian T. (2006). The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-region (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84418-5 . Retrieved 15 March 2013 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Proteles cristata . Wikispecies has information related to Proteles cristata Animal Diversity Web IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org Texts on Wikisource: \" Aard-wolf \". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. \" Aard-wolf \". Collier's New Encyclopedia . 1921. [ show ] v t e Extant Carnivora species Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Laurasiatheria [ hide ] Suborder Feliformia Nandiniidae Nandinia African palm civet ( N. binotata ) Herpestidae (Mongooses) Atilax Marsh mongoose ( A. paludinosus ) Bdeogale Bushy-tailed mongoose ( B. crassicauda ) Jackson's mongoose ( B. jacksoni ) Black-footed mongoose ( B. nigripes ) Crossarchus Alexander's kusimanse ( C. alexandri ) Angolan kusimanse ( C. ansorgei ) Common kusimanse ( C. obscurus ) Flat-headed kusimanse ( C. platycephalus ) Cynictis Yellow mongoose ( C. penicillata ) Dologale Pousargues's mongoose ( D. dybowskii ) Galerella Angolan slender mongoose ( G. flavescens ) Black mongoose ( G. nigrata ) Somalian slender mongoose ( G. ochracea ) Cape gray mongoose ( G. pulverulenta ) Slender mongoose ( G. sanguinea ) Helogale Ethiopian dwarf mongoose ( H. hirtula ) Common dwarf mongoose ( H. parvula ) Herpestes Short-tailed mongoose ( H. brachyurus ) Indian gray mongoose ( H. edwardsii ) Indian brown mongoose ( H. fuscus ) Egyptian mongoose ( H. ichneumon ) Small Asian mongoose ( H. javanicus ) Long-nosed mongoose ( H. naso ) Collared mongoose ( H. semitorquatus ) Ruddy mongoose ( H. smithii ) Crab-eating mongoose ( H. urva ) Stripe-necked mongoose ( H. vitticollis ) Ichneumia White-tailed mongoose ( I. albicauda ) Liberiictus Liberian mongoose ( L. kuhni ) Mungos Gambian mongoose ( M. gambianus ) Banded mongoose ( M. mungo ) Paracynictis Selous' mongoose ( P. selousi ) Rhynchogale Meller's mongoose ( R. melleri ) Suricata Meerkat ( S. suricatta ) Hyaenidae (Hyenas) Crocuta Spotted hyena ( C. crocuta ) Hyaena Brown hyena ( H. brunnea ) Striped hyena ( H. hyaena ) Proteles Aardwolf ( P. cristatus ) Felidae Large family listed below Viverridae Large family listed below Eupleridae Small family listed below [ show ] Family Felidae Felinae Acinonyx Cheetah ( A. jubatus ) Caracal Caracal ( C. caracal ) African golden cat ( C. aurata ) Catopuma Bay cat ( C. badia ) Asian golden cat ( C. temminckii ) Felis European wildcat ( F. silvestris ) African wildcat ( F. lybica ) Jungle cat ( F. chaus ) Black-footed cat ( F. nigripes ) Sand cat ( F. margarita ) Chinese mountain cat ( F. bieti ) Domestic cat ( F. catus ) Leopardus Ocelot ( L. pardalis ) Margay ( L. wiedii ) Pampas cat ( L. colocola ) Geoffroy's cat ( L. geoffroyi ) Kodkod ( L. guigna ) Andean mountain cat ( L. jacobita ) Oncilla ( L. tigrinus ) Southern tigrina ( L. guttulus ) Leptailurus Serval ( L. serval ) Lynx Canadian lynx ( L. canadensis ) Eurasian lynx ( L. lynx ) Iberian lynx ( L. pardinus ) Bobcat ( L. rufus ) Otocolobus Pallas's cat ( O. manul ) Pardofelis Marbled cat ( P. marmorata ) Prionailurus Fishing cat ( P. viverrinus ) Leopard cat ( P. bengalensis ) Sundaland leopard cat ( P. javanensis ) Flat-headed cat ( P. planiceps ) Rusty-spotted cat ( P. rubiginosus ) Puma Cougar ( P. concolor ) Herpailurus Jaguarundi ( H. yagouaroundi ) Pantherinae Panthera Lion ( P. leo ) Jaguar ( P. onca ) Leopard ( P. pardus ) Tiger ( P. tigris ) Snow leopard ( P. uncia ) Neofelis Clouded leopard ( N. nebulosa ) Sunda clouded leopard ( N. diardi ) [ show ] Family Viverridae (includes Civets ) Paradoxurinae Arctictis Binturong ( A. binturong ) Arctogalidia Small-toothed palm civet ( A. trivirgata ) Macrogalidia Sulawesi palm civet ( M. musschenbroekii ) Paguma Masked palm civet ( P. larvata ) Paradoxurus Golden wet-zone palm civet ( P. aureus ) Asian palm civet ( P. hermaphroditus ) Jerdon's palm civet ( P. jerdoni ) Golden palm civet ( P. zeylonensis ) Hemigalinae Chrotogale Owston's palm civet ( C. owstoni ) Cynogale Otter civet ( C. bennettii ) Diplogale Hose's palm civet ( D. hosei ) Hemigalus Banded palm civet ( H. derbyanus ) Prionodontinae (Asiatic linsangs) Prionodon Banded linsang ( P. linsang ) Spotted linsang ( P. pardicolor ) Viverrinae Civettictis African civet ( C. civetta ) Genetta (Genets) Abyssinian genet ( G. abyssinica ) Angolan genet ( G. angolensis ) Bourlon's genet ( G. bourloni ) Crested servaline genet ( G. cristata ) Common genet ( G. genetta ) Johnston's genet ( G. johnstoni ) Rusty-spotted genet ( G. maculata ) Pardine genet ( G. pardina ) Aquatic genet ( G. piscivora ) King genet ( G. poensis ) Servaline genet ( G. servalina ) Haussa genet ( G. thierryi ) Cape genet ( G. tigrina ) Giant forest genet ( G. victoriae ) Poiana African linsang ( P. richardsonii ) Leighton's linsang ( P. leightoni ) Viverra Malabar large-spotted civet ( V. civettina ) Large-spotted civet ( V. megaspila ) Malayan civet ( V. tangalunga ) Large Indian civet ( V. zibetha ) Viverricula Small Indian civet ( V. indica ) [ show ] Family Eupleridae Euplerinae Cryptoprocta Fossa ( C. ferox ) Eupleres Eastern falanouc ( E. goudotii ) Western falanouc ( E. major ) Fossa Malagasy civet ( F. fossana ) Galidiinae Galidia Ring-tailed mongoose ( G. elegans ) Galidictis Broad-striped Malagasy mongoose ( G. fasciata ) Grandidier's mongoose ( G. grandidieri ) Mungotictis Narrow-striped mongoose ( M. decemlineata ) Salanoia Brown-tailed mongoose ( S. concolor ) Durrell's vontsira ( S. durrelli ) [ show ] Suborder Caniformia (cont. below) Ursidae (Bears) Ailuropoda Giant panda ( A. melanoleuca ) Helarctos Sun bear ( H. malayanus ) Melursus Sloth bear ( M. ursinus ) Tremarctos Spectacled bear ( T. ornatus ) Ursus American black bear ( U. americanus ) Brown bear ( U. arctos ) Polar bear ( U. maritimus ) Asian black bear ( U. thibetanus ) Mephitidae Conepatus (Hog-nosed skunks) Molina's hog-nosed skunk ( C. chinga ) Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk ( C. humboldtii ) American hog-nosed skunk ( C. leuconotus ) Striped hog-nosed skunk ( C. semistriatus ) Mephitis Hooded skunk ( M. macroura ) Striped skunk ( M. mephitis ) Mydaus Sunda stink badger ( M. javanensis ) Palawan stink badger ( M. marchei ) Spilogale (Spotted skunks) Southern spotted skunk ( S. angustifrons ) Western spotted skunk ( S. gracilis ) Eastern spotted skunk ( S. putorius ) Pygmy spotted skunk ( S. pygmaea ) Procyonidae Bassaricyon (Olingos) Eastern lowland olingo ( B. alleni ) Northern olingo ( B. gabbii ) Western lowland olingo ( B. medius ) Olinguito ( B. neblina ) Bassariscus Ring-tailed cat ( B. astutus ) Cacomistle ( B. sumichrasti ) Nasua ( Coatis inclusive) White-nosed coati ( N. narica ) South American coati ( N. nasua ) Nasuella ( Coatis inclusive) Western mountain coati ( N. olivacea ) Eastern mountain coati ( N. meridensis ) Potos Kinkajou ( P. flavus ) Procyon Crab-eating raccoon ( P. cancrivorus ) Raccoon ( P. lotor ) Cozumel raccoon ( P. pygmaeus ) Ailuridae Ailurus Red panda ( A. fulgens ) [ show ] Suborder Caniformia (cont. above) Otariidae (Eared seals) (includes fur seals and sea lions ) ( Pinniped inclusive) Arctocephalus South American fur seal ( A. australis ) Australasian fur seal ( A. forsteri ) Galápagos fur seal ( A. galapagoensis ) Antarctic fur seal ( A. gazella ) Juan Fernández fur seal ( A. philippii ) Brown fur seal ( A. pusillus ) Guadalupe fur seal ( A. townsendi ) Subantarctic fur seal ( A. tropicalis ) Callorhinus Northern fur seal ( C. ursinus ) Eumetopias Steller sea lion ( E. jubatus ) Neophoca Australian sea lion ( N. cinerea ) Otaria South American sea lion ( O. flavescens ) Phocarctos New Zealand sea lion ( P. hookeri ) Zalophus California sea lion ( Z. californianus ) Galápagos sea lion ( Z. wollebaeki ) Odobenidae ( Pinniped inclusive) Odobenus Walrus ( O. rosmarus ) Phocidae (Earless seals) ( Pinniped inclusive) Cystophora Hooded seal ( C. cristata ) Erignathus Bearded seal ( E. barbatus ) Halichoerus Gray seal ( H. grypus ) Histriophoca Ribbon seal ( H. fasciata ) Hydrurga Leopard seal ( H. leptonyx ) Leptonychotes Weddell seal ( L. weddellii ) Lobodon Crabeater seal ( L. carcinophagus ) Mirounga (Elephant seals) Northern elephant seal ( M. angustirostris ) Southern elephant seal ( M. leonina ) Monachus Mediterranean monk seal ( M. monachus ) Hawaiian monk seal ( M. schauinslandi ) Ommatophoca Ross seal ( O. rossi ) Pagophilus Harp seal ( P. groenlandicus ) Phoca Spotted seal ( P. largha ) Harbor seal ( P. vitulina ) Pusa Caspian seal ( P. caspica ) Ringed seal ( P. hispida ) Baikal seal ( P. sibirica ) Canidae Large family listed below Mustelidae Large family listed below [ show ] Family Canidae (includes dogs ) Atelocynus Short-eared dog ( A. microtis ) Canis Side-striped jackal ( C. adustus ) African golden wolf ( C. anthus ) Golden jackal ( C. aureus ) Coyote ( C. latrans ) Gray wolf ( C. lupus ) Black-backed jackal ( C. mesomelas ) Red wolf ( C. rufus ) Ethiopian wolf ( C. simensis ) Cerdocyon Crab-eating fox ( C. thous ) Chrysocyon Maned wolf ( C. brachyurus ) Cuon Dhole ( C. alpinus ) Lycalopex Culpeo ( L. culpaeus ) Darwin's fox ( L. fulvipes ) South American gray fox ( L. griseus ) Pampas fox ( L. gymnocercus ) Sechuran fox ( L. sechurae ) Hoary fox ( L. vetulus ) Lycaon African wild dog ( L. pictus ) Nyctereutes Raccoon dog ( N. procyonoides ) Otocyon Bat-eared fox ( O. megalotis ) Speothos Bush dog ( S. venaticus ) Urocyon Gray fox ( U. cinereoargenteus ) Island fox ( U. littoralis ) Vulpes ( Foxes ) Bengal fox ( V. bengalensis ) Blanford's fox ( V. cana ) Cape fox ( V. chama ) Corsac fox ( V. corsac ) Tibetan sand fox ( V. ferrilata ) Arctic fox ( V. lagopus ) Kit fox ( V. macrotis ) Pale fox ( V. pallida ) Rüppell's fox ( V. rueppelli ) Swift fox ( V. velox ) Red fox ( V. vulpes ) Fennec fox ( V. zerda ) [ show ] Family Mustelidae Lutrinae (Otters) Aonyx African clawless otter ( A. capensis ) Oriental small-clawed otter ( A. cinerea ) Enhydra Sea otter ( E. lutris ) Hydrictis Spotted-necked otter ( H. maculicollis ) Lontra North American river otter ( L. canadensis ) Marine otter ( L. felina ) Neotropical otter ( L. longicaudis ) Southern river otter ( L. provocax ) Lutra Eurasian otter ( L. lutra ) Hairy-nosed otter ( L. sumatrana ) Lutrogale Smooth-coated otter ( L. perspicillata ) Pteronura Giant otter ( P. brasiliensis ) Mustelinae (including badgers ) Arctonyx Hog badger ( A. collaris ) Eira Tayra ( E. barbara ) Galictis Lesser grison ( G. cuja ) Greater grison ( G. vittata ) Gulo Wolverine ( G. gulo ) Ictonyx Saharan striped polecat ( I. libyca ) Striped polecat ( I. striatus ) Lyncodon Patagonian weasel ( L. patagonicus ) Martes (Martens) American marten ( M. americana ) Yellow-throated marten ( M. flavigula ) Beech marten ( M. foina ) Nilgiri marten ( M. gwatkinsii ) European pine marten ( M. martes ) Japanese marten ( M. melampus ) Sable ( M. zibellina ) Pekania Fisher ( P. pennanti ) Meles Japanese badger ( M. anakuma ) Asian badger ( M. leucurus ) European badger ( M. meles ) Mellivora Honey badger ( M. capensis ) Melogale (Ferret-badgers) Bornean ferret-badger ( M. everetti ) Chinese ferret-badger ( M. moschata ) Javan ferret-badger ( M. orientalis ) Burmese ferret-badger ( M. personata ) Mustela ( Weasels and Ferrets ) Amazon weasel ( M. africana ) Mountain weasel ( M. altaica ) Stoat ( M. erminea ) Steppe polecat ( M. eversmannii ) Colombian weasel ( M. felipei ) Long-tailed weasel ( M. frenata ) Japanese weasel ( M. itatsi ) Yellow-bellied weasel ( M. kathiah ) European mink ( M. lutreola ) Indonesian mountain weasel ( M. lutreolina ) Black-footed ferret ( M. nigripes ) Least weasel ( M. nivalis ) Malayan weasel ( M. nudipes ) European polecat ( M. putorius ) Siberian weasel ( M. sibirica ) Back-striped weasel ( M. strigidorsa ) Egyptian weasel ( M. subpalmata ) Neovison ( Minks ) American mink ( N. vison ) Poecilogale African striped weasel ( P. albinucha ) Taxidea American badger ( T. taxus ) Vormela Marbled polecat ( V. peregusna ) Taxon identifiers Wd : Q185295 ADW : Proteles ARKive : proteles-cristata EoL : 925982 GBIF : 2433502 iNaturalist : 57561 ITIS : 726269 IUCN : 18372 MSW : 14000689 NCBI : 9680 Species+ : 7432 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aardwolf&oldid=826637246 \" Categories : IUCN Red List least concern species Mammals described in 1783 Carnivorans of Africa Hyenas Mammals of Southern Africa Fauna of East Africa Myrmecophagous mammals Hidden categories: Articles with 'species' microformats Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia Use dmy dates from January 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands 日本語 Norsk پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 47 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2018, at 06:04. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Aardwolf", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Aardwolf&amp;oldid=826637246" }

{ "text": "Riders to the Sea - Wikipedia Riders to the Sea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the play. For the opera, see Riders to the Sea (opera) . Sara Allgood as Maurya, photo taken by Carl Van Vechten , 1938 Riders to the Sea is a play written by Irish Literary Renaissance playwright John Millington Synge . It was first performed on 25 February 1904 at the Molesworth Hall, Dublin , by the Irish National Theater Society. A one-act tragedy , the play is set in the Aran Islands , Inishmaan , and like all of Synge's plays it is noted for capturing the poetic dialogue of rural Ireland. The plot is based not on the traditional conflict of human wills but on the hopeless struggle of a people against the impersonal but relentless cruelty of the sea. Contents 1 Background 2 Important characters 3 Plot synopsis 4 Themes 5 Other versions 5.1 Cinema 5.2 Opera 5.3 Dance 5.4 Stage 6 French version 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Background [ edit ] In 1897, J. M. Synge was encouraged by his friend and colleague William Butler Yeats to visit the Aran Islands. He went on to spend the summers from 1898 to 1903 there. While on the Aran island of Inishmaan, Synge heard the story of a man from Inishmaan whose body washed up on the shore of an island of County Donegal , which inspired Riders to the Sea . Riders to the Sea is written in the Hiberno-English dialect of the Aran Islands. Synge's use of the native Irish language is part of the Irish Literary Revival , a period when Irish literature looked to encourage pride and nationalism in Ireland. Important characters [ edit ] Maurya: Grief-stricken widow and mother of eight children Cathleen, Nora, Bartley, Shawn, Sheamus, Stephen, Patch, and Michael. Cathleen: Maurya's elder daughter, tries to keep her mother from dying from grief by identifying her deceased brother Michael's clothing. Nora: Maurya's younger daughter, helps her sister with their mother. Bartley: Maurya's youngest and only living son, has died by the end of the play. Maurya's sons Shawn, Sheamus, Stephen, Patch, and Michael, as well as Maurya's husband are all deceased when the play begins. There is also a priest character who is never seen but is quoted by Cathleen and Nora in the beginning of the play. Plot synopsis [ edit ] Maurya has lost her husband, and five of her sons to the sea. As the play begins Nora and Cathleen receive word from the priest that a body, which may be their brother Michael, has washed up on shore in Donegal , on the Irish mainland north of their home island of Inishmaan. Bartley is planning to sail to Connemara to sell a horse, and ignores Maurya's pleas to stay. He leaves gracefully. Maurya predicts that by nightfall she will have no living sons, and her daughters chide her for sending Bartley off with an ill word. Maurya goes after Bartley to bless his voyage, and Nora and Cathleen receive clothing from the drowned corpse that confirms it was Michael. Maurya returns home claiming to have seen the ghost of Michael riding behind Bartley and begins lamenting the loss of the men in her family to the sea, after which some villagers bring in the corpse of Bartley. He has fallen off his horse into the sea and drowned. This speech of Maurya's is famous in Irish drama: (raising her head and speaking as if she did not see the people around her) They're all gone now, and there isn't anything more the sea can do to me.... I'll have no call now to be up crying and praying when the wind breaks from the south, and you can hear the surf is in the east, and the surf is in the west, making a great stir with the two noises, and they hitting one on the other. I'll have no call now to be going down and getting Holy Water in the dark nights after Samhain, and I won't care what way the sea is when the other women will be keening. (To Nora) Give me the Holy Water, Nora; there's a small sup still on the dresser. Themes [ edit ] The pervading theme of this work is the subtle paganism Synge observed in the people of rural Ireland. Following his dismissal of Christianity, Synge found that the predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland still retained many of the folktales and superstitions born out of the old Celtic paganism. This play is an examination of that idea as he has a set of deeply religious characters find themselves at odds with an unbeatable force of nature (this being the sea). While the family is clearly Catholic, they still find themselves wary of the supernatural characteristics of natural elements, an idea very present in Celtic paganism. Other versions [ edit ] Cinema [ edit ] At least two motion picture versions of the play have been made: One of the earliest examples of Irish film in 1935 a 40-minute black-and-white movie directed by Brian Desmond Hurst with screenplay adaptation by Patrick Kirwan with Sara Allgood and, notably, Synge's bereaved fiancée Marie O'Neill. Hurst had been mentored in Hollywood by John Ford, and Ruth Barton describes scenes in the film as \"remarkably Fordian.\" A 1987 47-minute color movie directed and adapted by Ronan O'Leary with Geraldine Page . Opera [ edit ] The composer Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) made an almost verbatim setting of the play as an opera , using the same title (1927). Bruce Montgomery (1927–2008) wrote a light opera, Spindrift (1963), that was based on Riders to the Sea . German composer Eduard Pütz (1911–2000) also set the play as an opera, using the same title (1972). American composer Marga Richter (born 1926) also set the play as a one-act opera, using the same title (1996). French composer Henri Rabaud (1873-1949) L’appel de la mer , a one-act opera, (1924), libretto by Rabaud based on Riders to the Sea , debut in Paris, Salle Favart, April 10, 1924 Dance [ edit ] Mary Anthony 's piece is titled Threnody . Stage [ edit ] Señora Carrar's Rifles is a one-act play adaptation. French version [ edit ] The play has been translated in French by Georgette Sable and it has been published by Anthropomare [1] Other translations include: À cheval vers la mer (Riders to the Sea, 1903 ; 1904) translated by Maurice Bourgeois, [2] Cavaliers à la mer , translated by Fouad El-Etr, [3] and Cavaliers vers la mer (combined with L’Ombre de la vallée ), translated by Françoise Morvan. [4] Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 2008-11-18 . Retrieved 2009-04-06 . Jump up ^ Théâtre. [Paris], Éditions Gallimard, 1942 ; rééditions : [Paris], Librairie théâtrale, « Éducation et théâtre. Théâtre de répertoire » n° 18, 1954, 1978, 16 p., Jump up ^ illustrations de Roland Topor. [Paris], Éditions La Délirante, 1975, 1978, édition revue, illustrations de Sam Szafran, 1982, 48 p, Jump up ^ illustrations de Jack B. Yeats. [Bedée] Éditions Folle avoine, 1993, 96 p., 13.72 € ; réédition dans Théâtre complet. [Arles], Éditions Actes Sud, « Babel » n° 199, 1996, 324 p. References [ edit ] Synge, J.M. The Complete Plays . New York: Vintage Books, 1935. Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). \" Riders to the Sea \". Encyclopedia Americana . Ruckenstein, Lelia and James A. O'Malley. \"Irish Revival; John Millington Synge; \"Everything Irish: The History, Literature, Art, Music, People and Places of Ireland, from A-Z. New York: Ballantine, 2003, Donnelly, James S. \"Drama, Modern; Literary Renaissance (Celtic Revival);\" Encyclopedia of Irish History and Culture. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2004. Bourgeois, Maurice. John Millington Synge and the Irish Theatre. Bronx, NY: B. Blom, 1965. External links [ edit ] Riders to the Sea Full text of the play. Official legacy website of the director with filmography including Riders to the Sea hide v t e Plays by John Millington Synge When the Moon has Set (Unproduced) In the Shadow of the Glen (1903) Riders to the Sea (1904) The Well of the Saints (1905) The Aran Islands (1907) The Playboy of the Western World (1907) The Tinker's Wedding (1909) Deirdre of the Sorrows (1910) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Riders_to_the_Sea&oldid=854915710 \" Categories : 1904 plays One-act plays Plays by John Millington Synge Irish plays adapted into films Plays adapted into operas Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Eesti 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 August 2018, at 17:29 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Riders to the Sea", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Riders_to_the_Sea&amp;oldid=854915710" }

{ "text": "Three-way junction - Wikipedia Three-way junction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the type of railroad junction, see Wye (railroad) . Three way junction at Dragons Green - geograph.org.uk - 1578998 A 3-way junction (or 3-way intersection ) is a type of road intersection with three arms. A Y junction (or Y intersection ) generally has 3 arms of equal size. A T junction (or T intersection ) also has 3 arms, but one of the arms is generally a minor road connecting to larger road. Contents [ hide ] 1 Right-of-way 2 Turns 3 Variations 4 Image gallery 5 References Right-of-way [ edit ] Some T junctions are controlled by traffic lights , but others rely upon drivers to obey right-of-way rules, which vary from place to place. For example, in some jurisdictions, vehicles on the right always have the right-of-way (even at T junctions), [1] while in other jurisdictions, vehicles travelling on the \"through\" road of a T junction have the right-of-way, meaning that vehicles approaching the \"major\" road must allow through traffic to pass before joining the flow of traffic. In the People's Republic of China, going straight on red when approaching a T junction on the main road with the intersecting road on the left was permitted until the Road Traffic Safety Law of the People's Republic of China took effect on 1 May 2004. In Taiwan (administered by the Republic of China ), when at least two vehicles reach a T intersection without a working traffic light , the vehicle on the side road is to yield to any other vehicle straight on the main road. If two vehicles want to turn left, the vehicle on the left is to yield. [2] Turns [ edit ] When one road at a 3-way junction has a higher traffic volume than the other (and particularly when the roads are perpendicular to each other), turns are characterized as \"right-in\", \"right-out\", \"left-in\" and \"left-out\". A turn \"in\" represents a turn from the major road into the minor road. A turn \"out\" represents a turn out of the minor road onto the major road. A 3-way junction allowing all four of these turns is characterized as \"full-movement\". These terms also apply to turns between roads and driveways. [3] [4] Variations [ edit ] An experiment was done [ by whom? ] [ when? ] in Illinois , United States to allow going straight on red (like a right turn on red ) when approaching a T junction on the main road, with the intersecting road on the left. It was a failure. However, at some T junctions where the main road includes at least two lanes on the side away from the intersecting road, the farthest (rightmost, in areas where traffic drives to the right) lane is given the right of way to proceed straight through the intersection at all times, denoted by a \"green arrow\" signal if a traffic light is installed at the intersection. In such cases, often that lane is also specially delimited with pavement markings or other lane separation devices, to keep left-turning traffic on the intersecting road from colliding with traffic proceeding through the intersection on the main road. There are now safer variations of this, called continuous green-T (or seagull) intersections , that have a left turn lane off the main road either channelized or otherwise separated from traffic going straight, which allows for a traffic signal on only one side of the road. [5] Image gallery [ edit ] T Intersection Sign in Taiwan with no more road straight ahead T Intersection Sign in Taiwan with side road on the left T Intersection Sign in Taiwan with side road on the right Y Intersection Sign in Taiwan 3-way Intersection Sign in Taiwan with side road on the right but not right angle 3-way Intersection Sign in Taiwan with side road on the left but not right angle References [ edit ] Jump up ^ SGI. \"SGI - Driver's Handbook - Right of way\" . Jump up ^ Clause 2 of Section 1 of Article 102 of the Road Traffic Security Rules ( s:zh:道路交通安全規則 ) Jump up ^ Staff. \"Technical Summary (FHWA-SA-10-002)\" . Access Management in the Vicinity of Intersections . Federal Highway Administration . Retrieved August 31, 2012 . Jump up ^ Joe G. Bared (January–February 2005). \"Improving Signalized Intersections, Publication Number: FHWA-HRT-05-003\" . Public Roads . Federal Highway Administration . 68 (4) . Retrieved August 31, 2012 . Jump up ^ An Applied Technology and Traffic Analysis Program ( [1] ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to T junctions . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Y junctions . [ show ] v t e Streets and roadways Types of road Limited-access Freeway / Motorway Dual carriageway / Divided highway / Expressway Elevated highway By country Australia Brazil China Croatia Czech Republic Germany Greece Hong Kong India Ireland Italy Pakistan Portugal Spain United Kingdom United States Main roads Arterial road Collector road County highway Express-collector setup Farm-to-market road Highway Link road Two-lane expressway 2+1 road 2+2 road Parkway Super two Trunk road Highway systems by country Local roads Alley Backroad Bicycle boulevard Boulevard Country lane Dead end Driveway Frontage road Green lane Main street Primitive road Road Side road Single carriageway Single-track road Street Sunken lane Other terms Channelization Concurrency Detour Hierarchy of roads Private highway Route number Special route Business route Street hierarchy Toll road Road junctions Interchanges ( grade-separated ) Cloverleaf Diamond Free-flow Directional T Diverging diamond Parclo Raindrop Roundabout Single-point urban (SPUI) Stack Three-level diamond Trumpet Intersections (at-grade) 3-way junction Bowtie Box junction Continuous flow Hook turn Jughandle Michigan left Offset T-intersection Protected intersection Quadrant roadway Right-in/right-out (RIRO) Roundabout Seagull intersection Split intersection Superstreet Texas U-turn Traffic circle Turnaround Surfaces Asphalt concrete Bioasphalt Brick Chipseal Cobblestone Concrete Reinforced concrete Corduroy Crocodile cracking Crushed stone Diamond grinding of pavement Dirt Full depth recycling Glassphalt Gravel Ice Macadam Pavement milling Permeable Plank Rubberized asphalt Sealcoat Sett Stamped asphalt Tarmac Texture Road hazards Aquaplaning Black ice Bleeding Crosswind Dead Man's Curve Expansion joint Fog Ford Hairpin turn Level crossing Manhole cover Oil spill Oversize load Pothole Road debris Road slipperiness Road train Roadkill Rockfall Rut Speed bump Storm drain Washboarding Washout Whiteout Space and time allocation Barrier transfer machine Bicycle lane Climbing lane Complete streets Contraflow lane Contraflow lane reversal High-occupancy toll lane High-occupancy vehicle lane Lane Living street Managed lane Median / Central reservation Motorcycle lane Passing lane Pedestrian crossing Pedestrian zone Refuge island Reversible lane Road diet Road verge Runaway truck ramp Shared space Sidewalk / Pavement Shoulder Street running railway Traffic calming Traffic directionality Traffic island Traffic lanes Traffic signal preemption Unused highway Wide outside lane Woonerf Demarcation Bollard Botts' dots Cable barrier Cat's eye (road) Concrete step barrier Constant-slope barrier Curb F-Shape barrier Guard rail Jersey barrier Kassel kerb Noise barrier Raised pavement marker Road surface marking Rumble strip Traffic barrier Traffic cone Structures Bridge Causeway Overpass / Flyover Underpass / Tunnel Glossary of road transport terms Road types by features Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Three-way_junction&oldid=826854198 \" Categories : Road junction types Hidden categories: Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2012 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from September 2012 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Dansk فارسی Nederlands 日本語 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 February 2018, at 10:38. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Three-way junction", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Three-way_junction&amp;oldid=826854198" }

{ "text": "BMW 2 Series - Wikipedia BMW 2 Series From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with BMW 02 Series . This article is incomplete . Please help to improve it, or discuss the issue on the talk page . (October 2015) BMW 2 Series Overview Manufacturer BMW Body and chassis Class Compact car The BMW 2 Series is a compact car produced by BMW . The 2 Series has several different body styles. It is available as a compact coupé that replaced the 1 Series coupé, or as a convertible model that replaces the 1 Series convertible in the BMW lineup. There is also a new compact MPV body style, which BMW refers to as an Active Tourer. The 2 Series Active Tourer mechanicals are unrelated to the coupé and convertible models'. While it shares the 2 Series name, it is built on a totally different front wheel drive platform that is shared with the third generation MINI Cooper , dubbed UKL1 . The 2 Series currently competes with new models from Audi and Mercedes-Benz , the A3 Sedan and the CLA Class , respectively, until BMW releases its own front wheel drive/all wheel drive compact sedan. In June 2015, BMW also released a seven seater 2 Series Gran Tourer. [1] Contents 1 Variants 1.1 BMW 2 Series Coupé (F22, 2014–present) 1.2 BMW 2 Series Active Tourer (F45, 2014–present) 1.3 BMW 2 Series Gran Tourer (F46, 2015–present) 2 References Variants [ edit ] BMW 2 Series Coupé (F22, 2014–present) [ edit ] BMW 2 Series Coupé and Cabrio Main article: BMW 2 Series (F22) BMW M235i coupé The BMW 2 Series Coupé and Cabrio are rear-wheel-drive coupés (F22) and conveibles (F23) related to the BMW 1 Series (F20) . BMW 2 Series Active Tourer (F45, 2014–present) [ edit ] Main article: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer BMW 2 Series Active Tourer BMW 218i Active Tourer Advantage The BMW 2 Series Active Tourer is a compact MPV , built on the front-wheel-drive BMW UKL platform . BMW 2 Series Gran Tourer (F46, 2015–present) [ edit ] Main article: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer BMW 2 Series Gran Tourer Body and chassis Class Compact MPV BMW 218d Gran Tourer Advantage (Germany) References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"BMW's 2-Series Gran Tourer - a seven seat premium people carrier\" . THE IRISH TIMES. 10 February 2015 . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . hide v t e « previous — BMW cars: 2000s to 2010s Series 2000s 2010s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Series E87 F20 E82 F52 2 Series F22 F45 3 Series << E46 E90 F30 4 Series F32 5 Series << E39 E60 F10 G30 6 Series E63 F12 G32 7 Series << E38 E65 F01 G11 8 Series G15 Z Series << Z3 E85 E89 << Z8 i3 I01 i8 I12 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BMW_2_Series&oldid=852745334 \" Categories : BMW vehicle series Hidden categories: Articles to be expanded from October 2015 Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 Norsk Polski Русский Türkçe Українська 中文 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 July 2018, at 02:19 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "BMW 2 Series", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=BMW_2_Series&amp;oldid=852745334" }

{ "text": "Intro to Recycled Cinema - Wikipedia Intro to Recycled Cinema From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \" Intro to Recycled Cinema \" Community episode Episode no. Season 6 Episode 8 Directed by Victor Nelli, Jr. Written by Clay Lapari Production code 608 Original air date April 28, 2015 ( 2015-04-28 ) Running time 28 minutes Guest appearance(s) Paget Brewster as Francesca \"Frankie\" Dart Keith David as Elroy Patashnik Richard Erdman as Leonard Briggs Erik Charles Nielsen as Garrett Lambert Brooke Burns as TV Host Steve Guttenberg as Maury Luke Youngblood as Magnitude Randall Park as himself Episode chronology ← Previous \" Advanced Safety Features \" Next → \"Grifting 101\" Community (season 6) List of Community episodes \" Intro to Recycled Cinema \" is the eighth episode of the sixth season of the American comedy television series Community , and the 105th episode of the series overall. It was released on Yahoo! Screen in the United States on April 28, 2015. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cultural references 3 Production 4 Critical reception 5 References 6 External links Plot [ edit ] After his big break in the theater version of The Karate Kid , Chang lands a part in a commercial for Kolb Family Foods. He becomes an internet sensation as the \"'Ham, girl!' Guy\" and heads to Hollywood. Greendale decides to cash in on Chang's new-found fame by turning a cop drama Police Justice, into a sci-fi movie. Abed directs the group in the film Chief Starr and the Raiders of the Galaxy , incorporating outtake audio and recycled footage of Chang. The Dean stars as Chang's stand in body double, while Jeff plays the mayor of outer space, Britta plays Princess Meridian, and Annie stars as Scorpio 9, a pleasure droid assassin. Abed is forced to lower his filmmaking standards and asked to edit his film removing Jeff's big scene. Consequently, Jeff has an identity crisis and realizes he will be the last one to ever leave Greendale. At the last minute the film's producer Maury informs the group that the company funding the film went bankrupt thanks to YouTube . Chang comes crawling back to Greendale after he talks back to an unseen Steven Spielberg and is replaced by Randall Park . Cultural references [ edit ] This episode parodies a scene from the original Star Wars when the characters fall into a trash compartment, as well as the films Raiders of the Lost Ark and Guardians of the Galaxy and actor Chris Pratt . The episode later lampoons the conventional distribution model of TV by suggesting the company set to distribute Abed's film just filed for bankruptcy because of the surge in online streaming. It also parodies The Big Bang Theory with Abed imitating Sheldon Cooper saying \" bazinga \" in a ball pit. Production [ edit ] On February 9, 2015, Dan Harmon disclosed that Steve Guttenberg would be appearing on an episode of Community . [1] On February 13, 2015, TV insider reported Guttenberg would play a Hollywood producer friend to Frankie. [2] On April 7, 2015, the episode's title was first revealed during an interview with Yahoo's Robert Chan. [3] Critical reception [ edit ] Den of Geek says, \"This is the closest we’ve yet come to an homage-style episode this season and it’s good, fresh ground for Community to cover.\" [4] Hypable says, \"After a relatively slow start, Community has really hit its stride mid-season with two stellar back-to-back episodes.\" [5] Flavorwire says, \"the 3AM release time doesn’t help,\" and suggests that perhaps the show would be better served releasing the episodes at a time of day when social media would have a bigger impact. [6] IGN liked the premise of the episode, \"The idea of Chang becoming a (very brief) star was amusing in and of itself, but it was how the Greendale gang reacted that really set the story in motion.\" [7] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Harmon, Dan (February 9, 2015). \".@SteveGuttbuck is doing a guest role...@bcgoldthwait was doing his director's cut...so Tim Kazurinsky JUST, LIKE, APPEARED. #AcademyMagic\" . Twitter . Retrieved February 9, 2015 . Jump up ^ Schneider, Michael (February 13, 2015). \"There Was a Police Academy Reunion on the Community Set, and Steve Guttenberg Explains Why\" . TV Insider . Retrieved February 13, 2015 . Jump up ^ Chan, Robert (April 7, 2015). \" ' Community' Postmortem: Dan Harmon Talks 'Laws of Robotics and Party Rights ' \" . Yahoo . Retrieved April 7, 2015 . Jump up ^ Matar, Joe (April 28, 2015). \"Community: Intro to Recycled Cinema Review\" . Den of Geek . Retrieved April 28, 2015 . Jump up ^ Bojalad, Alec. \" ' Community' season 6, episode 8 recap: Haaaaaaaaam, girl!\" . Hypable . Retrieved April 28, 2015 . Jump up ^ Viruet, Pilot (April 28, 2015). \"Don't Let Fans' Silence Fool You — 'Community' Remains as Great as Ever in Season 6\" . Flavorwire . Retrieved April 28, 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldman, Eric (April 28, 2015). \"Community: \"Intro to Recycled Cinema\" Review\" . IGN . Retrieved April 28, 2015 . External links [ edit ] \"Intro to Recycled Cinema\" at Yahoo! Screen .com \"Community Postmortem with Dan Harmon on Intro to Recycled Cinema\" at Yahoo TV \"Intro to Recycled Cinema\" on IMDb \"Intro to Recycled Cinema\" at TV.com [ hide ] v t e Community Characters Episodes Season 1 \" Pilot \" \" Spanish 101 \" \" Introduction to Film \" \" Social Psychology \" \" Advanced Criminal Law \" \" Football, Feminism and You \" \" Introduction to Statistics \" \" Home Economics \" \" Debate 109 \" \" Environmental Science \" \" The Politics of Human Sexuality \" \" Comparative Religion \" \" Investigative Journalism \" \" Interpretive Dance \" \" Romantic Expressionism \" \" Communication Studies \" \" Physical Education \" \" Basic Genealogy \" \" Beginner Pottery \" \" The Science of Illusion \" \" Contemporary American Poultry \" \" The Art of Discourse \" \" Modern Warfare \" \" English as a Second Language \" \" Pascal's Triangle Revisited \" Season 2 \" Anthropology 101 \" \" Accounting for Lawyers \" \" The Psychology of Letting Go \" \" Basic Rocket Science \" \" Messianic Myths and Ancient Peoples \" \" Epidemiology \" \" Aerodynamics of Gender \" \" Cooperative Calligraphy \" \" Conspiracy Theories and Interior Design \" \" Mixology Certification \" \" Abed's Uncontrollable Christmas \" \" Asian Population Studies \" \" Celebrity Pharmacology \" \" Advanced Dungeons & Dragons \" \" Early 21st Century Romanticism \" \" Intermediate Documentary Filmmaking \" \" Intro to Political Science \" \" Custody Law and Eastern European Diplomacy \" \" Critical Film Studies \" \" Competitive Wine Tasting \" \" Paradigms of Human Memory \" \" Applied Anthropology and Culinary Arts \" \" A Fistful of Paintballs \" / \" For a Few Paintballs More \" Season 3 \" Biology 101 \" \" Geography of Global Conflict \" \" Remedial Chaos Theory \" \" Competitive Ecology \" \" Horror Fiction in Seven Spooky Steps \" \" Advanced Gay \" \" Studies in Modern Movement \" \" Documentary Filmmaking: Redux \" \" Foosball and Nocturnal Vigilantism \" \" Regional Holiday Music \" \" Contemporary Impressionists \" \" Urban Matrimony and the Sandwich Arts \" \" Digital Exploration of Interior Design \" \" Pillows and Blankets \" \" Digital Estate Planning \" \" The First Chang Dynasty \" \" Introduction to Finality \" Season 4 \" History 101 \" \" Cooperative Escapism in Familial Relations \" \" Advanced Documentary Filmmaking \" \" Economics of Marine Biology \" \" Herstory of Dance \" \" Intro to Felt Surrogacy \" \" Intro to Knots \" \" Basic Human Anatomy \" \" Heroic Origins \" \" Advanced Introduction to Finality \" Season 5 \" Repilot \" \" Introduction to Teaching \" \" Basic Intergluteal Numismatics \" \" Cooperative Polygraphy \" \" Geothermal Escapism \" \" Analysis of Cork-Based Networking \" \" Bondage and Beta Male Sexuality \" \" App Development and Condiments \" \" VCR Maintenance and Educational Publishing \" \" Advanced Advanced Dungeons & Dragons \" \" G.I. Jeff \" \" Basic Story \" / \" Basic Sandwich \" Season 6 \" Ladders \" \" Advanced Safety Features \" \" Intro to Recycled Cinema \" \" Modern Espionage \" \" Emotional Consequences of Broadcast Television \" See also Inspector Spacetime: UWSAASTWCATTT Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intro_to_Recycled_Cinema&oldid=804225881 \" Categories : 2015 American television episodes Community (season 6) episodes Hidden categories: Tv.com template using numeric id Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 7 October 2017, at 15:59. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Intro to Recycled Cinema", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Intro_to_Recycled_Cinema&amp;oldid=804225881" }

{ "text": "Pure Food and Drug Act - Wikipedia Pure Food and Drug Act From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the United States law. For the band, see Pure Food and Drug Act (band) . Not to be confused with Food and Drugs Act . Pure Food and Drug Act Acronyms (colloquial) PFDA Enacted by the 59th United States Congress Effective January 1, 1907 Citations Public law 59-384 Statutes at Large 34 Stat. 768 , Chapter 3915 Codification Acts repealed Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) 37 U.S. Stat. 416 (1912) (Sherley Amendment) 37 U.S. Stat. 732 (1913) ( Gould Amendment ) 41 U.S. Stat. 271 (1919) (Kenyon Amendment) 42 U.S. Stat. 1500 (1923) 44 U.S. Stat. 976-1003 (1927) 46 U.S. Stat. 1019 (1930) (McNary-Mapes Amendment) 48 U.S. Stat. 1204 (1934) ( 21 U.S.C. §§ 1-15 ) Legislative history Introduced in the Senate as S. 88 by Weldon Heyburn ( R – ID ) on December 14, 1905 Passed the Senate on February 21, 1906 ( 63-4 ) Passed the House on June 20, 1906 ( 143-72 ) Reported by the joint conference committee on June 23, 1906; agreed to by the House on June 23, 1906 (agreed) and by the Senate on June 23, 1906 ( 241-17 ) Signed into law by President Theodore Roosevelt on June 30, 1906 Major amendments Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938) Food Quality Protection Act (1996) United States Supreme Court cases United States v. Johnson (1911) The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the first of a series of significant consumer protection laws which was enacted by Congress in the 20th century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration . Its main purpose was to ban foreign and interstate traffic in adulterated or mislabeled food and drug products, and it directed the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry to inspect products and refer offenders to prosecutors. It required that active ingredients be placed on the label of a drug’s packaging and that drugs could not fall below purity levels established by the United States Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair was an inspirational piece that kept the public's attention on the important issue of unsanitary meat processing plants that later led to food inspection legislation. Contents [ hide ] 1 Historical significance 2 Particular drugs deemed dangerous 3 History of passage 4 Beginnings of the Food and Drug Administration 5 Enforcement of labeling and future ramifications 6 References 6.1 Sources 7 External links Historical significance [ edit ] The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was a key piece of Progressive Era legislation, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt on the same day as the Federal Meat Inspection Act . Enforcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act was assigned to the Bureau of Chemistry in the U.S. Department of Agriculture which was renamed the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1930. The Meat Inspection Act was assigned to what is now known as the Food Safety and Inspection Service , which remains in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The first federal law regulating foods and drugs, the 1906 Act's reach was limited to foods and drugs moving in interstate commerce . Although the law drew upon many precedents, provisions, and legal experiments pioneered in individual states, the federal law defined \"misbranding\" and \"adulteration\" for the first time and prescribed penalties for each. The law recognized the U.S. Pharmacopeia and the National Formulary as standards authorities for drugs, but made no similar provision for federal food standards. [1] The law was principally a \"truth in labeling\" law designed to raise standards in the food and drug industries and protect the reputations and pocketbooks of honest businessmen. Particular drugs deemed dangerous [ edit ] Under the law, drug labels, for example, had to list any of 10 ingredients that were deemed \"addictive\" and/or \"dangerous\" on the product label if they were present, and could not list them if they were not present. Alcohol , morphine , opium , and cannabis were all included on the list of these \"addictive\" and/or \"dangerous\" drugs. The law also established a federal cadre of food and drug inspectors that one Southern opponent of the legislation criticized as \"a Trojan horse with a bellyful of inspectors and other employees.\" [2] Penalties under the law were modest, but an under-appreciated provision of the Act proved more powerful than monetary penalties. Goods found in violation of various areas of the law were subject to seizure and destruction at the expense of the manufacturer. That, combined with a legal requirement that all convictions be published as Notices of Judgment, proved to be important tools in the enforcement of the statute and had a deterrent effect upon would-be violators. [3] Deficiencies in this original statute [ example needed ] , which had become noticeable by the 1920s, led to the replacement of the 1906 statute with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act which was enacted in 1938 and signed by President Franklin Roosevelt. This act, along with its numerous amendments, remains the statutory basis for federal regulation of all foods, drugs, biological products, cosmetics, medical devices, tobacco, and radiation-emitting devices by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration . History of passage [ edit ] It took 27 years to the 1906 statute, during which time the public was made aware of many problems with foods and drugs in the U.S. Muckraking journalists, such as Samuel Hopkins Adams , targeted the patent medicine industry with its high-alcoholic content patent medicines, soothing syrups for infants with opium derivatives, and \"red clauses\" in newspaper contracts providing that patent medicine ads (upon which most newspapers of the time were dependent) would be withdrawn if the paper expressed support for food and drug regulatory legislation. The Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Chemistry, Dr. Harvey Washington Wiley , captured the country's attention with his hygienic table studies, which began with a modest Congressional appropriation in 1902. The goal of the table trial was to study the human effects of common preservatives used in foods during a period of rapid changes in the food supply brought about by the need to feed cities and support an industrializing nation increasingly dependent on immigrant labor. Wiley recruited young men to eat all their meals at a common table as he added increased \"doses\" of preservatives including borax, benzoate, formaldehyde, sulfites, and salicylates. The table trials captured the nation's fancy and were soon dubbed \"The Poison Squad\" by newspapers covering the story. The men soon adopted the motto \"Only the Brave dare eat the fare\" and at times the publicity given to the trials became a burden. Though many results of the trial came to be in dispute, there was no doubt that formaldehyde was dangerous and it disappeared quickly as a preservative. Wiley himself felt that he had found adverse effects from large doses of each of the preservatives and the public seemed to agree with Wiley. In many cases, most particularly with ketchup and other condiments, the use of preservatives was often used to disguise insanitary production practices. Although the law itself did not proscribe the use of some of these preservatives, consumers increasingly turned away from many products with known preservatives. The 1906 statute regulated food and drugs moving in interstate commerce and forbade the manufacture, sale, or transportation of poisonous patent medicines. [4] The Act arose due to public education and exposés from public interest guardians such as Upton Sinclair and Samuel Hopkins Adams, social activist Florence Kelley , researcher Harvey W. Wiley , and President Theodore Roosevelt. Beginnings of the Food and Drug Administration [ edit ] The 1906 Act paved the way for the eventual creation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and is generally considered to be that agency's founding date, though the agency existed before the law was passed and was not named FDA until later. \"While the Food and Drug act remains a foundational law of the FDA mission, it's not the law that created the FDA. [Initially,] the Bureau of Chemistry (the precursor to the FDA) regulated food safety. In 1927, the Bureau was reorganized into the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. The FDIA was renamed the FDA in 1930.\" [5] The law itself was largely replaced by the much more comprehensive Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. Enforcement of labeling and future ramifications [ edit ] The Pure Food and Drug Act was initially concerned with ensuring products were labeled correctly. Later efforts were made to outlaw certain products that were not safe, followed by efforts to outlaw products which were safe but not effective. For example, there was an attempt to outlaw Coca-Cola in 1909 because of its excessive caffeine content; caffeine had replaced cocaine as the active ingredient in Coca-Cola in 1903. [6] In the case United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola , the judge found that Coca-Cola had a right to use caffeine as it saw fit, although Coca-Cola eventually lost when the government appealed to the Supreme Court. [7] It reached a settlement with the United States government to reduce the caffeine amount. In addition to caffeine, the Pure Food and Drug Act required that drugs such as alcohol , cocaine , heroin , morphine , and cannabis , be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated. [8] The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate labels, monitoring of purity and dose, and consumer education. [9] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Swann, Ph.D., John P. \"The 1906 Food and Drugs Act and Its Enforcement\" . FDA History - Part I. U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved 10 April 2013 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Young, James H. Pure Food: Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1989, p. 98. Jump up ^ FDA Notices of Judgment Collection, 1908-1966 Jump up ^ Ayers, Edward A. (August 1907). \"What The Food Law Saves Us From: Adulterations, Substitutions, Chemical Dyes, and Other Evils\" . The World's Work: A History of Our Time . XIV : 9316–9322 . Retrieved 2009-07-10 . Jump up ^ \"Milestones in U.S. Food and Drug Law History - Significant Dates in U.S. Food and Drug Law History\" . www.fda.gov . Retrieved 2017-11-17 . Jump up ^ Hamblin M.D., James (January 31, 2013). \"Why We Took Cocaine Out of Soda\" . The Atlantic's Health Editorial. The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved April 10, 2013 . Jump up ^ \" Pop psychology: The man who saved Coca-Cola \", by Ludy T. Benjamin, Monitor on Psychology, February 2009, Vol 40, No. 2, p. 18 Jump up ^ Musto, David F. (1999). The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512509-6 . Jump up ^ Gray, James P. (May 2, 2001). \"Why Our Drug Laws Have Failed and What We Can Do About It: A Judicial Indictment of the War on Drugs\". Temple University Press. p. 288. ISBN 978-1566398602 . Missing or empty |url= ( help ) Sources [ edit ] Barkan, I. D. (January 1985). \"Industry invites regulation: the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906\" . American Journal of Public Health . 75 (1): 18–26. doi : 10.2105/AJPH.75.1.18 . PMC 1646146 . PMID 3881052 . The State of Connecticut. Connecticut Agricultural & Experiment Station Annual Reports . New Haven. For years preceding and following passage of the Act: 1896 , First report of the station on adulterated food products; 1897 ; 1898 ; 1899 ; 1900 ; 1901 ; 1902 ; 1903 ; 1904 ; 1905 ; 1906 ; 1907: Food , Food , Drugs ; 1908: Not located; 1909: Not located; 1910: Not located; 1911: Food , Drugs Dunn, Arthur Wallace (September 1911). \"Dr. Wiley And Pure Food, First Article: A Twenty-Year's Fight, The Long Struggle Against \"Influence\" to Enact the Law, The Harder Struggle to Enforce It, An Amazing Story of Obstruction\" . The World's Work: A History of Our Time . XXII : 14958–14965 . Retrieved 2009-07-10 . Dunn, Arthur Wallace (November 1911). \"Dr. Wiley and Pure Food, Second Article: The Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry as Washington Knows Him\" . The World's Work: A History of Our Time . XXIII: 29–40 . Retrieved 2009-07-10 . Greeley, Arthur Philip (1907). The Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906: A Study with Text of the Act, Annotated, the Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement of the Act, Food Inspection, Decisions and Official Food Standards . Washington, D.C.: J. Byrne & Company. James Harvey Young , Pure Food: Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989). Mitchell Okun, Fair Play in the Marketplace: The First Battle for Pure Food and Drugs (Dekalb: University of Illinois Press, 1986). Suzanne White Junod, Chemistry and Controversy: Food Additive Regulation, unpublished dissertation, Emory University, 1994. Andrew F. Smith, Pure Ketchup: A History of America's National Condiment (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996) Goodwin, Pure Food, Drug, and Drink Crusaders External links [ edit ] 59th U.S. Congress (December 14, 1905). \"S. 88, Draft bill of the Pure Food and Drug Act\" . Chapter 3915, cited 34 U.S. Stats. 768 . U.S. Capitol Visitor Center . Retrieved April 8, 2013 . 59th U.S. Congress (1906). \"THE WILEY ACT\" . Public Law Number 59-384, 34 Stat. 768 . U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved April 8, 2013 . [ hide ] v t e Food safety Adulterants , food contaminants 3-MCPD Aldicarb Cyanide Formaldehyde Lead poisoning Melamine Mercury in fish Sudan I Flavorings Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Salt Sugar High-fructose corn syrup Microorganisms Botulism Campylobacter jejuni Clostridium perfringens Escherichia coli O104:H4 Escherichia coli O157:H7 Hepatitis A Hepatitis E Listeria Norovirus Rotavirus Salmonella Parasitic infections through food Amoebiasis Anisakiasis Cryptosporidiosis Cyclosporiasis Diphyllobothriasis Enterobiasis Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolosis Giardiasis Gnathostomiasis Paragonimiasis Toxoplasmosis Trichinosis Trichuriasis Pesticides Chlorpyrifos DDT Lindane Malathion Methamidophos Preservatives Benzoic acid Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) Sodium benzoate Sugar substitutes Acesulfame potassium Aspartame Saccharin Sodium cyclamate Sorbitol Sucralose Toxins , poisons , environment pollution Aflatoxin Arsenic contamination of groundwater Benzene in soft drinks Bisphenol A Dieldrin Diethylstilbestrol Dioxin Mycotoxins Nonylphenol Shellfish poisoning Food contamination incidents Devon colic Swill milk scandal 1858 Bradford sweets poisoning 1900 English beer poisoning Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident Minamata disease 1971 Iraq poison grain disaster Toxic oil syndrome 1993 Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak 1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak 2006 North American E. coli outbreaks ICA meat repackaging controversy 2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak 2008 Chinese milk scandal 2008 Irish pork crisis 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak 2011 Germany E. coli outbreak 2011 Taiwan food scandal 2011 United States listeriosis outbreak 2013 Bihar school meal poisoning 2013 horse meat scandal 2013 Taiwan food scandal 2014 Taiwan food scandal 2017 Brazil weak meat scandal Food safety incidents in China Foodborne illness outbreaks death toll United States Regulation , standards , watchdogs Acceptable daily intake E number Food labeling regulations Food libel laws International Food Safety Network ISO 22000 Quality Assurance International Institutions Centre for Food Safety European Food Safety Authority Institute for Food Safety and Health International Food Safety Network Ministry of Food and Drug Safety [ show ] v t e Theodore Roosevelt 26th President of the United States, 1901–1909 25th Vice President of the United States, 1901 33rd Governor of New York, 1899–1900 Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897–1898 New York City Police Commissioner, 1895–1897 New York State Assemblyman, 1882 1883 1884 Presidency First inauguration historic site Second inauguiration \" Square Deal \" Booker T. Washington dinner Conservation Newlands Reclamation Act Transfer Act of 1905 Antiquities Act Pelican Island Devils Tower National Monument Muir Woods National Monument Other National Monuments United States Forest Service , United States Reclamation Service National Wildlife Refuge System Roosevelt Arch Conference of Governors Northern Securities Company breakup court case Coal strike of 1902 Pure Food and Drug Act Food and Drug Administration Meat Inspection Act Expediting Act Elkins Act Hepburn Act Aldrich–Vreeland Act Federal Employers Liability Act Kinkaid Act Big Stick ideology Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty Panama Canal Zone Panama Canal Venezuelan crisis Roosevelt Corollary Occupation of Cuba Russo-Japanese War Treaty of Portsmouth 1906 Nobel Peace Prize Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 College football meetings Bureau of Investigation Department of Commerce and Labor Bureau of Corporations Keep Commission Inland Waterways Commission Bureau of the Census Great White Fleet Perdicaris incident Cabinet White House West Wing State of the Union Address, 1901 1906 1908 White House desk Federal judiciary appointments Other events Spanish–American War Rough Riders Battle of Las Guasimas Battle of San Juan Hill \"Bull Moose\" Progressive Party New Nationalism Assassination attempt Boone and Crockett Club Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition \"River of Doubt\" Amazonian expedition Life and homes Birthplace, boyhood home replica Sagamore Hill Home and Museum Oyster Bay Elkhorn Ranch Maltese Cross Cabin Pine Knot cabin Gravesite Writings and speeches Theodore Roosevelt bibliography The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book) \"The Strenuous Life\" (1899 speech) \"Citizenship in a Republic\" (1910 speech) \"I have just been shot\" (1912 speech) Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book) The Forum magazine articles Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia Archival collections Elections New York state election, 1898 Republican National Convention, 1900 1904 1912 1916 United States presidential election, 1900 1904 1912 Legacy Mount Rushmore Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library White House Roosevelt Room Theodore Roosevelt National Park Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness Theodore Roosevelt Island Roosevelt National Forest Roosevelt Study Center Theodore Roosevelt Association Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park Monument Assemblage Roosevelt River Theodore Roosevelt Award Roosevelt Road U.S. Postage stamps Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Rider sculpture Equestrian statue Popular culture Teddy bear \"Speak softly, and carry a big stick\" Books Films Roosevelt in Africa 1910 documentary The Roosevelts 2014 documentary Related Political positions \" Bully pulpit \" Ananias Club \" Nature fakers \" Progressive Era A Guest of Honor Porcellian Club \" Muckraker \" National Collegiate Athletic Association \" Roosevelt Republican \" Family Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife) Edith Kermit Carow (second wife) Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter) Theodore Roosevelt III (son) Kermit Roosevelt (son) Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter) Archibald Roosevelt (son) Quentin Roosevelt (son) Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father) Martha Stewart Bulloch (mother) Anna Roosevelt (sister) Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother) Corinne Roosevelt (sister) Cornelius Roosevelt (grandfather) James Stephens Bulloch (grandfather) James A. Roosevelt (uncle) Robert Roosevelt (uncle) James Dunwoody Bulloch (half-uncle) Irvine Bulloch (uncle) Theodore Douglas Robinson (nephew) Corinne Robinson (niece) Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece) Hall Roosevelt (nephew) ← William McKinley William Howard Taft → Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act&oldid=825562495 \" Categories : 1906 in American politics 1906 in law Food and Drug Administration Food law Food safety in the United States History of the United States (1865–1918) Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt Progressive Era in the United States United States federal controlled substances legislation United States federal health legislation Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list Pages using web citations with no URL CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Nederlands Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 14 February 2018, at 03:08. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Pure Food and Drug Act", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act&amp;oldid=825562495" }

{ "text": "Copper(II) nitrate - Wikipedia Copper(II) nitrate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Not to be confused with Copper(I) nitrate . Copper(II) nitrate Names IUPAC name Copper(II) nitrate Other names Cupric nitrate Identifiers CAS Number 3251-23-8 Y 10031-43-3 (trihydrate) N 13478-38-1 (hexahydrate) N 19004-19-4 (hemipentahydrate) N 3D model ( JSmol ) Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI:78036 N ChemSpider 17582 Y ECHA InfoCard 100.019.853 PubChem CID 18616 RTECS number GL7875000 UNII 9TC879S2ZV Y InChI [show] InChI=1S/Cu.2NO3/c;2*2-1(3)4/q+2;2*-1 Y Key: XTVVROIMIGLXTD-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y InChI=1/Cu.2NO3/c;2*2-1(3)4/q+2;2*-1 Key: XTVVROIMIGLXTD-UHFFFAOYAG SMILES [show] [Cu+2].[O-][N+]([O-])=O.[O-][N+]([O-])=O Properties Chemical formula Cu(NO 3 ) 2 Molar mass 187.5558 g/mol (anhydrous) 241.60 g/mol (trihydrate) 232.591 g/mol (hemipentahydrate) Appearance blue crystals hygroscopic Density 3.05 g/cm 3 (anhydrous) 2.32 g/cm 3 (trihydrate) 2.07 g/cm 3 (hexahydrate) Melting point 256 °C (493 °F; 529 K) (anhydrous, decomposes) 114.5 °C (trihydrate) 26.4 °C (hexahydrate, decomposes) Boiling point 170 °C (338 °F; 443 K) (trihydrate, decomposes) Solubility in water trihydrate: [1] 381 g/100 mL (40 °C) 666 g/100 mL (80 °C) hexahydrate: [1] 243.7 g/100 mL (80 °C) Solubility hydrates very soluble in ethanol , ammonia , water ; insoluble in ethyl acetate Magnetic susceptibility (χ) +1570.0·10 −6 cm 3 /mol (~3H 2 O) Structure Crystal structure orthorhombic (anhydrous) rhombohedral (hydrates) Hazards Main hazards Irritant, Oxidizer Safety data sheet Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ·3H 2 O NFPA 704 0 1 3 OX US health exposure limits ( NIOSH ): PEL (Permissible) TWA 1 mg/m 3 (as Cu) [2] REL (Recommended) TWA 1 mg/m 3 (as Cu) [2] IDLH (Immediate danger) TWA 100 mg/m 3 (as Cu) [2] Related compounds Other anions Copper(II) sulfate Copper(II) chloride Other cations Nickel(II) nitrate Zinc nitrate Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). N verify ( what is Y N ?) Infobox references Copper(II) nitrate , Cu ( N O 3 ) 2 , is an inorganic compound that forms a blue crystalline solid . Anhydrous copper nitrate forms deep blue-green crystals and sublimes in a vacuum at 150-200 °C. [3] Copper nitrate also occurs as five different hydrates , the most common ones being the trihydrate and hexahydrate. These materials are more commonly encountered in commerce than in the laboratory. Contents [ hide ] 1 Synthesis and reactions for copper nitrate 2 Structure 2.1 Anhydrous copper(II) nitrate 2.2 Hydrated copper(II) nitrate 3 Applications 3.1 Organic Synthesis 4 References 5 External links Synthesis and reactions for copper nitrate [ edit ] Aqueous solution of copper(II) nitrate. [ citation needed ] Hydrated copper nitrate can be prepared by hydration of the anhydrous material or by treating copper metal with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate or concentrated nitric acid : [4] Cu + 4 HNO 3 → Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 2 H 2 O + 2 NO 2 Anhydrous Cu(NO 3 ) 2 forms when copper metal is treated with N 2 O 4 : Cu + 2 N 2 O 4 → Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 2 NO Attempted dehydration of any of the hydrated copper(II) nitrates by heating instead affords the oxides , not Cu(NO 3 ) 2 . At 80 °C, the hydrates convert to \"basic copper nitrate\" (Cu 2 (NO 3 )(OH) 3 ), which converts to CuO at 180 °C. [4] Exploiting this reactivity, copper nitrate can be used to generate nitric acid by heating it until decomposition and passing the fumes directly into water. This method is similar to the last step in the Ostwald process . The equations are as follows: 2 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 → 2 CuO + 4 NO 2 + O 2 3NO 2 + H 2 O → 2HNO 3 + NO Natural basic copper nitrates include the rare minerals gerhardtite and rouaite, both being polymorphs of Cu 2 (NO 3 )(OH) 3 substance. [5] Structure [ edit ] Anhydrous copper(II) nitrate [ edit ] Anhydrous copper(II) nitrate has been crystallized in two solvate -free polymorphs . [6] [7] α- and β-Cu(NO 3 ) 2 are fully 3D coordination polymer networks. The alpha form has only one Cu environment, with [4+1] coordination, but the beta form has two different copper centers, one with [4+1] and one that is square planar. The nitromethane solvate also features \"[4+ 1] coordination\", with four short Cu-O bonds of approximately 200 pm and one longer bond at 240 pm. [8] They are coordination polymers , with infinite chains of copper(II) centers and nitrate groups. In the gas phase, copper(II) nitrate features two bidentate nitrate ligands (see image at upper right). [9] Thus, evaporation of the solid entails \" cracking \" to give the copper(II) nitrate molecule. Hydrated copper(II) nitrate [ edit ] Five hydrates have been reported: the monohydrate (Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ·H 2 O), [7] the sesquihydrate (Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ·1.5H 2 O), [10] the hemipentahydrate (Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ·2.5H 2 O), [11] a trihydrate (Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ·3H 2 O), [12] and a hexahydrate ([Cu(H 2 O) 6 ](NO 3 ) 2 ). [13] The hexahydrate is interesting because the Cu-O distances are all equal, not revealing the usual effect of Jahn-Teller distortion that is otherwise characteristic of octahedral Cu(II) complexes. This non-effect is attributed to the strong hydrogen bonding that limits the elasticity of the Cu-O bonds. Applications [ edit ] Copper(II) nitrate finds a variety of applications, the main one being its conversion to copper(II) oxide , which is used as catalyst for a variety of processes in organic chemistry . Its solutions are used in textiles and polishing agents for other metals. Copper nitrates are found in some pyrotechnics . [4] It is often used in school laboratories to demonstrate chemical voltaic cell reactions. Organic Synthesis [ edit ] Copper nitrate, in combination with acetic anhydride , is an effective reagent for nitration of aromatic compounds, under what are known as \"Menke conditions\", in honor of the Dutch chemist who discovered that metal nitrates are effective reagents for nitration. [14] Hydrated copper nitrate adsorbed onto clay affords a reagent called \"Claycop\". The resulting blue-colored clay is used as a slurry, for example for the oxidation of thiols to disulfides . Claycop is also used to convert dithioacetals to carbonyls. [15] A related reagent based on montmorillonite has proven useful for the nitration of aromatic compounds. [16] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copper(II) nitrate . References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Perrys' Chem Eng Handbook, 7th Ed ^ Jump up to: a b c \"NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0150\" . National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Jump up ^ Pass and Sutcliffe (1968). Practical Inorganic Chemistry . London: Chapman and Hall. ^ Jump up to: a b c H.Wayne Richardson \"Copper Compounds\" Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi : 10.1002/14356007.a07_567 . Jump up ^ Mindat, http://www.mindat.org/min-10588.html Jump up ^ Wallwork, S. C.; Addison, W. E. (1965). \"The crystal structures of anhydrous nitrates and their complexes. Part I. The α form of copper(II) nitrate\". J. Chem. Soc . 1965 : 2925–2933. doi : 10.1039/JR9650002925 . ^ Jump up to: a b Troyanov, S. I.; Morozov, I. V.; Znamenkov, K. O.; Yu; Korenev, M. (1995). \"Synthesis and X-Ray Structure of New Copper(II) Nitrates: Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ·H 2 O and ?-modification of Cu(NO 3 ) 2 \". Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem . 621 : 1261–1265. doi : 10.1002/zaac.19956210727 . Jump up ^ Duffin, B.; Wallwork, S. C. (1966). \"The crystal structure of anhydrous nitrates and their complexes. II. The 1:1 copper(II) nitrate-nitromethane complex\". Acta Crystallographica . 20 : 210–213. doi : 10.1107/S0365110X66000434 . Jump up ^ LaVilla, R. E.; Bauer, S. H. (1963). \"The Structure of Gaseous Copper(II) Nitrate as Determined by Electron Diffraction\". J. Am. Chem. Soc . 85 : 3597–3600. doi : 10.1021/ja00905a015 . Jump up ^ Dornberger-Schiff, K.; Leciejewicz, J. (1958). \"Zur Struktur des Kupfernitrates Cu(NO 3 ) 2 . 1.5H 2 O\". Acta Crystallogr . 11 : 825–826. doi : 10.1107/S0365110X58002322 . Jump up ^ Morosin, B. (1970). \"The crystal structure of Cu(NO 3 ) 2 .2.5H 2 O\". Acta Crystallogr . B26 : 1203–1208. doi : 10.1107/S0567740870003898 . Jump up ^ J. Garaj, Sbornik Prac. Chem.-Technol. Fak. Svst., Cskosl. 1966, pp. 35–39. Jump up ^ Zibaseresht, R.; Hartshorn, R. M. (2006). \"Hexaaquacopper(II) dinitrate: absence of Jahn-Teller distortion\". Acta Crystallogr . E62 : i19–i22. doi : 10.1107/S1600536805041851 . Jump up ^ Menke J.B. (1925). \"Nitration with nitrates\". Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas . 44 : 141. doi : 10.1002/recl.19250440209 . Jump up ^ Balogh, M. \"Copper(II) Nitrate–K10 Bentonite Clay\" in Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis (Ed: L. Paquette) 2004, J. Wiley & Sons, New York. doi : 10.1002/047084289 . Jump up ^ Collet, Christine (1990). \"Clays Direct Aromatic Nitration\". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English . 29 : 535–536. doi : 10.1002/anie.199005351 . External links [ edit ] National Pollutant Inventory – Copper and compounds fact sheet ICSC Copper and compounds fact sheet [ show ] v t e Copper compounds Cu(0,I) Cu 5 Si Cu(I) CuBr CuCN CuCl CuF CuH CuI Cu 2 C 2 Cu 2 Cr 2 O 5 Cu 2 O CuOH CuNO 3 Cu 3 P Cu 2 S CuSCN Cu(I,II) Cu 3 H 4 O 8 S 2 Cu(II) Cu(BF 4 ) 2 CuBr 2 CuC 2 CuCO 3 Cu(CN) 2 Cu(ClO 3 ) 2 CuCl 2 CuF 2 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 Cu 3 (PO 4 ) 2 CuN 6 CuO CuO 2 Cu(OH) 2 CuI 2 CuS CuSO 4 Cu 3 (AsO 4 ) 2 Cu(III) K 3 CuF 6 Cu 2 O 3 Cu(IV) Cs 2 CuF 6 Rb 2 CuF 6 [ hide ] v t e Salts and covalent derivatives of the Nitrate ion HNO 3 He LiNO 3 Be(NO 3 ) 2 B(NO 3 ) 4 − C N O FNO 3 Ne NaNO 3 Mg(NO 3 ) 2 Al(NO 3 ) 3 Si P S ClONO 2 Ar KNO 3 Ca(NO 3 ) 2 Sc(NO 3 ) 3 Ti(NO 3 ) 4 VO(NO 3 ) 3 Cr(NO 3 ) 3 Mn(NO 3 ) 2 Fe(NO 3 ) 3 , Fe(NO 3 ) 2 Co(NO 3 ) 2 , Co(NO 3 ) 3 Ni(NO 3 ) 2 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 Zn(NO 3 ) 2 Ga(NO 3 ) 3 Ge As Se Br Kr RbNO 3 Sr(NO 3 ) 2 Y Zr(NO 3 ) 4 Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd(NO 3 ) 2 AgNO 3 Cd(NO 3 ) 2 In Sn Sb(NO 3 ) 3 Te I Xe(NO 3 ) 2 CsNO 3 Ba(NO 3 ) 2 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg 2 (NO 3 ) 2 , Hg(NO 3 ) 2 Tl(NO 3 ) 3 , TlNO 3 Pb(NO 3 ) 2 Bi(NO 3 ) 3 BiO(NO 3 ) Po At Rn FrNO 3 Ra(NO 3 ) 2 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og ↓ La(NO 3 ) 3 Ce(NO 3 ) 3 , Ce(NO 3 ) 4 Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu(NO 3 ) 3 Gd(NO 3 ) 3 Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Ac(NO 3 ) 3 Th(NO 3 ) 4 Pa UO 2 (NO 3 ) 2 Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copper(II)_nitrate&oldid=827961575 \" Categories : Copper compounds Nitrates Pyrotechnic oxidizers Pyrotechnic colorants Oxidizing agents Hidden categories: Chemical articles with multiple compound IDs Multiple chemicals in an infobox that need indexing Chemical articles with multiple CAS registry numbers Articles without KEGG source Articles with changed CASNo identifier Articles with changed EBI identifier ECHA InfoCard ID from Wikidata Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Català Čeština Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska తెలుగు Tiếng Việt 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 February 2018, at 19:30. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Copper(II) nitrate", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Copper(II)_nitrate&amp;oldid=827961575" }

{ "text": "Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy? - Wikipedia Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (December 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's general notability guideline . Please help to establish notability by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be established, the article is likely to be merged , redirected , or deleted . Find sources: \"Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy?\" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2009) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) \" Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy? \" is a short story by Tim O'Brien that was written in May 1975. Contents 1 Plot 2 Summary 3 Characters 4 Themes Plot [ edit ] The main character, Paul Berlin, is in the Vietnam War . Recently, \"Billy Boy\" Watkins has died of a heart attack after losing a foot due to a mine . Paul is woken up by a comrade and then takes part in conversation while skirting a village, mostly talking about Watkins's death. Then there are a series of events where Paul thinks about his family back home. He constantly wishes for his parents to be proud of his valor and courage. The irony in this story includes Paul viewing the sea as a place of safety, but once he gets there, he is still unable to rid himself of the fear that embodies him. Summary [ edit ] The story's main character is Private First Class Paul Berlin. The story takes place during the Vietnam War. It is Paul's first day and he is having an extremely hard time fighting anxiety and fear. One soldier in his platoon has already died from a heart attack. He was literally scared to death. Other soldiers tell Paul that they will just get used to living in the fearful jungle. Private First Class Paul Berlin is not sure if he will ever get used to the anxiety of war. “They would have their rear guarded by three thousand miles of ocean, and they would swim and dive in to the breakers and hunt crayfish and smell salt, and they would be safe... But even when he smelled salt and heard the sea, he could not stop being afraid.” The conflicts in the story include person vs. self and person vs. society. These are shown by Paul trying to overcome his fears in the war, and by the fact that he went to war because he was drafted by the military. Characters [ edit ] Paul Berlin Paul's father Paul's mother Toby (Buffalo/Buff) \"Billy Boy\" Watkins Themes [ edit ] Fear – the major theme of this story is how scary war is. Paul Berlin experiences his fears throughout the story. \"Though he was afraid, he now knew that fear came in many degrees and types and peculiar categories...\" Courage – Paul Berlin learns that he has to have courage if he wants to overcome his fear of the war. Although he does not overcome his fear in the story, he learns how to overcome it, and is closer to overcoming his fear. Determination – Paul has to have determination to stay strong in the war. When he could have dropped out of the terrifying war, he decides to fight through it and not give up. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Where_Have_You_Gone,_Charming_Billy%3F&oldid=864572824 \" Categories : Works by Tim O'Brien 1975 short stories Short stories by Tim O'Brien Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2017 All articles lacking sources Articles with topics of unclear notability from September 2009 All articles with topics of unclear notability Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 18 October 2018, at 03:09 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy?", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Where_Have_You_Gone,_Charming_Billy%3F&amp;oldid=864572824" }

{ "text": "Eiffel Tower - Wikipedia Eiffel Tower From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the landmark in Paris, France. For Other uses, see Eiffel Tower (disambiguation) . The Eiffel Tower Tour Eiffel Seen from the Champ de Mars Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap Record height Tallest in the world from 1889 to 1930 [I] General information Type Observation tower Broadcasting tower Location 7th arrondissement , Paris , France Coordinates 48°51′29.6″N 2°17′40.2″E  /  48.858222°N 2.294500°E  / 48.858222; 2.294500 Coordinates : 48°51′29.6″N 2°17′40.2″E  /  48.858222°N 2.294500°E  / 48.858222; 2.294500 Construction started 28 January 1887 Completed 15 March 1889 Opening 31 March 1889 (129 years ago) Owner City of Paris , France Management Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) Height Architectural 300 m (984 ft) [1] Tip 324 m (1,063 ft) [1] Top floor 276 m (906 ft) [1] Technical details Floor count 3 [2] Lifts/elevators 8 [2] Design and construction Architect Stephen Sauvestre Structural engineer Maurice Koechlin Émile Nouguier Main contractor Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel Website toureiffel .paris /en References I. ^ Eiffel Tower at Emporis The Eiffel Tower ( / ˈ aɪ f əl / EYE -fəl ; French : Tour Eiffel [tuʁ‿ɛfɛl] ( listen ) ) is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris , France . It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel , whose company designed and built the tower. Constructed from 1887–1889 as the entrance to the 1889 World's Fair , it was initially criticized by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, but it has become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. [3] The Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world; 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris . Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest man-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct . The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union . Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origin 1.2 Artists' protest 1.3 Construction 1.3.1 Lifts 1.4 Inauguration and the 1889 exposition 1.5 Subsequent events 2 Design 2.1 Material 2.2 Wind considerations 2.3 Accommodation 2.4 Passenger lifts 2.5 Engraved names 2.6 Aesthetics 2.7 Maintenance 3 Tourism 3.1 Transport 3.2 Popularity 3.3 Restaurants 4 Replicas 5 Communications 5.1 FM radio 5.2 Digital television 6 Illumination copyright 7 Taller structures 7.1 Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower 7.2 Structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links History Origin The design of the Eiffel Tower is attributed to Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier , two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel . It was envisioned after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle , a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution . Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853. [4] In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as \"a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals\". [5] Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre , the head of company's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. First drawing of the Eiffel Tower by Maurice Koechlin including size comparison with other Parisian landmarks such as Notre Dame de Paris , the Statue of Liberty and the Vendôme Column The new version gained Eiffel's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils ; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise, Not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude. [6] Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars. [6] (A 300-meter tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort). On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or lacking in details. After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. [7] Artists' protest Caricature of Gustave Eiffel comparing the Eiffel tower to the Pyramids The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. These objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a \"Committee of Three Hundred\" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as Adolphe Bouguereau , Guy de Maupassant , Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet . A petition called \"Artists against the Eiffel Tower\" was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Charles Alphand , and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887: We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection … of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower … To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal. [8] A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids : \"My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris?\" [9] These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically saying, [10] \"Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time\", and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: \"Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?\" [11] Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. [12] Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible. [13] By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram ) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. [14] Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art , and is often featured in films and literature. Construction Foundations of the Eiffel Tower Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. [15] Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine , were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) [16] to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork. Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. [17] The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc . The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined together using 2.5 million rivets. [15] At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers , but about halfway to the first level, construction was paused in order to create a substantial timber scaffold . This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as \"Eiffel Suicide!\" and \"Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum\" appeared in the tabloid press. [18] At this stage, a small \"creeper\" crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888. [15] Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on-site employees, [15] only one person died, due to Eiffel's safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens. [19] The start of the erection of the metalwork. 7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding. 20 March 1888: Completion of the first level. 15 May 1888: Start of construction on the second stage. 21 August 1888: Completion of the second level. 26 December 1888: Construction of the upper stage. 15 March 1889: Construction of the cupola . Lifts The Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape lifts during construction. Note the drive sprockets and chain in the foreground Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts clearly had to be the main means of ascent. [20] Constructing lifts to reach the first level was relatively straightforward: the legs were wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs. [21] Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter sprockets . Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains. [21] The Otis lifts originally fitted in the north and south legs Installing lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible. No French company wanted to undertake the work. The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fair's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower. The deadline for bids was extended but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887. [22] Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs. The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in) long and 96.5 cm (38.0 in) in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of 10.83 m (35 ft 6 in): this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level. The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of 81 m (266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10-ton cars each held 65 passengers. [23] Inauguration and the 1889 exposition General view of the Exposition Universelle The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. [12] Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré , completed the ascent. At 2:35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired at the first level. [24] There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710-step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. [25] Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays, [26] and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors. [3] After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top. Illumination of the tower at night during the exposition On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour , was made. There was also a pâtisserie . At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described some of the responses as vraiment curieuse (\"truly curious\"). [27] Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales , Sarah Bernhardt , \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison . [25] Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs , a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition. [28] Edison signed the guestbook with this message: To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison. Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris . The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit. Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations , and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies. [29] Subsequent events Play media Panoramic view during ascent of the Eiffel Tower by the Lumière brothers , 1898 Play media Franz Reichelt's preparations and jump from the Eiffel Tower Tour Eiffel , 1926, one of the Eiffel Tower series by Robert Delaunay For the 1900 Exposition Universelle , the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives-Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism to the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism. [22] At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later. On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos-Dumont , flying his No.6 airship , won a 100,000-franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour. [30] Many innovations took place at the Eiffel Tower in the early 20th century. In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays . [31] Just two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 metres) to demonstrate his parachute design. [32] In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I , a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne . [33] From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. [ citation needed ] In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low-resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180-line transmitter was installed. [34] On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig \"sold\" the tower for scrap metal. [35] A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. [36] A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. [37] In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. [38] In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed. [39] American soldiers watch the French flag flying on the Eiffel Tower, c. 25 August 1944 Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. [40] In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika-centered Reichskriegsflagge , [41] but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. [42] When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz , the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. [43] On 25 June, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris , the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum , who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans. [40] A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top. [44] In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux . [45] A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar. [46] According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67 . The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location. [47] Base of the Eiffel Tower In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. [ citation needed ] The Fives-Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil-filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. [46] A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later. Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. [48] In 1987, A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. [49] On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux , along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. [50] Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump. [ citation needed ] The tower is the focal point of New Year's Eve and Bastille Day (14 July) celebrations in Paris. For its \"Countdown to the Year 2000\" celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high-powered searchlights were installed on the tower. Fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour. [51] The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium On 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing. [52] The tower received its 200,000,000th guest on 28 November 2002. [53] The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors since 2003. [54] In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. [55] A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment. [56] Design Material The Eiffel Tower from below The puddled iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tons, [57] and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tons. [58] As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tons of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, 125 metres (410 ft) on each side, to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.46 in) assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tons per cubic metre. [59] Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 m x 125 m x 125 m) would contain 6,200 tons of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun. [60] Wind considerations When it was built, many were shocked by the tower's daring form. Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team – experienced bridge builders – understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said: Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony? … Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be … will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole. [61] He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. [62] All parts of the tower were over-designed to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. [63] In the years since it was completed, engineers have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. The most recent, devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point. [62] The Eiffel Tower sways by up to 9 centimetres (3.5 in) in the wind. [64] Accommodation Gustave Eiffel's apartment When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants—one French, one Russian and one Flemish —and an \"Anglo-American Bar\". After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250-seat theatre. A promenade 2.6-metre (8 ft 6 in) wide ran around the outside of the first level. At the top, there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests. [65] In May 2016, an apartment was created on the first level to accommodate four competition winners during the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament in Paris in June. The apartment has a kitchen, two bedrooms, a lounge, and views of Paris landmarks including the Seine , the Sacre Coeur , and the Arc de Triomphe . [66] Passenger lifts The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift. [ citation needed ] Engraved names Main article: List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower Names engraved on the tower Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower. Eiffel chose this \"invocation of science\" because of his concern over the artists' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986–87 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel , a company operating the tower. [67] Aesthetics The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky. [68] It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as \"Eiffel Tower Brown\". [69] The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill-work arches, added in Sauvestre's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition. [70] A pop-culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. [71] In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower. [ citation needed ] Maintenance Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every seven years to prevent it from rusting . The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment. [52] Panorama of Paris and its suburbs from the top of the Eiffel Tower Tourism Transport The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir-Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars-Tour Eiffel. [72] The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna. Popularity Number of visitors per year between 1889 and 2004 More than 250 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889. [3] In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors. [73] The tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world. [74] An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day which can result in long queues. [75] Restaurants The tower has two restaurants: Le 58 Tour Eiffel on the first level, and Le Jules Verne , a gourmet restaurant with its own lift on the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide . It was run by the multi- Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse from 2007 to 2017. [76] Starting May 2019, it will be managed by three star chef Frédéric Anton. [77] It owes its name to the famous science-fiction writer Jules Verne . Additionally, there is a champagne bar at the top of the Eiffel Tower. Replicas Replica at the Paris Las Vegas Hotel , Nevada, United States Main article: List of Eiffel Tower replicas As one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is 158.1 metres (518 ft) tall. [78] Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower. [79] There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half-scale version at the Paris Las Vegas , Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1:3 scale models at Kings Island , Ohio , and Kings Dominion , Virginia , amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1:3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe. [80] In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full-size replica of the tower would cost approximately US$480 million to build. [81] Ironically, if accurate, that means that the replica would cost more than ten times that of the original (with the original costing nearly 8 million in 1890 Francs; ~US$40 million in 2018 dollars). Communications Top of the Eiffel Tower The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory , using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory , which used an aerial in Arlington , Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. [82] Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower. FM radio Frequency kW Service 87.8 MHz 10 France Inter 89.0 MHz 10 RFI Paris 89.9 MHz 6 TSF Jazz 90.4 MHz 10 Nostalgie 90.9 MHz 4 Chante France Digital television A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by 18.7 m (61.4 ft). Work carried out in 2000 added a further 5.3 m (17.4 ft), giving the current height of 324 m (1,063 ft). [52] Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011. Frequency VHF UHF kW Service 182.25 MHz 6 — 100 Canal+ 479.25 MHz — 22 500 France 2 503.25 MHz — 25 500 TF1 527.25 MHz — 28 500 France 3 543.25 MHz — 30 100 France 5 567.25 MHz — 33 100 M6 Illumination copyright The Eiffel Tower illuminated in 2015 The tower and its image have long been in the public domain . [83] In June 1990 a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower's 100th anniversary was an \"original visual creation\" protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation , France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992. [84] The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright. [85] As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use. [86] [87] The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: \"It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways [of which] we don't approve\". [88] SNTE made over €1 million from copyright fees in 2002. [89] However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower. [83] French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, [90] a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower. Taller structures The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. [91] The tower has lost its standing both as the world's tallest structure and the world's tallest lattice tower but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France. Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower Further information: List of tallest towers in the world and Observation deck Name Pinnacle height Year Country Town Remarks Tokyo Skytree 634 m (2,080 ft) 2011 Japan Tokyo Kiev TV Tower 385 m (1,263 ft) 1973 Ukraine Kiev Dragon Tower 336 m (1,102 ft) 2000 China Harbin Tokyo Tower 333 m (1,093 ft) 1958 Japan Tokyo Structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower Further information: List of tallest structures in France Name Pinnacle height Year Structure type Town Remarks Longwave transmitter Allouis 350 m (1,150 ft) 1974 Guyed mast Allouis HWU transmitter 350 m (1,150 ft) ? Guyed mast Rosnay Military VLF transmitter; multiple masts Viaduc de Millau 343 m (1,125 ft) 2004 Bridge pillar Millau TV Mast Niort-Maisonnay 330 m (1,080 ft) 1978 Guyed mast Niort Transmitter Le Mans-Mayet 342 m (1,122 ft) 1993 Guyed mast Mayet La Regine transmitter 330 m (1,080 ft) 1973 Guyed mast Saissac Military VLF transmitter Transmitter Roumoules 330 m (1,080 ft) 1974 Guyed mast Roumoules Spare transmission mast for longwave; insulated against ground See also Eiffel Tower in popular culture List of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region List of tallest buildings and structures in the world List of tallest freestanding structures in the world List of tallest towers in the world Eiffel Tower , 1909-1928 painting series by Robert Delaunay Paris portal References ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Eiffel Tower\" . CTBUH Skyscraper Database . ^ Jump up to: a b Eiffel Tower at Emporis ^ Jump up to: a b c SETE. \"The Eiffel Tower at a glance\" . Official Eiffel Tower website . 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The New York Times . 22 November 1913. p. 1. ^ Jump up to: a b Steve Schlackman (16 November 2014). \"Do night photos of the Eiffel Tower violate copyright?\" . Art Law Journal . Retrieved 15 April 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Cour de cassation 3 mars 1992, Jus Luminum n°J523975\" (in French). Jus Luminum. Archived from the original on 16 November 2009. Jump up ^ Jimmy Wales (3 July 2015). \"If you want to keep sharing photos for free, read this\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 15 April 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Eiffel Tower image rights\" . Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel. Jump up ^ Hugh Morris (24 June 2015). \"Freedom of panorama: EU proposal could mean holiday snaps breach copyright\" . The Telegraph . Retrieved 15 April 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Eiffel Tower: Repossessed\" . Fast Company. 2 February 2005 . Retrieved 15 April 2016 . Jump up ^ James Arnold (16 May 2003). \"Are things looking up for the Eiffel Tower?\" . BBC News . Retrieved 16 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Notions Fondamentales Du Droit D'auteur (in French). World Intellectual Property Organization. 2002. p. 277. ISBN 978-92-805-1013-3 . La représentation d'une œuvre située dans un lieu public n'est licite que lorsqu'elle est accessoire par rapport au sujet principal représenté ou traité Jump up ^ \"Chrysler Building - Piercing the Sky\" . CBS Forum . Retrieved May 21, 2017 . Bibliography Chanson, Hubert (2009). \"Hydraulic engineering legends Listed on the Eiffel Tower\". In Jerry R. Rogers. Great Rivers History: Proceedings and Invited Papers for the EWRI Congress and Great Rivers History Symposium . American Society of Civil Engineers. ISBN 978-0-7844-1032-5 . Frémy, Dominique (1989). Quid de la tour Eiffel . R. Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-06488-7 . The Engineer: The Paris Exhibition . XLVII. London: Office for Advertisements and Publication. 3 May 1889. Harriss, Joseph (1975). The Eiffel Tower: Symbol of an Age . London: Paul Elek. ISBN 0236400363 . Harvie, David I. (2006). Eiffel: The Genius Who Reinvented Himself . Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-3309-7 . Jonnes, Jill (2009). Eiffel's Tower: The Thrilling Story Behind Paris's Beloved Monument … . Penguin. ISBN 978-1-101-05251-8 . Loyrette, Henri (1985). Eiffel, un Ingenieur et Son Oeuvre . Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-0631-7 . Musée d'Orsay (1989). 1889: la Tour Eiffel et l'Exposition Universelle . Editions de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Ministère de la Culture, de la Communication, des Grands Travaux et du Bicentenaire. ISBN 978-2-7118-2244-7 . Vogel, Robert M. (1961). \"Elevator Systems of the Eiffel Tower, 1889\" . United States National Museum Bulletin . Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 228 : 20–21. Watson, William (1892). Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture . Washington, D.C.: Government Publishing Office. 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{ "text": "Vouching (financial auditing) - Wikipedia Vouching (financial auditing) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search [ hide ] This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs more links to other articles to help integrate it into the encyclopedia . Please help improve this article by adding links that are relevant to the context within the existing text. (August 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Vouching is a technical term, which refers to the inspection of documentary evidence supporting and substantiating a transaction, by an auditor. It is the essence of Auditing [1] It is the practice followed in an audit, with the objective of establishing the authenticity of the transactions recorded in the primary books of account. It essentially consists of verifying a transaction recorded in the books of account with the relevant documentary evidence and the authority on the basis of which the entry has been made; also confirming that the amount mentioned in the voucher has been posted to an appropriate account which would disclose the nature of the transaction on its inclusion in the final statements of account. Vouching does not include valuation. Vouching can be described as the essence or backbone of auditing. The success of an audit depends on the thoroughness with which vouching is done. After entering in all vouchers, only then can auditing start. Vouching is defined as the \"verification of entries in the books of account by examination of documentary evidence or vouchers, such as invoices, debit and credit notes, statements, receipts, etc. The object of vouching is to establish that the transactions recorded in the books of accounts are (1) in order and have been properly authorized and (2) are correctly recorded. “Simple routine checking cannot establish the same accuracy that vouching can. In routine checking, entries recorded in the books only show what information the bookkeeper chooses to disclose, however these entries can be fictitious without any vouching or vouchers. By using a vouching or a voucher system a company will have concrete and solid documentation and evidence of expenses, capital, and written proof in audits. Vouching is the essence or backbone of auditing because when performing an audit, an auditor must have proof of all transactions. Without the proof provided by vouching, the claims provided by the auditor are just that, only claims. In most cases, hard to detect frauds can only be discovered through the use of vouching. This means that the auditor must conduct vouching with great importance, if not, he can be charged with negligence which happened in the case of Armitage v. Brewer and Knott. Through this case, the importance of vouching was realized. In this case, the auditors were found to be guilty on negligence, because the auditors did not display enough reasonable care and skill in vouching the wage sheets and ended up failing to detect fraud in manipulation of these wage records and cash vouchers. When delivering the decision the Judge stated that \"It was clear that a good many documents were suspicious on either face and called for Inquiry\". It was declared that it was essential that due care and attention are to be given to vouching in auditing. See also [ edit ] Financial audit References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Auditing and Assurance Vol.1 . India: The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. 2011. p. 5.1. ISBN 978-81-8441-135-5 . 1. http://www.caclubindia.com/articles/vouching-is-the-essence-of-auditing-3563.asp#.ULexzKz7KYY 2. http://www.enotes.com/business/q-and-a/vouching-said-back-bone-auditing-substantiate-132595 3. Auditing: Principles and Practice By: Ravinder Kumar, Virender Sharma Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vouching_(financial_auditing)&oldid=768214826 \" Categories : Auditing terms Hidden categories: Articles with too few wikilinks from August 2014 All articles with too few wikilinks Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from August 2014 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles needing additional references from November 2012 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 2 March 2017, at 13:53. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "Vouching (financial auditing)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Vouching_(financial_auditing)&amp;oldid=768214826" }

{ "text": "Fork in the road (metaphor) - Wikipedia Fork in the road (metaphor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (December 2006) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Knight at the Crossroads , Viktor Vasnetsov A fork in the road is a metaphor , based on a literal expression , for a deciding moment in life or history when a major choice of options is required. Compare \" crossing the Rubicon \". Examples [ edit ] There is a common motif in Russian folk tales , where a vityaz (Russian knight ) comes to a fork in the road and sees a menhir with an inscription that reads: \"If you ride to the left, you will lose your horse, if you ride to the right, you will lose your head\". The phrase appears in the Book of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 21:19–23 NRSV). \"Mortal, mark out two roads for the sword of the king of Babylon to come; both of them shall issue from the same land. And make a signpost, make it for a fork in the road leading to a city; mark out the road for the sword to come to Rabbah of the Ammonites or to Judah and to Jerusalem the fortified. A fork in the road is mused upon by Robert Frost in his poem \" The Road Not Taken \", which begins, \"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood...\" Malapropist extraordinare Yogi Berra 's saying \"When you come to a fork in the road, take it\" made the title of his book \"When You Come to a Fork in the Road, Take It!: Inspiration and Wisdom From One of Baseball's Greatest Heroes\". It is also depicted in the book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland where Alice came to a fork in the road and saw a chesire cat in the tree. The album cover of A Nice Pair includes a literal depiction of a fork in the road, a visual pun on the expression. See also [ edit ] Fork in the road (disambiguation) (for other meanings of Fork in the road) Crossroads (culture) Road junction References [ edit ] Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fork_in_the_road_(metaphor)&oldid=799992657 \" Categories : Metaphors referring to places Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2006 All articles lacking sources Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2017, at 01:08 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Fork in the road (metaphor)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Fork_in_the_road_(metaphor)&amp;oldid=799992657" }

{ "text": "Full House - Wikipedia Full House From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the American television series. For other uses, see Full House (disambiguation) . Full House Genre Sitcom Created by Jeff Franklin Starring John Stamos Bob Saget Dave Coulier Candace Cameron Jodie Sweetin Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen Lori Loughlin Andrea Barber Scott Weinger Blake and Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit Theme music composer Jesse Frederick Bennett Salvay Jeff Franklin Opening theme \"Everywhere You Look\", performed by Jesse Frederick Ending theme \"Everywhere You Look\" (instrumental) Composer(s) Jesse Frederick Bennett Salvay Country of origin United States Original language(s) English No. of seasons 8 No. of episodes 192 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer(s) Jeff Franklin Thomas L. Miller Robert L. Boyett Dennis Rinsler (1988–95) Marc Warren (1988–95) Producer(s) Don Van Atta James O'Keefe Bonnie Bogard Maier Camera setup Videotape ; Multi-camera Running time 21–25 minutes Production company(s) Jeff Franklin Productions Miller-Boyett Productions Lorimar-Telepictures (1987–88) Lorimar Television (1988–93) Warner Bros. Television (1993–95) Distributor Warner Bros. Television Distribution (1991–present) Release Original network ABC Picture format 480i ( 4:3 SDTV ) Original release September 22, 1987 ( 1987-09-22 ) – May 23, 1995 ( 1995-05-23 ) Chronology Followed by Fuller House (2016–present) Full House is an American sitcom created by Jeff Franklin for ABC . The show chronicles the events of widowed father, Danny Tanner, who enlists his brother-in-law and best friend to help raise his three daughters. It aired from September 22, 1987, to May 23, 1995, broadcasting eight seasons and 192 episodes. While never a critical favorite, the series was consistently in the Nielsen Top 30 (from 1988 onward) and gained even more popularity in syndicated reruns . [1] It has also had tie-in merchandise marketed, such as a series of paperback books. A sequel series, Fuller House , premiered on Netflix on February 26, 2016. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot summary 2 Main cast 3 Production 3.1 Casting 3.2 Taping 3.3 Theme song 4 Episodes 5 U.S. syndication 6 Critical reception 7 Reunions 7.1 Spin-off series 8 Other media 8.1 DVD releases 8.2 Book series 8.3 Russian adaptation 8.4 The Unauthorized Full House Story 9 Awards and nominations 10 References 11 External links Plot summary [ edit ] After his wife is killed in a car accident, news anchorman Danny Tanner recruits his brother-in-law Jesse Katsopolis (a rock musician) and best friend Joey Gladstone (who works as a stand-up comedian) to help raise his three young daughters: D.J. , Stephanie , and Michelle , in his San Francisco home. Over time, the three men as well as the children bond and become closer to one another. In season two, Danny is reassigned from his duties as sports anchor by his television station to become co-host of a local morning television show, Wake Up, San Francisco , and is teamed up with Nebraska native Rebecca Donaldson . Jesse and Becky eventually fall in love and get married in season four. In season five, Becky gives birth to twin sons, Nicky and Alex. Main cast [ edit ] Main article: List of Full House and Fuller House characters John Stamos as Jesse Katsopolis [note 1] Bob Saget as Danny Tanner Dave Coulier as Joey Gladstone Candace Cameron as D.J. Tanner Jodie Sweetin as Stephanie Tanner Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen as Michelle Tanner Lori Loughlin as Rebecca Donaldson Katsopolis Andrea Barber as Kimmy Gibbler Scott Weinger as Steve Hale Blake and Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit as Nicky and Alex Katsopolis Jump up ^ The character's surname was changed from \"Cochran\" to \"Katsopolis\" after the first season ended. Production [ edit ] Casting [ edit ] John Posey as Danny Tanner in the pilot (shown with Sweetin and Cameron as Stephanie and D.J.) The producers' first choice to play the character of Danny Tanner was Bob Saget. Saget was not available to appear in the pilot due to his commitment as an on-air contributor to CBS 's The Morning Program . The producers instead cast actor John Posey to play Danny. Posey only appeared in the unaired pilot (which is included on the DVD release of Season 1). John Stamos's character was originally named Jesse Cochran; Stamos reportedly wanted his character to better reflect his Greek heritage, so producers decided to change the character's surname to Katsopolis (beginning with season two). To comply with child labor laws , twins Ashley and Mary-Kate Olsen were cast to alternate in the role of Michelle during tapings. The girls were jointly credited as \"Mary Kate Ashley Olsen\" in seasons two through seven because the producers did not want audiences to know that the Michelle character was played by twins. (In an occasional running gag , both twins would occasionally appear together in fantasy sequences .) All six of the original cast members remained with the show through its entire eight-year run, with five characters added to the cast along the way. Kimmy Gibbler, a recurring character in seasons one through four, was upgraded to a regular in season five. Rebecca Donaldson (later Katsopolis) originally appeared for six episodes in season two as Danny's co-host on Wake Up, San Francisco ; producers decided to expand her role and made her a regular the following season. Nicky and Alex Katsopolis, the twin sons of Jesse and Rebecca, made their debut in season five. As babies, the children were played by Daniel and Kevin Renteria, and in season six, the roles of the twins were succeeded by Blake and Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit. The last character added was Steve Hale, who was D.J.'s boyfriend in seasons six and seven. He returned in the second half of the series finale after Kimmy set him up with D.J. to be her date for the senior prom. He was played by Scott Weinger. Comet, the family dog, was played by a golden retriever named Buddy . Buddy later appeared in the original Air Bud (1997) before dying of lung cancer at the age of nine. [2] Taping [ edit ] The series was created by Jeff Franklin and executive produced by Franklin, along with Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett. The series was produced by Jeff Franklin Productions and Miller-Boyett Productions , in association with Lorimar-Telepictures (1987–88), Lorimar Television (1988–93), and then by Warner Bros. Television (1993–95) after Lorimar was folded into Warner Bros.'s existing television production division. Although the series was set in San Francisco , the sitcom itself was taped at the Warner Bros. Studios in Los Angeles. Outside of certain excerpts in the opening title sequences, the only episode to have actually been taped in San Francisco was the first episode of season eight, \"Comet's Excellent Adventure\". There were also a few episodes which were filmed on-location elsewhere, most notably Hawaii in the season three premiere \"Tanner's Island\", and at Walt Disney World for the two-part sixth-season finale \"The House Meets the Mouse\". The series experienced heavy turnover with its writing staff throughout its run, the first season in particular had at least three writing staff changes with Lenny Ripps (who remained with the show until the early part of the fourth season, by then serving as a creative consultant) and Russell Marcus being the only writers surviving the changes through the entire season. Show creator and executive producer Jeff Franklin was the only writer to remain with the series throughout its entire eight-season run (Franklin also wrote and directed several episodes during the first five seasons). Marc Warren and Dennis Rinsler joined the series' writing staff in the second season as producers and remained with the show until its 1995 cancellation; Warren and Rinsler took over as head writers by season five and assumed showrunning duties as executive producers for the sixth season to allow Franklin to focus on Hangin' With Mr. Cooper ( Full House served as Cooper ' s lead-in when the former aired on Tuesday nights during the 1992–93 season ). Theme song [ edit ] The show's theme song , \"Everywhere You Look\", was performed by Jesse Frederick , who co-wrote the song with writing partner Bennett Salvay and series creator Jeff Franklin. Various instrumental versions of the theme song were used in the closing credits; the version used during seasons three through eight was also used in the opening credits in some early syndication runs, although the song was almost always truncated to the chorus for broadcast. Seasons one through five used a longer version of the theme song. In syndicated airings, the line \"you miss your old familiar friends, but waiting just around the bend\" replaced the lines starting with \"how did I get delivered here, somebody tell me please...\" (after ABC Family acquired the series in 2003, it became the first television outlet to air the long versions of the theme since the series' ABC run, which were included only in select episodes from the first five seasons, whereas the full version was used in most episodes during those seasons). Episodes [ edit ] Main article: List of Full House episodes Full House originally aired on Fridays from September 1987 to August 1991, which spanned the show's first four seasons, and later became the flagship program of ABC's newly launched TGIF block in September 1989. The show was briefly moved to Tuesdays during the 1987–88 season and then aired twice a week on Tuesdays and Fridays for a few months in order to help the series build an audience. It remained on Fridays permanently for the next three seasons, as the show's ratings increased. Full House was moved to Tuesdays full-time for season five and remained there until the series ended in 1995. While the show's first season was not very successful, mostly because it was a new series placed in an 8 p.m. Eastern timeslot (most freshman series start out in protected time slots preceded by successful lead-ins), the show quickly became popular during its second season as it was placed immediately following the established hit show Perfect Strangers (which was also produced by Tom Miller and Bob Boyett). From season three onwards, it was ranked among Nielsen 's Top 30 shows (a ratings increase which allowed the series to move back to Fridays at 8 p.m.). [3] By the fourth season, the series jumped to the Top 20 and remained there until the seventh season (the series peaked at the top ten during seasons five and six). [4] In 1995, despite the fact the show was still rated in the top 25, ABC announced that it was canceling the show after eight seasons due to the increasing costs of producing the series. [ citation needed ] The one-hour series finale was watched by 24.3 million viewers , ranking No. 7 for the week and attracting a 14.6 household rating and a 25 percent audience share. [ citation needed ] Season Episodes Originally aired Nielsen ratings [5] First aired Last aired Rank Rating 1 22 September 22, 1987 ( 1987-09-22 ) May 6, 1988 ( 1988-05-06 ) N/A N/A 2 22 October 14, 1988 ( 1988-10-14 ) May 5, 1989 ( 1989-05-05 ) N/A N/A 3 24 September 22, 1989 ( 1989-09-22 ) May 4, 1990 ( 1990-05-04 ) 22 15.3 (Tied with Designing Women ) 4 26 September 21, 1990 ( 1990-09-21 ) May 3, 1991 ( 1991-05-03 ) 14 15.9 5 26 September 17, 1991 ( 1991-09-17 ) May 12, 1992 ( 1992-05-12 ) 7 17.0 6 24 September 22, 1992 ( 1992-09-22 ) May 18, 1993 ( 1993-05-18 ) 10 15.8 7 24 September 14, 1993 ( 1993-09-14 ) May 17, 1994 ( 1994-05-17 ) 16 14.2 8 24 September 27, 1994 ( 1994-09-27 ) May 23, 1995 ( 1995-05-23 ) 25 12.4 Broadcast History [6] September 1987, ABC Tuesday 8:30–9:00 September 1987–February 1988, ABC Friday 8:00–8:30 March 1988–July 1989, ABC Friday 8:30–9:00 July 1988–September 1988, ABC Tuesday 8:30–9:00 August 1989–August 1991, ABC Friday 8:00–8:30 August 1991–August 1995, ABC Tuesday 8:00–8:30 U.S. syndication [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Warner Bros. Television Distribution handles the domestic and international syndication rights to the series. During the summer of 1991, reruns of the early seasons began airing in a daily daytime strip on NBC. [7] Starting in September 1991, Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution began distributing Full House for broadcast in off-network syndication and was syndicated on various local stations nationwide until 2003. In 1998, Atlanta -based cable superstation TBS (which became a general entertainment cable channel in October 2007) and Chicago-based superstation WGN (which carried the series locally in the Chicago market via WGN-TV ) obtained cable rights to the series and aired the show every weekday until 2002 when it was dropped from the schedules of both networks; the series returned to TBS on December 9, 2013. In September 2003, ABC Family acquired the series; as a result, ABC Family became the first network since ABC to air the original extended version of the theme song, featured in select episodes of the first five seasons; by the time ABC Family's rights to the series expired in December 2013, the channel ran the closing credits over the last 30 seconds of the final scene, albeit at the bottom of the screen (it was previously played over the channel's genericized credit sequence design). In other broadcast and cable syndication runs (as well as most other episodes aired on ABC Family), a shortened version of the main theme with alternate lyrics is used for all episodes of the first five seasons; however, an altered version of the opening credits for seasons six and seven is used, removing the lyric \"Whatever happened to predictability; the milkman, the paperboy, evenin' TV\" that was kept in the long version of the theme during those seasons (the season eight title sequence airs as is). Nick at Nite acquired the series in 2003, and aired it from October 6 of that year until April 10, 2009; several months later on August 31, 2009, it moved to sister channel The N and continued to air on that channel after its September 28, 2009, rebrand as TeenNick , where it remained until October 24, 2010. The following day on October 25, the series returned to Nick at Nite after a one-year absence, airing in the hour leading into the start of Nickelodeon 's broadcast day. Soon after, though, it was dropped from Nick at Nite again, returning to TeenNick until September 2012, where it was then transferred back to Nick at Nite. When NickSplat lost an hour of broadcast, the series returned to TeenNick again on October 2, 2017. In 2014, episodes have averaged 1.5 million viewers on Nick at Nite , which is up 7 percent from 2013 and a 0.4 rating in the key 18–49 demographic, up 8 percent from 2013. [8] On September 29, 2017, Hulu acquired the streaming rights to Full House along with fellow Warner Bros. TV productions Family Matters , Hangin' with Mr. Cooper , Perfect Strangers and Step by Step in addition to Disney-ABC TV productions Boy Meets World , Dinosaurs and Home Improvement . [9] Critical reception [ edit ] This section may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints . Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page . (January 2017) Despite the show's popularity, critical acclaim by viewers, and cult following, critics' reviews for Full House were by most accounts mediocre, [10] particularly in its early years but became more positive in later years. [11] The first season holds an aggregate score of 31/100 (\"Generally unfavorable reviews\") on Metacritic . [12] In Slate , Willa Paskin referred to the series as \"a hackneyed and saccharine family sitcom\". [13] Isaac Feldberg opined that it was \"archetypally average, hiding behind a ubiquitous laugh track and obnoxiously on-the-nose life lessons.\" [14] Reunions [ edit ] During Bob Saget's final season as host of America's Funniest Home Videos , six other Full House cast alumni (John Stamos, Dave Coulier, Candace Cameron, Jodie Sweetin, Andrea Barber, and Lori Loughlin) reunited on the May 9, 1997, episode (the episode which preceded Saget's final episode as host of that series). [15] In a December 2008 news story, [16] it was reported that John Stamos was planning a reunion movie. [17] This idea was quickly withdrawn, because reportedly most of the cast was not interested. [18] In 2009, Stamos announced that a feature film based on the show was still planned. Stamos told The New York Daily News , \"I'm working on a movie idea, but it wouldn't be us playing us. I'm not 100% sure, but it would probably take place in the first few years.\" Stamos posited Steve Carell and Tracy Morgan for the roles of Danny and Joey respectively. [19] In 2012, eight of the Full House cast members reunited in Los Angeles for their 25th anniversary. Publicists for Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen said that they \"weren't able to attend, given their work schedules.\" [20] On July 19, 2013, the original Jesse and the Rippers (the band which Jesse Katsopolis served as frontman, until he was voted out in season 8) reunited on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . The group performed a medley of covers including the Beach Boys ' \" Forever ,\" Elvis Presley 's \" Little Sister ,\" \" Hippy Hippy Shake \", and ending with the Full House theme \"Everywhere You Look\". Bob Saget and Lori Loughlin made cameo appearances. [21] In January 2014, Saget, Stamos, and Coulier appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . They each reprised their characters, while Fallon dressed in child's pajamas in a bed framed by four gigantic pencils, similar to Michelle Tanner's bed from the show. Saget, Stamos, and Coulier said some of their famous catchphrases from the show, as well as singing \"The Teddy Bear\" song. [22] Stamos, Saget and Coulier also appeared together in a 2014 commercial for Dannon Oikos Greek Yogurt (for which Stamos serves as spokesperson) that debuted during Super Bowl XLVIII , days after their appearance on Late Night . [23] Spin-off series [ edit ] Main article: Fuller House (TV series) In August 2014, reports circulated that Warner Bros. Television was considering a series spin-off . [24] John Stamos, who has an ownership stake in the show, headed up the attempt to get the series back into production. [25] Netflix closed a deal to produce a 13-episode sequel series tentatively titled Fuller House , with many of the original series cast members reprising their roles. [26] Notably, Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen both declined to reprise the role of Michelle in the first season, [27] although the creators and producers said they could still possibly appear in future seasons. [28] [29] Stamos would guest star as well and serve as producer. [30] [31] Filming began on July 25, 2015. [32] Like the original series, the show is set in San Francisco . [33] The original series idea was focused on D.J., a veterinarian struggling to raise three boys after her firefighter husband, Tommy Fuller is killed in the line of duty; Stephanie, who is aspiring to become a musician; and Kimmy, who is a party planner and a single mother to a teenage daughter, Ramona. The show's premise follows one similar to the original series when Stephanie makes plans to put her career on hold for a while and move in with D.J. to help take care of her children. Almost immediately afterwards, Kimmy makes the same offer for her and Ramona to move in and help out. Netflix premiered the series on February 26, 2016, [34] with the premiere episode featuring a Tanner family reunion. [35] [36] As of September 22, 2017 there have been three seasons of the series. [37] Other media [ edit ] DVD releases [ edit ] Warner Home Video released all eight seasons of the series on DVD in Region 1 between 2005 and 2007. [38] A complete series box-set containing all 192 episodes was released on November 6, 2007. As of 2016, the complete series is available for purchase via online retailers such as Amazon . [39] Additionally, the first four seasons were also released on DVD in Region 2 and Region 4 . [40] Title Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 The Complete First Season February 8, 2005 2007 November 16, 2005 The Complete Second Season December 6, 2005 2007 April 5, 2006 The Complete Third Season April 4, 2006 2007 August 9, 2006 The Complete Fourth Season August 15, 2006 2007 September 5, 2007 The Complete Fifth Season December 12, 2006 N/A N/A The Complete Sixth Season March 27, 2007 N/A N/A The Complete Seventh Season August 7, 2007 N/A N/A The Complete Eighth Season November 6, 2007 N/A N/A The Complete Series November 6, 2007 N/A N/A Book series [ edit ] This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (October 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Books based on Full House are geared toward children primarily between the ages of 8 and 14. Warner Bros., which holds the rights to Full House and its associated characters, would not permit others to use their characters, and selected who could write books based on the television series. The books are based on the Silhouette romance novels by Mills & Boon . Full House Michelle #7: Summer Rhapsody is a Silhouette Special Edition #75 by Nancy John and Laura O'Neil in February 1983. The series includes the following: Full House Stephanie : These 33 books were written from the point of view of the Tanners' middle daughter, Stephanie Tanner. They take place with Stephanie in a different middle school, likely because of a slightly different redistricting plan compared to the one mentioned in season seven's \"Fast Friends\". She has different best friends as well, Allie Taylor and Darcy Powell. Though these are book creations, she has known Allie since kindergarten , and there are several places in the first five seasons of Full House where fans think an unnamed extra could be Allie. This series begins with Stephanie being pressured to join a clique called the Flamingos, by completing a series of dares. She almost does the last one, though she is not sure if she wants to before D.J. catches her trying to steal Danny's phone card. Stephanie explains tearfully what was happening, and D.J. helps her to understand what the Flamingos were really up to: they wanted to use the phone card to call their boyfriends. Stephanie and the Flamingos become fierce rivals. Hip Hop Til You Drop , Two for One Christmas Fun , and Ten Ways to Wreck a Date are the most popular. Full House Michelle : These 40 stories are told from Michelle's point of view. The first 27 feature more of her, and the other Tanners', home life than others, though some focus on events at school, whereas the last 14, the \"Michelle and Friends\" series, focuses mostly on Michelle and her classmates. Unlike Stephanie, Michelle goes to the same elementary school but is in a different class. Two stories were translated and published in Japan in February 2007. Super special My Best Friend is a Movie Star came out in September 1996, and along with The Substitute Teacher and How to be Cool are the most popular. Full House Sisters : These 14 books focus on Michelle and Stephanie's friendship and comical situations that occur between them. The sisters often alternate points of view in the story. Full House: Dear Michelle : These four books were published several years after the others stopped being produced. They take place with Michelle in the third grade, where she writes an advice column for her class paper. Club Stephanie : 1997-2001 revival series with the Sisters series. Sweetin is younger than Nickelodeon's Larisa Oleynik in Alex, You're Glowing and Irene Ng in Hot Rock . Russian adaptation [ edit ] In 2006, Full House was one of a group of Warner Brothers properties licensed to Moscow-based network STS for adaptation to Russian. The show, Topsy-Turvy House ( ru:Дом кувырком ) followed the plots of the American version with changes to accommodate cultural differences. It ran for two seasons, beginning in 2009. [41] [42] The Unauthorized Full House Story [ edit ] On August 22, 2015, a television movie called The Unauthorized Full House Story was first released by Lifetime . It tells the behind-the-scenes story of the series. [43] Awards and nominations [ edit ] This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (February 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Young Artist Awards Year Category Nominee(s) Result 1989 Best Young Actress Under Ten Years of Age in Television or Motion Pictures Jodie Sweetin Nominated The Most Promising New Fall Television Series Nominated 1990 Best Young Actor/Actress Under Five Years of Age Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen Won Best Family Television Series Nominated Best Young Actress Starring in a Television Comedy Series Candace Cameron Nominated Young Artist Award for Outstanding Young Comedienne in a Television Series Jodie Sweetin Nominated 1991 Best Young Actress Starring in a Television Series Jodie Sweetin Nominated Best Young Actress Supporting Role in a Television Series Andrea Barber Won Outstanding Performance by an Actress Under Nine Years of Age Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen Won Young Artist Award Best Young Actress Starring in a Television Series Candace Cameron Nominated 1992 Best Young Actress Supporting or Recurring Role for a TV Series Andrea Barber Won Young Artist Award Best Young Actress Starring in a Television Series Candace Cameron Nominated Outstanding Young Comedienne in a Television Series Jodie Sweetin Nominated 1993 Exceptional Performance by a Young Actress Under Ten Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen Won Best Young Actress Co-starring in a Television Series Andrea Barber Nominated Exceptional Performance by a Young Actor Under Ten Tahj Mowry Nominated Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in a Television Series Nominated 1994 Best Young Actress Starring in a Television Series Candace Cameron Nominated Outstanding Young Comedienne in a Television Series Jodie Sweetin Nominated Best Young Actress Co-starring in a Television Series Andrea Barber Nominated Best Young Actor Guest-starring in a Television Series R. J. Williams Nominated 1995 Best Youth Actor Guest-starring in a Television Show J. D. Daniels Nominated 1996 Best Youth Comedienne in a TV Show Andrea Barber Nominated References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Hale, Buddy. Everywhere You Look: The Unofficial Guide to Full House . Lulu.com. ISBN 9781329209657 . Jump up ^ \"Buddy the Dog: Comet\" . Archived from the original on February 27, 2014 . Retrieved June 27, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Top Rated Programs - 1985-1990\" . chez.com . Jump up ^ \"Top Rated Programs - 1990-1995\" . chez.com . Jump up ^ Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle (2007). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present (Ninth Edition) . Ballantine Books. p. 1692-1694. ISBN 978-0-345-49773-4 . Jump up ^ Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle (2007). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present (Ninth Edition) . Ballantine Books. p. 511. ISBN 978-0-345-49773-4 . Jump up ^ \"nbc_day\" . curtalliaume.com . Archived from the original on 2002-04-09. Jump up ^ \" ' Full House' cast and producers mulling a revival\" . FoxNews . August 27, 2014 . Retrieved October 10, 2014 . Jump up ^ Hatchett, Keisha (September 29, 2017). \"This Is Not a Drill: Boy Meets World Is Now On Hulu\" . TVGuide.com . Retrieved October 28, 2017 . Jump up ^ Tassi, Paul (February 29, 2016). \"I Want To Hate 'Fuller House,' But I Just Can't\" . Forbes . Retrieved January 12, 2017 . \"By most critical accounts, the original Full House was a pretty bad show, even by ‘90s sitcom standards.\" Jump up ^ February 25, 2016. \"Have Mercy: Full House Creator Spills 9 Shocking Secrets\" . Retrieved January 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Full House - Season 1 Reviews\" . Metacritic . Retrieved January 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Paskin, Willa (February 24, 2016). \"Fuller House on Netflix, reviewed\" . Slate . Retrieved January 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ Feldberg, Isaac (February 25, 2016). \" ' Fuller House', Like 'Full House', Isn't Very Good\" . The Boston Globe . Retrieved January 12, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Full House invades America's Funniest Home Videos - 5/9/97\" . sweetin.com . Jump up ^ \"John Stamos Planning A 'Full House' Remake?\" . starpulse.com. WENN . December 4, 2008. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011 . Retrieved 2011-01-18 . Jump up ^ Wieselman, Jarett (2009-07-13). \"A 'Full House' Remake, Original Recipe?\" . New York Post . Archived from the original ( XHTML ) on 2011-10-13 . Retrieved 2011-01-18 . Jump up ^ Kristin Dos Santos (2008-12-11). \"Full House Remake \"Completely Dead \" \" . Watch with Kristin . E! Online . Retrieved 2009-01-21 . Jump up ^ \"ROLL CALL: John Stamos Working On 'Full House' Movie\" . NBC Bay Area News . KNTV San Francisco. Access Hollywood . 2009-06-05 . Retrieved 2014-03-04 . Jump up ^ Krumboltz, Mike. \"A 'Full House' reunion\" . Yahoo! Inc . Retrieved 2 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Jesse & The Rippers Reunite (Late Night with Jimmy Fallon) on YouTube Jump up ^ Zakarin, Jordan (January 30, 2014). \"The Men Of \"Full House\" Reunited To Help Jimmy Fallon With His Nightmares\" . Buzzfeed . Retrieved January 30, 2014 . Jump up ^ Super Bowl 2014 ads: \"Full House\" reunion for Dannon Oikos yogurt , The Washington Post , January 23, 2014. Jump up ^ \"PEOPLE Takes You on the Set of Fuller House\" . Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael. \"Full House Reunion Series Fuller House Nears 13-Episode Netflix Order\" . TVLine . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Spangler, Todd. \" ' Full House' to Return for New Season on Netflix: Report\" . Variety . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The Olsen Twins Aren't Returning for the Full House Revival\" . Time . Retrieved May 23, 2015 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wagmeister (January 7, 2016). \" ' Full House' Creator Hopeful for Olsen Twins' Return in Future 'Fuller House' Seasons\" . Variety . Retrieved April 18, 2016 . Jump up ^ Randee Dawn (March 3, 2016). \"Olsen twins on 2nd season of 'Fuller House'? Why John Stamos has 'a good feeling ' \" . Today . Retrieved April 18, 2016 . Jump up ^ Whitney Friedlander (2015-05-29). \"Bob Saget in 'Fuller House': Danny Tanner in 'Full House' Reboot\" . Variety . Retrieved 2015-06-13 . Jump up ^ Friedlander, Whitney (2015-05-07). \" ' Full House' Reboot: Dave Coulier Joins 'Fuller House' on Netflix\" . Variety . Retrieved 2015-06-13 . Jump up ^ Lowe, Kinsey (2015-07-25). \" ' Fuller House' Call: Reunion Cast Gathers For First Taping\" . deadline.com . Retrieved 2015-07-28 . Jump up ^ Stern, Marlow (May 7, 2015). \"D.J. Tanner Takes Us Into 'Fuller House': Candace Cameron Bure on Netflix's 'Full House' Spinoff\" . The Daily Beast . Retrieved July 17, 2015 . Jump up ^ Gennis, Sadie (December 17, 2015). \"Fuller House Gets First Teaser, Premiere Date\" . TVGuide.com . Retrieved December 17, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"The \"Full House\" Spinoff Is Officially Coming To Netflix In 2016\" . BuzzFeed . Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (April 20, 2015). \"Fuller House Officially Snags 13-Episode Order at Netflix — Get Details on the Cast and (Widow?!) Storyline\" . TVLine.com . Retrieved April 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Fuller House Season 3 Netflix Release Date\" . Jump up ^ \"Full House (1987)\" . Releases for Full House . TVShowsOnDVD.com . 2011 . Retrieved 2011-01-18 . Jump up ^ \"Warner Home Video Releases Full House: The Complete Eighth Season and Full House: The Complete Series Collection on DVD November 6\" (Press release). Warner Home Video . 2007-07-19 . Retrieved 2011-01-18 . Jump up ^ \"Best Matches\" . Results from the title search for \"Full House\" . Australia: dvd orchard. 2010 . Retrieved 2011-01-18 . Jump up ^ Brennan, Steve (March 10, 2006). \"Warner Bros. opens up scripted formats in Russia\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Associated Press . Retrieved September 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ Beckerman, Marty (May 14, 2015). \"The Untold Story Of The Bonkers 'Full House' Russian Remake\" . MTV News . Retrieved September 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Lifetime's 'Unauthorized Full House Story' Cast Photo Causes Twitter Backlash\" . June 4, 2015. External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Full House Full House on IMDb Full House at TV.com [ show ] v t e Full House Characters Michelle Tanner Episodes Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Related articles Fuller House episodes [ show ] v t e Miller-Boyett Productions Miller-Milkis Productions TV series Petrocelli (1974–76) Happy Days (1974–84) 1 Laverne & Shirley (1976–83) 1 Blansky's Beauties (1977) Mork & Mindy (1978–82) 1 Makin' It (1979) Out of the Blue (1979) $weepstake$ (1979) Angie (1979–80) Films The Heist (1972) The Weekend Nun (1972) Silver Streak (1976) Walkin' Walter (1977) Foul Play (1978) Miller-Milkis-Boyett Productions TV series Goodtime Girls (1980) Bosom Buddies (1980–82) Foul Play (1981) Joanie Loves Chachi (1982–83) Films The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982) Miller-Boyett Productions The Hogan Family (1986–91) Perfect Strangers (1986–93) Full House (1987–95) Family Matters (1989–98) The Family Man (1990–91) Going Places (1990–91) Step by Step (1991–98) Getting By (1993–94) On Our Own (1994–95) Fuller House (2016) Miller-Boyett-Warren Productions Meego (1997) Two of a Kind (1998–99) Robert L. Boyett Productions Partners (2014) See also Charles Fox Jesse Frederick Bickley-Warren Productions Paramount Television CBS Paramount Television CBS Television Studios Lorimar Television Warner Bros. Television 1 This series began being produced under the Miller-Milkis-Boyett banner beginning with the 1980–81 television season. 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(1991) Step By Step (1991–1997) Billy (1992) Camp Wilder (1992–1993) Where I Live (1993) Getting By (1993) Home Free (1993) Hangin' with Mr. Cooper (1993–1996) Boy Meets World (1993–2000) Sister, Sister (1994–1995) On Our Own (1994–1995) Muppets Tonight (1996) Aliens in the Family (1996) Clueless (1996–1997) Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996–2000) Teen Angel (1997–1998) You Wish (1997–1998) Two of a Kind (1998–1999) Brother's Keeper (1998–1999) The Hughleys (1999–2000) Odd Man Out (1999–2000) 2000 George Lopez (2003–2004) Life with Bonnie (2003–2004) Hope & Faith (2003–2005) Married to the Kellys (2003–2004) The Big House (2004) 8 Simple Rules (2004–2005) Complete Savages (2004–2005) Less than Perfect (2004–2005) 1980s portal 1990s portal Comedy portal San Francisco Bay Area portal Television in the United States portal Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Full_House&oldid=811591096 \" Categories : Full House 1980s American comedy television series 1990s American comedy television series 1987 American television series debuts 1995 American television series endings American Broadcasting Company network shows American television sitcoms English-language television programs Television series about families Television series about friendship Television series about sisters Television series about show business Television series by Lorimar Television Television series by Warner Bros. 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{ "text": "List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade - Wikipedia List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This is a listing of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade. A decade for these achievements is defined as ten-year periods from years ending in '0' through years ending in '9'. Since the Hot 100 was first published in Billboard magazine in the issue dated August 4, 1958, the first decade of chart achievements ranges from that first issue through the last issue of 1969. Contents [ hide ] 1 2010s 1.1 Artists by total number-one singles 1.2 Artists by total weeks at number one 1.3 Albums by total number one singles 1.4 Songs by total weeks at number one 2 2000s 2.1 Artists by total number-one singles 2.2 Artists by total weeks at number one 2.3 Top 10 songs 2.4 Songs by total weeks at number one 3 1990s 3.1 Artists by total number-one singles 3.2 Artists by total weeks at number one 3.3 Top 10 songs 3.4 Songs by total weeks at number one 4 1980s 4.1 Artists by total number-one singles 4.2 Artists by total weeks at number one 4.3 Top 10 songs 4.4 Songs by total weeks at number one 5 1970s 5.1 Artists by total number-one singles 5.2 Artists by total weeks at number one 5.3 Top 10 songs 5.4 Songs by total weeks at number one 6 1958-1969 6.1 Artists by total number-one singles 6.2 Artists by total weeks at number one 6.3 Top 10 songs 6.4 Songs by total weeks at number one 7 See also 8 References 2010s [ edit ] Rihanna so far has the most songs atop the Hot 100 , with nine, during the 2010s. Artists by total number-one singles [ edit ] The following artists achieved three or more number-one singles during the 2010s to date. A number of artists had number-one singles on their own as well as part of a collaboration. Note: Artists with an equal number of number-one singles are ordered chronologically. Artist Number-one singles Rihanna 9 Katy Perry 8 Bruno Mars 7 Justin Bieber 5 Taylor Swift Adele 4 Eminem 3 Kesha Drake The Weeknd Note: Rapper will.i.am has had two number-one singles during the 2010s as part of The Black Eyed Peas and as a featured solo artist on Usher 's \" OMG \", but both instances are counted separately. Note: Singer Nate Ruess has had two number-one singles during the 2010s as part of the band Fun and as a featured solo artist on Pink 's \" Just Give Me a Reason \", but both instances are counted separately. Note: Rapper Quavo has had two number-one singles during the 2010s as part of Migos and as a featured solo artist on DJ Khaled 's \" I'm The One \", but both instances are counted separately. Artists by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following artists topped the Hot 100 for the highest cumulative number of weeks during the 2010s, so far. Some totals include, in part or whole, weeks spent at number one as part of a collaboration. Note: Artists with an equal number of weeks are ordered chronologically. Artist Weeks at number one Rihanna 41 Bruno Mars 32 Katy Perry 26 Adele 24 Justin Bieber 23 Pharrell Williams 22 Drake 20 Taylor Swift 18 Luis Fonsi 16 Daddy Yankee Albums by total number one singles [ edit ] Album Artist Number-one singles Teenage Dream Katy Perry 5 Loud Rihanna 3 21 Adele 1989 Taylor Swift Purpose Justin Bieber Recovery Eminem 2 Doo-Wops & Hooligans Bruno Mars Sorry for Party Rocking LMFAO Unorthodox Jukebox Bruno Mars The Heist Macklemore & Ryan Lewis Prism Katy Perry Beauty Behind the Madness The Weeknd Source: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Songs by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following songs topped the Hot 100 for the highest number of weeks during the 2010s, so far. Note: Songs with an equal number of weeks are ordered chronologically. Song Artist Weeks at number one \" Despacito \" Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber 16 \" Uptown Funk \" Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars 14 \" Blurred Lines \" Robin Thicke featuring T.I. and Pharrell 12 \" See You Again \" Wiz Khalifa featuring Charlie Puth \" Closer \" The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey \" Shape of You \" Ed Sheeran \" We Found Love \" Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris 10 \" Happy \" Pharrell Williams \" Hello \" Adele \" One Dance \" Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla 2000s [ edit ] The singer Usher had the largest number of singles on top of the Hot 100 during the 2000s (7 songs). Artists by total number-one singles [ edit ] The following artists achieved four or more number-one hits during the 2000s. A number of artists had number-one singles on their own as well as part of a collaboration. Artist Number-one singles Usher 7 Rihanna 5 Beyoncé Nelly 4 Ludacris Justin Timberlake Mariah Carey 50 Cent Alicia Keys Note: Singer Fergie had five number-one singles during the 2000s as a part of The Black Eyed Peas and as a solo artist, but both instances are counted separately. Note: Singer Beyoncé had eight number-one singles during the 2000s as a part of Destiny's Child and as a solo artist, but both instances are counted separately. Note: Singer Justin Timberlake had five number-one singles during the 2000s as a part of 'N Sync and as a solo artist, but both instances are counted separately. Artists by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following artists topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 2000s. Artist Weeks at number one Usher 41 Beyoncé 36 The Black Eyed Peas 26 Nelly 23 50 Cent 22 Alicia Keys Jay-Z 20 Mariah Carey 19 Rihanna Ludacris 17 Note: Singer Beyoncé spent 52 weeks at number one during the 2000s as a part of Destiny's Child and as a solo artist, but both instances are counted separately. Note: Singer Kelly Rowland spent 26 weeks at number one during the 2000s as a part of Destiny's Child and as a solo artist, but both instances are counted separately. Top 10 songs [ edit ] The following ten songs were rated by Billboard as the best-selling and most-played songs in the US during the 2000s. [14] # Song Artist 1 \" We Belong Together \" Mariah Carey 2 \" Yeah! \" Usher featuring Lil Jon and Ludacris 3 \" Low \" Flo Rida featuring T-Pain 4 \" I Gotta Feeling \" The Black Eyed Peas 5 \" How You Remind Me \" Nickelback 6 \" No One \" Alicia Keys 7 \" Boom Boom Pow \" The Black Eyed Peas 8 \" Let Me Love You \" Mario 9 \" Gold Digger \" Kanye West featuring Jamie Foxx 10 \" Apologize \" Timbaland featuring OneRepublic Songs by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following songs topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 2000s. [15] Song Artist Weeks at number one \" We Belong Together \" Mariah Carey 14 \" I Gotta Feeling \" The Black Eyed Peas \" Lose Yourself \" Eminem 12 \" Yeah! \" Usher featuring Lil Jon and Ludacris \" Boom Boom Pow \" The Black Eyed Peas \" Independent Women \" Destiny's Child 11 \" Maria Maria \" Santana featuring The Product G&B 10 \" Foolish \" Ashanti \" Dilemma \" Nelly featuring Kelly Rowland \" Gold Digger \" Kanye West featuring Jamie Foxx \" Irreplaceable \" Beyoncé \" Low \" Flo Rida featuring T-Pain 1990s [ edit ] The song \" One Sweet Day \", performed by Mariah Carey and Boyz II Men , had the longest stay at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 during the 1990s (16 weeks). Carey also had the most number-one hits on the Hot 100 during the 1990s (14 songs). She spent a total of 60 weeks at the top of the Hot 100 in the 1990s, the most for any artist. Artists by total number-one singles [ edit ] The following artists achieved three or more number-one hits during the 1990s. [16] A number of artists had number-one singles on their own as well as part of a collaboration. Artist Number-one singles Mariah Carey 14 Janet Jackson 6 Boyz II Men 5 Madonna 4 Whitney Houston Celine Dion TLC Wilson Phillips 3 Paula Abdul Bryan Adams Puff Daddy Monica Artists by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following artists topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 1990s. Artist Weeks at number one Mariah Carey 60 Boyz II Men 50 Monica 22 Puff Daddy 19 Whitney Houston 18 Céline Dion TLC Janet Jackson 17 Bryan Adams 15 Elton John Brandy Top 10 songs [ edit ] The following ten songs were rated by Billboard as the best-selling and most-played songs in the US during the 1990s. [17] # Song Artist 1 \" How Do I Live \" LeAnn Rimes 2 \" Macarena (Bayside Boys Mix) \" Los Del Rio 3 \" Un-Break My Heart \" Toni Braxton 4 \" Foolish Games \"/\" You Were Meant For Me \" Jewel 5 \" (Everything I Do) I Do It for You \" Bryan Adams 6 \" I'll Make Love to You \" Boyz II Men 7 \" Too Close \" Next 8 \" One Sweet Day \" Mariah Carey and Boyz II Men 9 \" Truly Madly Deeply \" Savage Garden 10 \" Candle in the Wind 1997 \"/\" Something About the Way You Look Tonight \" Elton John Songs by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following songs topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 1990s. [15] Song Artist Weeks at number one \" One Sweet Day \" Mariah Carey and Boyz II Men 16 \" I Will Always Love You \" Whitney Houston 14 \" I'll Make Love to You \" Boyz II Men \" Macarena (Bayside Boys Mix) \" Los Del Rio \" Candle in the Wind '97 \"/ \" Something About the Way You Look Tonight \" Elton John \" End of the Road \" Boyz II Men 13 \" The Boy Is Mine \" Brandy and Monica \" Smooth \" Santana featuring Rob Thomas 12 \" I Swear \" All-4-One 11 \" Un-Break My Heart \" Toni Braxton \" I'll Be Missing You \" Puff Daddy and Faith Evans featuring 112 Note: \"Smooth\" by Santana featuring Rob Thomas topped the chart for 10 weeks in the 1990s, October 23 – December 25, 1999, with its final 2 weeks on January 1 and 8, 2000. 1980s [ edit ] Michael Jackson had the most number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100 during the 1980s with 9 songs. Jackson was also the artist with the most weeks spent at the top of the Hot 100 during the 1980s (27 weeks). Artists by total number-one singles [ edit ] The following artists achieved four or more number-one hits during the 1980s. [18] Artist Number-one singles Michael Jackson 9 Whitney Houston 7 Madonna Phil Collins Daryl Hall & John Oates 5 Lionel Richie George Michael Stevie Wonder 4 Bon Jovi Prince Artists by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following artists topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 1980s. Artist Weeks at number one Michael Jackson 27 Lionel Richie 21 Paul McCartney 16 George Michael Stevie Wonder 15 Madonna Phil Collins Olivia Newton-John 14 Diana Ross 13 Whitney Houston Top 10 songs [ edit ] The following ten songs were rated by Billboard as the best-selling and most-played songs in the US during the 1980s. [19] # Song Artist 1 \" Physical \" Olivia Newton-John 2 \" Bette Davis Eyes \" Kim Carnes 3 \" Endless Love \" Lionel Richie and Diana Ross 4 \" Eye of the Tiger \" Survivor 5 \" Every Breath You Take \" The Police 6 \" Flashdance... What a Feeling \" Irene Cara 7 \" Another One Bites the Dust \" Queen 8 \" Say Say Say \" Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson 9 \" Call Me \" Blondie 10 \" Lady \" Kenny Rogers Songs by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following songs topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 1980s. [15] Song Artist Weeks at number one \" Physical \" Olivia Newton-John 10 \" Bette Davis Eyes \" Kim Carnes 9 \" Endless Love \" Diana Ross and Lionel Richie \" Every Breath You Take \" The Police 8 \" I Love Rock 'n' Roll \" Joan Jett and the Blackhearts 7 \" Ebony and Ivory \" Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder \" Billie Jean \" Michael Jackson \" Call Me \" Blondie 6 \" Lady \" Kenny Rogers \" Centerfold \" The J. Geils Band \" Eye of the Tiger \" Survivor \" Flashdance... What a Feeling \" Irene Cara \" Say, Say, Say \" Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson \" Like a Virgin \" Madonna 1970s [ edit ] The Bee Gees had the most number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100 during the 1970s (9 songs). The Bee Gees were the artist with the most weeks logged at the top of the Hot 100 during the 1970s (27 weeks). Artists by total number-one singles [ edit ] The following artists achieved four or more number-one hits during the 1970s. [20] Artist Number-one singles Bee Gees 9 Elton John 6 Paul McCartney and Wings Stevie Wonder 5 Eagles The Jackson 5 4 John Denver KC & The Sunshine Band Diana Ross Barbra Streisand Donna Summer Artists by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following artists topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 1970s. Artist Weeks at number one Bee Gees 27 Rod Stewart 17 Elton John 15 Paul McCartney and Wings 13 Andy Gibb Donna Summer Roberta Flack 12 The Jackson 5 10 Tony Orlando and Dawn Debby Boone Barbra Streisand Top 10 songs [ edit ] The following ten songs were rated by Billboard as the best-selling and most-played songs in the US during the 1970s. [21] # Song Artist 1 \" You Light Up My Life \" Debby Boone 2 \" Tonight's the Night (Gonna Be Alright) \" Rod Stewart 3 \" Le Freak \" Chic 4 \" How Deep Is Your Love \" Bee Gees 5 \" I Just Want to Be Your Everything \" Andy Gibb 6 \" Silly Love Songs \" Wings 7 \" Let's Get It On \" Marvin Gaye 8 \" Night Fever \" Bee Gees 9 \" Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree \" Dawn featuring Tony Orlando 10 \" Shadow Dancing \" Andy Gibb Songs by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following songs topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during the 1970s. [15] Song Artist Weeks at number one \" You Light Up My Life \" Debby Boone 10 \" Night Fever \" Bee Gees 8 \" Tonight's the Night (Gonna Be Alright) \" Rod Stewart \" Shadow Dancing \" Andy Gibb 7 \" Bridge over Troubled Water \" Simon & Garfunkel 6 \" Joy to the World \" Three Dog Night \" The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face \" Roberta Flack \" Alone Again (Naturally) \" Gilbert O'Sullivan \" Le Freak \" Chic \" My Sharona \" The Knack 1958-1969 [ edit ] The Beatles had the highest number of top hits on the Billboard Hot 100 during 1958–1969 (18 songs). In addition, The Beatles remained on top of the Hot 100 the longest during 1958–1969 (55 weeks). Artists by total number-one singles [ edit ] The following artists achieved three or more number-one hits during 1958–1969. [22] A number of artists had number-one singles on their own as well as part of a collaboration. Artist Number-one singles The Beatles 18 The Supremes 12 Elvis Presley 7 The Rolling Stones 5 Bobby Vinton 4 The Four Seasons Connie Francis 3 Ray Charles The Monkees Artists by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following artists topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during 1958–1969. Artist Weeks at number one The Beatles 55 Elvis Presley 22 The Supremes The Four Seasons 15 The Rolling Stones 13 Bobby Vinton 12 The Monkees The Young Rascals 10 Bobby Darin 9 Percy Faith The 5th Dimension Top 10 songs [ edit ] The following ten songs were rated by Billboard as the best-selling and most-played songs in the US during the 1958-1969. [23] [24] # Song Artist 1 \" The Twist \" Chubby Checker 2 \" Mack the Knife \" Bobby Darin 3 \" Hey Jude \" The Beatles 4 \" Theme from A Summer Place \" Percy Faith and His Orchestra 5 \" Tossin' and Turnin' \" Bobby Lewis 6 \" The Battle of New Orleans \" Johnny Horton 7 \" It's All in the Game \" Tommy Edwards 8 \" I Want to Hold Your Hand \" The Beatles 9 \" I'm a Believer \" The Monkees 10 \" Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In \" The 5th Dimension Songs by total weeks at number one [ edit ] The following songs topped the Hot 100 for the highest total number of weeks during 1958–1969. [15] Song Artist Weeks at number one \" Mack the Knife \" Bobby Darin 9 \" Theme from A Summer Place \" Percy Faith \" Hey Jude \" The Beatles \" Tossin' and Turnin' \" Bobby Lewis 7 \" I Want to Hold Your Hand \" The Beatles \" I'm a Believer \" The Monkees \" I Heard It Through the Grapevine \" Marvin Gaye \" It's All in the Game \" Tommy Edwards 6 \" The Battle of New Orleans \" Johnny Horton \" Are You Lonesome Tonight? \" Elvis Presley \" Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In \" The 5th Dimension \" In the Year 2525 \" Zager and Evans See also [ edit ] List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Adele's 'Fire' Burns Path to Hot 100 Summit\" . Billboard.com . January 25, 2012 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Ask Billboard: Is Taylor Swift's '1989' the Next 'Teenage Dream'?\" . Billboard.com . May 31, 2015 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Rihanna's 'Only Girl' Rebounds to No. 1 on Hot 100\" . Billboard.com . November 24, 2010 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Rihanna's 'S&M' Reigns on Hot 100, Lady Gaga's 'Judas' Debuts\" . Billboard.com . April 20, 2011 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Eminem and Rihanna Replace Katy Perry Atop Hot 100\" . Billboard.com . July 21, 2010 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Bruno Mars' 'Grenade' Maneuvers to Top of Hot 100\" . Billboard.com . December 29, 2010 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"LMFAO Brings 'Sexy' To Hot 100 Summit\" . Billboard.com . December 28, 2011 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Bruno Mars: Billboard Artist of the Year Cover Story\" . Billboard.com . December 13, 2013 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Macklemore & Ryan Lewis' 'The Heist' Passes 1 Million Sold\" . Billboard.com . August 28, 2013 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Why Katy Perry's 'Prism' Era Is More Impressive Than You Think\" . Billboard.com . January 20, 2015 . Retrieved July 19, 2015 . Jump up ^ Trust, Gary (September 21, 2015). \"The Weeknd Replaces Himself Atop Hot 100 as 'The Hills' Hits No. 1\" . Billboard . Retrieved September 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ Trust, Gary (January 11, 2016). \"Justin Bieber's 'Sorry' Dethrones Adele's 'Hello' Atop Hot 100\" . Billboard . Retrieved January 11, 2016 . Jump up ^ Trust, Gary (February 1, 2016). \"Justin Bieber Replaces Himself at No. 1 on Hot 100 With 'Love Yourself\" . Billboard . Retrieved February 1, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Top 20 Billboard Hot 100 Hits of the 2000s\" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 27, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Whitburn, Joel. Top Pop Singles - 12th Edition . Record Research Inc. pp. 1318–1320. ISBN 0-89820-180-2 . Jump up ^ \"Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary: Most No. 1s By Artist (1990-1999)\" . Billboard . Archived from the original on January 14, 2012 . Retrieved February 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Top 20 Billboard Hot 100 Hits of the 1990s\" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary: Most No. 1s By Artist (1980-1989)\" . Billboard . Archived from the original on February 3, 2012 . Retrieved February 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Top 20 Billboard Hot 100 Hits of the 1980s\" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 14, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary: Most No. 1s By Artist (1970-1979)\" . Billboard . Archived from the original on February 3, 2012 . Retrieved February 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Top 20 Billboard Hot 100 Hits of the 1970s\" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary: Most No. 1s By Artist (1958-1969)\" . Billboard . Archived from the original on February 1, 2012 . Retrieved February 17, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Top 20 Billboard Hot 100 Hits of the 1960s\" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 27, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\" . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 27, 2017 . [ hide ] v t e Billboard charts Albums Billboard 200 Top Album Sales Top Catalog Albums Digital Albums Billboard Comprehensive Albums (defunct) R&B/Hip-Hop Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums Rap Albums Rock Rock Albums Alternative Albums Hard Rock Albums Folk Albums Country Top Country Albums Latin Top Latin Albums Regional Mexican Albums Latin Pop Albums Latin Rhythm Albums Tropical Albums Religious Christian Albums Other Heatseekers Albums Tastemaker Albums Dance/Electronic Albums Independent Albums Jazz Albums Reggae Albums Comedy Albums Kid Albums International Canadian Albums European Albums (defunct) Singles and tracks Hot 100 Radio Songs Digital Songs Digital Tracks Hot Singles Sales Streaming Songs On-Demand Songs Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Pop Mainstream Top 40 Adult Contemporary Adult Top 40 Pop 100 (defunct) Top 40 Tracks (defunct) Dance/Electronic Dance Club Songs Hot Dance/Electronic Songs Dance/Mix Show Airplay Dance/Electronic Singles Sales (defunct) Dance/Electronic Digital Songs R&B/Hip-Hop Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles Hot Rap Songs Hot R&B Songs Mainstream R&B/Hip-Hop Adult R&B Songs Rhythmic Rock Hot Rock Songs Mainstream Rock Alternative Triple A Country Hot Country Songs Country Airplay Latin Hot Latin Songs Latin Pop Airplay Regional Mexican Airplay Tropical Airplay Latin Rhythm Airplay Religious Hot Christian Songs Other Heatseekers Songs Smooth Jazz Songs International Brasil Hot 100 Airplay Canadian Hot 100 Euro Digital Songs Japan Hot 100 Philippine Hot 100 Korea K-Pop Hot 100 (defunct) European Hot 100 (defunct) Türkiye Top 20 (defunct) Lists of number-one albums and singles Adult Contemporary Alternative Songs Billboard 200 Dance Club Songs Dance/Electronic Albums Dance/Mix Show Airplay Americana/Folk Albums Hot 100 Hot Country Songs Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs K-Pop Mainstream Rock Top Country Albums Year-End Lists of artists who reached number one US Canada Japan Dance Club Songs Dance/Mix Show Airplay Alternative Songs Mainstream Rock Adult Contemporary Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Rhythmic Hot Country Songs Adult Top 40 Mainstream Top 40 Latin Songs Social 50 Artist 100 See also Billboard Radio Monitor (defunct) List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade Hot Country Songs achievements R&R (defunct) Billboard Japan Billboard Greece Billboard Türkiye Billboard Brasil Billboard En Español Billboard K-Town Timeline List of K-pop on the Billboard charts Albums Songs Billboard Philippines Billboard Twitter Real-Time Uncharted (defunct) Joel Whitburn Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_chart_achievements_by_decade&oldid=802496793 \" Categories : Billboard charts Lists of record chart achievements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 26 September 2017, at 14:47. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_chart_achievements_by_decade&amp;oldid=802496793" }

{ "text": "I Can Do Bad All by Myself (film) - Wikipedia I Can Do Bad All by Myself (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself Theatrical release poster Directed by Tyler Perry Produced by Tyler Perry Reuben Can Written by Tyler Perry Starring Taraji P. Henson Adam Rodriguez Brian White Mary J. Blige Gladys Knight Marvin Winans Tyler Perry Music by Aaron Zigman Cinematography Alexander Gruszynski Edited by Maysie Hoy Production company Tyler Perry Studios Distributed by Lionsgate Release date September 11, 2009 ( 2009-09-11 ) Running time 113 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $19 million [1] Box office $51.7 million [2] Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself is a 2009 romantic musical comedy-drama film which was released on September 11, 2009. The film was directed, produced, and written by Tyler Perry , [3] who also makes an appearance in the film as his signature character Madea . [4] Although the film and play share the same title, the film is not an adaptation of Perry's play of the same name ; the two works have different storylines. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Differences from the stage play 4 Music 5 Reception 5.1 Critical reaction 6 References 7 External links Plot [ edit ] This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (August 2015) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The film opens with April ( Taraji P. Henson ), a self-centered, alcoholic singer, performing at a nightclub where she works. On the other side of town, Madea ( Tyler Perry ) and Joe Simmons (Perry) catch Jennifer (Hope Olaidè Wilson), Manny ( Kwesi Boakye ), and Byron (Freddy Siglar) breaking into their house. After hearing the children’s troubles, Madea welcomes and feeds them. Jennifer tells Madea that they’re living with their grandmother, whom they haven't seen in four days. They tell Madea that their only other relative is their Aunt April. April shares her home with her shady boyfriend, Randy ( Brian White ), who’s married with children. The next morning, Madea brings the kids to April's house, but April doesn’t want to be bothered. Meanwhile, Pastor Brian ( Marvin Winans ) sends a Colombian immigrant named Sandino ( Adam Rodríguez ) to her house for work and a place to stay. April puts Sandino in her basement and wants to lock him down there because she doesn't know him that well. While working around the house, Sandino surprises April by cleaning himself up and becoming very handsome. When Randy arrives, he sees April with the kids and Sandino and heckles him while making subtle advances at Jennifer. Shortly afterward, Pastor Brian and Wilma ( Gladys Knight ), a church member, come to inform April that her mother died from a fatal brain aneurysm while riding on a city bus. April is devastated by the news and seeks comfort from Randy; however, he is sleeping and shrugs her off. Later, Sandino comforts April as she tells him about her mother's death and the last time she spoke with her. Depressed, Jennifer goes to Madea wanting to know how to pray. However, Madea, inexperienced with prayer, attempts to instruct her in a scene that plays out comically. The same night, Wilma sings \" The Need to Be \", an uplifting song for women, and Tanya ( Mary J. Blige ), the nightclub bartender, sings \" I Can Do Bad \". Before singing the song, Tanya is fed up with April's attitude and tries to help her friend, despite the fact that she can't help April if she can’t help herself. Over time, Sandino and April become best friends, and Sandino fixes a ruined bedroom in her house. This makes Manny and Byron happy, but upsets Jennifer, who feels April does not want them there. While on a date, Sandino tells April he doesn't understand why she is with Randy and asks if she loves Randy. He tells her what true love is to him. One Sunday morning, Sandino eagerly knocks on April's bedroom door to get April ready for church, but Randy threatens to have Sandino deported if he continues to spend time with April. Late the next night, Manny needs his insulin shot, and Jennifer goes to the kitchen to get it. As she prepares the shot, Randy approaches and attempts to rape her, but Sandino fights him off. April walks in on the fight and Randy claims Jennifer offered him sex for money. April claims to believe him and sends Randy to take a bath. When he is in the tub, April threatens to electrocute him with a plugged-in radio. Sandino arrives and tries to stop her, but April is enraged, as she explains that she was sexually assaulted by her step-father, who then lied about it to her mother, thus causing April to lose her faith in the people that cared about her. After saying does he want her to put it down twice, she drops the plugged-in radio into the water, giving Randy a severe electric shock . Randy barely jumps out just in time and Sandino orders him to leave. April goes to the bar for a drink and blames herself for not seeing the signs. Sandino tries to stop her from drinking, but she pushes him away. She then asks Sandino if he is a child molester, because of all the attention he gives the children. Sandino tells April of his childhood as a child laborer and explains that he loves the children so much because he sees himself in them. Feeling hurt at her unfair accusations, Sandino says farewell to the children and leaves. Jennifer and April begin to get along and connect after April tells Jennifer about her bad experience as a child. Jennifer tells April that she should recognize Sandino as a good man. Eventually, Sandino returns and April apologizes to him and admits that she loves him like a friend. Sandino tells her that she can't love anyone until she learns to love herself. He tells April that he is in love with her but he wants April to love him back the same way he loves her. He shows her by kissing her. Eventually, April and Sandino get married. April and Sandino then hold a block party for their reception with Tanya singing \"Good Woman Down\", dedicated to April, then the new couple is shown embracing and sharing a passionate kiss. Cast [ edit ] Taraji P. Henson as April Adam Rodriguez as Sandino Brian White as Randy Mary J. Blige as Tanya Gladys Knight as Wilma Marvin Winans as Pastor Brian Hope Olaidé Wilson as Jennifer Kwesi Boakye as Manny Freddy Siglar as Byron Tyler Perry as Mabel \"Madea\" Simmons and Uncle Joe Simmons Differences from the stage play [ edit ] Tyler Perry's famous characters, Mr. Brown and Cora, had main roles in the stage play; they are absent in the film. In the film, several characters refer to Cora, but she is not seen; Mr. Brown is neither seen nor mentioned. The original plot (in the stage play) focused on two sisters feuding because Maylee is engaged to her sister Vivanne's ex-husband, Anthony, and Anthony is holding her back from her parental responsibilities. In the film, April's sister is a drug addict and thief who neglected her children and is deceased. Her mother assumed custody of the children but has recently disappeared without explanation, and circumstances have forced April to reluctantly take her niece and nephews in. The stage play characters Vivanne, Keisha, Bobby, Maylee, and Anthony do not exist in the film. Music [ edit ] The film features 13 songs, [5] including two new songs by Blige. Perry was not able to produce a soundtrack album for the film due to the various record companies involved. \"Good Woman Down\" (Robert F. Aries, Blige, Sean Garrett, Freddie Jackson , Meli'sa Morgan ) – Mary J. Blige \"I Can Do Bad\" (Blige, Chuck Harmon, Shaffer Smith ) – Mary J. Blige \"Playboy\" (Michael Akinlabi, Tasha Schumann) – Candy Coated Killahz \"Contagious\" ( Xavier Dphrepaulezz ) – Chocolate Butterfly \"H.D.Y.\" (Ronnie Garrett, Herman (Pnut) Johnson) – Club Indigo Band \"Indigo Blues\" (Garrett, Johnson) – Club Indigo Band \"Lovers Heat\" (Garrett, Johnson) – Club Indigo Band \"Tears of Pain\" (Foster) – Ruthie Foster \" Rock Steady \" ( Aretha Franklin ) – Cheryl Pepsii Riley \"The Need to Be\" ( Jim Weatherly ) – Gladys Knight \"Just Don't Wanna Know/Over It Now\" (Winans) – Gladys Knight and Marvin L. Winans \"Oh Lord I Want You to Help Me\" (Traditional, arranged by Jerome Chambers & Edward O'Neal) – Cheryl Pepsii Riley & Marvin L. Winans Reception [ edit ] Critical reaction [ edit ] The film has received generally positive reviews from critics, making it Perry's most acclaimed film to date. [6] Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63% of critics gave positive reviews based on 43 reviews with an average score of 5.9/10, giving it a \"Fresh\" rating, with the general consensus being though somewhat formulaic and predictable, Perry succeeds in mixing broad humor with sincere sentimentality to palatable effect . [7] By comparison, Metacritic gave the film a 55% approval rating of critics based on 13 reviews. [6] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.the-numbers.com/movie/I-Can-Do-Bad-All-By-Myself#tab=summary Jump up ^ \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself (2009)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2009-09-20 . Jump up ^ \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself\" . Turner Classic Movies . Atlanta : Turner Broadcasting System ( Time Warner ) . Retrieved October 1, 2016 . Jump up ^ Perry, Tyler . \"Meet the Browns starts March 21st\" . Archived from the original on March 4, 2011 . Retrieved 2008-04-14 . Jump up ^ Internet Movie Database , https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1385912/soundtrack ^ Jump up to: a b \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself (2009): Reviews\" . Metacritic . Retrieved 2009-09-12 . Jump up ^ \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself Reviews, Pictures\" . Rotten Tomatoes . IGN Entertainment . Retrieved 2015-02-17 . External links [ edit ] Official website Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself on IMDb Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself at AllMovie Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself at Box Office Mojo Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself at Rotten Tomatoes Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself at Metacritic Tyler Perry's I Can Do Bad All by Myself at MovieSet hide v t e Tyler Perry Stage I Know I've Been Changed I Can Do Bad All by Myself Diary of a Mad Black Woman Madea's Family Reunion Madea's Class Reunion Why Did I Get Married? Meet the Browns Madea Goes to Jail What's Done in the Dark The Marriage Counselor Laugh to Keep from Crying Madea's Big Happy Family A Madea Christmas Aunt Bam's Place I Don't Want to Do Wrong! The Haves and the Have Nots Madea Gets a Job Hell Hath No Fury Like a Woman Scorned Madea's Neighbors from Hell Madea on the Run Films Daddy's Little Girls Why Did I Get Married? Meet the Browns The Family That Preys Why Did I Get Married Too? For Colored Girls Good Deeds Peeples Temptation: Confessions of a Marriage Counselor The Single Moms Club Acrimony Nobody's Fool Madea series Diary of a Mad Black Woman Madea's Family Reunion Madea Goes to Jail I Can Do Bad All by Myself Madea's Big Happy Family Madea's Witness Protection A Madea Christmas Madea's Tough Love Boo! A Madea Halloween Boo 2! A Madea Halloween A Madea Family Funeral Television House of Payne Meet the Browns For Better or Worse The Haves and the Have Nots Love Thy Neighbor If Loving You Is Wrong Too Close to Home The Paynes Books Don't Make a Black Woman Take Off Her Earrings See also Madea Tyler Perry Studios Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Can_Do_Bad_All_by_Myself_(film)&oldid=848842032 \" Categories : 2009 films English-language films 2000s comedy-drama films 2000s romantic musical films 2000s romantic comedy films American films American comedy-drama films American romantic comedy films American romantic musical films Films directed by Tyler Perry African-American musical films American films based on plays Lions Gate Entertainment films Films shot in Atlanta Screenplays by Tyler Perry Films about interracial romance African-American films African-American comedy films Hidden categories: Film articles using image size parameter Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from August 2015 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 4 July 2018, at 18:31 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "I Can Do Bad All by Myself (film)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=I_Can_Do_Bad_All_by_Myself_(film)&amp;oldid=848842032" }

{ "text": "You can't have your cake and eat it - Wikipedia You can't have your cake and eat it From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search You can't have your cake and eat it (too) is a popular English idiomatic proverb or figure of speech. [1] The proverb literally means \"you cannot simultaneously retain your cake and eat it\". Once the cake is eaten, it is gone. It can be used to say that one cannot or should not have or want more than one deserves or is reasonable, or that one cannot or should not try to have two incompatible things. The proverb's meaning is similar to the phrases \"you can't have it both ways\" and \"you can't have the best of both worlds.\" Many people are confused by the meaning of \" have \" and \" eat \" in the order as used here, although still understand the proverb and its intent and use it in this form. Some people feel the above form of the proverb is incorrect and illogical and instead prefer: \" You can't eat your cake and [then still] have it too \", which is in fact closer to the original form of the proverb [2] (see further explanations below) but uncommon today. Another variant uses \"keep\" instead of \"have\". [3] Having to choose whether to have or eat your cake illustrates the concept of trade-offs or opportunity cost . [4] [5] [6] Contents 1 History 2 Literal meaning 3 Other languages 4 References 5 External links History [ edit ] The order of the clauses in the saying has been the subject of some debate, and was even used in forensic linguistics (contributing to the identification and arrest of the so-called Unabomber ). [7] An early recording of the phrase is in a letter on 14 March 1538 from Thomas, Duke of Norfolk , to Thomas Cromwell , as \"a man can not have his cake and eat his cake\". [8] The phrase occurs with the clauses reversed in John Heywood 's \"A dialogue Conteinyng the Nomber in Effect of All the Prouerbes in the Englishe Tongue\" from 1546, as \"wolde you bothe eate your cake, and have your cake?\". [9] In John Davies ' \"Scourge of Folly\" of 1611, the same order is used, as \"A man cannot eat his cake and haue it stil.\" [10] In Jonathan Swift 's 1738 farce \"Polite Conversation\", the character Lady Answerall says \"she cannot eat her cake and have her cake.\" [11] The order was reversed again in a posthumous adaptation of \"Polite Conversation\" in 1749, \"Tittle Tattle; or, Taste A-la-Mode\", as \"And she cannot have her Cake and eat her Cake.\" [12] [13] [14] From 1812 (R. C. Knopf's \"Document Transcriptions of War of 1812\" (1959) VI. 204) is a modern-sounding recording of \"We cannot have our cake and eat it too.\" [15] According to the Google Ngram Viewer , the eat-first order was more common until about 1935, since which time the have-first order has become much more popular. [16] Literal meaning [ edit ] Paul Brians, Professor of English at Washington State University, points out that perhaps a more logical or easier to understand version of this saying is, \"You can’t eat your cake and have it too.\" Professor Brians writes that a common source of confusion about this idiom stems from the verb to have which in this case indicates that once eaten, keeping possession of the cake is no longer possible, seeing that it is in your stomach (and no longer exists as a cake). [17] Alternatively, the two verbs can be understood to represent a sequence of actions, so one can indeed \"have\" one's cake and then \"eat\" it. Consequently, the literal meaning of the reversed idiom doesn't match the metaphorical meaning. The phrase can also have specialized meaning in academic contexts; Classicist Katharina Volk of Columbia University has used the phrase to describe the development of poetic imagery in Latin didactic poetry, naming the principle behind the imagery's adoption and application the \"have-one's-cake-and-eat-it-too principle\". [18] In English, \"have\" can mean \"eat\", as in \"Let's have breakfast\" or \"I'm having a sandwich\". So the saying \"You can't have your cake and eat it too\" may mean that you can't eat the cake and then eat it again; or less metaphorically, that what you want is unreasonable. This interpretation makes sense in both the \"have-eat\" and \"eat-have\" iterations of the idiom, and might explain why the earliest known iteration is \"have-eat\". [ original research? ] Other languages [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Various expressions are used to convey similar idioms in other languages: Albanian : Të hysh në ujë e të mos lagesh. – To take a swim and not get wet. Bulgarian : Не може и вълкът да е сит, и агнето цяло. – You can't have both the wolf fed, and the lamb intact. Bosnian : Ne možeš imati i jare i pare. – You can't have both the lamb and the money. Simplified Chinese : 鱼与熊掌，不可兼得。 ; traditional Chinese : 魚與熊掌，不可兼得。 – You can't have both the fish and the bear's paw. (Bear's paw is considered a delicacy in ancient China.) Croatian : Ne možeš imati i ovce i novce – You can't have both the sheep (pl.) and the money. Also, I vuk sit, ovce na broju – The wolf is full, and the sheep are all accounted for. Czech : Nejde sedět zadkem na dvou židlích – You can't sit on two chairs at the same time. Also, Vlk se nažral a koza zůstala celá. - The wolf ate and the goat remained whole. Danish : Man kan ikke både blæse og have mel i munden – You cannot both blow and have flour in your mouth. Or Danish : Man kan ikke få både i pose og (i) sæk - You can't get both in bag and (in) sack. Dutch : Je moet kiezen of delen – You have to choose or divide. This is based on Dutch civil law where in a division of property one person divides the property in two parts and the other person chooses the part he likes most. French : Vouloir le beurre et l'argent du beurre – to want the butter and the money from (selling) the butter. The idiom can be emphasized by adding et le sourire de la crémière (\"and a smile from the (female) shopkeeper\") or, on its more familiar version, \"et le cul de la crémière\" (\"and the (female) shopkeeper's butt\"). Finnish : Kakkuja ei voi sekä syödä että säästää. German : Wasch mir den Pelz, aber mach mich nicht nass – wash my fur but don't get me wet. [19] [20] Also, Man kann nicht auf zwei Hochzeiten tanzen – one cannot dance at two weddings (at the same time). Swiss German : Du chasch nit dr Füfer und s Weggli ha – you can't have the five cent coin and a bread roll. Greek : Και την πίτα ολόκληρη και τον σκύλο χορτάτο – you want the entire pie and the dog full. Gujarati : Gujarati: બે હાથમાં લાડુ હોવા - having Laddu in both your hands. Hebrew : אי אפשר לאכול את העוגה ולהשאיר אותה שלמה ‎ – you can't eat the cake and keep it whole. Also, Hebrew : אי אפשר להחזיק את המקל משני הקצוות ‎ - It is impossible to hold the stick from both ends. Hungarian : Olyan nincs, hogy a kecske is jóllakjon, és a káposzta is megmaradjon – It is impossible that the goat has enough to eat and the cabbage remains as well. Also, Egy fenékkel nem lehet két lovat megülni – It is impossible to ride two horses with one butt. (The meaning is similar to the Romanian translation.) Nem lehet egyszerre házaséletet is élni és szűznek is maradni. - It is not possible to go to the wedding bed and still remain a virgin. Icelandic : Það er ekki hægt að bæði halda og sleppa - You can't have and have not at the same time. Also: Bágt er að blása og hafa mjöl í munni . – You cannot both blow and have flour in your mouth. Italian : Volere la botte piena e la moglie ubriaca – to want the barrel full and the wife drunk. Kannada : ಅಕ್ಕಿ ಮೇಲೆ ಆಸೆ, ನೆಂಟರ ಮೇಲೆ ಪ್ರೀತಿ – Desire over rice, love over relatives. Korean : 두 마리 토끼를 잡을 수 없다 – You can't catch two rabbits (at the same time). Malayalam : കക്ഷത്തിലുള്ളത് പോകാനും പാടില്ല ഉത്തരത്തിലുള്ളത് വേണം താനും! – You want both the one on the roof, and the one in your armpit. Nepali : दुवै हातमा लड्डु – having laddu (a sweet candy) in both your hands. Norwegian : Man kan ikke få både i pose og sekk – You can't get both in bag and sack. Papiamento : Skohe of lag'i skohe – choose or let choose. Pashto : Dawara ghaaray ma wahaa ‎ – You can not be on both sides. Persian : هم خدا را خواستن و هم خرما را ‎ – wanting both God and the sugar-dates. Polish : Zjeść ciastko i mieć ciastko – To eat the cookie and have the cookie. Portuguese : Querer ter sol na eira e chuva no nabal – Wanting the sun to shine on the threshing floor, while it rains on the turnip field. Romanian : Nu poți împăca și capra și varza – You can't reconcile the goat and the cabbage. Also, Și cu tigaia unsă și cu slănina în pod - To have the pan greased and the lard in the attic (or the more vulgar version: Şi cu dânsa-ntr-însa, şi cu sufletu-n rai - To have 'it' in 'it' and the soul in heaven.) Russian : И рыбку съесть, и в воду не лезть – wanting to eat a fish without first catching it from the waters. [21] Serbian : Не можеш да имаш и јаре и паре – You can't have both goatling and money, and Не можеш седети на две столице – You can't sit on two chairs. Spanish : Querer estar en misa y en procesión – wishing to be both at mass and in the procession, and estar en misa y repicando (or estar en misa y tocar la campana – to be both at mass and in the belfry, bell-ringing.) Argentina : la chancha y los veinte – the pig and the twenties. (Comes from the old piggybanks for children that used to contain coins of 20 cents. The only way to get the coins was to break the piggybank open – hence the phrase. This can be emphasized by adding y la máquina de hacer chorizos – and the machine to make sausage.) Swedish : Att äta kakan och ha den kvar - To eat the cookie and still have it. Tamil : மீசைக்கும் ஆசை கூழுக்கும் ஆசை – desire to have both the moustache and to drink the soup. Turkish : Hem karnım doysun hem pastam dursun. – I want my tummy full and still have a cake. Vietnamese : Được cái này mất cái kia. – You gain one thing but lose the other. Welsh : Allwch chi mo’i chael hi bob ffordd. – You can’t have it all ways. Also, Allwch chi ddim cadw torth a’i bwyta hi - You can’t keep a loaf and eat it. [22] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Definition of cake in English\" . Oxford Dictionaris . Retrieved 21 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Ngram Viewer . Google . Retrieved 21 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Ngram Viewer . Google . Retrieved 21 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, John R (2006-06-15). John Stuart Mill's Political Philosophy: Balancing Freedom and the Collective Good . p. 154. ISBN 9781847143440 . Jump up ^ Fullbrook, Edward (2008-10-21). Ontology and Economics: Tony Lawson and His Critics . p. 17. ISBN 9780203888773 . Jump up ^ Suits, Daniel Burbidge (1973). Principles of economics . p. 49. ISBN 9780060465285 . Jump up ^ \"Language Log: Forensic linguistics, the Unabomber, and the etymological fallacy\" . Retrieved 2013-05-20 . Jump up ^ Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII, Volume 13 Part 1: January-July 1538 (p. 189 ref. 504) . Institute of Historical Research (\"Sponsor\") . Retrieved 2013-01-04 . Jump up ^ \"cake\" . Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Jump up ^ Shapiro, Fred R (2006). The Yale Book of Quotations . ISBN 9780300107982 . Retrieved 2013-01-04 . Jump up ^ Swift, Jonathan (1841). The Works of Jonathan Swift ...: Containing interesting and valuable papers . Retrieved 2013-01-04 . Jump up ^ Timothy Fribble (Pseud.), Jonathan Swift (1749). Tittle Tattle . Retrieved 2013-01-04 . Jump up ^ \"Have Your Cake and Eat It Too\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2012-08-25 . Jump up ^ \"Eat/Have, Have/Eat Your Cake!\" . ABLE Innovations Blog . Retrieved 2012-08-25 . Jump up ^ Speake, Jennifer (2008). \" Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs . ISBN 9780199539536 . Retrieved 2013-01-04 . Jump up ^ Graph at Google Ngram Viewer Jump up ^ Common Errors in English: Eat Cake . Washington State University . Retrieved 2008-03-26 . Jump up ^ Katharina Volk, The Poetics of Latin Didactic. Lucretius, Vergil, Ovid, Manilius . Retrieved 2009-06-05 . Jump up ^ \"dict.org\" . Jump up ^ \"Redensarten-Index.de\" . Jump up ^ This is a euphemism for a common vulgar expression и рыбку съесть, и на хуй сесть first used by Alexander Pushkin in a private letter. Jump up ^ Griffiths, Bruce; Jones, Dafydd Glyn (1995). Geiriadur yr Academi: The Welsh Academy English–Welsh Dictionary . Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 191. ISBN 0708311865 . External links [ edit ] The dictionary definition of have one's cake and eat it too at Wiktionary Post at \"The Phrase Finder\" , quoting Wise Words and Wives' Tales: The Origins, Meanings and Time-Honored Wisdom of Proverbs and Folk Sayings Olde and New and The Random House Dictionary of Popular Proverbs and Sayings . Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=You_can%27t_have_your_cake_and_eat_it&oldid=856944466 \" Categories : English phrases English-language idioms Metaphors referring to food and drink Hidden categories: All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from November 2015 Articles needing additional references from December 2014 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Albanian-language text Articles containing Bulgarian-language text Articles containing Bosnian-language text Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text Articles containing Croatian-language text Articles containing Czech-language text Articles containing Danish-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Finnish-language text Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Gujarati-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Hungarian-language text Articles containing Icelandic-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Articles containing Kannada-language text Articles containing Korean-language text Articles containing Malayalam-language text Articles containing Nepali-language text Articles containing Norwegian-language text Articles containing Papiamento-language text Articles containing Pashto-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Polish-language text Articles containing Portuguese-language text Articles containing Romanian-language text Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing Serbian-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing Swedish-language text Articles containing Tamil-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text Articles containing Vietnamese-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 28 August 2018, at 14:54 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "You can't have your cake and eat it", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=You_can%27t_have_your_cake_and_eat_it&amp;oldid=856944466" }

{ "text": "Lobes of the brain - Wikipedia Lobes of the brain From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Cerebral lobes Lateral surface of cerebrum. 4 lobes are shown. Medial surface of cerebrum. 5 lobes are shown. Identifiers NeuroNames hier-1210 NeuroLex ID Lobe of cerebral cortex TA A14.1.09.005 FMA 61823 77800, 61823 Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy [ edit on Wikidata ] The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different brain functions. The cerebrum , the largest portion of the human brain , is divided into lobes, but so is the cerebellum . If not specified, the expression \"lobes of the brain\" refers to the cerebrum. Terminologia Anatomica (1998) divides cerebrum into 6 lobes. [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Frontal lobe 2 Parietal lobe 3 Occipital lobe 4 Temporal lobe 5 Limbic lobe 6 Insular cortex 7 Additional images 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Frontal lobe [ edit ] Main article: Frontal lobe The frontal lobe is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned in front of the parietal lobe and above and in front of the temporal lobe . It is separated from parietal lobe by a space between tissues called the central sulcus , and from the temporal lobe by a deep fold called the lateral sulcus also called the Sylvian fissure. The precentral gyrus , forming the posterior border of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex , which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts. The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine -delicate neurons in the cerebral cortex . The dopamine system is associated with reward , attention , short-term memory tasks, planning , and motivation . Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information arriving from the thalamus to the forebrain . A report from the National Institute of Mental Health says a gene variant that reduces dopamine activity in the prefrontal cortex is related to poorer performance and inefficient functioning of that brain region during working memory tasks, and to a slightly increased risk for schizophrenia . [2] Parietal lobe [ edit ] Main article: Parietal lobe The parietal lobe is positioned above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe and central sulcus . The parietal lobe integrates sensory information among various modalities , including spatial sense and navigation ( proprioception ), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch ( mechanoreception ) in the somatosensory cortex which is just posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus , [3] and the dorsal stream of the visual system . The major sensory inputs from the skin ( touch , temperature , and pain receptors), relay through the thalamus to the parietal lobe. Several areas of the parietal lobe are important in language processing . The somatosensory cortex can be illustrated as a distorted figure — the homunculus ( Latin : \"little man\"), in which the body parts are rendered according to how much of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to them. [4] The superior parietal lobule and inferior parietal lobule are the primary areas of body or spatial awareness. A lesion commonly in the right superior or inferior parietal lobule leads to hemineglect . Occipital lobe [ edit ] Main article: Occipital lobe The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex . [5] The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17 , commonly called V1 (visual one). Human V1 is located on the medial side of the occipital lobe within the calcarine sulcus ; the full extent of V1 often continues onto the posterior pole of the occipital lobe. V1 is often also called striate cortex because it can be identified by a large stripe of myelin, the Stria of Gennari . Visually driven regions outside V1 are called extrastriate cortex . There are many extrastriate regions, and these are specialized for different visual tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color differentiation, and motion perception. Temporal lobe [ edit ] Main article: Temporal lobe The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain . [6] The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memories , language comprehension , and emotion association. [7] :21 Limbic lobe [ edit ] Main article: Limbic lobe The limbic lobe is an arc-shaped region of cortex on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere of the mammalian brain, consisting of parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The term is ambiguous, with some authors [ who? ] including the paraterminal gyrus , the subcallosal area , the cingulate gyrus , the parahippocampal gyrus , the dentate gyrus , the hippocampus and the subiculum ; [8] while the Terminologia Anatomica includes the cingulate sulcus , the cingulate gyrus, the isthmus of cingulate gyrus , the fasciolar gyrus , the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal sulcus, the dentate gyrus , the fimbrodentate sulcus, the fimbria of hippocampus , the collateral sulcus , and the rhinal sulcus , and omits the hippocampus. Insular cortex [ edit ] Main article: Insular cortex The insular cortex is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes ). The insulae are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis . These functions include perception , motor control , self-awareness , cognitive functioning , and interpersonal experience . In relation to these, it is involved in psychopathology . The insular cortex is divided into two parts: the larger anterior insula and the smaller posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning lid ). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. Additional images [ edit ] Interior view of brain. Occipital lobe Parietal lobe Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Brain lobes. Colorings are same as the left and Insular lobe Insular lobe . Lateral View of the Brain. Brain Lobes. See also [ edit ] Poles of cerebral hemispheres List of regions in the human brain Neuroanatomy References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Guilherme Carvalhal Ribas (2010). “The Cerebral Sulci and Gyri”. Neurosurg Focus 56 (2): E2. PMID 20121437 . Jump up ^ \"Gene Slows Frontal Lobes, Boosts Schizophrenia Risk\" . National Institute of Mental Health. May 29, 2001 . Retrieved 2013-06-20 . Jump up ^ http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/cglidden/parietal.html Jump up ^ Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. L. & Wegner, D. M. (2009). Psychology. (2nd ed.). New Work (NY): Worth Publishers. Jump up ^ \"SparkNotes: Brain Anatomy: Parietal and Occipital Lobes\" . Archived from the original on 2007-12-31 . Retrieved 2008-02-27 . Jump up ^ \"Temporal Lobe\" . Langbrain . Rice University . Retrieved 2 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Smith; Kosslyn (2007). Cognitive Psychology: Mind and Brain . New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 21, 194–199, 349. Jump up ^ Fix, JD (2008). \"Gross anatomy of the brain\" . Neuroanatomy (fourth ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 6. ISBN 0-7817-7245-1 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lobe of the brain . [ hide ] v t e Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain Frontal lobe Superolateral Prefrontal Superior frontal gyrus 4 6 8 Middle frontal gyrus 9 10 46 Inferior frontal gyrus : 11 47 - Pars orbitalis Broca's area 44 - Pars opercularis 45 - Pars triangularis Superior frontal sulcus Inferior frontal sulcus Precentral Precentral gyrus Precentral sulcus Medial/inferior Prefrontal Superior frontal gyrus 4 6 Medial frontal gyrus 8 9 Paraterminal gyrus / Paraolfactory area 12 Straight gyrus 11 Orbital gyri / Orbitofrontal cortex 10 11 12 Ventromedial prefrontal cortex 10 Subcallosal area 25 Olfactory sulcus Orbital sulcus Precentral Paracentral lobule 4 Paracentral sulcus Both Primary motor cortex 4 Premotor cortex 6 Supplementary motor area 6 Supplementary eye field 6 Frontal eye fields 8 Parietal lobe Superolateral Superior parietal lobule 5 7 Inferior parietal lobule 40 - Supramarginal gyrus 39 - Angular gyrus Parietal operculum 43 Intraparietal sulcus Medial/inferior Paracentral lobule 1 2 3 5 Precuneus 7 Marginal sulcus Both Postcentral gyrus / Primary somatosensory cortex 1 2 3 Secondary somatosensory cortex 5 Posterior parietal cortex 7 Occipital lobe Superolateral Occipital pole of cerebrum Lateral occipital gyrus 18 19 Lunate sulcus Transverse occipital sulcus Medial/inferior Visual cortex 17 Cuneus Lingual gyrus Calcarine sulcus Temporal lobe Superolateral Transverse temporal gyrus / Auditory cortex 41 42 Superior temporal gyrus 38 22 / Wernicke's area Middle temporal gyrus 21 Superior temporal sulcus Medial/inferior Fusiform gyrus 37 Medial temporal lobe 27 28 34 35 36 Inferior temporal gyrus 20 Inferior temporal sulcus Interlobar sulci/fissures Superolateral Central (frontal+parietal) Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal) Parieto-occipital Preoccipital notch Medial/inferior Longitudinal fissure Cingulate (frontal+cingulate) Collateral (temporal+occipital) Callosal sulcus Limbic lobe Parahippocampal gyrus anterior Entorhinal cortex Perirhinal cortex Postrhinal cortex Posterior parahippocampal gyrus Prepyriform area Cingulate cortex / gyrus Subgenual area 25 Anterior cingulate 24 32 33 Posterior cingulate 23 31 Isthmus of cingulate gyrus : Retrosplenial cortex 26 29 30 Hippocampal formation Hippocampal sulcus Fimbria of hippocampus Dentate gyrus Rhinal sulcus Other Supracallosal gyrus Uncus Amygdala Insular cortex Insular cortex General Operculum Poles of cerebral hemispheres Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri. Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lobes_of_the_brain&oldid=785004550 \" Categories : Brain Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from February 2013 All articles needing additional references Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2014 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Español Euskara Français Galego Íslenska 日本語 Svenska ไทย Türkçe Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2017, at 03:00. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "Lobes of the brain", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Lobes_of_the_brain&amp;oldid=785004550" }

{ "text": "My Big Fat Greek Wedding - Wikipedia My Big Fat Greek Wedding From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search My Big Fat Greek Wedding Theatrical release poster Directed by Joel Zwick Produced by Gary Goetzman Tom Hanks Rita Wilson Written by Nia Vardalos Starring Nia Vardalos John Corbett Lainie Kazan Michael Constantine Andrea Martin Joey Fatone Music by Alexander Janko Chris Wilson Cinematography Jeffrey Jur Edited by Mia Goldman Production company Gold Circle Films HBO Films MPH Entertainment Playtone Distributed by IFC Films Release date April 19, 2002 ( 2002-04-19 ) (United States) August 16, 2002 ( 2002-08-16 ) (Canada) Running time 95 minutes [1] Country Canada United States Language English Budget $5 million [2] Box office $368.7 million [2] My Big Fat Greek Wedding is a 2002 Canadian-American romantic comedy film directed by Joel Zwick and written by Nia Vardalos , who also stars in the film as Fotoula \"Toula\" Portokalos, a middle class Greek American woman who falls in love with non-Greek upper middle class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant Ian Miller. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and, at the 75th Academy Awards , it was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay . A sleeper hit , the film became the highest-grossing romantic comedy of all time, [3] and grossed $241.4 million in North America, despite never reaching number one at the box office during its release. It was the highest-grossing film to accomplish this feat until the animated film Sing grossed $268 million in 2016. [4] The film inspired the short-lived 2003 TV series My Big Fat Greek Life and a film sequel titled My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 , which was released on March 25, 2016. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Filming 4 Release 4.1 Box office performance 4.2 Critical reception 4.3 Accolades 4.4 10th-anniversary edition 5 Lawsuit 6 Legacy 6.1 Television series 6.2 Sequel 7 References 8 External links Plot [ edit ] Being 30-years-old and single, Fortoula \"Toula\" Portokalos is her family's anomaly. The daughter of staunchly proud Greek immigrants, she was raised to follow her cultural tradition of marriage and motherhood. Her golden-child sister Athena met her family's expectations by marrying young to another Greek and becoming, in Toula's words, \"a Greek baby-breeding machine\". Toula still lives with her parents and works at Dancing Zorba's, her family's restaurant in Chicago. Toula longs for her own life away from the restaurant and her intrusive family. Frumpy and cynical, she fears her life will never change. One day at the restaurant, Toula notices a handsome young customer-- Ian Miller, a school teacher. She tries to speak to him, only to embarrass herself with her social awkwardness. Ian is bewildered by her behavior, and Toula figures she's lost her chance to get to know him. Toula's idea for independence is taking computer classes at a community college. When Toula approaches her father Gus about the classes, he forbids it, thinking she wants to leave her family. He insists she's \"smart enough for a girl\" and it is too dangerous for her to be out in the city alone. After some crafty persuasion by his wife, Maria, Gus reluctantly permits Toula to attend classes. As her classes progress, Toula gains self-confidence. She trades her thick glasses for contact lenses and her baggy, drab clothes for flattering, colorful outfits. She updates her hairdo and learns to apply makeup. With her new computer skills and polished image, Toula asks her mother and her Aunt Voula to convince Gus that Toula should work at Voula's travel agency instead of the restaurant. Toula thrives in her new job, and one day she sees Ian walking by the travel agency. He notices Toula, not recognizing that she is the same woman who tried to talk to him at Dancing Zorba's. Despite Toula's lingering shyness, they introduce themselves and begin dating. When Ian realizes Toula was the woman at the restaurant, Toula is sure Ian will lose interest. Instead, he loves her even more for who she is, and they become a couple. Because Ian is not Greek, Toula keeps the relationship secret from her family, but her parents find out when a family friend sees them kissing in a parking lot. As she feared, Gus is angry because Ian is not an ethnic Greek-- referring to Ian as a \"Xeno\"-- and both Gus and Maria tell Toula to end the relationship. Toula insists she loves Ian. Her parents try to dissuade her by bringing various Greek bachelors home to meet her, all to no avail. When Ian proposes to Toula, she happily accepts, but Gus is upset that Ian did not ask him for permission to date Toula, let alone marry her. Ian tries to adapt to the family's Greek customs and mannerisms. Ian and Toula cannot marry in the Greek Orthodox Church unless Ian coverts, and Toula is already worried the wedding will be a fiasco. She suggests to Ian that they elope instead. He refuses, saying it's important to her family to marry in their religion, then he will be baptized Greek Orthodox. Ian's willingness to do this encourages Gus and Maria to gradually accept Ian into the family. As Toula feared, her numerous well-meaning female relatives take over much of the wedding plans, while the men keep testing Ian. Her cousin Nikki selects tacky bridesmaids dresses without Toula's permission; her brother Nick semi-jokingly threatens Ian that he'll kill him if he ever hurts Toula. Other cousins trick Ian into saying inappropriate things in Greek. When Toula invites Ian's quiet, reserved parents to meet her parents at their home, she insists that it be a simple dinner with just the six of them. Toula and Ian arrive to find all of Toula's extended family at the dinner, where they dance and drink for hours. Ian's parents are unaware of Greek culture and are shocked by the family's rambunctiousness. On the wedding day, Toula is nervous and surrounded by relatives, but the traditional Greek wedding goes perfectly. At the reception, Gus gives a speech accepting Ian and his parents as family. He then presents the newlyweds with a deed to a house. Both Ian and Toula are deeply touched by Gus's generosity. Following the reception, Toula and Ian leave for a honeymoon in Greece, both appreciating the craziness of their Greek family. An epilogue shows the couple's life six years later. Toula got pregnant \"a minute later\" after their honeymoon with their daughter Paris. As Ian and Toula are walking Paris from their house to Greek school, Paris asks why she has to go to Greek school. Toula replies that she had to go to Greek school as a child, so Paris will too. But she assures her that when the time comes, she can marry whomever she wants. As they walk, it is revealed that their home is next door to Toula's parents. Cast [ edit ] Nia Vardalos as Fotoula \"Toula\" Portokalos-Miller John Corbett as Ian Miller Lainie Kazan as Maria Portokalos Michael Constantine as Kostas \"Gus\" Portokalos Andrea Martin as Aunt Voula Louis Mandylor as Nick Portokalos Gia Carides as Cousin Nikki Gerry Mendicino as Uncle Taki Joey Fatone as Cousin Angelo Bess Meisler as Yiayia (Grandma) Stavroula Logothettis as Athena Portokalos Ian Gomez as Mike, Ian's best man ; he is Vardalos' real-life husband Bruce Gray as Rodney Miller Fiona Reid as Harriet Miller Jayne Eastwood as Mrs. White Arielle Sugarman as Paris Miller Production [ edit ] Development [ edit ] My Big Fat Greek Wedding started as a one-woman play written by and starring Vardalos, performed for six weeks at the Hudson Backstage Theatre in Los Angeles in the summer of 1997. [5] Vardalos later jokingly stated that she only wrote the play \"to get a better agent.\" [6] [7] The play was based on Vardalos's own family in Winnipeg in Canada and on her experience marrying a non-Greek man (actor Ian Gomez ). [6] The play was popular, and was sold out for much of its run, in part due to Vardalos's marketing it across Greek Orthodox churches in the area. [8] A number of Hollywood executives and celebrities saw it, including actress Rita Wilson , who is herself of Greek origin; [8] Wilson convinced her husband, actor Tom Hanks , to see it as well. Vardalos began meeting various executives about making a film version of the play and began writing a screenplay as well. However, the meetings proved fruitless because the executives insisted on making changes that they felt would make the film more marketable, which Vardalos objected to: these included changing the plot, getting a known actress in the lead role ( Marisa Tomei was one name mentioned), [8] and changing the family's ethnicity to Hispanic . [6] Two months after the play's initial run ended, Hanks's production company, Playtone , contacted Vardalos about producing a film based on her vision for it; they also agreed to remount the play in early 1998, this time at LA's Globe Theatre. [5] Hanks later said that casting Vardalos in the lead role \"brings a huge amount of integrity to the piece, because it's Nia's version of her own life and her own experience. I think that shows through on the screen and people recognize it.\" [6] In 2000, while in Toronto doing pre-production for the film, Vardalos and Playtone producer Gary Goetzman overheard actor John Corbett (who was in town shooting the film Serendipity ) at a bar, telling a friend of his about having read the script for My Big Fat Greek Wedding , and being upset that he couldn't make the auditions. Vardalos and Goetzman approached Corbett and offered him the part of Ian Miller on the spot, which he accepted. [6] Filming [ edit ] Parts of the film were shot in Greektown, Toronto Despite being based on life in the Greek community of Winnipeg, the film was set in Chicago and shot in both Toronto and Chicago. Toronto's Ryerson University and Greektown neighborhood feature prominently in the film. The home used to depict Gus and Maria Portokalos' residence (as well as the home bought next door at the end of the film for Toula and Ian) is located on Glenwood Crescent just off O'Connor Drive in East York . The real home representing the Portokalos' residence actually has most of the external ornamentation that was shown in the film. Also, some minor parts of the movie were shot in Jarvis High School in Toronto. Release [ edit ] After a February 2002 premiere, it was initially released in the United States via a limited release on April 19, 2002 before receiving a wider release worldwide over the summer, including a wide release in the United States on August 2. Box office performance [ edit ] My Big Fat Greek Wedding became a sleeper hit and grew steadily from its limited release . Despite never hitting the number one spot and being an independent film with a $5 million budget, it ultimately grossed over $368.7 million worldwide, becoming one of the top romantic films of the 21st century according to Echo Bridge Entertainment . [9] It was the fifth highest-grossing film of 2002 in the United States and Canada, [10] with USD $241,438,208, and the highest-grossing romantic comedy in history. [3] Domestically, it also held the record for the highest-grossing film never having been number one on the weekly North American box office charts, [11] until the release of the 2016 animated film, Sing . The film is among the most profitable of all time, with a 6150% return on a (inflation adjusted) cost of $6 million to produce. [12] Critical reception [ edit ] On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating 76% based on 121 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Though it sometimes feels like a television sitcom, My Big Fat Greek Wedding is good-hearted, lovable, and delightfully eccentric, with a sharp script and lead performance from Nia Vardalos.\" [13] On Metacritic , which assigns a rating out to reviews, the film has an average score of 62 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". [14] Accolades [ edit ] 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 : Nominated Romantic Comedy Film [15] 10th-anniversary edition [ edit ] In 2012, a 10th anniversary edition of the film was released via DVD and Blu-ray . The edition contains a digital copy of the film and features deleted scenes as well as a 30-minute retrospective with Vardalos and Corbett. Lawsuit [ edit ] The cast (with the exception of Vardalos, who had a separate deal), as well as Hanks' production company, Playtone, later sued the studio for their part of the profits, charging that Gold Circle Films was engaging in so-called \" Hollywood accounting \" practices. [16] Legacy [ edit ] Television series [ edit ] Main article: My Big Fat Greek Life The film inspired the brief 2003 TV series My Big Fat Greek Life , with most of the major characters played by the same actors, with the exception of Steven Eckholdt replacing Corbett as the husband. Corbett had already signed on to the TV series Lucky . He was scheduled to appear as the best friend of his replacement's character, but the show was cancelled before he appeared. The show received poor reviews from critics noting the random character entrances and serious plot \"adjustments\" that did not match the film. The seven episodes from the series are available on DVD from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment , whose TV studio division produced the show. Sequel [ edit ] Main article: My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 In a 2009 interview for her film My Life in Ruins , asked about a possible sequel for My Big Fat Greek Wedding , Vardalos stated that she had an idea for a sequel and had started writing it, hinting that, like Ruins , the film would be set in Greece. [17] Asked about a sequel again in a November 2012 interview, she stated, \"Well, actually, yes. And it's only now that I've really become open to the idea. Over the years, I've heard from everybody about what the sequel should be. People next to me at Starbucks would say, 'Hey, let me tell you my idea,' and I'd be like, 'Hey, I'm just trying to get a cup of coffee.' I never thought much about it. But then when John (Corbett) and I recently sat down to do that interview (for the 10th anniversary edition), we laughed so hard through the whole thing. It made me think that it's time. He said, \"Come on, write something, will you?\" And I now think I will. We have such an easy chemistry together. And we have chemistry because we never 'did it.' That's the surefire way to kill chemistry in a scene. You have to make sure your actors don't 'do it' off-screen. If they don't 'do it,' then they'll have chemistry on camera.\" [18] On May 27, 2014, various news and media outlets reported that a sequel was in the works. Nia Vardalos later confirmed this via Twitter, and she also has written a script for the film. [19] The first trailer for My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 was aired on NBC 's The Today Show on November 11, 2015 and it was released on March 25, 2016, [20] to generally negative reviews and comparatively minor box office success to the original. References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \" MY BIG FAT GREEK WEDDING (PG)\" . British Board of Film Classification . July 17, 2002 . Retrieved April 1, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved March 5, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"TV Review - My Big Fat Greek Life\" . Entertainment Weekly . 2003-04-07 . Retrieved 2008-09-28 . Jump up ^ \"Top Grossing Movies that never hit #1\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2017-01-31 . ^ Jump up to: a b My Big Fat Greek Wedding Headed for L.A.'s Globe Jan. 15 -- and Film , Willard Manus, Playbill , January 15, 1998 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e My Big Fat Greek Wedding : About the Production , Hollywood Jesus , 2002 Jump up ^ \"Rick Siegel\" . Wikipedia . 2017-04-17. ^ Jump up to: a b c Nia Vardalos interview , Robin Rea, Screenmancer.com Jump up ^ \"My Life in Ruins\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2011. Echo Bridge Entertainment . Retrieved on May 12, 2008 Jump up ^ \"2002 Yearly Box Office Results - Box Office Mojo\" . Retrieved August 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Top Grossing Movies that never hit #1\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2008-07-26 . Jump up ^ Staff (September 15, 2010). \"The 15 Most Profitable Movies of All Time\" . CNBC . Retrieved September 15, 2010 . The rankings cited in this article have been disputed as some movies were not included. Jump up ^ \"My Big Fat Greek Wedding Movie Reviews, Pictures\" . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved 2010-05-08 . Jump up ^ \"My Big Fat Greek Wedding reviews at Metacritic.com\" . Metacritic . CBS . Retrieved 2010-05-08 . Jump up ^ \"AFI's 10 Top 10 Nominees\" (PDF) . Archived from the original on July 16, 2011 . Retrieved 2016-08-19 . CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ Munoz, Lorenza (August 8, 2007). \"Hanks sues over profit on 'Greek Wedding ' \" . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ \"Is a 'Big Fat Greek Wedding' Sequel in the Works?\" . Retrieved August 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ Editor, Shelley Emling Senior; Post, The Huffington (November 12, 2012). \" ' My Big Fat Greek Wedding' Star Talks Chemistry, Motherhood And Plans For A Sequel\" . Retrieved August 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ \" ' My Big Fat Greek Wedding' gets big fat sequel\" . Retrieved August 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Universal reveals March 2016 release for 'My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 ' \" . Retrieved August 25, 2016 . 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(1996) From the Earth to the Moon (1998, 4 episodes) Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005) Larry Crowne (2011) Producer Cast Away (2000) My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) Connie and Carla (2004) Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005) Neil Young: Heart of Gold (2006) The Ant Bully (2006) Starter for 10 (2006) Charlie Wilson's War (2007) The Great Buck Howard (2008) City of Ember (2008) Where the Wild Things Are (2009) Larry Crowne (2011) My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 (2016) The Circle (2017) Television From the Earth to the Moon (1998) Band of Brothers (2001) Game Change (2012) Related Filmography Playtone Robert Langdon (film series) Awards and nominations Colin Hanks Rita Wilson Jim Hanks David S. 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{ "text": "Pam Beesly - Wikipedia Pam Beesly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search hide This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . (December 2015) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Pam Beesly Halpert The Office character Jenna Fischer as Pam Halpert First appearance \" Pilot \" Last appearance \" Finale \" Created by Greg Daniels Portrayed by Jenna Fischer Information Full name Pamela Morgan Beesly [nb 1] Gender Female Occupation Receptionist, Dunder Mifflin, Scranton PA (August 2003 - June 2011) Secret Assistant to the Regional Manager, Dunder Mifflin, Scranton PA Temporary Worker, Dunder Mifflin Corporate, New York City, NY Sales Representative, Michael Scott Paper Company Sales Representative, Dunder Mifflin, Scranton PA Sales Representative, Dunder Mifflin Sabre, Scranton PA Office Administrator, Dunder Mifflin Sabre, Scranton PA Office Administrator, Dunder Mifflin, Scranton PA Freelance Mural Painter/Art Gallery Owner, Austin TX Family William Beesly (father, Rick Overton ) Helene Beesly (mother, Shannon Cochran and Linda Purl ) Penny Beesly (sister, Anna Camp ) Sylvia Beesly (grandmother, Peggy Stewart ) Jocelyn Webster (cousin) Betsy Halpert (mother-in-law) Gerald Halpert (father-in-law) Tom Halpert (brother-in-law) Pete Halpert (brother-in-law) Spouse(s) Jim Halpert ( m. 2009) Significant other(s) Roy Anderson (ex-fiancé) Children Cecelia \"CeCe\" Marie Halpert [1] Philip Halpert [1] Religion Presbyterian Nationality American Based on Dawn Tinsley Pamela Morgan Halpert [nb 1] (née Beesly ) is a fictional character on the U.S. television sitcom The Office , played by Jenna Fischer . Her counterpart in the original UK series of The Office is Dawn Tinsley . Her character is initially the receptionist at the paper distribution company Dunder Mifflin , before becoming a saleswoman and eventually office administrator until her termination in the series finale . Her character is shy, growing assertive but amiable, and artistically inclined, and shares romantic interest with Jim Halpert , whom she begins dating in the fourth season and marries and starts a family with as the series continues. Contents 1 Casting and character development 2 Character history 2.1 Seasons 1–3 2.2 Seasons 4–6 2.3 Season 7 2.4 Season 8 2.5 Season 9 3 Coworker relations 3.1 Jim Halpert 3.2 Roy Anderson 3.3 Michael Scott 3.4 Toby Flenderson 4 Appearances 5 Notes 6 References Casting and character development [ edit ] The character was originally created to be very similar to the British counterpart, Dawn Tinsley. Even minute details, such as how Pam wore her hair each day, were considered by executive producer, Greg Daniels . [4] \"When I went in for The Office , the casting director said to me, 'Please look normal',\" recalls Jenna Fischer. \"Don't make yourself all pretty, and dare to bore me with your audition. Those were her words. Dare to bore me.\" [5] Heeding the advice, Fischer said little during the auditions, during which she was interviewed in character by show producers, in an improvisational format, to imitate the show's documentary premise. \"My take on the character of Pam was that she didn't have any media training, so she didn't know how to be a good interview. And also, she didn't care about this interview,\" she told NPR . \"So, I gave very short one-word answers and I tried very hard not to be funny or clever, because I thought that the comedy would come out of just, you know, the real human reactions to the situation...and they liked that take on it.\" [5] \"When I went in to the audition, the first question that they asked me in the character of Pam — they said, 'Do you like working as a receptionist?' I said, 'No.' And that was it. I didn't speak any more than that. And they started laughing.\" [5] Fischer found herself creating a very elaborate backstory for the character. For the first few seasons, she kept a list of the character history revealed on-screen by the creators, as well as her own imaginative thoughts on Pam's history. [6] She created a rule with the set's hair and make-up department that it couldn't look as though it took Pam more than 30 minutes to do her hair, [7] and she formulated ideas as to who gave Pam each piece of jewelry she wore [8] or where she went to college. [8] Fischer also carefully crafted Pam's quiet persona. \"Well, my character of Pam is really stuck,\" she explained to NPR . \"I mean, she's a subordinate in this office. And so, I think that for her, the only way she can express herself is in the silences, but you can say so much by not saying anything.\" [5] Originally meek and passive, the character grew more assertive as the seasons passed, prompting Fischer to reassess her portrayal. \"I have to approach Pam differently [now],\" she explained in Season 4, a defining season in which her character finally begins a long-awaited relationship with Jim and is accepted into the Pratt Institute . \"She is in a loving relationship, she has found her voice, she has started taking art classes. All of these things must inform the character and we need to see changes in the way she moves, speaks, dresses, etc.\" [6] Character history [ edit ] Seasons 1–3 [ edit ] At the beginning of the series, Pam and Roy have been dating for eight years and engaged for three years. Their open-ended engagement has become one of Michael's running gags and a sore spot for Pam. Pam does not want her current job to become permanent, remarking that \"I don't think it's many little girls' dream to be a receptionist.\" Pam is apathetic toward her work, evidenced by her frequent games of FreeCell on her office computer. However, in the pilot episode, she breaks down crying when Michael pulls an ill-advised prank by telling her that she will be fired. Michael has criticized Pam for simply forwarding calls to voice mail without answering and (in a deleted scene) for not sounding enthusiastic enough when speaking on the telephone. Pam is usually happy to abandon her work if asked to do something else by Jim. She will do extra, unnecessary work (such as making a casket for a dead bird or paper doves for the Office Olympics) to make other people happy. Despite the abuse she takes from Michael, she never goes any further than calling him a jerk in the pilot . In later seasons, however, she becomes more honest and forward with Michael and will often make sarcastic comments toward him. While engaged to Roy, Pam denies, or is in denial about, having any romantic feelings for Jim. When Jim confesses his love for her at the Dunder Mifflin \" Casino Night \" she turns him down. She later talks to her mom on the phone and says Jim is her best friend (though she doesn't say his name), and says \"Yeah, I think I am\" to an unheard question. She is interrupted by Jim, who enters and kisses her; she responds by kissing back. Season three marks a turning point for Pam's character: she gains self-confidence and appears less passive and more self-assured as the season progresses. In \" Gay Witch Hunt ,\" the season's opener, it is revealed that Pam got cold feet before her wedding and did not marry Roy after all, and that Jim transferred to a different Dunder Mifflin branch, in Stamford, shortly after Pam rejected him a second time, after their kiss. Pam moves into her own apartment, begins taking art classes, a pursuit that Roy had previously dismissed as a waste of time, and buys a new car, a blue Toyota Yaris . Jim returns to Scranton later on as a result of \" The Merger \", and brings along a female co-worker, Karen Filippelli , whom he begins dating. Jim and Pam appeared to have ended all communication after Jim transfers to the Stamford branch (aside from an episode in which Jim accidentally calls Pam at the end of the work day), and their episodes together following the branch merge are tense, despite both admitting to still harboring feelings for the other during the presence of the documentary cameras. Meanwhile, Roy vows to win Pam back. Roy's efforts to improve his relationship with Pam are quite successful, but once Pam and Roy are back together, he falls back into old habits almost immediately. When Roy and Pam attend an after work get-together at a local bar with their co-workers, Pam, feeling that she should be more honest with Roy, tells him about Jim kissing her at \" Casino Night .\" Roy yells, smashes a mirror, and trashes the bar. Pam, frightened and embarrassed by his reaction, breaks up with Roy immediately. Roy vows to kill Jim and in \" The Negotiation \", Roy unsuccessfully tries to attack Jim at work (Jim is saved by Dwight's intervention), and is subsequently fired. Pam later reluctantly agrees to meet Roy for coffee at his request, and after the polite but brief meeting, it appears that their relationship has ended amicably with Roy encouraging Pam to pursue Jim. Pam participates in an art show, but few people attend. Her co-worker, Oscar, brings his partner along who, not knowing that Pam is standing behind him, criticizes her work by proclaiming that \"real art requires courage.\" Oscar then goes on to say that courage isn't one of Pam's strong points. Affected by this statement, Pam tells the documentary crew that she is going to be more honest, culminating in a dramatic coal walk during the next-to-last episode of the season, \" Beach Games \", and a seemingly sincere speech to Jim in front of the entire office about their relationship. Michael also comes to the art show and reveals his erratically kind heart and loyalty by buying, framing and hanging Pam's drawing of the Dunder Mifflin building in the office. In the season finale, \" The Job ,\" she leaves a friendly note in Jim's briefcase and an old memento depicting the 'gold medal' yogurt lid from the Office Olympics, which he sees during an interview for a job at Corporate in New York City . While he is asked how he \"would function here in New York\", Jim is shown to have his mind back in Scranton, still distracted by the thought of Pam. Jim withdraws his name from consideration and drives back to the office, where he interrupts a talking head Pam is doing for the documentary crew by asking her out for dinner. She happily accepts, visibly moved, abandoning a train of thought about how she would be fine if Jim got the job and never came back to Scranton. Karen quits soon after, becoming the regional manager at Dunder Mifflin's Utica branch. Seasons 4–6 [ edit ] In Season 4, Pam retains the assertiveness she developed in the third season. She wears her hair down and has updated her old dowdy wardrobe. In the season 4 premiere, \" Fun Run \", Jim and Pam confess that they have started dating after the camera crew catches them kissing. The office ultimately learns of their relationship in \" Dunder Mifflin Infinity \". In \" Chair Model \", after teasing Pam about his impending proposal, Jim tells the documentary crew he is not kidding around about an engagement and shows them a ring he bought a week after he and Pam started dating. In the next few episodes, Jim fake-proposes to Pam multiple times. In \" Goodbye, Toby \", Pam discovers she's been accepted at Pratt Institute , an art and design school in Brooklyn . In an interview later in the episode, Jim announces that he will propose to Pam that evening. Just as Jim is preparing to propose, however, Andy Bernard stands up and makes his own impromptu proposal to Angela. Having had his thunder stolen by Andy, Jim reluctantly puts the ring back in his jacket pocket, leaving Pam visibly disappointed as she was expecting Jim to propose that night. In the Season 5 premiere, \" Weight Loss \", Pam begins her three-month course at the Pratt Institute . In this episode, Jim proposes in the pouring rain at a rest stop, saying that he \"can't wait\". In \" Business Trip \", Pam learns that she is failing one of her classes and will have to remain in New York another three months to retake it. Although Jim is supportive and tells her he will wait for her to come back \"the right way\", she ultimately makes the decision to return home, saying that she realized she hated graphic design and missed Scranton. A deleted scene for the episode shows Jim looking through Pam's graphic design projects, which he thinks are \"cool\", as well as a notebook filled with pencil sketches, which he finds a lot more impressive than her graphic design projects, implying her talents lie in hand-drawn works. In \" Two Weeks \", Pam agrees to become Michael's first saleswoman in his not-yet-established company, The Michael Scott Paper Co., as a supportive Jim looks on. When David Wallace makes an offer to buy the company Michael negotiates in order to get their jobs at Dunder Mifflin back instead, including adding Pam to the sales team. In \" Company Picnic \", Pam, after dominating the company volleyball tournament, injures her ankle during a game and is taken to the hospital against her wishes. At the hospital, the camera crew is stationed outside an exam room while a doctor updates Jim and Pam on her condition. There is no audio as the camera shows Jim and Pam embrace, looking shocked and ecstatic. It is implied that she is pregnant and is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, \" Gossip \". Jim and Pam marry early in the season, at Niagara Falls , during the highly anticipated, hour long episode, \" Niagara \". The ending of the episode, in which their co-workers dance down the aisle, is an imitation of a viral YouTube video — JK Wedding Entrance Dance . [9] Following the wedding, a multi-episode story arc begins in which it is revealed that Michael hooked up with Pam's mother the night of the wedding. The two break up during \" Double Date \", an episode that ends with Pam slapping Michael in response to his actions. In \" The Delivery \" of Season 6, Pam and Jim have their first child, a daughter named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Jenna Fischer was granted naming rights by show producers, and chose to name her after her own niece. [10] Season 7 [ edit ] In \" Counseling \", Pam feels inadequate about her poor performance in sales and tricks Gabe into promoting her to a phony new salaried position called office administrator. In \" China \", Pam tries to use her authority as office administrator to force building manager Dwight to stop his annoying cost-cutting measures. Pam threatens to move the office to a new building, which Dwight discovers doesn't exist. Pam saves face, however, when Dwight secretly has his assistant provide her with a book on building regulations that proves Dwight's measures were not allowed. The episode is another example of Dwight's covert protectiveness and fondness for Pam (as previously demonstrated in \" The Injury \", \" Back from Vacation \", \" The Job \" and \" Diwali \"); Mindy Kaling said during an online Q&A session that Dwight has a soft spot for her that he does not extend to anyone else at the office. She also uses her position to buy Erin Hannon an expensive desktop computer to replace the terrible one she had to use for years, as well as discreetly giving Andy a new computer, and giving Daryll three sick days. At the end of the episode she proudly says that she is, \"Full on corrupt.\" In \" Goodbye, Michael \", Pam almost misses saying good-bye to Michael, as she spends most of the day out of the office trying to price shredders. Jim figures out Michael's plan to leave early and tells her by text. Pam reaches the airport in time and is the last person to see Michael before he leaves. Season 8 [ edit ] At the beginning of Season 8, Pam is revealed to be pregnant with her and Jim's second child, Philip Halpert. The child coincided with Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy. She begins her maternity leave after \" Gettysburg \". Pam returns in \" Jury Duty \", where she and Jim bring Cece and Phillip into the office. In both \" Tallahassee \" and \" Test the Store \" Pam is shown helping, and developing her friendship with Andy. Season 9 [ edit ] Early in season 9, Jim is restless about his life in Scranton and helps a friend start a Sports Marketing business, Athlead, in Philadelphia but he keeps it a secret from Pam until the third episode \" Andy's Ancestry \". Although Pam is happy for his decision, she is concerned about the fact that he had kept it a secret from her and she is later disturbed to hear about just how much of their money he had invested. Jim begins spending part of each work week in Philadelphia, but in \" Customer Loyalty \", the strain of this on Pam is evident when she breaks down in tears, and is comforted by Brian, the boom mic operator of the film crew. In \" Moving On \", Pam interviews for a job in Philadelphia to be closer to Jim, but she is turned off by the idea when her prospective new boss bears a striking resemblance in behavior to Michael Scott. Over dinner, Pam reveals to Jim that she doesn't really want to move to Philadelphia after all. However, in \" Livin' the Dream \", when Athlead is bought out and Jim is offered a large sum of money for 3 months to pitch the company across the country, Pam overhears Jim refuse the opportunity because of her and appears to have mixed feelings about this decision. In \" A.A.R.M. \", Pam tells Jim that she's afraid that he will resent her for making him stay and that she might not be enough for him. Jim asks the camera crew to compile documentary footage of the two of them to show her. When she finishes the montage, which shows Jim taking back a letter he intended to give her with his teapot gift during Christmas ; Jim finally gives her that letter, and she reads it, visibly moved. In the series finale , which takes place a year later, she reveals to Jim that she secretly put the house on the market, so that they can move to Austin, Texas, and take his job back at Athlead (now Athleap). Coworker relations [ edit ] From her years working the front desk, Pam has become well-acquainted with the Dunder-Mifflin staff and is consistently shown to have a thorough understanding of her coworkers' personalities, including the more eccentric individuals Dwight Schrute and Michael Scott. She uses this familiarity to manipulate them, often for their and the company's best interests (such as her giving the staff elaborate instructions on how to handle a heartbroken Michael in \" The Chump \") but also occasionally for her own. This familiarity plays a large part in her efficiency as office administrator and was crucial to her being promoted to the previously non-existent position. Jim Halpert [ edit ] Main article: Jim Halpert The \"will they or won't they\" tension between Jim and Pam is a strong storyline in the early episodes of The Office , encompassing much of Seasons 1 to 3. In the opener of Season 4, the two characters are revealed to be dating, and as such, other character romances, such as the romance between fellow co-workers Dwight Schrute and Angela Martin , begin to move more toward the forefront of episodes. In Season 6, Jim and Pam are married in the season's 4th and 5th episodes (hour long), a feat considered noteworthy by many television critics, as bringing together the two lead love interests in a television series is often thought to be a risky venture. [11] Their child is born in the second half of the season, during another hour long, \" The Delivery \". Pam and Jim's second child is born during season 8. In season 9, their marriage becomes strained when Jim takes up a second job in Philadelphia. They ultimately decide to leave Dunder Mifflin together so Jim can pursue his dream job. Roy Anderson [ edit ] Main article: Roy Anderson (The Office) When the series begins, Pam is engaged to her high school sweetheart Roy Anderson; this engagement is revealed to be three years old and running. They finally set a date, but Pam calls off the wedding at the last minute. They get back together once, briefly, but Pam is much more assertive, and finally breaks up with him after he has a violent outburst. Roy is deeply flawed - he is overbearing, neglectful, dismissive of her desire to be an artist, and offers her sex as a gift on Valentine's Day. Jim comments in Season 2 that Pam does not like to \"bother\" Roy with her \"thoughts or feelings\". He tells the camera crew that the only two problems in Pam's life seemed to be Roy and her job at Dunder Mifflin. In the early seasons, there is a great deal of tension between Jim and Roy, with Roy often acting threateningly towards Jim. In \" Basketball \", when Jim starts to impress Pam with his basketball skills, Roy elbows Jim in the nose. In season 2, when Jim encourages Pam to pursue a graphic arts internship offered by Dunder Mifflin, Roy objects to the opportunity and eventually convinces her that the idea is foolish. Pam ultimately calls off her wedding to Roy, but they remain friendly and he is determined to win her back by being less of a jerk. She reconciles with Roy at Phyllis's wedding as a response to watching Jim date Karen. In an attempt at a fresh start with Roy, Pam comes clean about Jim kissing her during \" Casino Night \". Roy flies into a violent rage and Pam ends the relationship on the spot. The next day, Roy attempts to attack Jim in the office but is stopped by Dwight's pepper spray and is summarily fired. After losing his job, Roy meets Pam for coffee and says that even though Jim is dating Karen, she should at least make an effort to date him (inasmuch as she called off the wedding because of him). In season 5, Jim and Roy run into each other at a bar and Roy learns that Jim and Pam are engaged. The mood is somewhat awkward, but Roy is congratulatory, but then makes a somewhat passive-aggressive comment, seemingly meant to make Jim feel insecure about his current role in Pam's life, which tempts him to drive to Pratt, where she is attending art classes. Jim gets on the freeway, but changes his mind and remembers that he trusts Pam. Jim didn't want to treat Pam the same way Roy treated her. Michael Scott [ edit ] Main article: Michael Scott (The Office) In the series pilot, Michael is overtly rude to Pam and at one point fakes her firing, leaving her in tears. He often makes suggestive if harmless remarks about her beauty and general appearance, and at one point lies to the camera that they used to date (inspiring a horrified \"WHAT???\" from Pam when an interviewer relays the message to her). However, his impulsive attempt to kiss her during Diwali is shot down and marked the end of any romantic dreams for Michael with Pam. Over time, the combination of Michael being supportive of her goals, her transition from a bad relationship with Roy to a great one with Jim as well as her finding a job she not only enjoys but is effective at in the office administrator position and Michael finding his own soulmate in Holly Flax made Pam soften her stance towards Michael, and the experience at the Michael Scott Paper Company further bonded them (as did Michael's decision to choose Pam instead of Ryan Howard as the only MSPC salesman to keep that job when Michael returned as Branch Manager). Pam was furious at Michael for dating her mom Helene, and excoriated him at length during \" The Lover \" before eventually slapping him in \" Double Date \", but they once again were able to be civil to each other afterward. Pam does set up boundaries around her personal life that Michael can't cross, like telling him that he wasn't Cece's godfather. By Season 7, Pam acts as something of a guardian angel for Michael, steering him away from (numerous) bad ideas and towards his (fewer but real) good ones, such as his successful efforts to propose to Holly. In Michael's finale \" Goodbye, Michael \", Pam spends the whole day looking for a shredder, believing that the next day Michael was leaving. As Michael takes off his microphone and heads down the airport concourse, Pam runs to him with no shoes and hugs him as he kisses her cheek. The two have a nice moment and he walks off, leaving her holding her shoes. She then tells the camera that he was happy, wanting to be an advanced rewards member, and was glad to be going home to see Holly. She then is there to watch Michael's plane take off. In a deleted scene from \" The Inner Circle \", we learn Pam is flattered that Michael named his new puppy \"Pamela Beagsley\", and in \"The List\" she playfully teases Jim by calling their second child \"Little Michael Scott\", further proving that the two have developed a genuine friendship. Toby Flenderson [ edit ] Main article: Toby Flenderson Toby, the Human Resources Representative for Dunder Mifflin in the Scranton branch, has a secret crush on Pam. In \" A Benihana Christmas \" she gives him her Dunder-Mifflin bathrobe, a display of friendly affection, after he spent the day feeling bad that Dwight took his. In Dunder Mifflin Infinity , Toby witnesses Pam kissing Jim Halpert in the break room, which prompts him to issue a memo about public displays of affection in the workplace. Later, when Jim and Pam admit they are dating and ask to fill out a disclosure form, he hesitates to give them a form saying they should wait and see. In \" Night Out \", Toby awkwardly rubs her knee while they share a laugh (and while Jim sits just on her other side), and the rest of the office watches in horror. In his mortification, Toby immediately announces that he is moving to Costa Rica before jumping over the locked gate and fleeing. In \" Goodbye, Toby \", Toby purchases a DSLR camera just to get a picture with Pam. On the eve of his departure, Pam confesses to the cameras that she always thought Toby was \"kind of cute\". In \" Niagara \", Pam and Jim are late for their wedding and he is visibly excited at the prospect that the wedding might not happen. In \" Finale \", Pam and Toby dance with each other at Dwight's wedding, with Toby beginning to cry as Pam comforts him. When she asks, \"is it me?\", he replies that \"it's everything!\". Appearances [ edit ] Pam Halpert has appeared in every episode with the exceptions of \" Business Ethics \" (except for the deleted scenes), \" St. Patrick's Day \", and \" New Leads \" in which only her voice is heard, and several season 8 episodes from \" Mrs. California \" to \" Pool Party \", where she did not appear at all as Fischer was on maternity leave. [12] Notes [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Pam Beesly's full name is Pamela Morgan Beesly (later Pamela Morgan Halpert). In \" The Lover \" Michael says to Pam, \"Pamela Morgan Beesly, you need to apologize to your mother right now.\" [2] In \" Did I Stutter? \" Jim says to Pam, \"You know what would energize me? If you, Pamela Morgan Beesly...\" [3] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"Halpert Baby Blog\" . Halpertbeesly.com. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27 . Retrieved 2012-11-30 . Jump up ^ \"Season 6 – Episode 06: 'The Lover ' \" . OfficeQuotes.net . Retrieved February 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Season 4 – Episode 12: 'Did I Stutter? ' \" . OfficeQuotes.net . Retrieved February 19, 2018 . Jump up ^ Episode commentary, Season 2, \"Valentine's Day\" ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"For Jenna Fischer, 'Office' Life Is A Great Act\" . NPR. 2008-12-30 . Retrieved 2012-11-30 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Jenna Fischer rocks the OTCR\" . OfficeTally . Retrieved 2012-11-30 . Jump up ^ Season 2 DVD, \"Valentine's Day\", episode commentary ^ Jump up to: a b \"Pam Beesly (Pam/Jenna) op Myspace\" . Myspace.com . Retrieved 2012-11-30 . Jump up ^ \"JK Wedding Entrance Dance\" . YouTube. 2009-07-19 . Retrieved 2012-11-30 . Jump up ^ People Magazine, Week of 03/05/2010 Jump up ^ \"The Office: Why Jim and Pam's wedding is good for TV comedy\" . NJ.com . Retrieved 2012-11-30 . Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (September 8, 2011). \"The Office Exclusive: 'Til Death's Lindsey Broad Befriends Pam\" . TVLine . Retrieved November 12, 2011 . hide v t e The Office (U.S. series) Episodes Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Webisodes The Accountants Kevin's Loan The Outburst Blackmail Subtle Sexuality The Mentor The 3rd Floor The Podcast The Girl Next Door Characters Primary Michael Scott Dwight Schrute Jim Halpert Pam Beesly Ryan Howard Andy Bernard Secondary Jan Levinson Roy Anderson Stanley Hudson Kevin Malone Meredith Palmer Angela Martin Oscar Martinez Phyllis Vance Kelly Kapoor Toby Flenderson Creed Bratton Darryl Philbin Erin Hannon Gabe Lewis Robert California Holly Flax Nellie Bertram Pete Miller Clark Green Recurring Todd Packer David Wallace Other Dunder Mifflin Awards Worldwide editions Video game Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pam_Beesly&oldid=851571518 \" Categories : Fictional receptionists Fictional secretaries Fictional American people of English descent The Office (U.S. TV series) characters Fictional characters introduced in 2005 Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2012 All articles needing additional references Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from December 2015 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Articles with multiple maintenance issues Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 23 July 2018, at 06:00 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Pam Beesly", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Pam_Beesly&amp;oldid=851571518" }

{ "text": "Windows 7 editions - Wikipedia Windows 7 editions From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Part of a series on Windows 7 New features Removed features Editions v t e Windows 7 , a major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system , was available in six different editions: Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise and Ultimate. Only Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate were widely available at retailers. [1] The other editions focus on other markets, such as the software development world or enterprise use. All editions support 32-bit IA-32 CPUs and all editions except Starter support 64-bit x64 CPUs. 64-bit installation media is not included in Home-Basic edition packages, but can be obtained separately from Microsoft. According to Microsoft, the features for all editions of Windows 7 are stored on the machine, regardless of which edition is in use. [2] Users who wish to upgrade to an edition of Windows 7 with more features could use Windows Anytime Upgrade to purchase the upgrade and to unlock the features of those editions. [1] [2] [3] Microsoft announced Windows 7 pricing information for some editions on June 25, 2009, and Windows Anytime Upgrade and Family Pack pricing on July 31, 2009. [1] [4] [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Main editions 2 Special-purpose editions 3 Upgrade editions 3.1 Upgrade compatibility 3.2 Anytime Upgrade editions 4 Derivatives 5 Comparison chart 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading Main editions [ edit ] Since October 31, 2013, Windows 7 is no longer available in retail (except for the Professional edition preinstalled which was discontinued on October 31, 2016): [6] Windows 7 Starter Windows 7 Starter is the edition of Windows 7 that contains the fewest features. It is only available in a 32-bit version and does not include the Windows Aero theme. The desktop wallpaper and visual styles (Windows 7 Basic) are not user-changeable. Microsoft originally intended to restrict users of this edition to running three simultaneous applications but this limitation was dropped. [7] This edition was available pre-installed on computers, especially netbooks or Windows Tablets, through system integrators or computer manufacturers using OEM licenses. [1] [8] [9] Windows 7 Home Basic Windows 7 Home Basic was available in \" emerging markets \", in 141 different countries. [10] Some Windows Aero options are excluded along with several new features. [1] Home Basic, along with other editions sold in emerging markets, include geographical activation restriction , which requires users to activate Windows within a certain region or country. [11] Windows 7 Home Premium This edition contains features aimed at the home market segment , such as Windows Media Center , Windows Aero and multi-touch support. It was available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. [12] Windows 7 Professional This edition is targeted towards enthusiasts, small-business users and schools. [1] It includes all the features of Windows 7 Home Premium, and adds the ability to participate in a Windows Server domain . [1] Additional features include support for up to 192 GB of random-access memory (increased from 16 GB), [13] operating as a Remote Desktop server, location aware printing, backup to a network location, Encrypting File System , Presentation Mode, Software Restriction Policies (but not the extra management features of AppLocker) and Windows XP Mode . [1] It, too, was available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. [12] Windows 7 Enterprise This edition targeted the enterprise segment of the market and was sold through volume licensing to companies which have a Software Assurance contract with Microsoft. [1] Additional features include support for Multilingual User Interface (MUI) packages, BitLocker Drive Encryption , and UNIX application support . [1] Not available through retail or OEM channels, this edition is distributed through Microsoft Software Assurance (SA). [1] As a result it includes several SA-only benefits, including a license allowing the operating of diskless nodes (diskless PCs) and activation via VLK . [14] Windows 7 Ultimate Windows 7 Ultimate contains the same features as Windows 7 Enterprise, but unlike the Enterprise edition, it was available to home users on an individual license basis. [1] Windows 7 Home Premium and Windows 7 Professional users are able to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate for a fee using Windows Anytime Upgrade if they wish to do so. [1] Unlike Windows Vista Ultimate, the Windows 7 Ultimate edition does not include the Windows Ultimate Extras feature or any exclusive features as Microsoft had stated. [1] Mainstream support for all editions (new features and bug fixes) ended as of January 2015, but extended support (security updates) will continue until January 2020. [15] Special-purpose editions [ edit ] The main editions also can take the form of one of the following special editions: N and KN editions The features in the N and KN Editions are the same as their equivalent full versions, but do not include Windows Media Player or other Windows Media-related technologies, such as Windows Media Center and Windows DVD Maker due to limitations set by the European Union and South Korea, respectively. [16] The cost of the N and KN Editions are the same as the full versions, as the Media Feature Pack for Windows 7 N or Windows 7 KN can be downloaded without charge from Microsoft. [17] VL builds VL builds work with VLKs (volume license keys). Volume license keys can be used to activate multiple installations of the software without any mechanism (such as a product activation mechanism) checking the total number of installations. The license for the software will place restrictions on the use of the key. Typically, the license will limit the key to a fixed number of installations which must only be within the licensee's organization and also place the licensee under an obligation to keep a record of the number of installations, keep the key confidential and possibly even require that the licensee organization makes itself available for a software licensing audit to verify that its use of the key is within the terms of the license. Upgrade editions [ edit ] In-place upgrade from Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 to Windows 7 with is supported if the processor architecture and the language are the same and their editions match (see below). [1] [3] [18] In-place upgrade is not supported for earlier versions of Windows; moving to Windows 7 on these machines requires a clean installation, i.e. removal of the old operating system, installing Windows 7 and reinstalling all previously installed programs. Windows Easy Transfer can assist in this process. [1] [3] [19] [20] Microsoft made upgrade SKUs of Windows 7 for selected editions of Windows XP and Windows Vista. The difference between these SKUs and full SKUs of Windows 7 is their lower price and proof of license ownership of a qualifying previous version of Windows. Same restrictions on in-place upgrading applies to these SKUs as well. [21] In addition, Windows 7 is available as a Family Pack upgrade edition in certain markets, to upgrade to Windows 7 Home Premium only. It gives licenses to upgrade three machines from Vista or Windows XP to the Windows 7 Home Premium edition. These are not full versions, so each machine to be upgraded must have one of these qualifying previous versions of Windows for them to work. [22] In the United States, this offer expired in early December 2009. [23] In October 2010, to commemorate the anniversary of Windows 7, Microsoft once again made Windows 7 Home Premium Family Pack available for a limited time, while supplies lasted. [24] Upgrade compatibility [ edit ] There are two possible ways to upgrade to Windows 7 from an earlier version of Windows: An in-place install (labelled \"Upgrade\" in the installer), where settings and programs are preserved from an older version of Windows. This option is only sometimes available, depending on the editions of Windows being used, and is not available at all unless upgrading from Windows Vista. [25] A clean install (labelled \"Custom\" in the installer), where all settings including but not limited to user accounts, applications, user settings, music, photos, and programs are erased entirely and the current operating system is erased and replaced with Windows 7. This option is always available and is required for all versions of Windows XP. [26] The table below lists which upgrade paths allow for an in-place install. Note that in-place upgrades can only be performed when the previous version of Windows is of the same architecture. If upgrading from a 32-bit installation to a 64-bit installation or downgrading from 64-bit installation to 32-bit installation, a clean install is mandatory regardless of the editions being used. Version and its specific edition of Windows to upgrade from Edition of Windows 7 to upgrade to Home Basic Home Premium Professional Enterprise Ultimate Vista Home Basic In-place In-place Clean Clean In-place Vista Home Premium Clean In-place Clean Clean In-place Vista Business Clean Clean In-place In-place In-place Vista Enterprise Clean Clean Clean In-place Clean Vista Ultimate Clean Clean Clean Clean In-place XP Clean Clean Clean Clean Clean In-place installation option available. Requires clean install. Anytime Upgrade editions [ edit ] Microsoft also supported in-place upgrades from a lower edition of Windows 7 to a higher one, using the Windows Anytime Upgrade tool. [1] There are currently three retail options available (though it is currently unclear whether they can be used with previous installations of the N versions). [27] There are no family pack versions of the Anytime Upgrade editions. It was possible to use the Product Key from a Standard upgrade edition to accomplish an in-place upgrade (e.g. Home Premium to Ultimate). [28] [29] Starter to Home Premium Starter to Professional 1 Starter to Ultimate 1 Home Premium to Professional Home Premium to Ultimate Professional to Ultimate 1 1 Available in retail, and at the Microsoft Store Derivatives [ edit ] Windows Thin PC On February 9, 2011, Microsoft announced Windows Thin PC, a branded derivative of Windows Embedded Standard 7 with Service Pack 1, designed as a lightweight version of Windows 7 for installation on low performance PCs as an alternative to using a dedicated thin client device. It succeeded Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs , which was based on Windows XP Embedded . Windows Thin PC was released on June 6, 2011. Windows Thin PC is supported until October 12, 2021. [30] Embedded versions Windows 7 is also currently available as a form of Windows Embedded to developers, named as Windows Embedded Standard 7 (previously known as Windows Embedded 2011, the newest being Windows Embedded Standard 7 with Service Pack 1). Windows Embedded Standard 7 is supported until October 13, 2020. [31] Comparison chart [ edit ] Windows 7 edition comparison chart [1] [3] [4] [14] [19] [32] [33] [34] Features Starter Home Basic Home Premium Professional Enterprise Ultimate Licensing scheme OEM licensing Retail and OEM licensing in emerging markets Retail and OEM licensing Retail, OEM and volume licensing [35] Volume licensing [35] Retail and OEM licensing Maximum physical memory (RAM) ( 32-Bit ) [36] 2 GB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB Maximum physical memory (RAM) ( 64-Bit ) [36] N/A 8 GB 16 GB 192 GB 192 GB 192 GB Maximum physical CPUs supported [a] [37] 1 1 1 2 2 2 Built-in AVCHD support [38] No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Multiple monitors No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Fast user switching No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Desktop Window Manager No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Windows Mobility Center No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Printing via the Internet No [39] Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Windows Parental Controls [40] No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 64-bit edition available? No Yes, but not in retail SKUs Yes Yes Yes Yes Windows Aero No Partial Yes Yes Yes Yes Internet connection sharing No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Built-in DVD ( MPEG-2 and Dolby Digital ) decoder [3] No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Multi-touch No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Windows Media Center No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Windows Media Player remote media experience [b] No No Yes [41] Yes [41] Yes [41] Yes [41] Premium games included No No Yes Yes [c] Yes [c] Yes HomeGroup support Join only Join only Create or join Create or join Create or join Create or join Back up to network with Backup and Restore Center [43] No No No Yes Yes Yes Act as host for Remote Desktop Services No No No Yes Yes Yes Dynamic disks [44] No No No Yes Yes Yes Encrypting File System No No No Yes Yes Yes Location-aware printing No No No Yes Yes Yes Presentation mode No No No Yes Yes Yes Group Policy [45] No No No Yes Yes Yes Offline files and folder redirection [45] No No No Yes Yes Yes Windows Server domain joining No No No Yes Yes Yes Windows XP Mode [d] No No No Yes Yes Yes Software restriction policies No No No Yes Yes Yes Remote administration tools No No No Yes Yes Yes Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS) [e] No No No Yes Yes Yes AppLocker No No No Create policies, but cannot enforce Create and enforce policies Create and enforce policies Aero glass remoting [46] [47] No No No No Yes Yes Windows Media Player multimedia redirection [47] No No No No Yes [41] Yes [41] Audio recording over Remote Desktop Connection [47] No No No No Yes Yes Multi-display Remote Desktop Connection [47] No No No No Yes Yes Enterprise search scopes [45] : 130 No No No No Yes Yes Federated search [48] No No No No Yes Yes BitLocker Drive Encryption No No No No Yes Yes BranchCache Distributed Cache No No No No Yes Yes DirectAccess No No No No Yes Yes Subsystem for Unix-based Applications No No No No Yes Yes Supports Multilingual User Interface packages No No No No Yes Yes Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) enhancements [45] : 130 No No No No Yes Yes Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) licensed [49] No No No No Yes Yes VHD booting [f] No No No No Yes Yes Switching between any of the 37 available languages [51] [52] No No No No Yes [52] Yes [52] Features Starter Home Basic Home Premium Professional Enterprise Ultimate See also [ edit ] Windows 2000 editions Windows XP editions Windows Vista editions Windows 8 editions Windows 10 editions Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Not the same as logical processor limits: all editions are limited to 32 logical processors for IA-32 and 256 for x64 Jump up ^ Feature of Windows Media Player which enables the use and control of media libraries on other computers ^ Jump up to: a b Disabled by default. [42] Jump up ^ Windows Virtual PC including a complete copy of Windows XP with Service Pack 3 using Remote Desktop Protocol to display individual applications integrated with the host OS (Windows 7). Windows XP Mode is available as a free download from Microsoft. Jump up ^ formerly Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM) Jump up ^ Any edition of Windows 7 can be installed onto a VHD volume; these installations even appear in the boot menu. However, only Enterprise or Ultimate editions start. Other editions return an error message. [50] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r \"All Windows 7 Versions—What You Need to Know\" . ExtremeTech . February 5, 2009 . Retrieved February 5, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b LeBlanc, Brandon (February 9, 2009). \"A closer look at the Windows 7 SKUs\" . Windows Team Blog . Microsoft . Retrieved February 9, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thurrott, Paul (February 3, 2009). \"Windows 7 Product Editions\" . Retrieved February 3, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Microsoft unveils 'screaming deals' for Windows 7\" . ZDNet . June 25, 2009 . Retrieved June 25, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Windows Anytime Upgrade and Family Pack Pricing\" . Microsoft . July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Windows lifecycle fact sheet\" . support.microsoft.com . Jump up ^ Keizer, Gregg (May 29, 2009). \"Microsoft kills Windows 7 Starter's 3-app limit\" . Computer World . Jump up ^ \"Windows 7 Wins on Netbook PCs\" . Microsoft . February 3, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Microsoft forbids changes to Windows 7 netbook wallpaper\" . The Register. June 19, 2009 . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Jump up ^ Hachman, Mark (February 4, 2009). \"The Windows 7 Versions: What You Need to Know\" . PC Magazine . Windows 7 Home Basic . Retrieved October 22, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"How to Tell: Geographically Restricted Microsoft Software\" . Microsoft . Retrieved November 17, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"All Windows 7 Versions—What You Need to Know – Windows Home Premium\" . ExtremeTech . February 5, 2009 . Retrieved February 5, 2009 . Jump up ^ Bott, Ed. \"Do you need more than Windows 7 Home Premium?\" . ZDNet . CBS Interactive . Retrieved January 15, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Products: Windows 7 Enterprise\" . Microsoft . Retrieved April 2, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Microsoft product support lifecycle information by product family: Windows 7\" . Microsoft . Retrieved February 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Description of the Windows Media Feature Pack for Windows 7 N and for Windows 7 KN\" . Microsoft . November 10, 2009 . Retrieved April 24, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Media Feature Pack for Windows 7 N with Service Pack 1 and Windows 7 KN with Service Pack 1 (KB968211)\" . Microsoft . March 7, 2011 . Retrieved April 24, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"The Microsoft Windows 7 Upgrade Program Rev. 2.0\" . Tech ARP . February 10, 2009 . Retrieved February 10, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b Foley, Mary-Jo (February 3, 2009). \"Microsoft's Windows 7 line-up: The good, the bad and the ugly\" . ZDNet . Retrieved February 17, 2009 . Jump up ^ Fiveash, Kelly (February 5, 2009). \"Windows 7 'upgrade' doesn't mark XP spot\" . Channel Register . The Register . Retrieved February 12, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Microsoft Store UK – Windows 7\" . Retrieved September 14, 2009 . Jump up ^ steam blog, dated 2009/07/31 , accessed September 16, 2009. Jump up ^ Windows 7 Family Pack Discontinued Jump up ^ Family Pack returns in time for the Anniversary of Windows 7 Jump up ^ \"Windows 7 Upgrade Paths\" . Microsoft . Retrieved September 13, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Upgrading to Windows 7: frequently asked questions\" . Microsoft . Retrieved February 12, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Windows Anytime Upgrades\" . Amazon . Retrieved September 14, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Ultimate steal – Windows 7 Premium ok for Windows 7 Starter?\" . Microsoft . February 2, 2010 . Retrieved August 13, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Windows 7 Student upgrade\" . Microsoft . December 20, 2009 . Retrieved August 13, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Windows Thin PC RTMs!\" . Windows for your Business . Microsoft . Retrieved July 7, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Windows Embedded Standard 7 Overview\" . Microsoft . Retrieved April 13, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Windows 7 Editions – Features on Parade\" . Softpedia. February 5, 2009 . Retrieved February 5, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Windows 7: Which Edition is Right For You?\" . PCWorld. February 3, 2009 . Retrieved February 5, 2009 . Jump up ^ Bott, Ed (June 3, 2009). \"From Starter to Ultimate: What's really in each Windows 7 Edition?\" . ZDNet . Retrieved August 14, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b Schuster, Gavriella (September 1, 2009). \"Which Windows 7 Is Best for You?\" . Microsoft . Retrieved August 1, 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Physical Memory Limits: Windows 7\" . Microsoft Developer Network . October 14, 2010 . Retrieved November 1, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Windows 7 System Requirements\" . Retrieved September 29, 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Windows Media Player 12\" . Windows 7 Features . Microsoft Corporation . Retrieved October 22, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Internet Printing client on Windows 7 Starter\" . Retrieved November 22, 2010 . Jump up ^ Tulloch, Mitch; Northrup, Tony; Honeycutt, Jerry (2010). Windows 7 Resource Kit . Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Press . pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-7356-4277-5 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Windows 7 N Edition does not include Windows Media Player. Jump up ^ \"Where are my games?\" . Microsoft . Retrieved July 30, 2014 . Jump up ^ Which one is right for you? – Microsoft Windows Jump up ^ \"You cannot select or format a hard disk partition when you try to install Windows Vista, Windows 7 or Windows Server 2008 R2\" . Microsoft . September 14, 2007 . Retrieved December 17, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Windows 7 Product Guide Jump up ^ Terminal services team (June 23, 2009). \"Aero Glass Remoting in Windows Server 2008 R2\" . Microsoft . Retrieved September 16, 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Terminal Services Team (August 21, 2009). \"Remote Desktop Connection 7 for Windows 7, Windows XP & Windows Vista\" . Microsoft . Retrieved October 27, 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Microsoft Windows Enterprise: Windows 7 Features\" . Microsoft . Retrieved November 24, 2009 . Jump up ^ 6292A Installing and Configuring Windows 7 Client: Microsoft. p14. Part Number X17-37160 Released 10/2009 Jump up ^ Shultz, Greg (September 17, 2012). \"Native VHD Boot is available in all versions of Windows 7\" . TechRepublic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved August 19, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Why buy Windows 7 Ultimate?\" . Microsoft. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011 . Retrieved August 9, 2011 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Windows 7 language packs are available for computers that are running Windows 7 Ultimate or Windows 7 Enterprise\" . Microsoft . Retrieved August 19, 2011 . Further reading [ edit ] \"Windows 7 Lineup Offers Clear Choice for Consumers and Businesses\" . Microsoft News Center . Redmond, Washington: Microsoft. February 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 6, 2011 . \"Brief: Licensing Windows 7 for Use with Virtual Machine Technologies\" ( .docx ) . Microsoft Volume Licensing . Microsoft. March 2010 . Retrieved June 6, 2011 . Thurrott, Paul (October 6, 2010). \"Windows 7 Product Editions: A Comparison\" . Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows . Retrieved June 6, 2011 . [ hide ] v t e Microsoft Windows family Components History Timeline Criticism DOS -based Windows 1.0 Windows 2.0 Windows 2.1x Windows 3.0 Windows 3.1x Windows 9x Windows 95 ( Development ) Windows 98 Windows ME Windows NT Windows NT 3.1 Windows NT 3.5 Windows NT 3.51 Windows NT 4.0 Windows 2000 Client versions Windows XP editions x64 Media Center Fundamentals Windows Vista editions Windows 7 editions Windows 8 editions RT 8.1 Windows 10 editions version history Windows Server Server 2003 Home Server Server 2008 EBS 2008 HPC Server 2008 Server 2008 R2 Home Server 2011 Server 2012 Server 2012 R2 Server 2016 Server 2019 MultiPoint Server Server Essentials Specialized Windows Preinstallation Environment Windows Embedded Embedded Compact CE 5.0 Embedded CE 6.0 Embedded Compact 7 Embedded Automotive Embedded Industry Windows Mobile Pocket PC 2000 Pocket PC 2002 Mobile 2003 Mobile 5.0 Mobile 6.0 Mobile 6.1 Mobile 6.5 Windows Phone Phone 7 Phone 8 Phone 8.1 Windows 10 Mobile Cancelled Cairo Nashville Neptune Odyssey List of versions Comparison Book Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Windows_7_editions&oldid=830175245 \" Categories : Windows 7 Hidden categories: Use mdy dates from August 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ελληνικά Español فارسی 한국어 日本語 Português සිංහල Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2018, at 06:04. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Windows 7 editions", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Windows_7_editions&amp;oldid=830175245" }

{ "text": "Arab–Byzantine wars - Wikipedia Arab–Byzantine wars From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Arab–Byzantine wars Part of the Muslim conquests Greek fire , first used by the Byzantine Navy during the Byzantine–Arab Wars. Date 629–1050s Location Levant (Syria), Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily, Southern Italy Territorial changes Levant , Mesopotamia , North Africa , and Sicily annexed by Arabs. Southeastern Anatolia , Armenia , northern Levant , southern Italy , and Crete recaptured during Byzantine reconquest. Belligerents Byzantine Empire [1] Ghassanids [2] Mardaites Armenian principalities Bulgarian Empire Kingdom of Italy Italian city-states Rashidun Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Aghlabids Emirate of Sicily Emirate of Bari Emirate of Crete Hamdanids of Aleppo Fatimid Caliphate Mirdasids of Aleppo Commanders and leaders Heraclius Theodore Trithyrius † Gregory the Patrician † Constans II Constantine IV Justinian II Leontios Heraclius Constantine V Leo V the Armenian Michael Lachanodrakon Tatzates Irene of Athens Nikephoros I Theophilos Manuel the Armenian Niketas Ooryphas Himerios John Kourkouas Bardas Phokas the Elder Nikephoros II Phokas Leo Phokas the Younger John I Tzimiskes Michael Bourtzes Basil II Nikephoros Ouranos George Maniakes Tervel of Bulgaria Zaid bin Harith † Ja'far ibn Abī Tālib † Khalid ibn al-Walid Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl 'Abd Allah ibn Rawahah † Abu Bakr Umar Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah Sharhabeel ibn Hasana 'Amr ibn al-'As Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan Abdullah ibn Saad Muawiyah I Yazid I Muhammad ibn Marwan Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik Abdallah al-Battal Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham Harun al-Rashid Abd al-Malik ibn Salih Al-Ma'mun Al-Mu'tasim Asad ibn al-Furat (DOW) Abbas ibn al-Fadl Khafaga ibn Sufyan Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya Leo of Tripoli † Umar al-Aqta † Sayf al-Dawla Al-Aziz Billah Manjutakin [ show ] v t e Arab–Byzantine wars Early conflicts Mu'tah Dathin Firaz Muslim conquest of the Levant al-Qaryatayn Bosra Ajnadayn Marj Rahit Fahl Damascus Maraj-al-Debaj Emesa Yarmouk Jerusalem Hazir Aleppo Iron Bridge Germanicia Muslim conquest of Egypt Heliopolis Alexandria Nikiou Muslim conquest of North Africa Sufetula Vescera Mamma Carthage Umayyad invasions of Anatolia and Constantinople 1st Constantinople Sebastopolis Tyana 2nd Constantinople Nicaea Akroinon Arab–Byzantine border warfare Kamacha Abbasid invasion of 782 Kopidnadon Krasos Abbasid invasion of 806 Anzen and Amorium Mauropotamos Faruriyyah Lalakaon Bathys Ryax Sicily and Southern Italy 1st Syracuse 2nd Syracuse 1st Malta 3rd Syracuse Caltavuturo Campaigns of Leo Apostyppes and Nikephoros Phokas the Elder Stelai (1st Milazzo) (2nd) Milazzo 1st Taormina Garigliano Campaigns of Marianos Argyros 2nd Taormina Rometta Straits of Messina George Maniakes in Sicily 2nd Malta Naval warfare and raids Phoenix Keramaia Muslim conquest of Crete Thasos Damietta Ragusa Kardia Gulf of Corinth Cephalonia Euripos Thessalonica Byzantine Reconquest Campaigns of John Kourkouas Campaigns of Sayf al-Dawla Marash Raban Andrassos Campaigns of Nikephoros Phokas Crete Cilicia Antioch Alexandretta Campaigns of John Tzimiskes Syria Orontes Apamea Campaigns of Basil II Azaz The Arab–Byzantine wars were a series of wars between the mostly Arab Muslims and the East Roman or Byzantine Empire between the 7th and 11th centuries AD, started during the initial Muslim conquests under the expansionist Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs in the 7th century and continued by their successors until the mid-11th century. The emergence of Muslim Arabs from Arabia in the 630s resulted in the rapid loss of Byzantium's southern provinces ( Syria and Egypt ) to the Muslim Caliphate . Over the next fifty years, under the aggressive Umayyad caliphs, the Muslims would launch repeated raids into still-Byzantine Asia Minor , twice threaten the Byzantine capital, Constantinople with conquest, and outright conquer the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa . The situation did not stabilize until after the failure of the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople in 718, when the Taurus Mountains on the eastern rim of Asia Minor became established as the mutual, heavily fortified and largely depopulated frontier. Under the Abbasid Empire , relations became more normal, with embassies exchanged and even periods of truce, but conflict remained the norm, with almost annual raids and counter-raids, sponsored either by the Abbasid government or by local rulers, well into the 10th century. During the first centuries, the Byzantines were usually on the defensive, and avoided open field battles, preferring to retreat to their fortified strongholds. Only after 740 did they begin to launch counterstrikes of their own, but still the Abbasid Empire was able to retaliate with often massive and destructive invasions of Asia Minor. With the decline and fragmentation of the Abbasid state after 861 and the concurrent strengthening of the Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty , the tide gradually turned. Over a period of fifty years from ca. 920 to 976, the Byzantines finally broke through the Muslim defences and restored their control over northern Syria and Greater Armenia. The last century of the Arab–Byzantine wars was dominated by frontier conflicts with the Fatimids in Syria, but the border remained stable until the appearance of a new people, the Seljuk Turks , after 1060. The Arabs also took to the sea, and from the 650s on, the entire Mediterranean Sea became a battleground, with raids and counter-raids being launched against islands and the coastal settlements. Arab raids reached a peak in the 9th and early 10th centuries, after the conquests of Crete , Malta and Sicily , with their fleets reaching the coasts of France and Dalmatia and even the suburbs of Constantinople. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Muslim conquests, 629–718 2.1 Arab conquest of Roman Syria: 634–638 2.2 Arab conquests of North Africa: 639–698 2.2.1 Conquest of Egypt and Cyrenaica 2.2.2 Conquest of the Exarchate of Africa 2.3 Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople 2.3.1 Attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East 3 Stabilization of the frontier, 718–863 3.1 Raids under the last Umayyads and the rise of Iconoclasm 3.2 Early Abbasids 3.3 Sicily, Italy and Crete 4 Byzantine resurgence, 863–11th century 5 Conclusion 6 Effects 7 Historiography and other sources 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 11.1 Primary sources 11.2 Secondary sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Background [ edit ] See also: Roman–Persian Wars , Byzantine–Sassanid Wars , Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 , and Siege of Constantinople (626) The prolonged and escalating Byzantine–Sassanid wars of the 6th and 7th centuries and the recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague ( Plague of Justinian ) left both empires exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Arabs . The last of these wars ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor Heraclius regained all lost territories, and restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in 629. [3] Nevertheless, neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, \"can only be likened to a human tsunami\". [4] According to George Liska, the \"unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam\". [5] In late 620s Muhammad had already managed to conquer and unify much of Arabia under Muslim rule, and it was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantine skirmishes took place. Just a few months after Heraclius and the Persian general Shahrbaraz agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the Mu'tah . [6] Muhammad died in 632 and was succeeded by Abu Bakr , the first Caliph with undisputed control of the entire Arabian Peninsula after the successful Ridda Wars , which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula. [7] Muslim conquests, 629–718 [ edit ] Sham region was just the start of Arab expansion . Expansion under Muhammad , 622–632 Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate , 632–661 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate , 661–750 According to Muslim biographies, Muhammed, having received intelligence that Byzantine forces were concentrating in northern Arabia with alleged intentions of invading Arabia, led a Muslim army north to Tabouk in present-day northwestern Saudi Arabia , with the intention of pre-emptively engaging the Byzantine army; the news, however, proved to be false. Though it was not a battle in the typical sense, nevertheless the event represented the first Arab attack on the Byzantines. It did not, however, lead immediately to a military confrontation. [8] However, there is no contemporary Byzantine account of the Tabuk expedition, and many of the details come from much later Muslim sources. It has been argued that there is in one Byzantine source possibly referencing the Battle of Mu´tah traditionally dated 629, but this is not certain. [9] The first engagements may have started as conflicts with the Arab client states of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires: the Ghassanids and the Lakhmids of Al-Hirah . In any case, Muslim Arabs after 634 certainly pursued a full-blown invasion of both empires, resulting in the conquest of the Levant , Egypt and Persia for Islam. The most successful generals were Khalid ibn al-Walid and 'Amr ibn al-'As . Arab conquest of Roman Syria: 634–638 [ edit ] For more details on this topic, see Muslim conquest of Syria . In the Levant, the invading Rashidun army were engaged by a Byzantine army composed of imperial troops as well as local levies. [1] According to Islamic historians Monophysites and Jews throughout Syria welcomed the Arab invaders, as they were discontented with Byzantine rule. a[›] . The Roman Emperor Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to personally lead his armies to resist the Arab conquests of Syria and Roman Paelestina in 634. In a battle fought near Ajnadayn in the summer of 634, the Rashidun Caliphate army achieved a decisive victory. [10] After their victory at the Fahl , Muslim forces conquered Damascus in 634 under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid . [11] The Byzantine response involved the collection and dispatch of the maximum number of available troops under major commanders, including Theodore Trithyrius and the Armenian general Vahan, to eject the Muslims from their newly won territories. [11] At the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, however, the Muslims, having studied the ground in detail, lured the Byzantines into pitched battle, which the Byzantines usually avoided, and into a series of costly assaults, before turning the deep valleys and cliffs into a catastrophic death-trap. [12] Heraclius' farewell exclamation (according to the 9th-century historian Al-Baladhuri ) [13] while departing Antioch for Constantinople , is expressive of his disappointment: \"Peace unto thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country this is for the enemy!\" b[›] The impact of Syria's loss on the Byzantines is illustrated by Joannes Zonaras ' words: \"[...] since then [after the fall of Syria] the race of the Ishmaelites did not cease from invading and plundering the entire territory of the Romans\". [14] In April 637, the Arabs, after a long siege captured Jerusalem , which was surrendered by Patriarch Sophronius . c[›] In the summer of 637, the Muslims conquered Gaza , and, during the same period, the Byzantine authorities in Egypt and Mesopotamia purchased an expensive truce, which lasted three years for Egypt and one year for Mesopotamia. Antioch fell to the Muslim armies in late 637, and by then the Muslims occupied the whole of northern Syria, except for upper Mesopotamia , which they granted a one-year truce. [9] At the expiration of this truce in 638–639, the Arabs overran Byzantine Mesopotamia and Byzantine Armenia , and terminated the conquest of Palestine by storming Caesarea Maritima and effecting their final capture of Ascalon . In December 639, the Muslims departed from Palestine to invade Egypt in early 640. [9] Arab conquests of North Africa: 639–698 [ edit ] For more details on this topic, see Umayyad conquest of North Africa . Conquest of Egypt and Cyrenaica [ edit ] For more details on this topic, see Muslim conquest of Egypt . By the time Heraclius died, much of Egypt had been lost, and by 637–638 the whole of Syria was in the hands of the armies of Islam. d[›] With 3,500–4,000 troops under his command, 'Amr ibn al-A'as first crossed into Egypt from Palestine at the end of 639 or the beginning of 640. He was progressively joined by further reinforcements, notably 12,000 soldiers by Al-Zubayr . 'Amr first besieged and conquered Babylon , and then attacked Alexandria . The Byzantines, divided and shocked by the sudden loss of so much territory, agreed to give up the city by September 642. [15] The fall of Alexandria extinguished Byzantine rule in Egypt, and allowed the Muslims to continue their military expansion into North Africa; between 643–644 'Amr completed the conquest of Cyrenaica . [16] Uthman succeeded Caliph Umar after his death. [17] During his reign the Byzantine navy briefly won back Alexandria in 645, but lost it again in 646 shortly after the Battle of Nikiou . [18] The Islamic forces raided Sicily in 652, while Cyprus and Crete were captured in 653. According to Arab historians, the local Christian Copts welcomed the Arabs just as the Monophysites did in Jerusalem. [19] The loss of this lucrative province deprived the Byzantines of their valuable wheat supply, thereby causing food shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire and weakening its armies in the following decades. [20] Conquest of the Exarchate of Africa [ edit ] \"The people of Homs replied [to the Muslims], \"We like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny in which we were. The army of Heraclius we shall indeed, with your 'amil's' help, repulse from the city.\" The Jews rose and said, \"We swear by the Torah , no governor of Heraclius shall enter the city of Homs unless we are first vanquished and exhausted!\" [...] The inhabitants of the other cities—Christian and Jews—that had capitulated to the Muslims, did the same [...] When by Allah's help the \"unbelievers\" were defeated and the Muslims won, they opened the gates of their cities, went out with the singers and music players who began to play, and paid the kharaj.\" Al-Baladhuri [21] – According to the Muslim historians of the 9th century, local populations regarded Byzantine rule as oppressive, and preferred Muslim conquest instead. a[›] In 647, a Rashidun-Arab army led by Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad invaded the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa . Tripolitania was conquered, followed by Sufetula , 150 miles (240 km) south of Carthage , and the governor and self-proclaimed Emperor of Africa Gregory was killed. Abdallah's booty-laden force returned to Egypt in 648 after Gregory's successor, Gennadius, promised them an annual tribute of some 300,000 nomismata . [22] Following a civil war in the Arab Empire the Umayyads came to power under Muawiyah I . Under the Umayyads the conquest of the remaining Byzantine and northern Berber territories in North Africa was completed and the Arabs were able to move across large parts of the Berber world, invading Visigothic Spain through the Strait of Gibraltar , [19] under the command of the allegedly Berber general Tariq ibn-Ziyad . But this happened only after they developed a naval power of their own, e[›] and they conquered and destroyed the Byzantine stronghold of Carthage between 695–698. [23] The loss of Africa meant that soon, Byzantine control of the Western Mediterranean was challenged by a new and expanding Arab fleet, operating from Tunisia. [24] Muawiyah began consolidating the Arab territory from the Aral Sea to the western border of Egypt. He put a governor in place in Egypt at al-Fustat , and launched raids into Anatolia in 663. Then from 665 to 689 a new North African campaign was launched to protect Egypt \"from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene \". An Arab army of 40,000 took Barca , defeating 30,000 Byzantines. [25] A vanguard of 10,000 Arabs under Uqba ibn Nafi followed from Damascus . In 670, Kairouan in modern Tunisia was established as a base for further invasions; Kairouan would become the capital of the Islamic province of Ifriqiya , and one of the main Arabo-Islamic religious centers in the Middle Ages . [26] Then ibn Nafi \" plunged into the heart of the country, traversed the wilderness in which his successors erected the splendid capitals of Fes and Morocco , and at length penetrated to the verge of the Atlantic and the great desert \" . [27] In his conquest of the Maghreb , Uqba Ibn Nafi took the coastal cities of Bejaia and Tangier , overwhelming what had once been the Roman province of Mauretania where he was finally halted. [28] As the historian Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano explains: [29] In their struggle against the Byzantines and the Berbers, the Arab chieftains had greatly extended their African dominions, and as early as the year 682 Uqba had reached the shores of the Atlantic, but he was unable to occupy Tangier, for he was forced to turn back toward the Atlas Mountains by a man who became known to history and legend as Count Julian . — Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople [ edit ] As the first tide of the Muslim conquests in the Near East ebbed off, and a semi-permanent border between the two powers was established, a wide zone, unclaimed by either Byzantines or Arabs and virtually deserted (known in Arabic as al-Ḍawāḥī , \"the outer lands\" and in Greek as τὰ ἄκρα , ta akra , \"the extremities\") emerged in Cilicia , along the southern approaches of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountain ranges, leaving Syria in Muslim and the Anatolian plateau in Byzantine hands. Both Emperor Heraclius and the Caliph ' Umar (r. 634–644) pursued a strategy of destruction within this zone, trying to transform it into an effective barrier between the two realms. [30] Nevertheless, the Umayyads still considered the complete subjugation of Byzantium as their ultimate objective. Their thinking was dominated by Islamic teaching, which placed the infidel Byzantines in the Dār al-Ḥarb , the \"House of War\", which, in the words of Islamic scholar Hugh N. Kennedy , \"the Muslims should attack whenever possible; rather than peace interrupted by occasional conflict, the normal pattern was seen to be conflict interrupted by occasional, temporary truce ( hudna ). True peace ( ṣulḥ ) could only come when the enemy accepted Islam or tributary status.\" [31] Both as governor of Syria and later as caliph, Muawiyah I (r. 661–680) was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium, especially by his creation of a fleet, which challenged the Byzantine navy and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, manned by Monophysitise Christian , Copt and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655 was of critical importance: it opened up the Mediterranean, hitherto a \"Roman lake\", to Arab expansion, and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean waterways. [37] [38] 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed. Under the instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn Affan , Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople . Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating Western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: \"In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was commonplace; in early Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown\" (Kennedy). [39] Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on. These expeditions, aiming both at plunder and at weakening and keeping the Byzantines at bay, as well as the corresponding retaliatory Byzantine raids, eventually became established as a fixture of Byzantine–Arab warfare for the next three centuries. [40] [41] Gold tremissis of Constans II . The outbreak of the Muslim Civil War in 656 bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor Constans II (r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences, extend and consolidate his control over Armenia and most importantly, initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the themata , the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The remains of the old field armies were settled in each of them, and soldiers were allocated land there in payment of their service. The themata would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come. [42] Attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East [ edit ] After his victory in the civil war, Muawiyah launched a series of attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East. [43] By 670, the Muslim fleet had penetrated into the Sea of Marmara and stayed at Cyzicus during the winter. Four years later, a massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to invest Constantinople from land as well, beginning the First Arab Siege of the city. Constantine IV (r. 661–685) however used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as \" Greek fire \", invented by a Christian refugee from Syria named Kallinikos of Heliopolis , to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the Sea of Marmara , resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back. [44] Among those killed in the siege was Eyup, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; to Muslims today, his tomb is considered one of the holiest sites in Istanbul. [45] The Byzantine victory over the invading Umayyads halted the Islamic expansion into Europe for almost thirty years. [ citation needed ] In spite of the turbulent reign of Justinian II, last emperor of the Heraclian dynasty , his coinage still bore the traditional \" PAX \", peace . The setback at Constantinople was followed by further reverses across the vast Muslim empire. As Gibbon writes, \"this Mahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests. By the universal defection of the Greeks and Africans he was recalled from the shores of the Atlantic.\" His forces were directed at putting down rebellions, and in one such battle he was surrounded by insurgents and killed. Then, the third governor of Africa, Zuheir, was overthrown by a powerful army, sent from Constantinople by Constantine IV for the relief of Carthage . [28] Meanwhile, a second Arab civil war was raging in Arabia and Syria resulting in a series of four caliphs between the death of Muawiyah in 680 and the ascension of Abd al-Malik in 685, and was ongoing until 692 with the death of the rebel leader. [46] The Saracen Wars of Justinian II (r. 685–695 and 705–711), last emperor of the Heraclian Dynasty , \"reflected the general chaos of the age\". [47] After a successful campaign he made a truce with the Arabs, agreeing on joint possession of Armenia , Iberia and Cyprus ; however, by removing 12,000 Christian Mardaites from their native Lebanon , he removed a major obstacle for the Arabs in Syria, and in 692, after the disastrous Battle of Sebastopolis , the Muslims invaded and conquered all of Armenia. [48] Deposed in 695, with Carthage lost in 698, Justinian returned to power from 705-711. [47] His second reign was marked by Arab victories in Asia Minor and civil unrest. [48] Reportedly, he ordered his guards to execute the only unit that had not deserted him after one battle, to prevent their desertion in the next. [47] Justinian's first and second depositions were followed by internal disorder, with successive revolts and emperors lacking legitimacy or support. In this climate, the Umayyads consolidated their control of Armenia and Cilicia, and began preparing a renewed offensive against Constantinople. In Byzantium, the general Leo the Isaurian (r. 717–741) had just seized the throne in March 717, when the massive Muslim army under the famed Umayyad prince and general Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik began moving towards the imperial capital. [49] The Caliphate's army and navy, led by Maslama, numbered some 120,000 men and 1,800 ships according to the sources. Whatever the real number, it was a huge force, far larger than the imperial army. Thankfully for Leo and the Empire, the capital's sea walls had recently been repaired and strengthened. In addition, the emperor concluded an alliance with the Bulgar khan Tervel , who agreed to harass the invaders' rear. [50] The Theodosian Walls of Constantinople . From July 717 to August 718, the city was besieged by land and sea by the Muslims, who built an extensive double line of circumvallation and contravallation on the landward side, isolating the capital. Their attempt to complete the blockade by sea however failed when the Byzantine navy employed Greek fire against them; the Arab fleet kept well off the city walls, leaving Constantinople's supply routes open. Forced to extend the siege into winter, the besieging army suffered horrendous casualties from the cold and the lack of provisions. [51] In spring, new reinforcements were sent by the new caliph, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720), by sea from Africa and Egypt and over land through Asia Minor. The crews of the new fleets were composed mostly of Christians, who began defecting in large numbers, while the land forces were ambushed and defeated in Bithynia . As famine and an epidemic continued to plague the Arab camp, the siege was abandoned on 15 August 718. On its return, the Arab fleet suffered further casualties to storms and an eruption of the volcano of Thera . [52] Stabilization of the frontier, 718–863 [ edit ] For more details on this topic, see Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180) . The first wave of the Muslim conquests ended with the siege of Constantinople in 718, and the border between the two empires became stabilized along the mountains of eastern Anatolia. Raids and counter-raids continued on both sides and became almost ritualized, but the prospect of outright conquest of Byzantium by the Caliphate receded. This led to far more regular, and often friendly, diplomatic contacts, as well as a reciprocal recognition of the two empires. In response to the Muslim threat, which reached its peak in the first half of the 8th century, the Isaurian emperors adopted the policy of Iconoclasm , which was abandoned in 786 only to be readopted in the 820s and finally abandoned in 843. Under the Macedonian dynasty , exploiting the decline and fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate , the Byzantines gradually went into the offensive, and recovered much territory in the 10th century, which was lost however after 1071 to the Seljuk Turks . Raids under the last Umayyads and the rise of Iconoclasm [ edit ] Map of the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in southeastern Asia Minor , along the Taurus-Antitaurus range Following the failure to capture Constantinople in 717–718, the Umayyads for a time diverted their attention elsewhere, allowing the Byzantines to take to the offensive, making some gains in Armenia. From 720/721 however the Arab armies resumed their expeditions against Byzantine Anatolia, although now they were no longer aimed at conquest, but rather large-scale raids, plundering and devastating the countryside and only occasionally attacking forts or major settlements. [53] [54] Under the late Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphs, the frontier between Byzantium and the Caliphate became stabilized along the line of the Taurus-Antitaurus mountain ranges. On the Arab side, Cilicia was permanently occupied and its deserted cities, such as Adana , Mopsuestia (al-Massisa) and, most importantly, Tarsus , were refortified and resettled under the early Abbasids. Likewise, in Upper Mesopotamia , places like Germanikeia (Mar'ash), Hadath and Melitene (Malatya) became major military centers. These two regions came to form the two halves of a new fortified frontier zone, the thughur . [41] [55] Both the Umayyads and later the Abbasids continued to regard the annual expeditions against the Caliphate's \"traditional enemy\" as an integral part of the continuing jihad , and they quickly became organized in a regular fashion: one to two summer expeditions (pl. ṣawā'if , sing. ṣā'ifa ) sometimes accompanied by a naval attack and/or followed by winter expeditions ( shawātī ). The summer expeditions were usually two separate attacks, the \"expedition of the left\" ( al-ṣā'ifa al-yusrā/al-ṣughrā ) launched from the Cilician thughur and consisting mostly of Syrian troops, and the usually larger \"expedition of the right\" ( al-ṣā'ifa al-yumnā/al-kubrā ) launched from Malatya and composed of Mesopotamian troops. The raids were also largely confined to the borderlands and the central Anatolian plateau, and only rarely reached the peripheral coastlands, which the Byzantines fortified heavily. [53] [56] Under the more aggressive Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 723–743), the Arab expeditions intensified for a time, and were led by some of the Caliphate's most capable generals, including princes of the Umayyad dynasty like Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik and al-Abbas ibn al-Walid or Hisham's own sons Mu'awiyah , Maslama and Sulayman . [57] This was still a time when Byzantium was fighting for survival, and \"the frontier provinces, devastated by war, were a land of ruined cities and deserted villages where a scattered population looked to rocky castles or impenetrable mountains rather than the armies of the empire to provide a minimum of security\" (Kennedy). [31] In response to the renewal of Arab invasions, and to a sequence of natural disasters such as the eruptions of the volcanic island of Thera , [58] the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian concluded that the Empire had lost divine favour. Already in 722 he had tried to force the conversion of the Empire's Jews, but soon he began to turn his attention to the veneration of icons , which some bishops had come to regard as idolatrous . In 726, Leo published an edict condemning their use and showed himself increasingly critical of the iconophiles . He formally banned depictions of religious figures in a court council in 730. [59] [60] This decision provoked major opposition both from the people and the church, especially the Bishop of Rome , which Leo did not take into account. In the words of Warren Treadgold: \"He saw no need to consult the church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered\". [59] [60] The controversy weakened the Byzantine Empire, and was a key factor in the schism between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Bishop of Rome . [61] [62] The Umayyad Caliphate however was increasingly distracted by conflicts elsewhere, especially its confrontation with the Khazars , with whom Leo III had concluded an alliance, marrying his son and heir, Constantine V (r. 741–775) to the Khazar princess Tzitzak . Only in the late 730s did the Muslim raids again become a threat, but the great Byzantine victory at Akroinon and the turmoil of the Abbasid Revolution led to a pause in Arab attacks against the Empire. It also opened up the way for a more aggressive stance by Constantine V (r. 741–775), who in 741 attacked the major Arab base of Melitene , and continued scoring further victories. These successes were also interpreted by Leo III and his son Constantine as evidence of God's renewed favour, and strengthened the position of Iconoclasm within the Empire. [63] [64] Early Abbasids [ edit ] Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun sends an envoy to Byzantine Emperor Theophilos Unlike their Umayyad predecessors, the Abbasid caliphs did not pursue active expansion: in general terms, they were content with the territorial limits achieved, and whatever external campaigns they waged were retaliatory or preemptive, meant to preserve their frontier and impress Abbasid might upon their neighbours. [65] At the same time, the campaigns against Byzantium in particular remained important for domestic consumption. The annual raids, which had almost lapsed in the turmoil following the Abbasid Revolution , were undertaken with renewed vigour from ca. 780 on, and were the only expeditions where the Caliph or his sons participated in person. [66] [67] As a symbol of the Caliph's ritual role as the leader of the Muslim community, they were closely paralleled in official propaganda by the leadership by Abbasid family members of the annual pilgrimage ( hajj ) to Mecca . [66] [67] In addition, the constant warfare on the Syrian marches was useful to the Abbasids as it provided employment for the Syrian and Iraqi military elites and the various volunteers ( muṭṭawi‘a ) who flocked to participate in the jihad . [68] [69] \"The thughūr are blocked by Hārūn, and through him the ropes of the Muslim state are firmly plaited His banner is forever tied with victory; he has an army before which armies scatter. All the kings of the Rūm give him jizya unwillingly, perforce, out of hand in humiliation.\" Poem in praise of Harun al-Rashid's 806 campaign against Byzantium [70] Wishing to emphasize his piety and role as the leader of the Muslim community, Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809) in particular was the most energetic of the early Abbasid rulers in his pursuit of warfare against Byzantium: he established his seat at Raqqa close to the frontier, he complemented the thughur in 786 by forming a second defensive line along northern Syria, the al-'Awasim , and was reputed to be spending alternating years leading the Hajj and leading a campaign into Anatolia, including the largest expedition assembled under the Abbasids, in 806 . [71] [72] Continuing a trend started by his immediate predecessors, his reign also saw the development of far more regular contacts between the Abbasid court and Byzantium, with the exchange of embassies and letters being far more common than under the Umayyad rulers. Despite Harun's hostility, \"the existence of embassies is a sign that the Abbasids accepted that the Byzantine empire was a power with which they had to deal on equal terms\" (Kennedy). [73] [74] Civil war occurred in the Byzantine Empire, often with Arab support. With the support of Caliph Al-Ma'mun , Arabs under the leadership of Thomas the Slav invaded, so that within a matter of months, only two themata in Asia Minor remained loyal to Emperor Michael II . [75] When the Arabs captured Thessalonica , the Empire's second largest city, it was quickly re-captured by the Byzantines. [75] Thomas's 821 siege of Constantinople did not get past the city walls , and he was forced to retreat. [75] The siege of Amorium, miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes The Arabs did not relinquish their designs on Asia Minor and in 838 began another invasion, sacking the city of Amorion . Sicily, Italy and Crete [ edit ] Main article: History of Islam in southern Italy While a relative equilibrium reigned in the East, the situation in the western Mediterranean was irretrievably altered when the Aghlabids began their slow conquest of Sicily in the 820s. Using Tunisia as their launching pad, the Arabs started by conquering Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859, culminating in the capture of Syracuse in 878. [ citation needed ] This in turn opened up southern Italy and the Adriatic Sea for raids and settlement. Byzantium further suffered an important setback with the loss of Crete to a band of Andalusian exiles, who established a piratical emirate on the island and for more than a century ravaged the coasts of the hitherto secure Aegean Sea . [ citation needed ] Byzantine resurgence, 863–11th century [ edit ] A map of the Byzantine-Arab naval competition in the Mediterranean, 7th to 11th centuries Religious peace came with the emergence of the Macedonian dynasty in 867, as well as a strong and unified Byzantine leadership; [76] while the Abassid empire had splintered into many factions after 861. Basil I revived the Byzantine Empire into a regional power, during a period of territorial expansion, making the Empire the strongest power in Europe , with an ecclesiastical policy marked by good relations with Rome . Basil allied with the Holy Roman Emperor Louis II against the Arabs, and his fleet cleared the Adriatic Sea of their raids. [77] With Byzantine help, Louis II captured Bari from the Arabs in 871. The city became Byzantine territory in 876. The Byzantine position on Sicily deteriorated, and Syracuse fell to the Emirate of Sicily in 878. Catania was lost in 900, and finally the fortress of Taormina in 902. Michael of Zahumlje apparently on 10 July 926 sacked Siponto ( Latin : Sipontum ), which was a Byzantine town in Apulia . [77] Sicily would remain under Arab control until the Norman invasion in 1071. Although Sicily was lost, the general Nikephoros Phokas the Elder succeeded in taking Taranto and much of Calabria in 880, forming the nucleus for the later Catepanate of Italy . The successes in the Italian Peninsula opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were beginning to establish a strong presence in the Mediterranean Sea , and especially the Adriatic . Under John Kourkouas , the Byzantines conquered the emirate of Melitene , along with Tarsos the strongest of the Muslim border emirates, and advanced into Armenia in the 930s; the next three decades were dominated by the struggle of the Phokas clan and their dependants against the Hamdanid emir of Aleppo , Sayf al-Dawla . Al-Dawla was finally defeated by Nikephoros II Phokas , who conquered Cilicia and northern Syria and recovered Crete. His nephew and successor, John I Tzimiskes , pushed even further south, almost reaching Jerusalem , but his death in 976 ended Byzantine expansion towards Palestine . Nikephoros II and his stepson Basil II (right). Under the Macedonian dynasty , the Byzantine Empire became the strongest power in Europe, recovering territories lost in the war. After putting an end to the internal strife, Basil II launched a counter-campaign against the Arabs in 995. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of Nikephoros II Phokas and John I Tzimiskes came close to being lost, with Aleppo besieged and Antioch under threat. Basil won several battles in Syria , relieving Aleppo, taking over the Orontes valley, and raiding further south. Although he did not have the force to drive into Palestine and reclaim Jerusalem , his victories did restore much of Syria to the empire — including the larger city of Antioch which was the seat of its eponymous Patriarch . [78] No Byzantine emperor since Heraclius had been able to hold these lands for any length of time, and the Empire would retain them for the next 110 years until 1078. Piers Paul Read writes that by 1025, Byzantine land \"stretched from the Straits of Messina and the northern Adriatic in the west to the River Danube and Crimea in the north, and to the cities of Melitene and Edessa beyond the Euphrates in the east.\" [78] Under Basil II, the Byzantines established a swath of new themata , stretching northeast from Aleppo (a Byzantine protectorate) to Manzikert. Under the Theme system of military and administrative government, the Byzantines could raise a force at least 200,000 strong, though in practice these were strategically placed throughout the Empire. With Basil's rule, the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest height in nearly five centuries, and indeed for the next four centuries. [79] Conclusion [ edit ] The wars drew near to a closure when the Turks and various Mongol invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the 11th and 12th centuries onwards, the Byzantine conflicts shifted into the Byzantine-Seljuk wars with the continuing Islamic invasion of Anatolia being taken over by the Seljuk Turks . After the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert by the Turks in 1071, the Byzantine Empire, with the help of Western Crusaders , re-established its position in the Middle East as a major power. Meanwhile, the major Arab conflicts were in the Crusades, and later against Mongolian invasions , especially that of the Ilkhanate and Timur . Effects [ edit ] The Byzantine–Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed feudalism in Medieval Europe . Further information: Byzantine Papacy and East–West Schism As with any war of such length, the drawn-out Byzantine–Arab Wars had long-lasting effects for both the Byzantine Empire and the Arab world. The Byzantines experienced extensive territorial loss, while the invading Arabs gained strong control in the Middle East and Africa. The focus of the Byzantine Empire shifted from the western reconquests of Justinian to a primarily defensive position, against the Islamic armies on its eastern borders. Without Byzantine interference in the emerging Christian states of western Europe, the situation gave a huge stimulus to feudalism and economic self-sufficiency . [80] The view of modern historians is that one of the most important effects was the strain it put on the relationship between Rome and Byzantium. While fighting for survival against the Islamic armies, the Empire was no longer able to provide the protection it had once offered to the Papacy; worse still, according to Thomas Woods , the Emperors \"routinely intervened in the life of the Church in areas lying clearly beyond the state's competence\". [81] The Iconoclast controversy of the 8th and 9th centuries can be taken as a key factor \"which drove the Latin Church into the arms of the Franks .\" [62] Thus it has been argued that Charlemagne was an indirect product of Muhammad : \"The Frankish Empire would probably never have existed without Islam, and Charlemagne without Mahomet would be inconceivable.\" [82] The Holy Roman Empire of Charlemagne's successors would later come to the aid of the Byzantines under Louis II and during the Crusades, but relations between the two empires would be strained; based on the Salerno Chronicle , we know the Emperor Basil had sent an angry letter to his western counterpart, reprimanding him for usurping the title of emperor. [83] He argued that the Frankish rulers were simple reges , and that each nation has its own title for the ruler, whereas the imperial title suited only the ruler of the Eastern Romans, Basil himself. [ citation needed ] Historiography and other sources [ edit ] The 12th century William of Tyre (right), an important commentator on the Crusades and the final stage of the Byzantine-Arab Wars Walter Emil Kaegi states that extant Arabic sources have been given much scholarly attention for issues of obscurities and contradictions. However, he points out that Byzantine sources are also problematic, such as the chronicles of Theophanes and Nicephorus and those written in Syriac, which are short and terse while the important question of their sources and their use of sources remains unresolved. Kaegi concludes that scholars must also subject the Byzantine tradition to critical scrutiny, as it \"contains bias and cannot serve as an objective standard against which all Muslim sources may be confidently checked\". [84] Among the few Latin sources of interest are the 7th century history of Fredegarius , and two 8th-century Spanish chronicles, all of which draw on some Byzantine and oriental historical traditions. [85] As far as Byzantine military action against the initial Muslim invasions, Kaegi asserts that \"Byzantine traditions ... attempt to deflect criticism of the Byzantine debacle from Heraclius to other persons, groups, and things\". [86] The range of non-historical Byzantine sources is vast: they range from papyri to sermons (most notable those of Sophronius and Anastasius Sinaita ), poetry (especially that of Sophronius and George of Pisidia ) including the Acritic songs , correspondence often of a patristic provenance, apologetical treatises, apocalypses, hagiography, military manuals (in particular the Strategikon of Maurice from the beginning of the 7th century), and other non-literary sources, such as epigraphy, archeology, and numismatics. None of these sources contains a coherent account of any of the campaigns and conquests of the Muslim armies, but some do contain invaluable details that survive nowhere else. [87] See also [ edit ] Book: Muslim conquests Aegyptus (Roman province) Battle of Tours Byzantine–Ottoman Wars Muslim conquests Spread of Islam Notes [ edit ] ^ a: Politico-religious events (such as the outbreak of Monothelitism , which disappointed both the Monophysites and the Chalcedonians ) had sharpened the differences between the Byzantines and the Syrians. Also the high taxes, the power of the landowners over the peasants and the participation in the long and exhaustive wars with the Persians were some of the reasons why the Syrians welcomed the change. [88] ^ b: As recorded by Al-Baladhuri . Michael the Syrian records only the phrase \"Peace unto thee, O Syria\". [89] George Ostrogorsky describes the impact that the loss of Syria had on Heraclius with the following words: \"His life's work collapsed before his eyes. The heroic struggle against Persia seemed to be utterly wasted, for his victories here had only prepared the way for the Arab conquest [...] This cruel turn of fortune broke the aged Emperor both in spirit and in body. [90] ^ c: As Steven Runciman describes the event: \"On a February day in the year AD 638, the Caliph Omar [Umar] entered Jerusalem along with a white camel which was ride by his slave. He was dressed in worn, filthy robes, and the army that followed him was rough and unkempt; but its discipline was perfect. At his side rode the Patriarch Sophronius as chief magistrate of the surrendered city. Omar rode straight to the site of the Temple of Solomon , whence his friend Mahomet [Muhammed] had ascended into Heaven. Watching him stand there, the Patriarch remembered the words of Christ and murmured through his tears: 'Behold the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet.'\" [91] ^ d: Hugh N. Kennedy notes that \"the Muslim conquest of Syria does not seem to have been actively opposed by the towns, but it is striking that Antioch put up so little resistance. [92] ^ e: The Arab leadership realized early that to extend their conquests they would need a fleet. The Byzantine navy was first decisively defeated by the Arabs at a battle in 655 off the Lycian coast, when it was still the most powerful in the Mediterranean. Theophanes the Confessor reported the loss of Rhodes while recounting the sale of the centuries-old remains of the Colossus for scrap in 655. [93] Citations [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b The Empire's levies included Christian Armenians , Arab Ghassanids , Mardaites , Slavs , and Rus' Jump up ^ \"Ghassan.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 October 2006 [1] Jump up ^ Theophanes, Chronicle , 317–327 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227; Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), passim ; Speck (1984), 178 Jump up ^ Foss (1975), 746–47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv Jump up ^ Liska (1998), 170 Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), 66 Jump up ^ Nicolle (1994), 14 Jump up ^ \"Muhammad\", Late Antiquity ; Butler (2007), 145 ^ Jump up to: a b c Kaegi (1995), 67 Jump up ^ Nicolle (1994), 47–49 ^ Jump up to: a b Kaegi (1995), 112 Jump up ^ Nicolle (1994), 45 Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 11 October 2013 . Retrieved 2016-02-07 . Jump up ^ Zonaras, Annales , CXXXIV, 1288 * Sahas (1972), 20 Jump up ^ Kennedy (1998), 62 Jump up ^ Butler (2007), 427–428 Jump up ^ Davies (1996), 245, 252 Jump up ^ Butler (2007), 465–483 ^ Jump up to: a b Read (2001), 51 Jump up ^ Haldon (1999), 167; Tathakopoulos (2004), 318 Jump up ^ Al-Baladhuri, The Battle of the Yarmuk (636) and after Archived 11 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine . * Sahas (1972), 23 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), 312 Jump up ^ Fage–Tordoff, 153–154 Jump up ^ Norwich (1990), 334 Jump up ^ Will Durant , The History of Civilization: Part IV—The Age of Faith . 1950. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-01200-2 Jump up ^ The Islamic World to 1600: Umayyad Territorial Expansion . Jump up ^ Clark, Desmond J.; Roland Anthony Oliver; J. D. Fage; A. D. Roberts (1978) [1975]. The Cambridge History of Africa . Cambridge University Press. p. 637. ISBN 0-521-21592-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , Chapter 51. Archived 21 July 2005 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano, Historia de España . 1968. Madrid: Alianza. Quotes translated from the Spanish by Helen R. Lane in Count Julian by Juan Goytisolo . 1974. New York: The Viking Press, Inc. ISBN 0-670-24407-4 Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), pp. 236–244 ^ Jump up to: a b Kennedy (2004) p. 120 Jump up ^ European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24 [2] Jump up ^ History of the Jihad By Leonard Michael Kroll Page 123 Jump up ^ A History of Byzantium By Timothy E. Gregory page 183 Jump up ^ Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61 [3] Jump up ^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page 11 Jump up ^ Pryor & Jeffreys (2006), p. 25 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 313–314 Jump up ^ Kennedy (2004) pp. 120, 122 Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), pp. 246–247 ^ Jump up to: a b El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 83–84 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 314–318 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 318–324 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 325–327 Jump up ^ The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453 Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . , Osprey Publishing , ISBN 1-84176-759-X . Jump up ^ Karen Armstrong: Islam: A Short History . New York, NY, USA: The Modern Library, 2002, 2004 ISBN 0-8129-6618-X ^ Jump up to: a b c Davies (1996), 245 ^ Jump up to: a b 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica [4] Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 337–345 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 346–347 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 347 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 347–349 ^ Jump up to: a b Blankinship (1994), pp. 117–119 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 349ff. Jump up ^ Kennedy (2004), pp. 143, 275 Jump up ^ El-Cheikh (2004), p. 83 Jump up ^ Blankinship (1994), pp. 119–121, 162–163 Jump up ^ Volcanism on Santorini / eruptive history ^ Jump up to: a b Treadgold (1997), pp. 350–353 ^ Jump up to: a b Whittow (1996), pp. 139–142 Jump up ^ Europe: A History , p273. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 ^ Jump up to: a b Europe: A History , p246. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 Jump up ^ Blankinship (1994), pp. 20, 168–169, 200 Jump up ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 354–355 Jump up ^ El Hibri (2011), p. 302 ^ Jump up to: a b El Hibri (2011), pp. 278–279 ^ Jump up to: a b Kennedy (2001), pp. 105–106 Jump up ^ El Hibri (2011), p. 279 Jump up ^ Kennedy (2001), p. 106 Jump up ^ El-Cheikh (2004), p. 90 Jump up ^ El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 89–90 Jump up ^ Kennedy (2004), pp. 143–144 Jump up ^ cf. El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 90ff. Jump up ^ Kennedy (2004), p. 146 ^ Jump up to: a b c John Julius Norwich (1998). A Short History of Byzantium . Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025960-0 . Jump up ^ Europe: A History . Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 ^ Jump up to: a b Rački , Odlomci iz državnoga práva hrvatskoga za narodne dynastie: , p. 15 ^ Jump up to: a b Read (2001), 65-66 Jump up ^ See map depicting Byzantine territories from the 11th century on; Europe: A History , p 1237. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 Jump up ^ Europe: A History , p 257. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 Jump up ^ Thomas Woods , How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization , (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7 Jump up ^ Pirenne, Henri Mediaeval Cities: Their Origins and the Rivival of Trade (Princeton, NJ, 1925). ISBN 0-691-00760-8 See also Mohammed and Charlemagne (London 1939) Dover Publications (2001). ISBN 0-486-42011-6 . Jump up ^ Dolger F. , Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des ostromischen Reiches . I, p 59, №487. Berlin, 1924. Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), 2–3 Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), 2 Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), 4–5 Jump up ^ Kaegi (1995), 5–6 Jump up ^ Read (2001), 50-51; Sahas (1972), 23 Jump up ^ Al-Baladhuri, The Battle of the Yarmuk (636) and after Archived 11 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine .; Michael the Syrian, Chronicle , II, 424 * Sahas (1972), 19–20 Jump up ^ Quoted by Sahas (1972), 20 (note 1) Jump up ^ Runciman (1953), i, 3 Jump up ^ Kennedy (1970), 611; Kennedy (2006), 87 Jump up ^ Theophanes, Chronicle , 645–646 * Haldon (1990), 55 References [ edit ] Primary sources [ edit ] Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri . Futuh al-Buldan . See a translated excerpt (\"The Battle of Yarmouk and after\") in Medieval Sources . Michael the Syrian (1899). Chronique de Michel le Syrien Patriarche Jacobite d'Antioche (translated by J.–B. Chabot) (in French and Syriac). Paris. Theophanes the Confessor . Chronicle . See original text in Documenta Catholica Omnia (PDF). Zonaras, Joannes , Annales . See the original text in Patrologia Graeca . Secondary sources [ edit ] ‹ The template below ( Library resources box ) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Library resources about Arab–Byzantine wars Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Baynes, Norman H. (1912). \"The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem\". The English Historical Review . 27 (106): 287–299. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287 . Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994), The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7 Brooks, E.W. (1923), \"Chapter V. (A) The Struggle with the Saracens (717–867)\", The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453) , Cambridge University Press, pp. 119–138 Butler, Alfred J. (2007). The Arab Conquest of Egypt – And the Last Thirty Years of the Roman . Read Books. ISBN 1-4067-5238-X . Davies, Norman (1996). \"The Birth of Europe\". Europe . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820171-0 . El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). Byzantium viewed by the Arabs . Harvard Center of Middle Eastern Studies. ISBN 978-0-932885-30-2 . El Hibri, Tayeb (2011), \"The empire in Iraq, 763–861\", in Robinson, Chase F., The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries , Cambridge University Press, pp. 269–304, ISBN 978-0-521-83823-8 Foss, Clive (1975). \"The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity\". The English Historical Review . 90 : 721–47. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721 . Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD) . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14687-9 . Haldon, John (1997). \"The East Roman World: the Politics of Survival\". Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture . Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-31917-X . Haldon, John F. (1999). \"The Army at Wars: Campaigns\". Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565-1204 . Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-494-1 . Howard-Johnston, James (2006). East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-86078-992-6 . Kaegi, Walter Emil (1995). Byzantium and the early Islamic conquests . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48455-3 . Kennedy, Hugh (1970). \"Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia\". In Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen. The Cambridge Ancient History . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-32591-9 . Kennedy, Hugh (1998). \"Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate, 641–868\". In Daly, M.W.; Petry, Calf. F. The Cambridge History of Egypt . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47137-0 . Kennedy, Hugh (2001), The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State , Routledge, ISBN 978-0-203-45853-2 Kennedy, Hugh (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second Edition) . Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 0-582-40525-4 . Kennedy, Hugh (2006). \"Antioch: from Byzantium to Islam\". The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East . Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-5909-7 . Liska, George (1998). \"Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options\". Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics . Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8680-9 . Warren Bowersock, Glen; Brown, Peter; Robert Lamont Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg, eds. (1999). \"Muhammad\" . Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World . Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51173-5 . Nicolle, Davis (1994). Yarmuk AD 636 . Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-414-8 . Norwich, John Julius (1990). Byzantium: The Early Centuries . Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-011447-8 . Omrčanin, Ivo (1984). Military history of Croatia . Dorrance. ISBN 978-0-8059-2893-8 . Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204 . Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15197-0 Rački, Franjo (1861). Odlomci iz državnoga práva hrvatskoga za narodne dynastie (in Croatian). F. Klemma. Read, Piers Paul (1999). The Templars . Weidenfeld & Nicolson , Orion Publishing Group. ISBN 0-297-84267-6 . Runciman, Steven (1987). A History of the Crusades . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34770-X . Sahas, Daniel J. (1972). \"Historical Considerations\". John of Damascus on Islam . BRILL. ISBN 90-04-03495-1 . Speck, Paul (1984). \"Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance\". Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4) . Rudolf Halbelt. pp. 175–210. Stathakopoulos, Dionysios (2004). Famine and Pestilence in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine Empire . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-3021-8 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 . Vasiliev, A.A. (1923), \"Chapter V. (B) The Struggle with the Saracens (867–1057)\", The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453) , Cambridge University Press, pp. 138–150 Vasiliev, A.A. (1935), Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La Dynastie d'Amorium (820–867) (in French), French ed.: Henri Grégoire , Marius Canard , Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales Vasiliev, A.A. (1968), Byzance et les Arabes, Tome II, 1ére partie: Les relations politiques de Byzance et des Arabes à L'époque de la dynastie macédonienne (867–959) (in French), French ed.: Henri Grégoire , Marius Canard , Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales Further reading [ edit ] Kennedy, Hugh N. (2006). The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-5909-7 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Byzantine–Arab Wars . 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{ "text": "Equal Rights Amendment - Wikipedia Equal Rights Amendment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is part of a series on the Constitution of the United States of America Preamble and Articles of the Constitution Preamble I II III IV V VI VII Amendments to the Constitution Bill of Rights I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Unratified Amendments Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Child Labor Equal Rights D.C. Voting Rights History Drafting and ratification timeline Convention Signing Federalism Republicanism Full text of the Constitution and Amendments Preamble and Articles I–VII Amendments I–X Amendments XI–XXVII Unratified Amendments United States portal U.S. Government portal Law portal Wikipedia book v t e This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex; it seeks to end the legal distinctions between men and women in terms of divorce , property , employment , and other matters. [1] The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman . The amendment was introduced in Congress for the first time in 1921 and has prompted conversations about the meaning of legal equality for women and men ever since. In the early history of the Equal Rights Amendment, middle-class women were largely supportive, while those speaking for the working class were often opposed, pointing out that employed women needed special protections regarding working conditions and employment hours. With the rise of the women's movement in the United States during the 1960s, the ERA garnered increasing support, and, after being reintroduced by U.S. Representative Martha Griffiths (D-Michigan), in 1971, it was approved by the U.S. House of Representatives on October 12 of that year and on March 22, 1972, it was approved by the U.S. Senate , thus submitting the ERA to the state legislatures for ratification, as provided for in Article V of the U.S. Constitution . Congress had originally set a ratification deadline of March 22, 1979, for the state legislatures to consider the ERA. Through 1977, the amendment received 35 of the necessary 38 state ratifications . With wide, bipartisan support (including that of both major political parties, both houses of Congress, and Presidents Nixon , Ford and Carter ) [2] the ERA seemed destined for ratification until Phyllis Schlafly mobilized conservative women in opposition, arguing that the ERA would disadvantage housewives and cause women to be drafted into the military. [3] Five state legislatures (Idaho, Kentucky, Nebraska, Tennessee, and South Dakota) voted to revoke their ERA ratifications. Four claim to have rescinded their ratifications before the original March 22, 1979 ratification deadline, while the South Dakota legislature did so by voting to sunset its ratification as of that original deadline. However, it remains a legal question as to whether a state can revoke its ratification of a federal constitutional amendment. In 1978, Congress passed (by simple majorities in each house), and President Carter signed, a joint resolution with the intent of extending the ratification deadline to June 30, 1982. Because no additional state legislatures ratified the ERA between March 22, 1979 and June 30, 1982, the validity of that disputed extension was rendered academic. [4] On March 22, 2017, the 45th anniversary of Congress' submission of the ERA to the nation's state lawmakers, the Nevada Legislature became the first to ratify the ERA after the expiration of both deadlines [5] with its adoption of Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 (designated as \"POM-15\" by the U.S. Senate and published verbatim in the Congressional Record of April 5, 2017, at pages S2361 and S2362). [6] The Illinois General Assembly ratified the ERA on May 30, 2018. Contents 1 Text 2 Background 2.1 Feminists split 2.2 Hayden rider and protective labor legislation 2.3 1960s 3 Congressional passage 4 Actions in the state legislatures 4.1 Ratifications 4.2 Ratifications rescinded 4.3 Ratifying state with self-declared March 22, 1979 sunset provision 4.4 Executive branch involvement in ratification process 4.5 Non-ratifying states with one-house approval 5 Congressional extension of ratification deadline 6 In the courts / Legal officials 7 Support for the ERA 7.1 Support for the ERA among people of color 8 Opposition to the ERA 9 Post-deadline ratifications 10 Subsequent congressional action 10.1 Proposed removal of ratification deadline 11 State equal rights amendments 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Text [ edit ] Section 1. Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Section 3. This amendment shall take effect two years after the date of ratification. [7] [8] Background [ edit ] Alice Paul toasting (with grape juice) the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. August 26, 1920 [9] On September 25, 1921, the National Woman's Party announced plans to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to guarantee women equal rights with men. The text of the proposed amendment read: Section 1. No political, civil, or legal disabilities or inequalities on account of sex or on account of marriage, unless applying equally to both sexes, shall exist within the United States or any territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. [10] Alice Paul, the head of the National Women's Party, believed that the Nineteenth Amendment would not be enough to ensure that men and women were treated equally regardless of sex. In 1923, she revised the proposed amendment to read: Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. [11] Paul named this version the Lucretia Mott Amendment, after a female abolitionist who fought for women's rights and attended the First Women's Rights Convention. [12] In 1943, Alice Paul further revised the amendment to reflect the wording of the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments. This text became Section 1 of the version passed by Congress in 1972. [13] As a result, in the 1940s, ERA opponents proposed an alternative, which provided that “no distinctions on the basis of sex shall be made except such as are reasonably justified by differences in physical structure, biological differences, or social function.” It was quickly turned down by both pro and anti-ERA coalitions. [14] Feminists split [ edit ] Since the 1920s, the Equal Rights Amendment has been accompanied by discussion among feminists about the meaning of women's equality. [15] Alice Paul and her National Woman's Party asserted that women should be on equal terms with men in all regards, even if that means sacrificing benefits given to women through protective legislation, such as shorter work hours and no night work or heavy lifting. [16] Opponents of the amendment, such as the Women's Joint Congressional Committee , believed that the loss of these benefits to women would not be worth the supposed gain to them in equality. Although it now appears courts would indeed consider physical distinctions when applying the amendment, and determine whether a compelling government interest was met by sex-based government classifications, those discussing the amendment at the time had not yet seen the thoughtful Constitutional interpretations relating to civil rights and sex-based classifications that occurred years later. In 1924, The Forum hosted a debate between Doris Stevens and Alice Hamilton concerning the two perspectives on the proposed amendment. [17] Their debate reflected the wider tension in the developing feminist movement of the early 20th century between two approaches toward gender equality. One approach emphasized the common humanity of women and men, while the other stressed women's unique experiences and how they were different from men, seeking recognition for specific needs. [18] The opposition to the ERA was led by Mary Anderson and the Women's Bureau beginning in 1923. These feminists argued that legislation including mandated minimum wages, safety regulations, restricted daily and weekly hours, lunch breaks, and maternity provisions would be more beneficial to the majority of women who were forced to work out of economic necessity, not personal fulfillment. [19] The debate also drew from struggles between working class and professional women. Alice Hamilton, in her speech “Protection for Women Workers,” said that the ERA would strip working women of the small protections they had achieved, leaving them powerless to further improve their condition in the future, or to attain necessary protections in the present. [20] The National Woman's Party already had tested its approach in Wisconsin , where it won passage of the Wisconsin Equal Rights Law in 1921. [21] [22] The party then took the ERA to Congress, where U.S. Senator Charles Curtis , a future Vice President of the United States , introduced it for the first time in October 1921. [10] Although the ERA was introduced in every congressional session between 1921 and 1972, it almost never reached the floor of either the Senate or the House for a vote. Instead, it was usually blocked in committee; except in 1946, when it was defeated in the Senate by a vote of 38 to 35 — not receiving the required two-thirds supermajority. [ citation needed ] Hayden rider and protective labor legislation [ edit ] In 1950 and 1953, the ERA was passed by the Senate with a provision known as \"the Hayden rider\", introduced by Arizona Senator Carl Hayden . The Hayden rider added a sentence to the ERA to keep special protections for women: \"The provisions of this article shall not be construed to impair any rights, benefits, or exemptions now or hereafter conferred by law upon persons of the female sex.\" By allowing women to keep their existing and future special protections, it was expected that the ERA would be more appealing to its opponents. Though opponents were marginally more in favor of the ERA with the Hayden rider, supporters of the original ERA believed it negated the amendment's original purpose—causing the amendment not to be passed in the House. [23] [24] [25] ERA supporters were hopeful that the second term of President Dwight Eisenhower would advance their agenda. Eisenhower had publicly promised to \"assure women everywhere in our land equality of rights,\" and in 1958, Eisenhower asked a joint session of Congress to pass the Equal Rights Amendment, the first president to show such a level of support for the amendment. However, the National Woman's Party found the amendment to be unacceptable and asked it to be withdrawn whenever the Hayden rider was added to the ERA. [25] The Republican Party included support of the ERA in its platform beginning in 1940 , renewing the plank every four years until 1980 . [26] The ERA was strongly opposed by the American Federation of Labor and other labor unions, which feared the amendment would invalidate protective labor legislation for women. Eleanor Roosevelt and most New Dealers also opposed the ERA. They felt that ERA was designed for middle class women, but that working class women needed government protection. They also feared that the ERA would undercut the male-dominated labor unions that were a core component of the New Deal coalition . Most northern Democrats , who aligned themselves with the anti-ERA labor unions, opposed the amendment. [26] The ERA was supported by southern Democrats and almost all Republicans. [26] At the 1944 Democratic National Convention , the Democrats made the divisive step of including the ERA in their platform, but the Democratic Party did not become united in favor of the amendment until congressional passage in 1972. [26] The main support base for the ERA until the late 1960s was among middle class Republican women. The League of Women Voters , formerly the National American Woman Suffrage Association , opposed the Equal Rights Amendment until 1972, fearing the loss of protective labor legislation. [ citation needed ] 1960s [ edit ] Women in favor of ERA - Tallahassee At the Democratic National Convention in 1960 , a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the AFL–CIO , labor unions such as the American Federation of Teachers , Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), the American Nurses Association , the Women's Division of the Methodist Church , and the National Councils of Jewish, Catholic, and Negro Women. [27] The losing side then demanded that presidential candidate John F. Kennedy announce his support of the ERA; he did so in an October 21, 1960, letter to the chairman of the National Woman's Party. [28] When Kennedy was elected, he made Esther Peterson the highest-ranking woman in his administration as an Assistant Secretary of Labor. Peterson publicly opposed the Equal Rights Amendment based on her belief that it would weaken protective labor legislation. [29] Peterson referred to the National Woman's Party members, most of them veteran suffragists and preferred the \"specific bills for specific ills\" approach to equal rights. [29] Ultimately, Kennedy's ties to labor unions meant that he and his administration did not support the ERA. [30] As a concession to feminists, Kennedy appointed a blue-ribbon commission on women, the President's Commission on the Status of Women , to investigate the problem of sex discrimination in the United States. The commission was chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt who opposed the ERA but no longer spoke against it publicly. In the early 1960s, Eleanor Roosevelt announced that, due to unionization, she believed the ERA was no longer a threat to women as it once may have been and told supporters that, as far as she was concerned, they could have the amendment if they wanted it. However, she never went so far as to endorse the ERA. The commission that she chaired reported (after her death) that no ERA was needed. [31] The commission did, though, help win passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which banned sex discrimination in wages in a number of professions (it would later be amended in the early 1970s to include the professions that it initially excluded) and secured an executive order from Kennedy eliminating sex discrimination in the civil service . The commission, composed largely of anti-ERA feminists with ties to labor, proposed remedies to the widespread sex discrimination it unearthed and in its 1963 final report held that on the issue of equality \"a constitutional amendment need not now be sought\". [32] The national commission spurred the establishment of state and local commissions on the status of women and arranged for follow-up conferences in the years to come. The following year, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned workplace discrimination not only on the basis of race, religion, and national origin, but also on the basis of sex, thanks to the lobbying of Alice Paul and Coretta Scott King and the skillful politicking of Representative Martha Griffiths of Michigan . [ citation needed ] A new women's movement gained ground in the later 1960s as a result of a variety of factors: Betty Friedan 's bestseller The Feminine Mystique ; the network of women's rights commissions formed by Kennedy's national commission; the frustration over women's social and economic status; and anger over the lack of government and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission enforcement of the Equal Pay Act and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. In June 1966, at the Third National Conference on the Status of Women in Washington, D.C. , Betty Friedan and a group of activists frustrated with the lack of government action in enforcing Title VII of the Civil Rights Act formed the National Organization for Women to act as an \" NAACP for women\", demanding full equality for American women and men. [ citation needed ] In 1967, at the urging of Alice Paul, NOW endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment. [ citation needed ] The decision caused some union Democrats and social conservatives to leave the organization and form the Women's Equity Action League (within a few years WEAL also endorsed the ERA), but the move to support the amendment benefited NOW, bolstering its membership. [ citation needed ] By the late 1960s, NOW had made significant political and legislative victories and was gaining enough power to become a major lobbying force. In 1969, newly-elected Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York gave her famous speech \"Equal Rights for Women\" on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives. [ citation needed ] Congressional passage [ edit ] U.S. Representative Martha W. Griffiths championed the ERA In February 1970, NOW picketed the United States Senate, a subcommittee of which was holding hearings on a constitutional amendment to lower the voting age to 18. NOW disrupted the hearings and demanded a hearing on the Equal Rights Amendment and won a meeting with Senators to discuss the ERA. That August, over 20,000 American women held a nationwide Women's Strike for Equality protest to demand full social, economic, and political equality. [33] Said Betty Friedan of the strike, \"All kinds of women's groups all over the country will be using this week on August 26 particularly, to point out those areas in women's life which are still not addressed. For example, a question of equality before the law; we are interested in the Equal Rights Amendment.\" Despite being centered in New York City—which was regarded as one of the biggest strongholds for NOW and other groups sympathetic to the women's liberation movement such as Redstockings [34] —and having a small number of participants in contrast to the large-scale anti-war and civil rights protests that had occurred in the recent time prior to the event, [33] the strike was credited as one of the biggest turning points in the rise of second-wave feminism . [34] In Washington, D.C., protesters presented a sympathetic Senate leadership with a petition for the Equal Rights Amendment at the U.S. Capitol . Influential news sources such as Time also supported the cause of the protestors. [33] Soon after the strike took place, activists distributed literature across the country as well. [34] In 1970, congressional hearings began on the ERA. [ citation needed ] On August 10, 1970, Michigan Democrat Martha Griffiths successfully brought the Equal Rights Amendment to the House Floor, after fifteen years of the joint resolution languishing in the House Judiciary Committee. The joint resolution passed in the House and continued on to the Senate, which voted for the ERA with an added clause that women would be exempt from the military. The 91st Congress , however, ended before the joint resolution could progress any further. [35] Griffiths reintroduced the ERA, and achieved success on Capitol Hill with her House Joint Resolution No. 208, which was adopted by the House on October 12, 1971, with a vote of 354 yeas (For), 24 nays (Against) and 51 not voting. [36] Griffiths' joint resolution was then adopted by the Senate—without change—on March 22, 1972, by a vote of 84 yeas, 8 nays and 7 not voting. [37] The Senate version, drafted by Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana, [38] passed after the defeat of an amendment proposed by Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina that would have exempted women from the draft . [26] President Richard Nixon immediately endorsed the ERA's approval upon its passage by the 92nd Congress . [26] Actions in the state legislatures [ edit ] Ratified Ratified after June 30, 1982 Ratified, then revoked Not ratified (having been approved in only 1 house of legislature) Not ratified Ratifications [ edit ] On March 22, 1972, the ERA was placed before the state legislatures, with a seven-year deadline to acquire ratification by three-fourths (38) of the state legislatures. Most states were eager [ citation needed ] to ratify the proposed constitutional amendment. The U.S. Senate's vote on House Joint Resolution No. 208 took place in the mid-to-late afternoon in Washington D.C., when it was still midday in Hawaii. The Hawaii Senate and House of Representatives voted their approval shortly after noon Hawaii Standard Time, making Hawaii the first state to ratify the ERA and the first state thus far in U.S. history to ratify a proposed federal constitutional amendment on the same day that Congress offered the measure to state lawmakers. [39] During 1972, a total of 22 state legislatures ratified the amendment and eight more joined in 1973. Between 1974 and 1977, only five states approved the ERA, and advocates became worried about the approaching March 22, 1979 deadline. [40] At the same time, the legislatures of four states which had ratified the ERA then adopted legislation purporting to rescind those ratifications. If, indeed, a state legislature has the ability to rescind, then the ERA actually had ratifications by only 31 states – not 35 – when March 22, 1979, arrived. The ERA has been ratified by the following states: [41] Hawaii (March 22, 1972) New Hampshire (March 23, 1972) Delaware (March 23, 1972) Iowa (March 24, 1972) Idaho (March 24, 1972) Kansas (March 28, 1972) Nebraska (March 29, 1972) Texas (March 30, 1972) Tennessee (April 4, 1972) Alaska (April 5, 1972) Rhode Island (April 14, 1972) New Jersey (April 17, 1972) Colorado (April 21, 1972) West Virginia (April 22, 1972) Wisconsin (April 26, 1972) New York (May 18, 1972) Michigan (May 22, 1972) Maryland (May 26, 1972) Massachusetts (June 21, 1972) Kentucky (June 26, 1972) Pennsylvania (September 27, 1972) California (November 13, 1972) Wyoming (January 26, 1973) South Dakota (February 5, 1973) Oregon (February 8, 1973) [42] Minnesota (February 8, 1973) New Mexico (February 28, 1973) Vermont (March 1, 1973) Connecticut (March 15, 1973) Washington (March 22, 1973) Maine (January 18, 1974) Montana (January 25, 1974) Ohio (February 7, 1974) North Dakota (March 19, 1975) Indiana (January 18, 1977) [43] Nevada (March 22, 2017) [44] Illinois (May 30, 2018) [45] Ratifications rescinded [ edit ] Although Article V is silent as to whether a state may rescind a previous ratification of a proposed—but not yet ratified—amendment to the U.S. Constitution, [46] legislators in the following four states nevertheless voted to retract their earlier ratification of the ERA: [47] Nebraska (March 15, 1973 – Legislative Resolution No. 9) Tennessee (April 23, 1974 – Senate Joint Resolution No. 29) Idaho (February 8, 1977 – House Concurrent Resolution No. 10) Kentucky (March 17, 1978 – House (Joint) Resolution No. 20) The Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky , Thelma Stovall , who was acting as governor in the governor's absence, \" vetoed \" the rescinding resolution— [48] raising questions as to whether a state's governor, or someone temporarily acting as governor, has the power to veto any measure relative to amending the United States Constitution. (Refer to \"Executive branch involvement in ratification process\" below). Ratifying state with self-declared March 22, 1979 sunset provision [ edit ] The action of the 95th Congress in October of 1978 to extend the ERA ratification deadline from March 22, 1979, to June 30, 1982, was not universally accepted. In NOW v. Idaho , however, the Supreme Court overruled as moot a federal district court ruling that Congress did not possess power to extend the deadline. [49] Among those rejecting Congress's claim to even hold such authority, the South Dakota Legislature adopted Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 on March 1, 1979. The joint resolution stipulated that South Dakota's 1973 ERA ratification would be \"sunsetted\" as of the original March 22, 1979 deadline. South Dakota's 1979 sunset joint resolution declared: \"...the Ninety-fifth Congress ex post facto has sought unilaterally to alter the terms and conditions in such a way as to materially affect the congressionally established time period for ratification...\" (designated as \"POM-93\" by the U.S. Senate and published verbatim in the Congressional Record of March 13, 1979, at pages 4861 and 4862). [50] The action on the part of South Dakota lawmakers—occurring 21 days prior to originally agreed-upon March 22, 1979 deadline—could be viewed as slightly different from a rescission. As noted in The Constitution of the United States Analysis and Interpretation (Centennial edition, 2017, at page 1005): \"Four states had rescinded their ratifications [of the ERA] and a fifth had declared that its ratification would be void unless the [Equal Rights] amendment was ratified within the original time limit\"; (see footnote 43 at the bottom of page 1005, which identifies South Dakota as that \"fifth\" state). [51] [52] Executive branch involvement in ratification process [ edit ] The Constitution is silent as to whether the governor—or acting governor—of a state has any formal role to play regarding state ratification of an amendment to the Constitution. However, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798) [53] that the President of the United States has no formal role in that process. Non-ratifying states with one-house approval [ edit ] At various times, in 7 of the 13 non-ratifying states, one house of the legislature approved the ERA. It failed in those states because both houses of a state's legislature must approve, during the same session, in order for that state to be deemed to have ratified. Florida – whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on March 24, 1972, with a tally of 91 to 4; a second time on April 10, 1975, with a tally of 62 to 58; a third time on May 17, 1979, with a tally of 66 to 53; and a fourth time on June 21, 1982, with a tally of 60 to 58. [54] Louisiana – whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA on June 7, 1972, with a tally of 25 to 13. Missouri – whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on February 7, 1975, with a tally of 82 to 75. [55] North Carolina – whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on February 9, 1977, with a tally of 61 to 55. [56] Oklahoma – whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA on March 23, 1972, by a voice vote . [57] South Carolina – whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on March 22, 1972, with a tally of 83 to zero. Virginia – whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA on February 7, 2011, with a tally of 24 to 16 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 357); a second time on February 14, 2012, with a tally of 24 to 15 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 130); a third time on February 5, 2014, with a tally of 25 to 8 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 78); a fourth time on February 5, 2015, with a tally of 20 to 19 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 216); [58] and a fifth time on January 26, 2016, with a tally of 21 to 19 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 1). [59] Ratification resolutions have also been defeated in Arizona, Arkansas, [60] and Mississippi. [61] [62] [63] Congressional extension of ratification deadline [ edit ] The original joint resolution (H. J. Res. 208), by which the 92nd Congress proposed the amendment to the states, was prefaced by the following resolving clause: Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled (two-thirds of each House concurring therein), That the following article is proposed as an amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the Constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission by the Congress : [emphasis added] As the joint resolution was passed on March 22, 1972, this effectively set a March 22, 1979 deadline for the amendment to be ratified by the requisite number of states. However, the 92nd Congress did not incorporate any time limit into the body of the actual text of the proposed amendment, as had been done with a number of other proposed amendments. [64] In 1978, as the original 1979 deadline approached, the 95th Congress adopted House Joint Resolution No. 638 (H. J. Res. 638), by Representative Elizabeth Holtzman of New York , which purported to extend the ERA's ratification deadline to June 30, 1982. [65] H. J. Res. 638 received less than two-thirds of the vote (a simple majority , not a supermajority ) in both the House of Representatives and the Senate; for that reason, ERA supporters deemed it necessary that H. J. Res. 638 be transmitted to then-President Jimmy Carter for signature as a safety precaution. Carter signed the joint resolution, although he noted, on strictly procedural grounds, the irregularity of his doing so. [66] During this disputed extension of slightly more than three years, no additional states ratified or rescinded . [ citation needed ] President Carter signing H.J. Res. 638 on October 20, 1978 (39 years ago) ( 1978-10-20 ) . The purported extension of ERA's ratification deadline was vigorously contested in 1978 as scholars were divided as to whether Congress actually has authority to revise a previously agreed-to deadline for the states to act upon a Federal constitutional amendment. On June 18, 1980, a resolution in the Illinois House of Representatives resulted in a vote of 102-71 in favor, but Illinois' internal parliamentary rules required a three-fifths majority on constitutional amendments and so the measure failed by five votes. In 1982, seven female ERA supporters went on a fast and seventeen chained themselves to the entrance of the Illinois Senate chamber. [67] [68] [69] The closest that the ERA came to gaining an additional ratification between the original deadline of March 22, 1979 and the revised June 30, 1982, expiration date was when it was approved by the Florida House of Representatives on June 21, 1982. In the final week before the revised deadline, that ratifying resolution, however, was defeated in the Florida Senate by a vote of 16 yeas and 22 nays. Even if Florida had ratified the ERA, the proposed amendment would still have fallen short of the required 38. According to research by Professor Jules B. Gerard, professor of law at Washington University in St. Louis , of the 35 legislatures that passed ratification resolutions, 24 of them explicitly referred to the original 1979 deadline. [70] In the courts / Legal officials [ edit ] On December 23, 1981, a federal district court, in the case of Idaho v. Freeman , ruled that the extension of the ERA ratification deadline to June 30, 1982, was not valid and that, ERA had actually expired from state legislative consideration more than two years earlier on the original expiration date of March 22, 1979. On January 25, 1982, however, the U.S. Supreme Court \"stayed\" the lower court's decision, thus signaling to the legislatures of still-unratified states that they may continue consideration of ERA during their spring 1982 legislative sessions. After the disputed June 30, 1982, extended deadline had come and gone, the Supreme Court, at the beginning of its new term, on October 4, 1982, in the separate case of NOW v. Idaho , 459 U.S. 809 (1982), vacated the federal district court decision in Idaho v. Freeman , [71] which, in addition to declaring March 22, 1979, as ERA's expiration date, had upheld the validity of state rescissions. The Supreme Court declared these controversies moot on the grounds that the ERA had not received the required number of ratifications (38), so that \"the Amendment has failed of adoption no matter what the resolution of the legal issues presented here.\" [72] [73] In the 1939 case of Coleman v. Miller , [74] the Supreme Court ruled that Congress has the final authority to determine whether, by lapse of time, a proposed constitutional amendment has lost its vitality before being ratified by enough states, and whether state ratifications are effective in light of attempts at subsequent withdrawal. The Court stated: \"We think that, in accordance with this historic precedent, the question of the efficacy of ratifications by state legislatures, in the light of previous rejection or attempted withdrawal, should be regarded as a political question pertaining to the political departments, with the ultimate authority in the Congress in the exercise of its control over the promulgation of the adoption of the amendment.\" [75] The Court, in 1939, upheld Congressional authority to determine in 1868 that the Fourteenth Amendment was properly ratified, including states that had attempted to rescind prior ratifications. [ citation needed ] In the context of this judicial precedent, nonpartisan counsel to a Nevada state legislative committee concluded in 2017 that \"If three more states sent their ratification to the appropriate federal official, it would then be up to Congress to determine whether a sufficient number of states have ratified the Equal Rights Amendment.\" [76] Similarly, an informal advisory provided to Virginia State Senator Scott A. Surovell from the Virginia Attorney General’s office stated that Congress has the power to extend the ratification deadline even further. The advisory also stated that even without such a further extension, a contemporary ratification of the ERA by the Virginia General Assembly could be found valid by Congress. [77] In March, 2018, a formal opinion letter of Virginia Attorney General Mark Herring concurred, stating: [78] \"In light of Congress's significant control over the amendment process, I cannot conclude that it lacks the power to extend the period in which an amendment can be ratified and recognize a State's intervening ratifying resolution as legally effective for purposes of determining whether the ERA has been ratified. Although the precise issue you raise has not been conclusively resolved, the historical evidence and case law demonstrate Congress's significant, even plenary, power over the amending process.\" The Attorney General added, citing extensive sources: \"As recognized by the constitutional scholars who testified before Congress and in the report of the House Judiciary Committee recommending extension, the limited Supreme Court precedent in this area suggests that Congress has authority to extend a ratification deadline.\" [79] After thorough discussion of legal precedent and testimony at the Congressional hearings, the opinion letter concluded: \"It is my opinion that the lapse of the ERA's original and extended ratification periods has not disempowered the [Virginia] General Assembly from passing a ratifying resolution. Given Congress's substantial power over the amending process, I cannot conclude that Congress would be powerless to extend or remove the ERA's ratification deadline and recognize as valid a State's intervening act of ratification. Indeed, legislation currently pending in Congress seeks to exercise that very power.\" [80] Support for the ERA [ edit ] Supporters of the ERA point to the lack of a specific guarantee in the Constitution for equal rights protections on the basis of sex. [81] In 1973, future Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg summarized a supporting argument for the ERA in the American Bar Association Journal : The equal rights amendment, in sum, would dedicate the nation to a new view of the rights and responsibilities of men and women. It firmly rejects sharp legislative lines between the sexes as constitutionally tolerable. Instead, it looks toward a legal system in which each person will be judged on the basis of individual merit and not on the basis of an unalterable trait of birth that bears no necessary relationship to need or ability. [82] In the early 1940s both the Democratic and Republican parties added support for the ERA to their platforms. [83] The National Organization for Women (NOW) and ERAmerica, a coalition of almost 80 organizations, led the pro-ERA efforts. Between 1972 and 1982, ERA supporters held rallies, petitioned, picketed, went on hunger strikes, and performed acts of civil disobedience. [40] On July 9, 1978, NOW and other organizations hosted a national march in Washington D.C., which garnered over 100,000 supporters, and was followed by a Lobby Day on July 10. [84] On June 6, 1982, NOW sponsored marches in states that had not passed the ERA including Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, and Oklahoma. [85] Key feminists of the time, such as Gloria Steinem , spoke out in favor of the ERA, arguing that ERA opposition was based on gender myths that overemphasized difference and ignored evidence of unequal treatment between men and women. [86] Support for the ERA among people of color [ edit ] Many women in the African American community have supported the ERA in light of the dual effects of both race and sex discrimination. [87] One prominent female supporter was New York Representative Shirley Chisholm . On August 10, 1970, she gave a speech on the ERA called “For the Equal Rights Amendment” in Washington D.C. In her address, she pointed out how widespread sex discrimination had become and how the ERA would remedy it. She also said that laws to protect women in the workforce from unsafe working conditions would be needed by men, too, and thus the ERA would help all people. [88] By 1976, 60% of African American women and 63% of African American men were in favor of the ERA, and the legislation was supported by organizations such as the NAACP , National Council of Negro Women , Coalition of Black Trade Unionists , National Association of Negro Business, and the National Black Feminist Organization . [87] Opposition to the ERA [ edit ] Anti-ERA women watching a committee meeting of the Florida Senate in 1979, where consideration of the ERA was postponed, thus effectively killing the resolution for the 1979 session Opponents of the ERA focused on traditional gender roles, such as how men do the fighting in wartime. They argued that the amendment would guarantee the possibility that women would be subject to conscription and be required to have military combat roles in future wars if it were passed. Defense of traditional gender roles proved to be a useful tactic. In Illinois, supporters of Phyllis Schlafly , a conservative Republican activist from that state, used traditional symbols of the American housewife . They took homemade bread, jams, and apple pies to the state legislators, with the slogans, \"Preserve us from a congressional jam; Vote against the ERA sham\" and \"I am for Mom and apple pie.\" [89] They appealed to married women by stressing that the amendment would invalidate protective laws such as alimony and eliminate the tendency for mothers to obtain custody over their children in divorce cases. [90] It was suggested that single-sex bathrooms would be eliminated and same-sex couples would be able to get married if the amendment were passed. [3] Traditional women started to oppose the ERA. [91] Schlafly said the ERA was designed for the benefit of young career women and warned that if men and women had to be treated identically it would threaten the security of middle-aged housewives with no job skills. They could no longer count on alimony or Social Security. [3] Opponents also argued that men and women were already equal enough with the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , [92] and that women's colleges would have to admit men. Schlafly's argument that protective laws would be lost resonated with working-class women. [93] Phyllis Schlafly , a conservative activist, organized opposition to the ERA and argued that it \"would lead to women being drafted by the military and to public unisex bathrooms \" [94] At the 1980 Republican National Convention , the Republican Party platform was amended to end its support for the ERA. [95] The most prominent opponent of the ERA was Schlafly. Leading the Stop ERA campaign, Schlafly defended traditional gender roles and would often attempt to incite feminists by opening her speeches with lines such as, \"I'd like to thank my husband for letting me be here tonight – I always like to say that, because it makes the libs so mad.\" [96] When Schlafly began her campaign in 1972, public polls showed support for the amendment was widely popular and thirty states had ratified the amendment by 1973. After 1973, the number of ratifying states slowed to a trickle. Support in the states that had not ratified fell below 50%. [97] Critchlow and Stachecki noted that public opinion in key states shifted against the ERA as opponents, operating on the local and state levels, won over the public. The state legislators in battleground states followed public opinion in rejecting the ERA. [ citation needed ] Experts agree that Phyllis Schlafly was a key player in the defeat. Political scientist Jane Mansbridge in her history of the ERA argues that the draft issue was the single most powerful argument used by Schlafly and the other opponents to defeat ERA. [98] Mansbridge concluded, \"Many people who followed the struggle over the ERA believed – rightly in my view – that the Amendment would have been ratified by 1975 or 1976 had it not been for Phyllis Schlafly's early and effective effort to organize potential opponents.\" [99] Legal scholar Joan C. Williams maintained, \"ERA was defeated when Schlafly turned it into a war among women over gender roles.\" [100] Historian Judith Glazer-Raymo asserted: As moderates, we thought we represented the forces of reason and goodwill but failed to take seriously the power of the family values argument and the single-mindedness of Schlafly and her followers. The ERA's defeat seriously damaged the women's movement, destroying its momentum and its potential to foment social change....Eventually, this resulted in feminist dissatisfaction with the Republican Party, giving the Democrats a new source of strength that when combined with overwhelming minority support, helped elect Bill Clinton to the presidency in 1992 and again in 1996. [101] Many ERA supporters blamed their defeat on special interest forces, especially the insurance industry and conservative organizations, suggesting that they had funded an opposition that subverted the democratic process and the will of the pro-ERA majority. [102] Such supporters argued that while the public face of the anti-ERA movement was Phyllis Schlafly and her STOP ERA organization, there were other important groups in the opposition as well, such as the powerful National Council of Catholic Women, labor feminists [ verification needed ] , and (until 1973) the AFL–CIO . Opposition to the amendment was particularly high among religious conservatives, who argued that the amendment would guarantee universal abortion rights and the right for homosexual couples to marry. [103] [104] Critchlow and Stachecki say the anti-ERA movement was based on strong backing among Southern whites, Evangelical Christians, Mormons, Orthodox Jews, and Roman Catholics, including both men and women. [105] Sonia Johnson , a traditionally-raised Mormon housewife whose eventual feminist advocacy for the ERA's passage led to her excommunication by the LDS church, subsequently wrote about her experiences in the memoir From Housewife to Heretic . (Johnson and others led a hunger strike/fast at the Illinois State Senate chamber in an unsuccessful effort to push the Illinois General Assembly toward ERA ratification before the 1982 revised deadline.) [ citation needed ] Post-deadline ratifications [ edit ] Beginning in the mid 1990s, ERA supporters began an effort to win ratification of the ERA by the legislatures of states that did not ratify it between 1972 and 1982. These proponents state that Congress can remove the ERA's ratification deadline despite the deadline having expired, allowing the states again to ratify it. They also state that the ratifications ERA previously received remain in force and that rescissions of prior ratifications are not valid. [106] Those who espouse the \"three-state strategy\" (now down to only one state if the Nevada Legislature's and the Illinois General Assembly's belated ERA approvals are deemed legitimate) were spurred, at least in part, by the unconventional 202-year-long ratification of the Constitution's Twenty-seventh Amendment (sometimes referred to as the \"Madison Amendment\") which became part of the Constitution in 1992 after pending before the state legislatures since 1789. Although the \"Madison Amendment\" was not associated with a ratification deadline, whereas the proposing clause of the ERA did include a deadline, states have in the past ratified amendments after a deadline, and Congress has not rejected those ratifications (as the Supreme Court has said, \"Congress in controlling the promulgation of the adoption of a constitutional amendment has the final determination of the question whether by lapse of time its proposal of the amendment had lost its vitality prior to the required ratifications\"). [107] On June 21, 2009, the National Organization for Women decided to support both efforts to obtain additional state ratifications for the 1972 ERA and any strategy to submit a fresh-start ERA to the states for ratification. [108] In 2013, the Library of Congress 's Congressional Research Service issued a report saying that ratification deadlines are a political question : ERA proponents claim that the Supreme Court's decision in Coleman v. Miller gives Congress wide discretion in setting conditions for the ratification process. The report goes on to say: Revivification opponents caution ERA supporters against an overly broad interpretation of Coleman v. Miller , which, they argue, may have been be [ sic ] a politically influenced decision. [109] However, most recently, ERA Action has both led and brought renewed vigor to the movement by instituting what has become known as the \"three state strategy\". [110] It was in 2013 that ERA Action began to gain traction with this strategy through their coordination with U.S. Senators and Representatives not only to introduce legislation in both houses of Congress to remove the ratification deadline, but also in gaining legislative sponsors. The Congressional Research Service then issued a report on the \"three state strategy\" on April 8, 2013 entitled \"The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment: Contemporary Ratification Issues\", [111] stating that the approach was viable. In 2014, under the auspices of ERA Action and their coalition partners, both the Virginia and Illinois state senates voted to ratify the ERA. That year, votes were blocked in both states' House chambers. In the meantime, the ERA ratification movement continued with the resolution being introduced in 10 state legislatures. [112] [113] [114] On March 22, 2017, the Nevada Legislature became the first state in 40 years to ratify the ERA. [115] Illinois lawmakers and citizens took another look at the ERA, with hearings, testimony, and research including work by the law firm Winston & Strawn to address common legal questions about the ERA. [116] Illinois state lawmakers ratified the ERA on May 30, 2018, with a 72-45 vote in the Illinois House following a 43-12 vote in the Illinois Senate in April, 2018. [117] [118] On February 10, 2018, the final day of that year's legislative session on which the Virginia General Assembly committees could have brought up the four ERA resolutions for consideration, women and men from the League of Women Voters and numerous areas and groups across Virginia packed the committee chamber rooms of the Virginia General Assembly , and when the chairmen did not bring up the ERA for a vote, they demanded that the resolutions be given a fair hearing and vote. The House committee did not bring up the resolutions for consideration, and the Virginia Senate Rules Committee voted to table the resolution until the following year, citing an alleged statement from an official at the National Archives and Records Administration. [119] [120] The National Archives and Records Administration later noted that the alleged statement had never occurred. \"'The Archivist of the United States has not taken such a stance and has never issued an opinion on this matter either officially or unofficially,' said the agency’s director of communications, James Pritchett, in a statement.\" [121] Subsequent congressional action [ edit ] The amendment has been reintroduced in every session of Congress since 1982. Senator Ted Kennedy (D-Massachusetts) championed it in the Senate from the 99th Congress through the 110th Congress . Senator Robert Menendez (D-New Jersey) introduced the amendment symbolically at the end of the 111th Congress and has supported it in the 112th Congress . In the House of Representatives, Carolyn Maloney (D-New York) has sponsored it since the 105th Congress , [122] most recently in August 2013. [123] In 1983, the ERA passed through House committees with the same text as in 1972; however, it failed by six votes to achieve the necessary two-thirds vote on the House floor. That was the last time that the ERA received a floor vote in either house of Congress. [124] At the start of the 112th Congress on January 6, 2011, Senator Menendez, along with Representatives Maloney, Jerrold Nadler (D-New York) and Gwen Moore (D-Wisconsin), held a press conference advocating for the Equal Rights Amendment's adoption. [125] The 113th Congress had a record number of women. On March 5, 2013, the ERA was reintroduced by Senator Menendez as S.J. Res. 10. [126] [127] The \"New ERA\" introduced in 2013, sponsored by Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, adds an additional sentence to the original text: \"Women shall have equal rights in the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction.\" [128] Proposed removal of ratification deadline [ edit ] On March 8, 2011, the 100th anniversary of International Women's Day , Representative Tammy Baldwin (D-Wisconsin) introduced legislation (H.J. Res. 47) to remove the congressionally imposed deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment. [129] Resolution co-sponsors included Representatives Robert Andrews (D-New Jersey), Jackie Speier (D-California), Luis Gutierrez (D-Illinois), Chellie Pingree (D-Maine) and Debbie Wasserman Schultz (D-Florida). On March 22, 2012, the 40th anniversary of the ERA's congressional approval, Senator Benjamin L. Cardin (D-Maryland) introduced (S.J. Res. 39) – which is worded with slight differences from Representative Baldwin's (H.J. Res. 47). Senator Cardin was joined by ten other Senators who added their names to the Senate Joint Resolution. [130] On February 24, 2013, the New Mexico House of Representatives adopted House Memorial No. 7 asking that the congressionally-imposed deadline for ERA ratification be removed. [131] [132] House Memorial No. 7 was officially received by the U.S. Senate on January 6, 2014, was designated as \"POM-175\", was referred to the Senate's Committee on the Judiciary, and was published verbatim in the Congressional Record at page S24. [133] State equal rights amendments [ edit ] Further information: State Equal Rights Amendments Twenty-four states and the District of Columbia have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex. Most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the ERA, while the wording in others resembles the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . [134] The 1879 Constitution of California contains the earliest state equal rights provision on record. Narrowly written, it limits the equal rights conferred to \"entering or pursuing a business, profession, vocation, or employment\". Near the end of the 19th century two more states, Wyoming (1890) and Utah (1896), included equal rights provisions in their constitutions. These provisions were broadly written to ensure political and civil equality between women and men. [135] Several states crafted and adopted their own equal rights amendments during the 1970s and 1980s, while the ERA was before the states, or afterward. Some state equal rights amendments and original constitutional equal rights provisions are: [135] [136] Alaska – No person is to be denied the enjoyment of any civil or political right because of race, color, creed, sex or national origin. The legislature shall implement this section. Alaska Constitution, Article I, §3 (1972) California – A person may not be disqualified from entering or pursuing a business, profession, vocation, or employment because of sex, race, creed, color, or national or ethnic origin. California Constitution, Article I, §8 (1879) Colorado – Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the state of Colorado or any of its political subdivisions because of sex. Colorado Constitution, Article II, §29 (1973) Connecticut – No person shall be denied the equal protection of the law nor be subjected to segregation or discrimination in the exercise or enjoyment of his or her civil or political rights because of religion, race, color, ancestry, national origin, sex or physical or mental disability. Connecticut Constitution, Article I, §20 (1984) Illinois – The equal protection of the laws shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex by the State or its units of local government and school districts. Illinois Constitution, Article I, §18 (1970) Iowa – All men and women are, by nature, free and equal and have certain inalienable rights – among which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty,\nacquiring, possessing and protecting property, and pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness. Iowa Constitution, Article I, §1 (1998) Maryland – Equality of rights under the law shall not be abridged or denied because of sex. Maryland Constitution, Declaration of Rights, Article 46 (1972) Massachusetts – All people are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties; that of acquiring, possessing and protecting property; in fine, that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness. Equality under the law shall not be denied or abridged because of sex, race, color, creed or national origin. Massachusetts Constitution, Part 1, Article 1 as amended by Article CVI by vote of the People, (1976) Montana – Individual dignity. The dignity of the human being is inviolable. No person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws. Neither the state nor any person, firm, corporation, or institution shall discriminate against any person in the exercise of his civil or political rights on account of race, color, sex, culture, social origin or condition, or political or religious ideas. Montana Constitution, Article II, §4 (1973) Oregon – Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the state of Oregon or by any political subdivision in this state on account of sex. Oregon Constitution, Article I, §46 (2014) Utah – The rights of citizens of the State of Utah to vote and hold office shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex. Both male and female citizens of this State shall enjoy all civil, political and religious rights and privileges. Utah Constitution, Article IV, §1 (1896) Washington, DC – It is the intent of the Council of the District of Columbia, in enacting this chapter, to secure an end in the District of Columbia to discrimination for any reason other than that of individual merit, including, but not \nlimited to, discrimination by reason of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, marital status, personal appearance, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression familial status, family responsibilities, matriculation, political affiliation, genetic information, disability, source of income, status as a victim of an intrafamily offense, and place of residence or business. District of Columbia Code (Title 2, Chapter 14, Human Rights Act of 1977, as Amended Mar. 2007 ) Wyoming – In their inherent right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, all members of the human race are equal. Since equality in the enjoyment of natural and civil rights is only made sure through political equality, the laws of this state affecting the political rights and privileges of its citizens shall be without distinction of race, color, sex, or any circumstance or condition whatsoever other than the individual incompetency or unworthiness duly ascertained by a court of competent jurisdiction. The rights of citizens of the state of Wyoming to vote and hold office shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex. Both male and female citizens of this state shall equally enjoy all civil, political and religious rights and privileges. Wyoming Constitution, Articles I and VI (1890) See also [ edit ] Government of the United States portal Law portal Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Equal pay for equal work Feminism in the United States First-wave feminism History of feminism History of women in the United States References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Olson, James S.; Mendoza, Abraham O. (2015-04-28). American Economic History: A Dictionary and Chronology: A Dictionary and Chronology . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781610696982 . Jump up ^ Miller, Eric C. (2015-06-19). \"Phyllis Schlafly's \"Positive\" Freedom: Liberty, Liberation, and the Equal Rights Amendment\" . Rhetoric & Public Affairs . 18 (2): 277–300. ISSN 1534-5238 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"New Drive Afoot to Pass Equal Rights Amendment\" . www.washingtonpost.com . Retrieved 2017-04-13 . Jump up ^ \"Unbelievably, women still don't have equal rights in the Constitution\" . Los Angeles Times . January 5, 2018 . Retrieved January 6, 2018 . 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(2000). \" ' What Women Wanted': Arkansas Women's Commissions and the ERA\". Arkansas Historical Quarterly . 59 (3): 265–298. JSTOR 40027988 . Jump up ^ Martha H. Swain; et al. (2010). Mississippi Women: Their Histories, Their Lives . U of Georgia Press. p. 289. ISBN 9780820333939 . Jump up ^ Will, George F. (February 13, 1994). \"Night of the Living Dead Amendment\" (PDF) . Washington Post via National Right to Life Committee . Retrieved 2014-01-05 . Jump up ^ Francis, Roberta W. \"Frequently Asked Questions\" . Alice Paul Institute . Retrieved 2009-08-14 . Jump up ^ Section 3 of the Eighteenth Amendment , Section 6 of the Twentieth Amendment , Section 3 of the Twenty-first Amendment , Section 2 of the Twenty-second Amendment , and Section 4 of the rejected District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment Jump up ^ Volume 92, United States Statutes At Large, page 3799 Jump up ^ Equal Rights Amendment - Extension of ratification deadline Archived October 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ O'Dea, Suzanne (1999). From Suffrage to the Senate: An Encyclopedia of American Women in Politics, Volume 1 . ABC-CLIO. p. 244. ISBN 9780874369601 . Jump up ^ Nicholson, Zoe Ann (2004). The Hungry Heart: A Woman's Fast for Justice . Lune Soleil Press. ISBN 0972392831 . Jump up ^ Sheppard, Nathaniel (June 24, 1982). \"Women say they'll end fast but not rights fight\" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 18, 2016 . Jump up ^ Letter to House Judiciary Committee, June 14, 1978 Jump up ^ \"STATE OF IDAHO v. FREEMAN | 529 F.Supp. 1107 (1981) | pp110711473 | Leagle.com\" . Leagle . Retrieved 2018-04-16 . Jump up ^ Memorandum of Gerald P. Carmen, Administrator of General Services , July 1982. Jump up ^ \"Now v. Idaho\" . eagleforum.org . Jump up ^ \"Coleman v. Miller\" . Jump up ^ Id. Jump up ^ \"Minutes, Hearing of the Assembly Committee on Legislative Operations and Elections\" (PDF) . , p.16 (Mar. 7, 2017). Jump up ^ \"Washington Post\" . Jump up ^ See Virginia Attorney General Opinion Letter, supra, at 4. Jump up ^ Id. Jump up ^ Id., at 7. Jump up ^ \"ERA: Why\" . www.equalrightsamendment.org . Retrieved 2017-04-06 . Jump up ^ Ginsburg, Ruth Bader (1973). \"The Need for the Equal Rights Amendment\". American Bar Association Journal . 59 (9): 1013–1019. JSTOR 25726416 . Jump up ^ \"ERA: History\" . www.equalrightsamendment.org . Retrieved 2017-04-11 . Jump up ^ \"July 9, 1978: Feminists Make History With Biggest-Ever March for the Equal Rights Amendment | Feminist Majority Foundation Blog\" . feminist.org . Retrieved 2017-04-13 . Jump up ^ Times, Winston Williams, Special To The New York (1982-06-07). \"THOUSANDS MARCH FOR EQUAL RIGHTS\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-04-13 . Jump up ^ \" \" All Our Problems Stem from the Same Sex Based Myths\": Gloria Steinem Delineates American Gender Myths during ERA Hearings\" . historymatters.gmu.edu . Retrieved 2017-04-13 . ^ Jump up to: a b SEDWICK, CATHY; WILLIAMS, REBA (1976-01-01). \"BLACK WOMEN AND THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT\". The Black Scholar . 7 (10): 24–29. JSTOR 41065957 . Jump up ^ \"Shirley Anita St. Hill Chisholm, \"For the Equal Rights Amendment\" (10 August 1970)\" . archive.vod.umd.edu . Archived from the original on 24 April 2017 . Retrieved 2017-04-13 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008). Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century . Hill & Wang. p. 225. ISBN 9780809016310 . Jump up ^ Rhode, Deborah L. (2009). Justice and Gender: Sex Discrimination and the Law . Harvard University Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 9780674042674 . Jump up ^ \"The Equal Rights Amendment\" . ushistory.org . Independence Hall Association. Jump up ^ \"Digital History\" . www.digitalhistory.uh.edu . Retrieved 2017-04-13 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008). Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century . Hill & Wang. pp. 225–26. ISBN 9780809016310 . Jump up ^ Eilperin, Juliet. \"New Drive Afoot to Pass Equal Rights Amendment\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved May 22, 2010 . Jump up ^ Perlez, Jane (May 17, 1984). \"Plan to omit rights amendment from platform brings objections\" . New York Times . Retrieved July 24, 2013 . Jump up ^ Critchlow, p. 247 Jump up ^ Jane J. Mansbridge, Why we lost the ERA (University of Chicago Press, 1986) p 214. Jump up ^ Jane Mansbridge, \"Who's in Charge Here? Decision by Accretion and Gatekeeping in the Struggle for the ERA\", Politics & Society (1984) 13#4 pp 343-382. Jump up ^ Mansbridge, Why we lost the ERA (1986) p 110. Jump up ^ Williams, Joan (1999). Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What To Do About It . Oxford UP. p. 147. ISBN 9780199840472 . Jump up ^ Glazer-Raymo, Judith (2001). Shattering the Myths: Women in Academe . Johns Hopkins UP. p. 19. ISBN 9780801866418 . Jump up ^ Critchlow and Stachecki (2008). The Equal Rights Amendment Reconsidered . pp. 157-8 Jump up ^ Francis, Roberta W. \"The History Behind the Equal Rights Amendment\" . equalrightsamendment.org . Alice Paul Institute . Retrieved 2014-01-04 . Jump up ^ David W. Brady and Kent L. Tedin, \"Ladies in Pink: Religion and Political Ideology in the Anti-ERA Movement\", Social Science Quarterly (1976) 56#4 pp 564-75 Jump up ^ Critchlow and Stachecki (2008). The Equal Rights Amendment Reconsidered . p. 160 Jump up ^ Francis, Roberta W. \"The Three-State Strategy\" . equalrightsamendment.org . Alice Paul Institute in collaboration with the ERA Task Force of the National Council of Women's Organizations. Archived from the original on January 27, 2014 . Retrieved April 25, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Coleman v. Miller\" . Justia . Retrieved July 26, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"2009 National NOW Conference Resolutions: Equal Rights Amendment\" . National Organization for Women. June 21, 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-08-12 . Retrieved 2009-08-14 . Jump up ^ Neale, Thomas H. (May 9, 2013), The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment: Contemporary Ratification Issues (PDF) , Congressional Research Service Jump up ^ Held, Herndon, and Stager, Allsion, Sheryl, and Danielle (1997). \"The Equal Rights Amendment: Why the ERA Remains Legally Viable And Properly Before the States\" (PDF) . William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law . 3:113: 113–136. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Neale, Thomas (May 9, 2013). \"The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment: Contemporary Ratification Issues\" (PDF) . Retrieved May 25, 2017 . Congressional Research Service Jump up ^ \"ERA: Home\" . www.equalrightsamendment.org . Retrieved 2017-04-06 . Jump up ^ \"Nevada Ratifies The Equal Rights Amendment ... 35 Years After The Deadline\" . NPR . Retrieved 2017-04-06 . Jump up ^ Brown, Matthew Hay. \"As women march in D.C., Cardin co-sponsors new Equal Rights Amendment\" . baltimoresun.com . Retrieved 2017-04-06 . Jump up ^ says, Quora. \"Let's Ratify the ERA: A Look at Where We Are Now\" . AAUW: Empowering Women Since 1881 . Retrieved 2017-04-06 . Jump up ^ \"Common Legal Questions About the ERA\" (PDF) . www.winston.com . Retrieved 2017-07-26 . Jump up ^ \"The ERA's Revival: Illinois Ratifies Equal Rights Amendment\" . WTTW . May 30, 2018 . Retrieved June 23, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Illinois Senate approves federal Equal Rights Amendment, more than 35 years after the deadline\" . April 12, 2018 . Retrieved July 26, 2018 . Jump up ^ Wilson, Patrick (February 10, 2018). \"Women pack committee rooms demanding Virginia debate ERA\" (General Assembly 2018). Richmond, Virginia: Richmond Times-Dispatch. p. A9. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) Jump up ^ Sullivan, Patricia (February 9, 2018). \"Virginia's hopes of ERA ratification go down in flames this year\" . Washington Post . Retrieved February 15, 2018 . Jump up ^ Oliver, Ned (July 25, 2018). \"Only one more state needs to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment. Will it be Virginia?\" . Virginia Mercury . Retrieved July 26, 2018 . Jump up ^ \"The Equal Rights Amendment: 111th Congress\" (PDF) . maloney.house.gov . July 13, 2009. Jump up ^ \"Bill Summary & Status 113th Congress (2013 - 2014) H.J. Res. 56\" . loc.gov . Library of Congress. Jump up ^ Randall, Vicky (1987). Women and Politics: An International Perspective . University of Chicago Press. p. 308. ISBN 9780226703923 . Jump up ^ \"As Constitution is read aloud, Maloney, Menendez, Nadler, Moore cite need for Equal Rights Amendment\" . maloney.house.gov (Press release). January 6, 2011 . Retrieved April 22, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Bill Text 113th Congress (2013-2014) S.J.RES.10.IS\" . loc.gov . Library of Congress. Jump up ^ Gray, Kaili Joy (March 7, 2013). \"Democrats re-re-re-reintroduce Equal Rights Amendment ... but shhhh, don't tell anyone\" . dailykos.com . Jump up ^ Neuwirth, Jessica (2015). Equal Means Equal . New York: The New Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-62097-039-3 . Jump up ^ \"U.S. Rep. Baldwin: Seeks to speed ratification of Equal Rights Amendment\" . wispolitics.com . Archived from the original on 2011-07-18 . Retrieved 2011-03-08 . Jump up ^ \"All Bill Information (Except Text) for S.J.Res.39 - A joint resolution removing the deadline for the ratification of the equal rights amendment\" . congress.gov . Jump up ^ 51st Legislature, State of New Mexico, First Session, 2013, House Memorial 7 (PDF) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Roundhouse roundup, Feb. 11, 2013\" . Las Cruces Sun-News . Archived from the original on 2014-02-03. Jump up ^ 113th Congress, 2nd Session, \"Congressional Record\" (PDF) , congress.gov (Vol. 160, No. 2), p. S21 Jump up ^ Gladstone, Leslie (August 23, 2004). \"Equal Rights Amendment: State Provisions\" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service . Retrieved June 19, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Leslie W. Gladstone (August 23, 2004). \"Equal Rights Amendments: State Provisions\" (PDF) . CRS Report for Congress . Congressional Research Service - The Library of Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2015. Jump up ^ \"VoteERA.org Equal Rights Amendment Women's Full Equality\" . VoteERA.org Equal Rights Amendment Women's Full Equality . Further reading [ edit ] Baldez, Lisa; Epstein, Lee; Martin, Andrew D. (2006). \"Does the U.S. Constitution Need an Equal Rights Amendment?\" (PDF) . Journal of Legal Studies . 35 (1): 243–283. doi : 10.1086/498836 . Bradley, Martha S. (2005). Pedestals and Podiums: Utah Women, Religious Authority, and Equal Rights . Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books . ISBN 1-56085-189-9 . Critchlow, Donald T. (2005). Phyllis Schlafly and Grassroots Conservatism: A Woman's Crusade . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press . ISBN 0-691-07002-4 . Critchlow, Donald T., and Stachecki, Cynthia L. (2008). \"The Equal Rights Amendment Reconsidered: Politics, Policy, and Social Mobilization in a Democracy\", Journal of Policy History Volume 20, Number 1 online Dunlap, Mary C. (1976) \"The Equal Rights Amendment and the Courts\". Pepperdine Law Review Volume 3, Number 1 online Hatch, Orrin G. (1983). The Equal Rights Amendment: Myths and Realities , Savant Press. Kempker, Erin M. (2013) \"Coalition and Control: Hoosier Feminists and the Equal Rights Amendment\". Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 34.2 (2013): 52-82. online Lee, Rex E. (1980). A Lawyer Looks at the Equal Rights Amendment . Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press . ISBN 0-8425-1883-5 . Mansbridge, Jane J. (1986). Why We Lost the ERA . Chicago: University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0-226-50358-5 . McBride, Genevieve G. (2005). \" ' Forward' Women: Winning the Wisconsin Campaign for the Country's First ERA, 1921.\". In Peter Watson Boone (ed.). The Quest for Social Justice III . Milwaukee, WI: UW-Milwaukee. ISBN 1-879281-26-0 . CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list ( link ) Neale, T. H. (2013). The proposed Equal Rights Amendment: Contemporary ratification issues (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service) online External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Equal Rights Amendment . Wikisource has original text related to this article: Equal Rights Amendment Jane Mansbridge ERA podcast Alice Paul Institute Ratify ERA 2018 United4Equality VoteERA.org/ Eagle Forum Women Matter ERA Coalition Katrina's Dream ERA Action 2015 article on attempts to revive the amendment in Virginia Ginsburg, Ruth Bader (7 April 1975). \"Opinion: The Fear of the Equal Rights Amendment\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 3 May 2017 . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . But opponents continue a campaign appealing to our insecurity. The campaign theme is fear, fear of unsettling familiar and, for many men and women, comfortable patterns; fear of change, engendering counsel that we should not deviate from current arrangements, because we cannot fully forecast what an equal opportunity society would be like. SMITH, TAMMIE (Aug 26, 2018). \"Hundreds attend event to support Virginia's effort to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment\" . Richmond Times-Dispatch . Richmond Times-Dispatch . 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Equal Rights Amendment", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Equal_Rights_Amendment&amp;oldid=856888954" }

{ "text": "Bone Symphony - Wikipedia Bone Symphony From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (December 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Bone Symphony were a short-lived synthpop / new wave active in the early 1980s. The group consisted of Scott Wilk on lead vocals and synthesizer, Marc Levinthal (guitar, bass synthesizer and sequencer, drum machine, 808 programming ) and keyboard artist Jacob Magnusson (Iceland). All band members played synthesizer keyboards. They were signed to Capitol Records and released only one record, Bone Symphony EP , in 1983 \"It's A Jungle Out There\" - 4:55 \"Everything I Say Is A Lie\" - 3:52 \"I'll Be There For You\" - 3:54 \"Piece Of My Heart\" - 4:10 \"Dome Of Spheres\" - 5:33 They are most famous for their song \"One Foot in Front of the Other\" which appeared in the film Revenge of the Nerds , an episode of Family Guy , and the film Ted 2 . Scott Wilk and Marc Levinthal also wrote the score for the film Valley Girl , which featured Nicolas Cage in his first starring role. Discography [ edit ] Bone Symphony EP (Capitol Records, 1983) Authority control MusicBrainz : 4918a671-e824-4544-931d-7f34bafe178f Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone_Symphony&oldid=732017643 \" Categories : American synthpop groups American new wave musical groups Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2010 All articles lacking sources Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 29 July 2016, at 01:09. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "Bone Symphony", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Bone_Symphony&amp;oldid=732017643" }

{ "text": "Call Me by Your Name (film) - Wikipedia Call Me by Your Name (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the film. For the novel upon which it is based, see Call Me by Your Name (novel) . Call Me by Your Name Theatrical release poster Directed by Luca Guadagnino Produced by Peter Spears Luca Guadagnino Emilie Georges Rodrigo Teixeira Marco Morabito James Ivory Howard Rosenman Screenplay by James Ivory Based on Call Me by Your Name by André Aciman Starring Armie Hammer Timothée Chalamet Michael Stuhlbarg Amira Casar Esther Garrel Victoire Du Bois Cinematography Sayombhu Mukdeeprom Edited by Walter Fasano Production company Frenesy Film Company La Cinéfacture RT Features M.Y.R.A. Entertainment Water's End Productions Distributed by Sony Pictures Classics Release date 22 January 2017 ( 2017-01-22 ) ( Sundance ) 24 November 2017 ( 2017-11-24 ) (United States) 18 January 2018 ( 2018-01-18 ) (Brazil) 25 January 2018 ( 2018-01-25 ) (Italy) 28 February 2018 ( 2018-02-28 ) (France) Running time 132 minutes [1] Country Italy United States Brazil France Language English Italian French [2] Budget $3.5 million [3] Box office $26.1 million [4] Call Me by Your Name is a 2017 coming-of-age drama film directed by Luca Guadagnino and written by James Ivory , based on the 2007 novel of the same name by André Aciman . It is the final installment in Guadagnino's thematic Desire trilogy, following I Am Love (2009) and A Bigger Splash (2015). Set in Northern Italy in 1983, Call Me by Your Name chronicles the romantic relationship between Elio Perlman ( Timothée Chalamet ), a 17-year-old living in Italy, and his father's American assistant, Oliver ( Armie Hammer ). The film also stars Michael Stuhlbarg , Amira Casar , Esther Garrel , and Victoire Du Bois . Call Me by Your Name began development in 2007, when producers Peter Spears and Howard Rosenman optioned the screen rights to Aciman's novel. Ivory had been set to co-direct the film, but ended up writing the script and producing instead. Guadagnino, who came on board as a location consultant, eventually became director and producer. The film was financed by several international companies, and principal photography mainly took place in Crema , Italy in May and June 2016. Cinematographer Sayombhu Mukdeeprom shot the film on 35-mm film . Call Me by Your Name was picked up for distribution by Sony Pictures Classics before its world premiere at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival on 22 January 2017. It began a limited release in the United States on 24 November 2017, before going wide on 19 January 2018. The film received widespread critical acclaim and numerous accolades , with praise for its performances, screenplay, direction, and music. At the 90th Academy Awards , it was nominated for Best Picture , Best Actor (Chalamet), Best Adapted Screenplay , and Best Original Song (\" Mystery of Love \"). At the 23rd Critics' Choice Awards , Ivory won Best Adapted Screenplay . At the 71st British Academy Film Awards , Ivory won Best Adapted Screenplay . Chalamet was also nominated for a BAFTA Award , a Golden Globe Award , a Screen Actors Guild Award , and a Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor . Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Adaptation 3.3 Casting 3.4 Filming and post-production 3.5 Production design and costume 4 Soundtrack 5 Release 5.1 Marketing 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical response 6.3 Response from filmmakers 6.4 Accolades 7 Potential sequel 8 References 9 External links Plot [ edit ] Elio, a seventeen-year-old Jewish American-Italian boy, lives in the northern Italian countryside with his parents. His father, a professor of archaeology , invites a 24-year-old Jewish American graduate student, Oliver, to live with his family during the summer of 1983 and help with his academic paperwork. Elio, an introspective bibliophile and musical prodigy, finds little in common with Oliver, whose carefree and exuberant personality contrasts with his own. Elio also resents vacating his bedroom for the duration of Oliver's stay. Elio spends much of the summer reading books and hanging out with his girlfriend, Marzia, while Oliver is attracted to one of the local girls, much to Elio's chagrin. Elio and Oliver begin to spend time with each other, and a seductive courtship emerges—they swim together, go for long walks in the town, and accompany Elio's father on an archaeological trip. Although Elio begins a sexual relationship with Marzia and brags about it in front of Oliver to gauge his reaction, he increasingly finds himself attracted to Oliver. He sneaks into Oliver's room to smell his bathing suit and thinks about him while masturbating . During a trip to the post office, Elio subtly confesses his feelings to Oliver, who gently tells him that he should not act on them. Later that day, Elio and Oliver kiss, though Oliver is reluctant to go further. The pair subsequently grow distant during the next few days. In response to a note from Elio, Oliver leaves a note on Elio's desk telling Elio to meet him at midnight. Elio spends the day with Marzia, all the while longing to see Oliver. Finally, at midnight, he approaches Oliver on the patio. The two make love for the first time. They grow closer over the next few days, having sex frequently while keeping their relationship secret. In bed, Oliver tells Elio, \"Call me by your name and I'll call you by mine\". They become more intimate both physically and emotionally. On one occasion, Elio ejaculates into a peach that he has split open, and when Oliver discovers it, he tries to take a bite of the peach in front of a humiliated Elio, who begs him not to. Completely smitten with Oliver by this point, Elio starts avoiding Marzia. With the end of Oliver's stay imminent, the couple find themselves overcome by uncertainty and longing. Elio's parents, conscious of the bond between the two, recommend they take a trip to Bergamo together before Oliver goes back to America. They spend three romantic days together, after which Oliver leaves, and a heartbroken Elio returns home. He encounters a sympathetic Marzia, who still wants to be his friend, and his father, seeing how forlorn his son is, tells him that he was aware of Elio's affair with Oliver. He confesses to having come close to his own love affair with a friend in his youth, and urges Elio to find pleasure in the grief, since true love of the kind Elio and Oliver shared is rare. During Hanukkah , Elio receives a phone call from Oliver, who tells Elio and his family that he is engaged to be married. After the phone call, a pained Elio sits by the fireplace. A parade of emotions crosses his face as his parents and the house staff prepare a holiday dinner. Cast [ edit ] Timothée Chalamet as Elio Perlman Armie Hammer as Oliver Michael Stuhlbarg as Mr. Perlman [5] Amira Casar as Annella Perlman Esther Garrel as Marzia Victoire Du Bois as Chiara Vanda Capriolo as Mafalda Antonio Rimoldi as Anchise Elena Bucci as Bambi Marco Sgrosso as Nico André Aciman as Mounir Peter Spears as Isaac Production [ edit ] Development [ edit ] James Ivory , who took six to nine months to write the script, was once set to co-direct the film. After seeing an early galley of André Aciman 's debut novel Call Me by Your Name in 2007, American producers Peter Spears and Howard Rosenman bought the screen rights to it before it was published. [6] Before developing it into a film, the two invited their friend James Ivory to work as an executive producer on the adaptation, which he accepted. [7] Spears and Rosenman read the book independently and produced it in 2008. [8] They soon found themselves in development hell : [9] they met with three different sets of directors and writers—including Gabriele Muccino , Ferzan Özpetek and Sam Taylor-Johnson [10] —but could not find anyone who would commit to the project. [6] [11] Scheduling around the need to shoot in Italy during the summer also proved difficult. [6] [11] The producers reached out to Luca Guadagnino and lined him up as their first choice to direct, but he declined, citing a busy schedule. [8] [12] A native of northern Italy , he was first hired as a location consultant instead, [13] [14] to help \"put the movie together from the Italian side.\" [15] Guadagnino later suggested that he co-direct the film with Ivory—without any contractual agreement yet in place. [9] [15] Ivory accepted the offer, [9] and spent between six and nine months in 2014 working on the screenplay. [7] [16] Guadagnino, who has described the novel as \"a Proustian book about remembering the past and indulging in the melancholy of lost things,\" [17] wrote the adaptation with Ivory, while also collaborating with Walter Fasano to \"really fine-tune it\". [15] [18] It took place at Ivory's house, Guadagnino's kitchen table in Crema , and sometimes in New York . [19] Ivory hardly met the director during the process, as Guadagnino was busy making A Bigger Splash (2015). [16] The screenplay was completed in late 2015 and early 2016. [16] It was approved by Aciman, who commended the adaptation as \"direct, […] real and persuasive.\" He added, \"as the writer I found myself saying, 'Wow, they've done better than the book'\". [6] The completed screenplay was vital in securing funding for the film's production. [7] [9] Among the financiers were the production companies La Cinéfacture (France); Frenesy Film Company (Italy, owned by Guadagnino); M.Y.R.A. Entertainment (United States); RT Features (Brazil), and Water's End Productions (United States)—along with the support of the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism . [18] [20] [21] During negotiations, the production budget was reduced from $12 million to $3.5 million. [22] [21] In 2016, Ivory stepped down from directing to avoid conflicts, leaving Guadagnino to direct the film alone. [15] [12] According to Ivory, financiers from Memento Films International didn't want to have two directors involved in the project, as they \"thought it would be awkward [...] It might take longer, it would look terrible if we got in fights on the set, and so on.\" [7] [16] Guadagnino has said that Ivory's version would have likely been \"a much more costly [and] different film\"—one which, in fact, could not have been made, because of \"market realities\". [13] [14] Ivory became the solely credited screenwriter, [23] and subsequently sold the rights to the screenplay to Guadagnino's company. [7] [16] It marks Ivory's first produced screenplay since Le Divorce (2003), and the only narrative feature that he has only written, not directed. [23] Despite that, Ivory was \"very much involved\" with other aspects of the production. [23] Guadagnino chose to dedicate the film to Bill Paxton —a friend of the director, Spears and his husband, Brian Swardstrom—after his death in February 2017. [24] Adaptation [ edit ] Call Me by Your Name is the final installment in Guadagnino's thematic Desire trilogy, following I Am Love (2009) and A Bigger Splash (2015). [25] [12] The film represents a departure from his previous work, as on it he took a \"non-aggressive\" and simple approach; he has said this is \"the most calm\" movie he has made. [15] [26] Despite being a literary adaptation, many scenes in the film play out wordlessly. \"Words are part of what's going on, but it's not necessarily what's going on underneath. I think this film celebrates the underneath,\" he said. [8] Guadagnino considers the film an \"homage to fathers,\" referring both to his own father and to four filmmakers who have inspired him— Jean Renoir , Jacques Rivette , Éric Rohmer , and Bernardo Bertolucci . [27] Guadagnino has described Call Me By Your Name as a family-oriented film for the purpose of \"transmission of knowledge and hope that people of different generations come to see the film together.\" [18] He never saw it as a \"gay\" movie , but rather calls it a film about the \"beauty of the newborn idea of desire , unbiased and uncynical,\" and reflecting his motto of living \"with a sense of joie de vivre \", [26] [15] in which \"we should always be very earnest with one's feelings, instead of hiding them or shielding ourselves\". [25] The director attempted to avoid the flaws he had seen in most coming-of-age films , in which growth is often portrayed as a result of resolving certain preconceived dilemmas—such as having to choose between two lovers. [14] He also wanted the story to follow two people in the moment, rather than focus on an antagonist or a tragedy, [26] a specific approach inspired by À Nos Amours (1983), directed by Maurice Pialat . [14] [17] As someone who considers sex in film a representation of the characters' behavior and identity, [28] Guadagnino was not interested in including explicit sex scenes in the film, in order to keep the tone as planned, saying, \"I wanted the audience to completely rely on the emotional travel of these people and feel first love [...] It was important to me to create this powerful universality, because the whole idea of the movie is that the other person makes you beautiful—enlightens you, elevates you.\" [29] The setting was changed from Bordighera ( pictured ), where the novel is set, to the countryside near Crema . The film differs from its source material in a number of ways. While the novel serves as a memory-piece from Elio's perspective, the filmmakers behind Call Me by Your Name chose to set the movie entirely in the present timeline, a \"much more efficient\" solution, to help the audience understand the characters and \"reflect the essence of the book.\" [8] [17] The setting was changed from Bordighera to the countryside of Crema, Lombardy , where Guadagnino lives. [8] [30] He decided to push up the original setting from 1987 to 1983—which he explained was a year, \"in Italy at least, when everything that was great about the '70s is definitely shut down\", and one in which the characters \"are in a way untouched by the corruption of the '80s—in the U.S., Reagan , and in the UK, Thatcher \". [19] [31] Mr. Perlman's profession was refined by Ivory from a classics scholar to \"an art historian / archeologist type.\" [8] [30] Guadagnino was tempted to remove the scene from the novel in which Elio masturbates into a pitted peach , as he thought it was a metaphor for \" sexual impulses and energy\", and that it was too explicit. [6] [32] Timothée Chalamet was also nervous about the scene, [33] describing it as the key to illuminating the character's \"overabundant sexual energy\". [8] Despite their reservations, Guadagnino and Chalamet each tested the method by themselves, and both agreed that it worked, so the scene stayed in the film. [34] A scene featuring Elio and Oliver's \"enthusiastic\" dancing to The Psychedelic Furs ' \" Love My Way \" in a small bar is not drawn from the book, but inspired by the time Guadagnino danced by himself in a bedroom when he was young. [6] [35] In revising Ivory's draft of the script, Guadagnino removed the voice-over narration and a considerable amount of nudity . [13] [17] The director did not like the idea of having the main character tell the story retrospectively, stating that \"it kills the surprise\". [17] Toward the end of the novel, the two protagonists go off on a trip to Rome together, which lasts an entire chapter with new characters in multiple locations. [16] [23] Because of the limited budget, Ivory and the producers came up with several variations, including the idea to have \"everyone else leave and they are alone in the house\"; and changed into \"another kind of a little trip\", where they spend \"some time together away from the house\". [16] In his original script, Ivory depicted Elio in the final scene when he was decorating a Christmas tree with candles in his family's home. [23] Ivory also had to cut down Mr. Perlman's speech, which was longer in the novel, but was committed to keeping it in the script. [36] He described the scene where Elio conveys his feelings to Oliver as one of the most important moments, capturing the \"euphoric passion and nervousness\" of their first love. [37] Casting [ edit ] In 2015, Shia LaBeouf and Greta Scacchi were reportedly set to be cast in the film. [38] In September 2016, Ivory confirmed that LaBeouf and Scacchi were no longer involved in the project. According to Ivory, LaBeouf had gone to New York City to do a reading for the film, but the production company later felt he was unsuitable due to his \"various troubles\"; although Ivory thought the two \"had good scenes together\" and could have made it into the film, the company disagreed. [39] Hammer and Chalamet during the press conference for Call Me by Your Name at the 2017 Berlin International Film Festival After seeing Armie Hammer 's performance in The Social Network (2010), Guadagnino \"fell in love\" with him and cultivated his passion for Hammer and the movies he made afterwards. [15] [34] The director found him to be a \"sophisticated actor, with a great range\" and had him in mind for the role of Oliver. [15] Hammer, who had expressed interest in Guadagnino's A Bigger Splash , met with the director years before the film went into production. [40] [28] When the actor got the script, he almost turned down the role because of the nudity that had been in that draft. \"I did want to pass; it scared me,\" he said. \"There's a lot of stuff here that I've never done on film before. But there's no way I can't do this [film], mostly because it scares me so much.\" [40] [41] According to Guadagnino, Hammer was going to pass on the role through his agent, but then changed his mind at the end of their conversation. [15] [42] This is the third film in which Hammer has played a homosexual character, following J. Edgar (2011) and Final Portrait (2017). [32] [43] Chalamet has acted since he was a child and co-starred on Showtime 's Homeland in 2012. [40] The following year, Swardstrom—Spears' husband and agent—introduced the then 17-year-old Chalamet to Guadagnino, [15] [28] who immediately felt the actor had \"the ambition, the intelligence, the sensitivity, the naivety, and the artistry\" to play Elio. [17] Chalamet read Aciman's novel by the time he was seventeen, and described it as \"a window into a young person\". [33] Chalamet, who can speak fluent French and had played piano for years, arrived in Italy five weeks early to learn Italian, piano, and guitar. [8] [44] Michael Stuhlbarg plays Mr. Perlman, Elio's father. [40] [45] The actor did not start reading the book until he had already joined the production. [46] He was moved by the \"many beautiful sentiments expressed\" in the script when he first read it, including Mr. Perlman's \"sense of generosity and love and understanding\". [47] Amira Casar , Esther Garrel and Victoire Du Bois feature in supporting roles as Annella, Marzia and Chiara respectively. [45] Casting director Stella Savino met Vanda Capriolo when she was biking in the countryside. The non-actor was later cast for the role of the maid, Mafalda. [48] Aciman and Spears themselves also appear briefly in the roles of Mounir and Isaac, a gay couple who attend a dinner party. [8] [30] Aciman was asked to be in the movie after actors became unavailable. \"It was a last-minute decision,\" Spears recalled, \"Andrė turns out to be a phenomenal actor! So comfortable, not nervous at all. His wife was sitting there and said, 'I had no idea!'\" [49] Hammer and Chalamet both signed contracts that prohibited full-frontal nudity. Ivory, whose original screenplay had contained \"all sorts of nudity,\" was dismayed by the decision, criticizing what he saw as an \"American\" attitude. \"Nobody seems to care that much or be shocked about a totally naked woman. It's the men,\" he said. [9] [13] Guadagnino, who remained involved in the casting, [40] chose actors based on their performances and chemistry, rather than choosing to \"investigate or label\" their sexuality. [29] He said, \"The idea that you have to cast only someone who has a certain set of skills, and worse, a certain gender identity in any role: that's oppressive to me\". [12] Filming and post-production [ edit ] The arch of Torrazzo at the Crema Cathedral , where the filming process was postponed due to bad weather Principal photography on Call Me by Your Name lasted between 32–34 days. [50] [48] It began on 9 May 2016, shortly after A Bigger Splash was released in the United States, [51] and completed in June 2016. [52] [39] The process occurred quietly, [53] with reports only appearing after filming had been underway for two weeks. [54] [55] The director's first cut of the film was four hours long. [56] [21] Post-production with regular editor Walter Fasano took only a month—between June and July, [15] the fastest Guadagnino had edited. [52] The film was shot primarily in Crema [15] [27] and the province of Cremona . [57] [58] It was shot during an unexpected historic rainstorm in Italy, described by the weather reports as a \"once-in-century rain.\" [50] The pre-production in Crema was fast: [11] a search for extras began there in March and April. [59] [60] Scenes from the nearby villages of Pandino and Moscazzano were filmed from 17 May, [61] [62] before moving to Crema on 1 June. [63] Additional outdoor scenes were shot on 4 December 2016. [64] [65] Several historical locations in the surrounding streets in Crema and Pandino were chosen during production, including the arch of Torrazzo at the Crema Cathedral . [61] [66] Businesses received compensation for financial losses caused by the closure, scheduled for 30 and 31 May. [67] Two days' filming at the cathedral were postponed due to the weather. [68] Production in Crema cost € 18,000, [69] with a promotion campaign that cost €7,500. [70] Filming also took place in the Lodigiano area near Crespiatica , [66] and two small towns in the immediate vicinity of Crema: Montodine and Ripalta . [8] [64] The archaeological discovery scene was filmed at the Grottoes of Catullus by Lake Garda in Sirmione . [71] [66] The trip to Bergamo was shot in multiple historical buildings, including the Bergamo Cathedral , the Santa Maria Maggiore , and the University of Sciences, Letters and Arts . [66] The production team was only able to secure permission to film at the Cascate del Serio in Valbondione for half an hour, owing to concerns about security. [57] [66] [72] The actors lived in Crema and were able to absorb the rhythm of small-town life. [8] Guadagnino engaged deeply with the cast and filmmakers, and often cooked and showed films for them in his house. [6] Hammer and Chalamet, who did not have to do a screen test together, [17] [73] met for the first time during the production in Crema. [52] [8] They spent a month together before filming began, [52] watched Mike Tyson documentaries and went to local restaurants, [25] [42] to build character development . [52] \"We'd hang out with each other all the time, because we were pretty much the only Americans there, and we were able to defend one another and really get to know one another,\" Chalamet recalled. [44] In the first two days of production, Guadagnino sat down with the cast to read through the script. [19] Hammer and Chalamet went to the kissing scene during the first rehearsal. [73] The actors rehearsed their scenes every night before shooting, and spent several days shooting nude. [74] \"I've never been so intimately involved with a director before. Luca was able to look at me and completely undress me,\" Hammer said. [34] The Grottoes of Catullus , on the southern shore of Lake Garda in Sirmione , is one of the chosen filming locations. Guadagnino shot the film in chronological order, [19] [75] which allowed the filmmakers to \"witness the onscreen maturity of both protagonist and actor\". [76] The scene where Mr. Perlman delivered an educational speech to Elio was filmed the day before shooting wrapped. [25] [19] Stuhlbarg spent months to prepare for the scene, [25] [47] one that Guadagnino wanted to make \"as simple as possible\" by taking less setups and \"let the actors be.\" [77] According to Fasano, the scene took three takes, where Stuhlbarg was \"on three different levels of getting emotional.\" [76] During the dancing sequence, Hammer had to perform in front of \"50 extras off camera,\" with the music being turned down to record the dialogue. \"That was not fun, I don't really enjoy dancing,\" Hammer said. [42] The filmmakers laid a long camera dolly track and shot the scene where Elio confronts his feelings for Oliver in one take, to provide the flexibility and the \"flow of emotion\" that a cut scene could not. [78] Chalamet was listening to \"Visions of Gideon\", one of the original songs written for the film, in an earpiece , while filming the final sequence, [79] [80] in which the director asked him to perform for three variations, one per take. [81] Sayombhu Mukdeeprom , who had previously collaborated with Guadagnino on Ferdinando Cito Filomarino's Antonia (2015), served as the director of photography . [28] [55] He read Aciman's novel before receiving the script, and spent time walking around filming locations to \"get a feeling for everything [...] to see the color, to see how the light changed during the day, and input it into my data.\" [82] Lighting is an important factor in Mukdeeprom's work, as he needs the light to be engaged with the characters. [28] In order to capture the Northern Italian summer atmosphere for Call Me by Your Name , [15] he had to create completely artificial light, due to the heavy rains that lasted the entirety of the shoot. [28] [50] Mukdeeprom had to adapt his technical approach to the weather condition, \"so I had to order a package of lights. I ended up with 15Ks, down to 2.5,\" he said. [82] The cinematographer also connected to the actors during the scene; when they finished shooting the first take of the confrontation between Oliver and Elio, Mukdeeprom was crying in a corner of the room. [15] The film was shot using 35 mm film and a single lens, a decision influenced by the work of David Cronenberg in order to \"solidif[y] the point of view,\" [26] and make \"the tension of the performance come off the screen.\" [3] Production design and costume [ edit ] The main location for the Perlmans' residence was Villa Albergoni, an uninhabited 17th-century mansion in Moscazzano. [8] [66] The director initially wanted to buy the house but could not afford it, so he made a film at the place instead. [21] [83] A landscape designer was hired to organize an orchard in the mansion's garden. [48] A pergola was shown on the patio, along with apricot and peach trees in the garden, which are not native to Lombardy. [66] [84] Six weeks before production, the crew—including production designer Samuel Dehors and first-time set decorator Violante Visconti di Modrone—gradually decorated the house with furniture, objects, and decoration inspired by the characters. [83] [8] Much of the furniture, including the dishes and glassware from the '50s, belonged to Guadagnino and di Modrone's parents. \"That made it cozy and personal,\" di Modrone said, \"I wanted to give it the sense of time passing by.\" [85] The Asian-inspired paintings, maps, and mirrors mostly came from an antiques store in Milan. [85] [84] Books used in background were published before 1982. [48] [84] The swimming pool used in the film was recreated from a watering trough common in the area. [8] [85] In public places, the filmmakers set up faded political billboards to reflect the Italian general election in 1983 , [48] and re-created a newsstand full of magazines of that particular time. [48] Guadagnino did not want the film to \"look like a reflection on the 80s, [...] when it becomes period .\" [14] His team performed extensive research, with an assist from the residents of Crema, by entering people's houses and collecting their pictures of the '80s. [14] [86] Chen Li, a Chinese woman who lives in Milan, served as graphic designer. She wrote the titles in the opening credits, in which the director used Xerox images of statues and placed them with Mr. Perlman's personal items. [48] Costume designer Giulia Piersanti avoided using period costumes, and wanted to provide \"a sense of insouciant adolescent sensuality, summer heat and sexual awakening\" to the characters. [85] Several costume pieces from the film were made from scratch. [48] The costumes were influenced by the work in French films Pauline at the Beach (1983), A Tale of Springtime (1990), and A Summer's Tale (1996). [85] She took inspiration from her parents' photo albums for the Perlmans' wardrobe. For Oliver's \"sexy, healthy American\" image, Piersanti referred to \"some of Bruce Weber 's earliest photographs.\" [85] His clothes change throughout the film as \"he's more able to free himself.\" [48] Aiming to emphasize Elio's confident style, she chose several Lacoste costumes, and a distinctive New Romantic -looking shirt in the final scene. [14] [85] Elio's polo shirt and Fido Dido T-shirt came from her husband's closet. [85] Soundtrack [ edit ] Main article: Call Me by Your Name: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Stevens contributed three songs to soundtrack. Guadagnino normally selects the music for his films himself. [8] The director wanted to find an \"emotional narrator to the film\" through music, a \"less heavy, less present, and more enveloping\" way than voice and text. [19] He was inspired by the work in Barry Lyndon (1975), The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), and The Age of Innocence (1993). [19] Guadagnino wanted the film's music to be connected to Elio, a young pianist who likes to transcribe and adapt pieces, in order to get close to Oliver. [17] The music is used to reflect the time, the characters' family, level of education, and \"the kind of canon they would be a part of\". [17] Guadagnino also researched what was popular on the radio that summer, so as to stay true to the time period. [17] [87] Guadagnino found that the lyricism of Sufjan Stevens ' work resonated with him. [28] The director initially asked Stevens to narrate the film through the older Elio's perspective, and record an original song for Call Me by Your Name , \"almost as a break in the narrative\". [79] [28] Stevens declined the voiceover role, [79] and eventually contributed three songs to the soundtrack: \" Mystery of Love \", \"Visions of Gideon\", and a new rendition of \" Futile Devices \" with piano. [17] Stevens took inspiration from the script, the book, and conversations with the director about the characters. [28] He submitted the songs a few days before shooting began. Surprised by the result, the director listened to them with the actors and Fasano on-set. [8] [52] Call Me by Your Name marks Stevens' first contributions to a feature film soundtrack. [88] A soundtrack album was digitally released under Madison Gate Records and Sony Classical on 3 November 2017 [89] and physically on 17 November. [90] It features songs by Stevens, The Psychedelic Furs , Loredana Bertè , Bandolero , Giorgio Moroder , Joe Esposito , and F. R. David , with compositions by John Adams , Erik Satie , Ryuichi Sakamoto , Johann Sebastian Bach , and Maurice Ravel . [91] Release [ edit ] From left to right: Armie Hammer, Timothee Chalamet, Vanda Capriolo, Amira Casar, André Aciman, Esther Garrel, Victoire du Bois, and Peter Spears at the screening of Call Me by Your Name at the 2017 Berlin International Film Festival Call Me by Your Name had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 22 January 2017. [92] [93] Prior to its premiere, Sony Pictures Classics acquired US distribution rights to the film for $6 million. [94] The deal was negotiated by WME Global and UTA Independent Film Group. [95] International distribution rights were purchased by Memento Films International, a French company that showed the film promo reel at the American Film Market in November 2016. [20] [96] It was also screened at the Berlin International Film Festival on 13 February 2017, Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2017, [97] [52] [15] and New York Film Festival on 3 October 2017. [98] Call Me by Your Name began a limited release in the United Kingdom on 27 October 2017, [27] and United States on 24 November 2017. [4] It expanded from four to thirty locations in the United States on 15 December 2017, [99] and then to 114 theaters on 22 December. [100] It hit 174 theaters on 12 January 2018, [101] before going into wide release , just days before the Oscar nomination announcement ceremony, on 19 January 2018, reaching 815 theaters. [102] [103] In Italy, it was opened on 25 January; [104] [105] special screenings with Guadagnino and the cast took place in Crema on 27–30 January. [105] [106] [107] The film was opened in Brazil on 18 January, [108] and will be released in France on 28 February 2018. [109] Call Me by Your Name is scheduled for digital download on 27 February 2018. [110] It will be released on Blu-ray, DVD on 13 March 2018. Disc format bonus features audio commentary from the cast and filmmakers, behind the scenes gallery, and a music video for \"Mystery of Love\". [110] Marketing [ edit ] Sony Pictures Classics debuted an official poster for Call Me by Your Name on 28 July 2017. [111] The first theatrical trailer was released on 1 August 2017. [112] [113] On 11 October 2017, Sony Pictures Classics released a teaser titled \"Dance Party\" to celebrate National Coming Out Day . [114] The 42-second clip, which consists of one continuous shot of Hammer and Chalamet dancing to \"Love My Way\" at a bar, became a meme on Twitter . [115] [116] [35] Due to its placement in the snippet, \"Love My Way\" also gained streaming popularity, rose 13% on on-demand streams in two months before the film release. In the week ending 30 November 2017, the song collected 177,000 on-demand streams, its biggest streaming week in the country. [117] Reaction to the advertisement on social media was somewhat negative, largely for Sony Pictures' \"misleading\" use of a still of Chalamet and Garrel instead of focusing on the protagonist's relationship. [118] [119] Daniel Megarry of Gay Times described it as \"an attempt to ' straight-wash ' the movie's predominant same-sex romance\", [120] while Benjamin Lee of The Guardian called it a \"disastrous attempt to push Oscar-buzzed Call Me by Your Name as a straight love story,\" and said the advert \"belies an industry awkwardly denying queerness\". [121] Sony Pictures Classics later aired several commercial spots to promote the film during its nationwide expansion on 19 January 2018. [102] Reception [ edit ] Box office [ edit ] As of February 19, 2018 [update] , Call Me by Your Name has grossed $15 million in the United States and Canada, and $11.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $26.1 million, against a production budget of $3.5 million. [4] The film is Sony Pictures Classics third-highest grossing 2017 release. [122] In the United States, the film began its limited run on 24 November 2017 at four theaters: The Paris Theater and Union Square Theatre in New York City, and the ArcLight Hollywood and Landmark Theater in Los Angeles. [123] The film made $404,874 in its opening weekend—a per-theater average of $101,219. [124] [125] It was the highest average of 2017, the biggest since that of La La Land the previous December, [126] and had the best per-screen opening for a gay romance film since Brokeback Mountain (2005). [124] [127] In its second weekend, the film grossed $281,288, [128] [129] with an \"excellent\" per-screen average of $70,320. [130] [131] The film expanded to nine theaters in its third weekend, grossing $291,101 for a \"solid\" $32,345 per-theater average. [132] It earned $491,933 from 30 theaters in its fourth weekend, averaging $16,398. [99] The film expanded to 114 theaters in its fifth week and grossed $850,736, averaging $7,463 per screen. [100] It made $702,098 in 115 theaters in its sixth weekend, averaging $6,105. [133] The film crossed $6 million in its seventh weekend, earning $758,726 from 115 locations. [134] It grossed $715,559 from 174 theaters in its eight weekend, averaging $4,185 per screen. [101] In its nationwide release week, ninth weekend overall, the film grossed $1.4 million from 815 theaters, an underperformance compare to \"some of its competition with similar theater counts\". [102] [103] The following weekend, following the announcement of its four Oscar nominations, the film dropped 6% to $1.3 million. [135] [136] The film grossed $1,000,790 from 581 locations in its eleventh weekend, averaging $1,723. [137] In its twelveth weekend, it grossed $683,460, averaging $1,439 from 475 theaters. [138] It grossed $519,028 from 332 theaters in its thirteenth weekend, averaging $1,563. [139] In the United Kingdom, the film opened on 27 October 2017 and earned £231,995 ($306,000) in its opening weekend, from 112 screens, [140] including £4,000 from previews. [141] After ten days, it had made a total of £568,000 ($745,000), [142] before reaching the $1 million mark (£767,000) in its third weekend. [143] [144] As of 1 February 2018 [update] , the film has grossed $1,944,869 in the United Kingdom. [145] Critical response [ edit ] After its premiere at the Sundance Film Festival, Call Me by Your Name was met with critical acclaim. [146] [97] It received a ten-minute standing ovation at its New York Film Festival screening at the Alice Tully Hall , the longest recorded in the festival's history. [31] [147] On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 96% based on 263 reviews, with an average rating of 8.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \" Call Me by Your Name offers a melancholy, powerfully affecting portrait of first love, empathetically acted by Timothée Chalamet and Armie Hammer.\" [148] It was the best-reviewed limited release and second best-reviewed romance film of 2017 on the site. [149] [150] As of 17 February 2018, it is Rotten Tomatoes' best-reviewed romance film, [151] the third best-reviewed drama film, [152] and the sixth best-reviewed film overall, based on its adjusted score. [153] On Metacritic , the film has an average weighted score of 93 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". [154] It was the year's fifth-best rated film on Metacritic. [155] Guadagnino's direction garnered positive reviews from critics. Writing in The Hollywood Reporter , Boyd van Hoeij described Call Me by Your Name as an \"extremely sensual [...] intimate and piercingly honest\" adaptation of Aciman's novel. He further called Chalamet's performance \"the true breakout of the film\". [156] Peter Debruge of Variety said the film \"advances the canon of gay cinema\" by portraying \"a story of first love [...] that transcends the same-sex dynamic of its central couple.\" He compared Guadagnino's \"sensual\" direction to the films of Pedro Almodóvar and François Ozon , while putting the film \"on par with the best of their work.\" [93] David Ehrlich of IndieWire also praised his direction, which helps the film in \"match[ing] the artistry and empathy\" of Carol (2015) and Moonlight (2016). [157] Sam Adams of BBC stated that Stuhlbarg's performance \"puts a frame around the movie's painting and opens up avenues we may not have thought to explore,\" and called it \"one of his finest\" to date. He extolled the film as one of \"many movies that have so successfully appealed to both the intellectual and the erotic since the heydays of Patrice Chéreau and André Téchiné .\" [158] Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half stars, commended the director for \"broadens his embrace of humanity while hitting new heights of cinematic bliss,\" and wrote that the film \"may be a fantasy but it's one that's lovely and wise.\" [159] David Morgan of CBS praised the cinematography, production design and costuming for \"making a summer in the 1980s palpably alive again.\" He also applauded Stuhlbarg's character as \"the most forward-thinking parent in movie history.\" [160] Richard Lawson felt that Guadagnino's adaptation \"was made with real love, with good intentions, with a clarity of heart and purposeful, unpretentious intellect\" and hailed it as a \"modern gay classic\" in his Vanity Fair review. [161] Chicago Tribune ' s Michael Phillips was pleased by the \"wonderfully paradoxical\" visual interests from the director, and called Stevens' songs \"work like magic on your sympathies regarding Elio's emotional awakening.\" He praised Hammer's performance as one of \"the most easy-breathing and relaxed best work of his career.\" [162] The Economist noted the tension \"between pain and pleasure\" in the film, and praised Chalamet, specifying that he \"evokes so many shades of humanity, portraying a path of youthful self-discovery that is more raw, unhinged, and ultimately honest than many actors could manage.\" [163] Kate Taylor of Globe and Mail , who gave the film two and a half stars, also enjoyed his effort in capturing \"first love and its inevitable heartbreak\", but felt that the \"multilingual, almost-pre-AIDS idyll does not stretch credulity\". [164] Ken Eisner of The Georgia Straight questioned its central message, and said that the film can \"alternate wildly between the poetically incisive and the indulgently preposterous.\" [165] In a negative review, Kyle Turner of Paste wrote \"The details of the film are too small for anyone, perhaps particularly a queer person, to see [...] It never gets over that hesitation.\" [166] Luke Y. Thompson of Forbes criticized its length and called it an \"excruciatingly boring travelogue .\" [167] Response from filmmakers [ edit ] Call Me by Your Name has also received responses from other filmmakers. Barry Jenkins , the director and screenwriter of Moonlight , praised it as a \"supremely delicate and humane work\" from Guadagnino that is \"earnest, mature and endearing the whole way through.\" [168] Canadian actor and director Xavier Dolan was moved by the film, which helped him see \"people I've fallen in love with in the past. People I judged as unkind, or selfish.\" He also commended the film for \"go[ing] hand in hand with the cruel truth about our romantic failures,\" as well as the performances by Hammer and Stuhlbarg. [169] Pedro Almodóvar , whose work were compared to Guadagnino, [157] named it the best film of 2017. He applauded the filmmakers for \"mak[ing] a bet here for the passion of the senses and the embodiment of desire,\" while calling Lombardy and Chalamet as \"the biggest breakthroughs of this year.\" [170] [171] [172] Justin Simien was impressed by its \"power of images\" and the point of view from Guadagnino and Mukdeeprom, saying \"This is cinema at its best. It's a kind of magic act Guadagnino pulls for the entirety of the film.\" [172] Heidi Ewing praised the film's \"lush photography\", and said \"It's summer in Italy and two sexy men are riding rickety bikes into town and sneaking furtive kisses in the piazza [...] what's a girl not to love?\" [172] Max Winkler described the speech between Mr. Perlman and Elio at the end as \"one of the most beautiful moments between a father and son I've ever witnessed.\" He felt that the scene showcase \"Stuhlbarg's love and tender openness [and] Chalamet's vulnerability and heartbreak summed up with just a look.\" [172] After its screening at the Toronto International Film Festival, actor James Woods criticized the age disparity between Elio and Oliver on Twitter, accusing the film of \"chip[ping] away the last barriers of decency,\" and equating it to the North American Man/Boy Love Association , a pedophilia advocacy organization. [6] [173] Hammer responded by criticizing Woods' relationship with Kristen Bauguess—who started dating Woods in 2013 when she was 20 years old and he was 66 years old—saying, \"Didn't you date a 19 year old when you were 60?\" [174] In an interview for The Hollywood Reporter , Hammer explained \"We weren't trying to make some salacious, predatory movie. The age of consent in Italy is 14. So, to get technical, it's not illegal there.\" He further said Woods \"had no moral high ground to stand on and was cheapening what we did.\" [42] Accolades [ edit ] Main article: List of accolades received by Call Me by Your Name (film) Call Me by Your Name was selected by the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute as one of the top 10 films of the year. [175] [176] At the 90th Academy Awards , it was nominated for Best Picture , Best Actor (Chalamet), Best Adapted Screenplay , and Best Original Song (\"Mystery of Love\"). [177] Chalamet became the youngest Best Actor nominee since 1939 , while Ivory became the oldest man to be nominated for a competitive award in history. [178] [179] The film received four nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards for Best Film, Best Director for Guadagnino, Best Leading Actor for Chalamet and Best Adapted Screenplay for Ivory. [180] At the 75th Golden Globe Awards , it was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Drama , Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama for Chalamet, and Best Supporting Actor for Hammer. [181] It received eight nominations at the 23rd Critics' Choice Awards , with Ivory winning Best Adapted Screenplay . [182] The film led the 33rd Independent Spirit Awards with most nominations, garnering six, among them Best Feature , Best Director , Best Male Lead , Best Supporting Male , Best Cinematography , and Best Editing . [183] At the 23rd Screen Actors Guild Awards , Chalamet received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role . [184] The film garnered four nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards , including Best Film and Best Direction , winning Best Adapted Screenplay for Ivory. [185] The National Board of Review, the Gotham Independent Film Awards and the Hollywood Film Awards awarded Chalamet with their Breakout Actor Awards. [186] [187] Potential sequel [ edit ] Guadagnino has deliberated over the idea of a sequel since the film's premiere at Sundance, when he realized the characters \"could go beyond the boundaries of the film.\" [32] In October 2017, he stated that he hoped to make a sequel to the film in 2020, suggesting it might be in the style of François Truffaut 's The Adventures of Antoine Doinel series, while telling the story of Oliver and Elio as they aged. \"If I paired the age of Elio in the film with the age of Timothée, in three years' time, Timothée will be 25, as would Elio by the time the second story was set,\" he said. [188] [189] In the novel, Elio and Oliver reunited 15 years later, when Oliver is married. Guadagnino specified that in the sequel, \"I don't think Elio is necessarily going to become a gay man. He hasn't found his place yet. I can tell you that I believe that he would start an intense relationship with Marzia again.\" Guadagnino is also interested in the politics of the 1990s, saying \"it would be the beginning of the Berlusconi era in Italy and it would mean dealing with the war of Iraq .\" [190] [191] In November 2017, Guadagnino shared his intention to make a series of five films, where the audience could \"see those actors grow older, embodying those characters.\" [32] A month later, he was reported to have begun writing a script for a sequel, one that would reveal more about Oliver and resembles Michael Apted 's Up series . [192] [193] Hammer and Chalamet have both expressed interest in participating in a sequel, [194] while Ivory has no interest to the material, saying \"that's fine, good. But I don't know how they're going to get a 40-year-old [Chalamet]!\". [23] In January 2018, Guadagnino revealed the setting will be \"right after the fall of Berlin Wall and that great shift that was the end of [...] the USSR ,\" [77] and what could be the first scene in the film, is where Elio watching Paul Vecchiali 's Once More (1988), the first French film to deal with AIDS , in a movie theater. [195] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Call Me by Your Name (2017)\" . British Board of Film Classification . Archived from the original on 7 November 2017 . Retrieved 4 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Berlin Film Festival 2017 Program by Memento Films\" (PDF) . Memento Films International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 December 2017 . Retrieved 1 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Grater, Tom (11 October 2017). \" ' Call Me By Your Name' director Luca Guadagnino: shooting on digital is 'laziness ' \" . Screendaily . Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 . Retrieved 11 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Call Me by Your Name (2017)\" . Box Office Mojo . Archived from the original on 27 August 2017 . Retrieved 19 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Mr. Perlman's full name is mentioned in the film as Samuel \"Sammy\" Perlman. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Hicklin, Aaron (2 October 2017). \"The Art of Seduction: Armie Hammer & the Hottest Movie of the Season\" . Out . Archived from the original on 29 December 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e McKittrick, Christopher (15 May 2017). \"James Ivory on Screenwriting\" . Creative Screenwriting . CS Publications. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017 . Retrieved 15 May 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q \"Mongrel Presents: Call Me by Your Name\" (PDF) (Press release). Toronto, Ontario. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vivarelli, Nick (6 October 2017). \"James Ivory on 'Call Me by Your Name' and Why American Male Actors Won't Do Nude Scenes (Exclusive)\" . Variety . Archived from the original on 7 October 2017 . Retrieved 6 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Santoni, Simona (26 January 2018). \"Chiamami col tuo nome: perché Luca Guadagnino piace agli americani\" [Call me with your name: because Luca Guadagnino likes Americans]. Panorama (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore . Archived from the original on 27 January 2018 . Retrieved 26 January 2018 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Gray, Tim (8 November 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name': A Global Effort to Create a Simple, Well-Told Tale\" . Variety . Archived from the original on 1 December 2017 . Retrieved 8 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Brady, Tara (19 October 2017). \" ' Why do people want to see other people's penises? ' \" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 22 October 2017 . Retrieved 19 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Sharf, Jack (6 October 2017). \" ' Call Me By Your Name' Screenwriter is Disappointed There's No Male Full Frontal Nudity\" . IndieWire . 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Jump up ^ Brunamonti, Filippo (11 September 2017). \"Toronto, 'Call me by your name': Guadagnino racconta l'estate di Elio e Oliver\" [Toronto, 'Call me by your name': Guadagnino tells the story of Elio and Oliver]. la Repubblica (in Italian). GEDI Gruppo Editoriale . Archived from the original on 22 December 2017 . Retrieved 20 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Erbland, Kate (23 November 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' Screenwriter James Ivory Loves the Story Too Much to Think About Sequels\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 23 November 2017 . Retrieved 23 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Kelly, Emma (24 October 2017). \"Call Me By Your Name producer gives beautiful reason why the film is dedicated to Bill Paxton\" . Metro . Archived from the original on 24 December 2017 . Retrieved 24 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ryan, Patrick (24 January 2017). \"Sundance: Critics fall for Armie Hammer gay romance 'Call Me By Your Name ' \" . USA Today . Park City, Utah. 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The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 20 November 2017 . Retrieved 20 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Gilbey, Ryan (28 September 2017). \"Armie Hammer on gay romance Call Me By Your Name: 'There were fetishes I didn't understand ' \" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 28 September 2017 . Retrieved 9 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b McConaughey, Matthew (2 June 2017). \"Timothee Chalamet\" . Interview . Archived from the original on 19 September 2017 . Retrieved 4 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Berlinale: Archive: Annual Archives: 2017: Programme – Call Me by Your Name\" . Berlin International Film Festival . Archived from the original on 6 August 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Utichi, Joe (16 November 2017). \"Michael Stuhlbarg Plays The Parent Everyone Wishes They Had In 'Call Me By Your Name ' \" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 30 November 2017 . 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Jump up ^ Finos, Arianna (14 February 2017). \"Luca Guadagnino: 'Vi racconto l'amore gay nell'Italia di Craxi ' \" [Luca Guadagnino: 'I'll tell you about gay love in Craxi's Italy']. la Repubblica (in Italian). Berlin: GEDI Gruppo Editoriale. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017 . Retrieved 20 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith; Atkinson, Katie (12 December 2017). \"Pop Shop Podcast: Director Luca Guadagnino on Music's Vital Role in 'Call Me by Your Name ' \" . Billboard . Archived from the original on 8 February 2018 . Retrieved 12 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Eisinger, Dale (8 January 2017). \"Sufjan Stevens Soundtracks Upcoming Film Call Me By Your Name\" . Spin . Archived from the original on 22 October 2017 . Retrieved 8 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Nordine, Michael (3 November 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' Soundtrack: Sufjan Stevens, the Psychedelic Furs, and More Lend Their Musical Stylings — Listen\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 20 December 2017 . Retrieved 3 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Call Me by Your Name Original Motion Picture Soundtrack - CD Available November 17\" (Press release). Sony Classical. PR Newswire . 6 November 2017. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017 . Retrieved 6 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Raup, Jordan (3 November 2017). \"Listen: Full Soundtrack for 'Call Me by Your Name' Featuring New Songs by Sufjan Stevens\" . The Film Stage . Archived from the original on 7 November 2017 . Retrieved 3 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Patten, Dominic (5 December 2016). \"Sundance 2017: Robert Redford, New Rashida Jones Netflix Series, 'Rebel In The Rye' & More On Premiere, Docu, Midnight & Kids Slates\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 18 January 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Debruge, Peter (23 January 2017). \"Sundance Film Review: 'Call Me by Your Name ' \" . Variety . Archived from the original on 22 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . Reviewed at Sundance Film Festival (Premieres), Jan. 22, 2017 Jump up ^ Seetodeh, Ramin (6 January 2017). \"Sundance: Gay Love Story 'Call Me By Your Name' Sells to Sony Pictures Classics (Exclusive)\" . Variety . Archived from the original on 7 January 2017 . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg (6 January 2017). \"Sundance: Sony Classics Takes Gay Love Story 'Call Me by Your Name ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 8 January 2017 . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ \"AFM 2016\" (PDF) . Memento Films International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2017 . Retrieved 8 May 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hammond, Pete (7 September 2017). \"Opening-Night Premieres 'Borg/McEnroe' And 'Call Me By Your Name' Are A Love Match As Toronto Gets Underway\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 25 October 2017 . Retrieved 20 October 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Call Me by Your Name\" . New York Film Festival . Archived from the original on 25 October 2017 . Retrieved 8 May 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Brooks, Brian (17 December 2017). \" ' I, Tonya' Ices Robust Weekend; 'Disaster Artist', 'Shape of Water' & 'Call Me By Your Name' Expand – Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 18 December 2017 . Retrieved 18 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Brooks, Brian (24 December 2017). \" ' The Post' Scoops Into Top Ten In Best 3-Day Averages of 2017; Holdovers Solid – Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 25 December 2017 . Retrieved 24 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Brooks, Brian (14 January 2018). \"Golden Globes Winners 'Three Billboards' & 'Lady Bird' Cash In; 'Phantom Thread' Expands Solid – Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 14 January 2018 . 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Editoriale Cremonese S.P.A (published 19 January 2018). 18 January 2018. Archived from the original on 26 January 2018 . Retrieved 18 January 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Guadagnino, il 27 è la serata cremasca\" [The film by Luca Guadagnino on 29 January at the Multisala]. La Provincia di Cremona (in Italian). Crema: Soc. Editoriale Cremonese S.P.A (published 10 January 2018). 9 January 2018. Archived from the original on 10 January 2018 . Retrieved 9 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Read, Bridget (January 31, 2018). \"Watch Timothée Chalamet and Armie Hammer Dance in the Streets Where Call Me by Your Name Was Filmed With Fans\" . Vogue . Retrieved January 31, 2018 . Jump up ^ Orozco, Beatriz (18 January 2018). \" ' Me Chame Pelo Seu Nome', o filme para o qual o Oscar não está preparado\" [Check out the mesmerizing trailer of Call Me by Your Name]. El País (in Portugues). Ediciones El País, S.L. Archived from the original on 30 January 2018 . Retrieved 18 January 2018 . CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ( link ) Jump up ^ Martínez, Edouard (28 November 2017). \"Découvrez la bande-annonce envoûtante de Call Me by Your Name\" [Check out the mesmerizing trailer of Call Me by Your Name]. Premiere (in French). Hildegarde. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018 . Retrieved 28 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Nigel (29 January 2018). \"Exclusive: Timothée Chalamet on Seducing Armie Hammer with 'Piano Playing' in Call Me By Your Name \" . People . Archived from the original on 29 January 2018 . Retrieved 29 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Heath, Paul (28 July 2017). \"First Poster Arrives For Festival Fave 'Call Me By Your Name ' \" . The Hollywood News . Archived from the original on 7 October 2017 . Retrieved 28 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Buchanan, Kyle (1 August 2017). \"Watch the Call Me by Your Name Trailer\" . Vulture . Archived from the original on 1 August 2017 . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Nolfi, Joey (1 August 2017). \"Armie Hammer, Timothée Chalamet spark passion in stunning Call Me by Your Name trailer\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on 1 August 2017 . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . Jump up ^ McAdams, Eric (11 October 2017). \"Watch Armie Hammer Dance in New Clip From 'Call Me By Your Name ' \" . Paste . Archived from the original on 23 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Lang, Cady (13 October 2017). \"Be Soothed By the Armie Hammer Viral Dance Bringing Delight to the Masses\" . Time (magazine) . Archived from the original on 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Shraf, Zack (12 October 2017). \"Armie Hammer Will Dance to Any Song in the 'Call Me By Your Name' Meme of Our Dreams — Watch\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 23 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (7 December 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' Spurs Biggest Streaming Week Ever for The Psychedelic Furs' 'Love My Way ' \" . Billboard . Archived from the original on 11 December 2017 . Retrieved 22 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Mikel, Ryan (7 November 2017). \"Sony Pictures Straight Washes Call Me By Your Name \" . Out . Archived from the original on 8 November 2017 . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Cooper, Mariah (9 November 2017). \"Sony slammed for straight-washing 'Call Me By Your Name' tweet\" . Washington Blade . Archived from the original on 10 November 2017 . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Megarry, Daniel (8 November 2017). \"Sony slammed for 'straight-washing' gay romance Call Me By Your Name\" . Gay Times . Archived from the original on 1 December 2017 . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Lee, Benjamin (8 November 2017). \"Call me by the wrong name: how studios are still trying to straight-wash gay films\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 17 November 2017 . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Box Office Performance for Sony Pictures Classics in 2017\" . The Numbers. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018 . Retrieved 22 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Brooks, Brian (22 November 2017). \" ' Darkest Hour', 'Call Me By Your Name', 'Man Who Invented Christmas' Usher Holiday – Specialty B.O. Preview\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 22 November 2017 . Retrieved 22 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b Brooks, Brian (26 November 2017). \" ' Call Me By Your Name' Scores Year's Best Average Opener At $101K; 'Darkest Hour' Has Robust Start – Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 26 November 2017 . Retrieved 26 November 2017 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (26 November 2017). \"Thanksgiving B.O. At $268M, +3% Over 2016 Spurred By 'Coco' & Holdovers\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 26 November 2017 . Retrieved 26 November 2017 . Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (26 November 2017). \"Thanksgiving Box Office: 'Coco' Gobbles Up 'Justice League' With $71.2M\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 26 November 2017 . Retrieved 26 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Brueggemann, Tom (26 November 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' Is Best Opener of 2017; 'Darkest Hour' Launches Well\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 7 December 2017 . Retrieved 7 December 2017 . Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (3 December 2017). \"Weekend Box Office: 'Coco' Stays No. 1 With $26.1M; 'The Disaster Artist' Impresses\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 3 December 2017 . Retrieved 4 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Brueggemann, Tom (3 December 2017). \"Record Opener 'Disaster Artist' and 'The Shape of Water' Lead Specialty Box Office Surge\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 4 December 2017 . Retrieved 4 December 2017 . 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Jump up ^ Brooks, Brian (7 January 2018). \" ' I, Tonya' Expands Strong, 'Call Me By Your Name' Crosses $6M As Golden Globe Noms Score – Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 7 January 2018 . Retrieved 7 January 2018 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (28 January 2018). \"Fox Controls Close To 40% Of Weekend B.O. Led By 'Maze Runner' & Oscar Holdovers; 'Hostiles' Gallops Past $10M\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 27 January 2018 . Retrieved 28 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Brueggemann, Tom (28 January 2018). \" ' The Shape of Water' Gets Oscar Boost as 'Hostiles' Lures Crowds\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 28 January 2018 . Retrieved 28 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Brooks, Brian (4 February 2018). \"Oscar Nominee 'A Fantastic Woman' Solid In Debut, 'Padmaavat' Climbs, But Holdovers Dominate: Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Archived from the original on 4 February 2018 . Retrieved 4 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Brooks, Brian (February 11, 2018). \" ' 2018 Oscar Shorts' Take $615K; 'Golden Exits' Has Solid Bow; 'Darkest Hour' Crosses $50M: Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Retrieved February 11, 2018 . Jump up ^ Brooks, Brian (February 18, 2018). \" ' The Party' Has Lively Bow; 'Detective Chinatown 2' Wins Chinese New Year Race: Specialty Box Office\" . Deadline . Retrieved February 18, 2018 . Jump up ^ Sandwell, Ian (30 October 2017). \"UK box office: 'Thor: Ragnarok' scores biggest non-Bond October debut\" . Screendaily . Archived from the original on 30 October 2017 . Retrieved 30 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Gant, Charles (30 October 2017). \"Thor: Ragnarok hammers the opposition at the UK box office\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 1 November 2017 . Retrieved 30 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Sandwell, Ian (6 November 2017). \"UK box office: 'Murder On The Orient Express' derails 'Thor: Ragnarok ' \" . Screendaily . Archived from the original on 6 November 2017 . Retrieved 6 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Sandwell, Ian (13 November 2017). \"UK box office: 'Paddington 2' scores record-breaking bow\" . Screendaily . Archived from the original on 21 November 2017 . Retrieved 13 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Gant, Charles (14 November 2017). \"Paddington 2 makes marmalade of the UK box office competition\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 14 November 2017 . Retrieved 14 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Call Me by Your Name (2017)\" . The Numbers . Archived from the original on 14 June 2017 . Retrieved 28 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Buchanan, Kyle (23 January 2017). \"Why Sundance Fell in Love With the Gay Romance Call Me by Your Name\" . Vulture . Archived from the original on 2 August 2017 . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Marotta, Jenna (17 November 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name': Timothée Chalamet is Learning How to Be a Man, Onscreen and Off\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 20 November 2017 . Retrieved 17 November 2017 . 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Jump up ^ Burr, Ty (20 December 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' is full of light and landscape and unstoppable beauty\" . The Boston Globe . Archived from the original on 27 December 2017 . Retrieved 25 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Morgan, David (3 October 2017). \"Review: Armie Hammer in the coming-of-age film \"Call Me By Your Name \" \" . CBS . Archived from the original on 8 October 2017 . Retrieved 3 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Lawson, Richard (23 January 2017). \"The Gorgeous Call Me by Your Name Makes Sundance Swoon\" . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on 26 November 2017 . Retrieved 3 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Phillips, Michael (13 December 2017). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' review: At long last, first love\" . Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on 9 February 2018 . Retrieved 13 December 2017 . Jump up ^ N.E.G. (8 September 2017). \" \" Call Me By Your Name\" is a work of beauty\" . The Economist . Archived from the original on 12 September 2017 . Retrieved 12 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Taylor, Kate (9 September 2017). \"The Globe's Guide to TIFF 2017 Movies\" . The Globe and Mail . Archived from the original on 26 November 2017 . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Eisner, Ken (December 13, 2017). \"Call Me By Your Name suffers from an excess of beauty\" . The Georgia Straight . Retrieved December 13, 2017 . Jump up ^ Turner, Kyle (October 4, 2017). \"Call Me By Your Name: 2017 New York Film Festival Review\" . Paste . Retrieved October 4, 2017 . Jump up ^ Thompson, Luke Y. (December 31, 2017). \"The Most Overrated Films Of 2017\" . Forbes . Retrieved December 31, 2017 . Jump up ^ Nordine, Michael (December 20, 2017). \"Barry Jenkins Loves 'Call Me by Your Name', a 'Supremely Delicate and Humane Work ' \" . IndieWire . Retrieved December 20, 2017 . Jump up ^ O'Falt, Chris (December 30, 2017). \"Xavier Dolan's Personal Look at the Best Films of 2017 and How 'Call Me by Your Name' 'Paralyzed' Him With Truth\" . IndieWire . Retrieved December 30, 2017 . Jump up ^ Sharf, Zack (November 19, 2017). \"Pedro Almodóvar Names 'Call Me by Your Name' the Best Film of 2017: 'Timothée Chalamet is the Revelation of the Year ' \" . IndieWire . Retrieved November 19, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"#Top2017: Las mejores películas de 2017 según los directores y directoras del cine español\" [#Top2017: The best films of 2017 according to the directors and directors of Spanish cinema]. Otros Cines Europa (in Spanish). December 19, 2017 . Retrieved December 19, 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d O'Falt, Chris (December 29, 2017). \"42 Directors Pick Their Favorite Movies of 2017, Including Denis Villeneuve, Guillermo del Toro, and More\" . IndieWire . pp. 1—9 . Retrieved December 29, 2017 . Jump up ^ Gardner, Chris (12 September 2017). \"James Woods Responds to Armie Hammer, Amber Tamblyn Following Twitter Dustup\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 16 September 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . 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Jump up ^ Gettell, Oliver (27 November 2017). \" Call Me By Your Name takes top prize at 2017 Gotham Awards\" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on 7 December 2017 . Retrieved 27 November 2017 . Jump up ^ \"2017 Honorees\" . Hollywood Film Awards . Archived from the original on 22 October 2017 . Retrieved 19 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Aftab, Kaleem (13 October 2017). \"Luca Guadagnino plots 'Call Me By Your Name' sequel (exclusive)\" . Screendaily . Archived from the original on 13 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Harris, Hunter (16 October 2017). \"Luca Guadagnino Is Planning Call Me by Your Name Sequels, Before Sunrise Style\" . Vulture . Archived from the original on 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Desta, Yohana (16 October 2017). \"Call Me By Your Name's Director Would Like to Do a Sequel, Please\" . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Shraf, Zack (16 October 2017). \"Luca Guadagnino Planning 'Call Me By Your Name' Sequel For 2020\" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on 16 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Friend, David (12 December 2017). \"Reflections on 'Call Me By Your Name' spur Armie Hammer to consider a sequel\" . Times Colonist . The Canadian Press . Archived from the original on 23 January 2018 . Retrieved 12 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Mumford, Gwilym (22 December 2017). \"Luca Guadagnino on Call Me By Your Name: 'It's a step inside my teenage dreams ' \" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 22 December 2017 . Retrieved 22 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Wakeman, Gregory (18 December 2017). \"Will Armie Hammer, Timothée Chalamet return for a 'Call Me By Your Name' sequel?\" . Metro New York . Archived from the original on 22 December 2017 . Retrieved 18 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Malkin, Marc (25 January 2018). \" ' Call Me by Your Name' Director Reveals Details of the Planned Sequel\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 25 January 2018 . Retrieved 25 January 2018 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Call Me by Your Name . Official website Call Me by Your Name on IMDb Call Me by Your Name at Rotten Tomatoes Call Me by Your Name at Metacritic [ hide ] v t e Films directed by Luca Guadagnino The Protagonists (1999) Melissa P. (2005) I Am Love (2009) A Bigger Splash (2015) Call Me by Your Name (2017) Suspiria (2018) Italy portal Film portal LGBT portal Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Call_Me_by_Your_Name_(film)&oldid=826760417 \" Categories : 2017 films 2010s coming-of-age films 2010s independent films 2010s LGBT-related films 2010s romantic drama films American coming-of-age films American erotic films American films American independent films American romantic drama films American teen LGBT-related films Brazilian coming-of-age films Brazilian erotic films Brazilian films Brazilian independent films Brazilian LGBT-related films Brazilian romantic drama films Coming-of-age drama films Coming-of-age romance films English-language films Erotic romance films Films based on American novels Films directed by Luca Guadagnino Films set in 1983 Films set in Italy Films shot in Italy French coming-of-age films French erotic films French films French independent films French LGBT-related films French romantic drama films French-language films Gay-related films Italian coming-of-age films Italian erotic films Italian films Italian independent films Italian LGBT-related films Italian romantic drama films Italian-language films LGBT romance films LGBT-related coming-of-age films LGBT-related drama films LGBT-related films about Jews and Judaism Male bisexuality in film Screenplays by James Ivory Sony Pictures Classics films Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 maint: Unrecognized language CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Use dmy dates from January 2016 Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2018 All articles containing potentially dated statements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2018, at 21:30. 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{ "text": "Whaley House (San Diego, California) - Wikipedia Whaley House (San Diego, California) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Coordinates : 32°45′10.18″N 117°11′40.15″W  /  32.7528278°N 117.1944861°W  / 32.7528278; -117.1944861 Whaley House Whaley House, 2010 Location within San Diego Established Original construction : 1857 Current museum : May 25, 1960 Location 2476 San Diego Avenue San Diego, California Coordinates 32°45′10″N 117°11′40″W  /  32.752828°N 117.194486°W  / 32.752828; -117.194486 Website Official website California Historical Landmark Reference no. 65 San Diego Historic Landmark Reference no. 24 [1] The Whaley House is an 1857 Greek Revival style residence, a California Historical Landmark , [2] and museum located in Old Town , San Diego , California. It is currently maintained by Save Our Heritage Organisation (SOHO). In the 1960s, the Whaley House was designated as an official haunted house by the United States Commerce Department. [3] The Whaley House was the home of Thomas Whaley and his family. The house was built where a graveyard once was. At various times it also housed Whaley's general store, San Diego's second county courthouse, and the first commercial theater in San Diego. [4] The house has \"witnessed more history than any other building in the city\". [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Whaley family 1.1 History 1.2 The Whaley House 2 Rumors of hauntings 3 Television and film 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Whaley family [ edit ] History [ edit ] Thomas Whaley , of Scots-Irish origin, was born on October 5, 1823 in New York City, the seventh child in a family of ten. Whaley took over his father's successful business relations, then left New York on January 1, 1849. He traveled to San Francisco , during the California gold rush , where he engaged in business. He then went to San Diego in September 1851. Two years later, Whaley went back to New York and married Anna Eloise Delaunay on August 14, 1853. Together they returned to California, arriving in San Diego on December 7, 1853. On August 22, 1857 the Whaleys moved into their new home, now known as the Whaley House. [4] Thomas Whaley Thomas and Anna Whaley had six children, Francis Hinton (December 28, 1854), Thomas Whaley Jr. (August 18, 1856), Anna Amelia (June 27, 1858), George Hay Ringgold (November 5, 1860), Violet Eloise (October 14, 1862), and Corinne Lillian (September 4, 1864). Francis Hinton was named after a business partner. Thomas Whaley, Jr. suffered from Scarlet Fever at 18 months and died on January 29, 1858. After the death of baby Thomas and the loss by fire of their store, Thomas and Anna moved to San Francisco. [4] In January 1859, Whaley turned his affairs in Old Town over to Frank Ames, a Wells Fargo agent. In the summer of 1868, Thomas invested some of his new capitol of stock in merchandise and headed back to San Diego. Thomas fixed up the old Whaley House, and Anna and the rest of the family arrived back home to San Diego on December 12, 1868. [4] On January 5, 1882, Violet Eloise Whaley and Anna Amelia Whaley were both married in Old San Diego. Violet married George T. Bertolacci and Anna Amelia wed her first cousin, John T. Whaley , son of Henry Hurst Whaley . Two weeks into Violet's marriage, as the couple was traveling back east on their honeymoon, she awoke one morning to find her husband gone. Bertolacci, as it turned out, was a con artist and, as Violet and her family later learned, had only married her for the substantial dowry he believed he would collect upon the marriage. Due to the restrictive morals and societal standards of the time period, Violet was essentially shunned by polite society upon returning home, not only without her husband, but also unchaperoned, something proper ladies simply did not do in late 19th century Victorian society. Violet and George's divorce was finalized approximately a year later, but Violet never recovered from the public humiliation and betrayal, and suffered from depression. [4] Violet committed suicide by shooting herself in the chest with Thomas's 32-calibre on August 18, 1885. [4] She was then 22 years of age. Her suicide note reads thus: Mad from life's history, Swift to death's mystery; Glad to be hurled, Anywhere, anywhere, out of this world. — Violet Whaley, Save Our Heritage Organisation [6] The suicide note is a passage from ' Bridge of Sighs ', a poem by Thomas Hood . This particular poem is also offered up by Edgar Allan Poe , as an example of painting with words; he spoke of it and it was referenced in his published works during his lectures. [7] Corrine Lillian was engaged at the time of her sister's death, but her fiancé broke off the engagement due to the scandal it raised. After these tragic events, Thomas Whaley built a single-story frame home for his family at 933 State Street in Downtown San Diego and the family moved into the new residence, leaving the Whaley House vacant for over two decades. [4] Whaley Family Francis Whaley married Susan E. Murray in Mendocino, California on December 31, 1888. On December 14, 1890, Thomas Whaley died due to ill health at the State Street address. Anna Amelia Whaley died at Modesto, California on December 12, 1905. [4] Meanwhile, the old Whaley House remained vacant and fell into disrepair. In late 1909, Francis Whaley undertook the restoration of the building and turned the home into a tourist attraction, where he posted signs promoting its historicity and entertained visitors with his guitar. Anna Whaley, Thomas's widow, Corinne Lillian, Francis and George all lived in the old Whaley House in 1912. On February 24, 1913, Anna died at eighty years of age. A year later, Francis Whaley died on November 19, 1914. George Whaley died on January 5, 1928 in San Diego and, Corinne Lillian Whaley continued residency in the house until her death in 1953. [8] After this history of success and deaths the Whaley House remains well known as a haunted house. It is said that guests and the staff, from time to time, will catch a glimpse of the ghost of a Whaley family member who died inside the house such as: baby Thomas Jr., Violet, Anna, Francis, George or Corinne Lillian Whaley. [9] The Whaley House [ edit ] The Whaley House is located in the Old Town neighborhood of San Diego. The historic house opened as a museum on May 25, 1960, managed by the San Diego Historical Shrine Foundation, a non-profit organization formed in 1956 and led by James E. Reading and June A. Strudwick-Reading. [10] June Strudwick-Reading served as the Director of the Whaley House Museum from 1960 until her death in January 1998. The Whaley House has been maintained by Save Our Heritage Organisation (SOHO) since 2000. Since 2007 a live-in caretaker has lived on the property to prevent theft and vandalism. [11] The two-story Greek Revival house was designed by Thomas Whaley himself and construction began on May 6, 1856. [8] Completed in 1857, the cost of the house was more than $10,000. [5] It was made from bricks created in Whaley's brickyard on Conde Street. The house was the first of its kind in San Diego. \"My new house, when completed, will be the handsomest, most comfortable and convenient place in town or within 150 miles of here.\" — Thomas Whaley, San Diego Coast Life [12] Whaley's new house was known as the finest in Southern California. The house was furnished with mahogany and rosewood furniture, Brussels carpets, and damask drapes and was considered a mansion for its time and place. The residence became the gathering place for San Diego. Besides being the Whaley family home, it was also San Diego's first commercial theater, the county courthouse, and a general store. Courthouse in October 1960 In October 1868, an upstairs family bedroom was converted into a theater after Thomas Whaley rented the room out to the Tanner Troupe, a local theatre troupe traveling through San Diego at the time. For the troupe's opening night performance, the small room accommodated a stage, a few benches, and an astonishing 150 guests, although it was mostly standing room only and ladies had been advised not to wear their hoop skirts or petticoats that evening to allow for more room. The operator of the theater, Thomas Tanner, died just 17 days after opening, and his troupe had disbanded by the end of January, 1869. The Whaley House also served as the county courthouse in 1869. [8] For 65 dollars a month, the county of San Diego leased the courtroom and three of the upstairs bedrooms. Another part of the Whaley House history was the Whaley & Crosthwaite General Store which was a wholesale and retail store. [4] In the 1860s and 1870s, the house became the focal point of a battle between Old Town residents and residents of New Town (current downtown ) for dominance of San Diego. The San Diego County government had been renting a portion of Whaley House for its offices and records. Whaley offered several times to sell the house to the county, but the offer was ignored. New Towners demanded that the county offices and records be moved to New Town. [8] The issue dominated local elections, with Republicans favoring New Town while Democrats favored Old Town. There were conflicting court orders; at one point the local sheriff was ordered to seize Whaley House, but refused. A judge ordered the removal of three supervisors from the Board of Supervisors, and another judge tried to appoint three other men to the posts. After several years of court battles the California Supreme Court ordered the reinstatement of the three original supervisors, who ordered that the county records be moved to New Town. Despite threats of armed resistance from the Old Towners, the records were moved on March 31, 1871, effectively shifting the focus of the city to New Town. [5] Rumors of hauntings [ edit ] The house has frequently been cited as haunted, based on strange noises or sights reported by some visitors. In 2005, LIFE magazine called Whaley House \"the most haunted house in America.\" [13] Shortly after the Whaley family moved in, they told the San Diego Union that they heard heavy footsteps in the house which they believed to be the ghost of James \"Yankee Jim\" Robinson, who had earlier been hanged on the property for stealing a boat. [8] Some visitors have reported seeing apparitions of Thomas Whaley or Anna Whaley. [9] On the last weekend of every month, the Whaley House Museum offers a late night \"ghost hunting tour\". [14] Additional tours are offered around Halloween. [13] Television and film [ edit ] The Whaley House has been featured in many historical documentaries as well as a wide variety of paranormal and sci-fi shows, including Syfy Channel's Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files [15] and Travel Channel 's America's Most Haunted , in which it was stated the Whaley House was the most supernatural home in the United States. [16] The Whaley House was mentioned in the 2007 animated movie, Hellboy: Blood and Iron , in which one of the characters references the paranormal entity, Yankee Jim. In 2012, the film studio, Asylum, released an independent low-budget movie titled The Haunting of Whaley House . Although the film was shot on location at the historic Bembridge House in Long Beach, California , the history and ghostly legends of the Whaley House were used as a basis for the movie. [17] In 2012, the Whaley House was featured on the Biography Channel's The Haunting of Regis Philbin . While filming for a local San Diego morning show in 1964, Regis Philbin visited the Whaley House Museum and claimed to have a paranormal encounter with Mrs. Whaley. Philbin stated, \"You know a lot people pooh-pooh it because they can't see it. But there was something going on in that house.\" [18] On an episode of MTV 's Ridiculousness , host Rob Dyrdek commented that he lived next to \"the most haunted house in California\" and would spend nights calling for Old Man Whaley. [19] In 2014, the Whaley House was featured on Ghost Adventures as the main investigation of the series' 110th episode. In 2017, two members of BuzzFeed visited the house for a segment titled \"Buzzfeed Unsolved\". See also [ edit ] Reportedly haunted locations in California, References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Historical Landmarks Designated by the San Diego Historical Resources Board\" (PDF) . City of San Diego. Jump up ^ \"Whaley House\" . Office of Historic Preservation, California State Parks . Retrieved 2012-10-13 . Jump up ^ \"The Whaley House - Top 10 Haunted Places\" . Content.time.com . October 30, 2008 . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i \"The Whaley Family\" . whaleyhouse.org . Save Our Heritage Organisation . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . In August 1857, Whaley established his general store in this residence, and solicited cash customers only. ^ Jump up to: a b c Strudwick, June A. (April 1960). \"The Whaley House\" . Journal of San Diego History . 6 (2). Jump up ^ \"Whaley Chronology\" . whaleyhouse.org . Save Our Heritage Organisation . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Bridge Of Sighs Poem by Thomas Hood - Poem Hunter\" . Poemhunter.com . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Engstrand, Iris (2005). San Diego: California's Cornerstone . Sunbelt Publications . pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-0-932653-72-7 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ghostly Legends of the Whaley House\" . whaleyhouse.org . Save Our Heritage Organisation. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007 . Retrieved November 7, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"The Whaley House\" . The San Diego Historical Society Quarterly . 6 (Special Issue): Forward. April 1960. Jump up ^ Graham, David E. (August 5, 2007). \"Ciaudella House upgrades alarms, to hire caretaker\" . San Diego Union Tribune . Retrieved 15 March 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Whaley Quote\" . January 2010. ^ Jump up to: a b Bell, Diane (October 28, 2011). \"Get into the Halloween spirits at a real haunted house\" . San Diego Union-Tribune . Retrieved 15 March 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Tours & Events 2013\" . whaleyhouse.org . Retrieved 15 March 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files\" . Syfy. Jump up ^ \"Top 10 Haunted Places\" . Time . October 30, 2008. Archived from the original on June 25, 2014. Jump up ^ \"Bembridge House\" . Jump up ^ \"FYI TV Schedule - FYI\" . Jump up ^ \"Ridiculousness episode\" . MTV. External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Whaley House . Whaley House Museum Journal of San Diego History article on The Whaley House Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Whaley_House_(San_Diego,_California)&oldid=818091771 \" Categories : History of San Diego Greek Revival houses in California California Historical Landmarks Museums in San Diego Houses in San Diego Historic house museums in California Reportedly haunted locations in California Landmarks in San Diego Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2018, at 14:14. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Whaley House (San Diego, California)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Whaley_House_(San_Diego,_California)&amp;oldid=818091771" }

{ "text": "The Moody Blues - Wikipedia The Moody Blues From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search The Moody Blues The Moody Blues in 1970 at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol . From left to right: Mike Pinder , Graeme Edge , Justin Hayward , Ray Thomas , John Lodge . Background information Origin Birmingham , England Genres Progressive rock [1] art rock [2] psychedelic rock [1] pop rock [3] symphonic rock [4] proto-prog [5] R&B (early) [6] Years active 1964 ( 1964 ) –present (hiatus: 1974–77) Labels Decca London Deram Threshold A.K.A. Polydor Universal Website moodybluestoday .com Members Graeme Edge Justin Hayward John Lodge Past members Denny Laine Mike Pinder Ray Thomas Clint Warwick Rodney Clark Patrick Moraz The Moody Blues are an English rock band formed in Birmingham , England in 1964. They first came to prominence playing rhythm and blues music, but their second album, Days of Future Passed , which was released in 1967, was a fusion of rock with classical music and established them as pioneers in the development of art rock and progressive rock . [2] [7] It has been described as a \"landmark\" and \"one of the first successful concept albums \". [2] The band became known internationally with singles including \" Go Now \", \" Nights in White Satin \", \" Tuesday Afternoon \", and \" Question \". They have been awarded 18 platinum and gold discs. The Moody Blues have sold 70 million albums worldwide. [8] They will be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018. Contents [ hide ] 1 Founding and early history 1.1 Early years, Decca Records 1964–1966 1.2 Arrival of Hayward and Lodge 2 Deram Records, Threshold Records, 1967–1972 2.1 Days of Future Passed 2.2 In Search of the Lost Chord 2.3 On the Threshold of a Dream 2.4 To Our Children's Children's Children 2.5 A Question of Balance 2.6 Every Good Boy Deserves Favour and Seventh Sojourn 2.7 Threshold Records 3 Hiatus and solo work, 1974–1977 4 Reunion, 1977–1990 4.1 Reunion 4.2 Octave , Pinder departs and the arrival of Moraz, Long Distance Voyager and The Present 4.3 The Other Side of Life , Sur la Mer 5 1990s to present 5.1 Departure of Moraz and Court TV lawsuit 5.2 Keys of the Kingdom 5.3 Strange Times , 1990s tours 5.4 Thomas retires, December 5.5 Latest work 6 Legacy and honours 7 Moody Bluegrass 8 Members 9 Discography 10 References 11 External links Founding and early history [ edit ] Early years, Decca Records 1964–1966 [ edit ] A Mitchells & Butlers Brewery in Birmingham, pictured 2005—a possible sponsorship from the brewery never materialised The Moody Blues formed in 1964 in Erdington , a suburb of Birmingham in the county of Warwickshire . Ray Thomas , a young John Lodge and (occasionally) Mike Pinder had been members of El Riot & the Rebels. They disbanded when Lodge, the youngest member, went to technical college and Pinder joined the army. Pinder then rejoined Thomas to form the Krew Cats. Back from a disappointing spell in the Hamburg region a few months later, [9] the pair recruited guitarist/vocalist Denny Laine and band manager-turned-drummer Graeme Edge . Pinder and Thomas initially approached their former El Riot bandmate John Lodge about being the bass player, but Lodge declined as he was still in college. [10] [11] They instead recruited bassist Clint Warwick . The five appeared as the Moody Blues for the first time in Birmingham in 1964. The name developed from a hoped-for sponsorship from the M&B Brewery which failed to materialise, the band calling themselves both \"The M Bs\" and \"The M B Five\", and was also a subtle reference to the Duke Ellington song \"Mood Indigo\". [12] In an interview it was revealed that the band was named \"Moody Blues\" because Mike Pinder was interested in how music changes people's moods and due to the fact that the band was playing blues at the time. [12] Around this time the band were the resident group at the Carlton Ballroom, later to become rock music venue Mothers on Erdington High Street. The band soon obtained a London-based management company, 'Ridgepride', formed by Alex Murray ( Alex Wharton ), who had been in the A&R division of Decca Records . Their recording contract was signed in the spring of 1964 with Ridgepride, which then leased their recordings to Decca. They released a single, \"Steal Your Heart Away\", that year which failed to chart. They also appeared on the cult TV programme Ready Steady Go! singing the uptempo 'B' side \"Lose Your Money (But Don't Lose your Mind)\". But it was their second single, \" Go Now \" (released later that year), that launched their career, being promoted on TV with one of the first purpose-made promotional films in the pop era, produced and directed by Alex Wharton . The single became a hit in Britain (where it remains their only Number 1 single) [13] and in the United States, where it reached No. 10. The band encountered management problems after the chart-topping hit and subsequently signed to Decca Records in the UK (London Records in the US) directly as recording artists. A four-track extended play release titled \"The Moody Blues\" featuring both sides of their first two Decca singles was issued in a colour picture sleeve in early 1965. Their debut album The Magnificent Moodies , produced by Denny Cordell with a strong Merseybeat / R&B flavour, was released on Decca in mono only in 1965. It contained the hit single together with one side of classic R&B covers, and a second side with four Laine-Pinder originals. Alex Wharton left the management firm, and the group released a series of relatively unsuccessful singles. They enjoyed a minor British hit with a cover of \"I Don't Want To Go on Without You\" (No. 33) in February 1965, while the Pinder-Laine original \"From the Bottom of My Heart (I Love You)\" produced by Denny Cordell (with a vocal choral sound towards the conclusion that anticipated their sound on \"Nights in White Satin\") was issued as a UK single in May 1965 and did a little better (No. 22). But then \"Everyday\", another Pinder-Laine song, stalled at No. 44 in October 1965 and no further British singles were released for about a year. The group was still in demand for live gigs, though, and they had chart success in the US and in Europe during those months when \"Bye Bye Bird\" (Decca AT 15048) was lifted from their album in December 1965 as an overseas single in France (No. 3). In June 1966, Warwick retired from the group and the music business. He was briefly replaced by Rod Clark (born Rodney Clark, 23 November 1942, Surlingham , near Norwich , Norfolk ), but in early October, Denny Laine also departed from the group, [14] which made Decca release \"Boulevard de la Madeleine\" c/w \"This is My House (But Nobody Calls)\" (Decca F 12498, 1966) only a few days later, as the Moody Blues seemed to be disintegrating. Clark joined the Rockin Berries . In the November 1966 issue of Hit Week , Dutch interviewers Hans van Rij and Emie Havers presented their story, saying the Moody Blues had been in the process of recording their second album, Look Out , [15] with Cordell producing. The album was not to be and \"Really Haven't Got the Time\" (released as a single c/w \"Fly Me High\" some months later) is the only song mentioned in the article but the authors say Laine had written all of the material, with Thomas, Pinder and Clark (still the bass player) singing lead vocals as well. A final 'Mark One' Moodies single, Pinder-Laine's \"Life's Not Life\", was scheduled for release in January 1967 (Decca F 12543) c/w \"He Can Win\" even though Laine [16] couldn't perform it live because the group had relaunched themselves without him a few months earlier. (This single's release is often listed as being cancelled; however, both promo and regular stock copies have been seen over the years). Arrival of Hayward and Lodge [ edit ] The group re-formed in November 1966. By then, \"Boulevard de la Madeleine\" had made the Belgian charts and won them more fans, which came in handy when they relocated to Belgium for some time. The new members were John Lodge , their bassist from El Riot who was now finished with his education, and Justin Hayward , formerly of the Wilde Three. Hayward was recommended to Pinder by Eric Burdon of the Animals and was endorsed by famed UK singer Marty Wilde , the leader of the Wilde Three. Pinder phoned Hayward after reading his lead guitarist letter, and was impressed when Hayward played him his 45 rpm single \"London is Behind Me\" during their car ride to meet the other members in Esher . [ citation needed ] After financial misfortune and a confrontation with an audience member, the band soon realised that their style of American blues covers and novelty tunes was not working, and decided to perform primarily their own material. (However, as appearances on French TV show, they continued to do two covers through at least the first half of 1968: the Hayward-sung \" Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood \", and \" Bye Bye Bird \", with the vocal and harmonica formerly done by Denny Laine now performed by Ray Thomas.) They were introduced to Decca staff producer Tony Clarke , who produced a recording session which saw Justin Hayward's \"Fly Me High\" and Mike Pinder's older-styled \"Really Haven't Got the Time\" (Decca F12607) as the 'Mark Two' Moodies' first single released in May 1967. These picked up both radio airplay and favourable reviews, but failed to chart in the UK. However, the sound gave clues about the direction in which their music would evolve. Their new style, featuring the symphonic sounds of Pinder's mellotron , was introduced on Pinder's song \"Love And Beauty\" (Decca F 12670) which was issued as a single c/w with Hayward's rocker \"Leave This Man Alone\" in September 1967. This too was not a UK hit, but further established their \"new\" Moodies identity. Ray Thomas's flute had been in evidence earlier (\"I've Got a Dream\") on their debut album; however, it became a far more featured instrument from this point onwards as they started incorporating distinct psychedelic influences, which was later developed in a concept album revolving around an archetypal day in the life of everyman . Deram Records, Threshold Records, 1967–1972 [ edit ] Days of Future Passed [ edit ] The Moody Blues' contract with Decca Records was set to expire and they owed the label several thousand pounds in advances. The second album had never materialised either. They had the support, however, of Decca A&R manager Hugh Mendl , who had been instrumental in the recent establishment of London/Decca's new subsidiary imprint Deram Records . With Mendl's backing, the Moody Blues were offered a deal to make a rock and roll version of Antonín Dvořák 's New World Symphony to promote the company's new Deramic Stereo Sound audio format [6] in return for which the group would be forgiven their debt. The Moody Blues agreed, but insisted that they be given artistic control of the project, and Mendl (as executive producer) was able to provide this despite Decca's notoriously tight-fisted attitude to their artists. [17] The group was unable to complete the assigned project, [ citation needed ] which was abandoned. However, they managed to convince Peter Knight , who had been assigned to arrange and conduct the orchestral interludes, to collaborate on a recording that used the band's original material instead. Although Deram executives were initially sceptical about the hybrid style of the resulting concept album, [6] Days of Future Passed (released in November 1967) became one of the most successful pop/rock releases of the period, earning a gold record award and reaching No. 27 on the British LP chart. Five years later it reached No. 3 in the US/Billboard charts. The LP was a song cycle or concept album that takes place over the course of a single day. The album drew inspiration in production and arrangement from the pioneering use of the classical instrumentation by the Beatles , to whom Pinder had introduced the mellotron that year. It took the form to new heights using the London Festival Orchestra , [18] a loose affiliation of Decca's classical musicians given a fictitious name, adding the term \"London\" to sound impressive, to provide an orchestral linking framework to the Moodies' already written and performed songs, plus overture and conclusion sections on the album, including backing up Graeme Edge's opening and closing poems recited by Pinder. Strings were added to the latter portion of the album version of Hayward's \" Nights in White Satin \" (absent on the single) but the orchestra and group never performed together on the recording, with the band's rock instrumentation centred on Pinder's mellotron. Despite being a lush concept album, the LP was cut in a very workmanlike manner, with the band recording a particular song, then the track being presented to Peter Knight who quickly composed a suitable \"linking\" orchestral portion, which the Decca musicians (\"London Festival Orchestra\") then recorded. The album was as much an original work by Knight himself as the group. The composing credits were listed on the sleeve as: \"Redwave-Knight\", although Hayward wrote \"Nights...\" and \"Tuesday Afternoon\", Thomas provided \"Another Morning\" and \"Twilight Time\", Lodge penned \"Peak Hour\" and \"Evening (Time To Get Away)\", and Edge contributed the opening and closing poems (the first \"Morning Glory\" and the latter titled \"Late Lament\") read by Mike Pinder who composed both \"The Sun Set\" and \"Dawn is a Feeling\" (sung by Hayward, with Pinder singing the bridge section). Clarke produced the album, and afterwards continued working with the band. Sometimes known to fans as \"The Sixth Moodie\", he produced their albums and singles for the next eleven years. Engineer Derek Varnals also contributed heavily to the creation of the early Moody's studio sound, working with Pinder and Clarke to create a more symphonic overlapping sound on the mellotron as opposed to the sharp 'cut off' the instrument normally gave, partly achieved by removing all the \"sound effects\" tapes (trains, whistles, cockerel crowing, etc.) and then 'doubling up' the tapes of orchestral instruments' sounds, which combined with Pinder's ability and sensitivity at playing (Pinder having earlier worked for the company that manufactured the mellotron) and Varnals' recording skills at creating an orchestral 'wave' sound that characterised their non-orchestra accompanied sound thereafter. The album, plus two singles therefrom, \" Nights in White Satin \" and \" Tuesday Afternoon \" (as a medley with \"Forever Afternoon,\" listed as \"Forever Afternoon (Tuesday?)\" on the album), took time to find an audience. In the Moody Blues' native Britain, the two singles from the album didn't initially catch on; \"Nights in White Satin\" made only No. 19 on the British singles chart in early 1968, and \"Tuesday Afternoon\" didn't chart at all. However, the British public learned to appreciate \"Nights in White Satin\" subsequently; it made No. 9 on the UK singles chart on re-issue in December 1972 and No. 14 on the charts on another reissue at the end of 1979, and is now regarded as the Moody Blues signature song by British audiences. In the US, \"Nights in White Satin\" did not make the Billboard Hot 100 in 1968, although it reached No. 2 on re-release in 1972; \"Tuesday Afternoon\" was more successful on initial release stateside, peaking at No. 24 on the Billboard Hot 100. In Search of the Lost Chord [ edit ] The 1968 follow-up LP, In Search of the Lost Chord included \" Legend of a Mind \", a song written by Ray Thomas in tribute to LSD guru Timothy Leary which encompassed a flute solo performed by Thomas – four members of the group had taken LSD together at the start of 1967. A promotional film for the song was filmed on location at Groot-Bijgaarden Castle near Brussels in Belgium. Lodge provided a two-part song \"House of Four Doors\" set either side of Thomas' epic piece. Justin Hayward began playing sitar and incorporating it into Moody Blues music (\"Voices...\", \"Visions of Paradise\", \"Om\", etc.), having been inspired by George Harrison . Hayward's \"Voices in the Sky\" charted as a single in the UK (No. 27), as did Lodge's \"Ride My See-Saw\" (No. 42, No. 15 in France) – still their concert finale number – which featured Pinder's non-album song \"A Simple Game\" as the 'B' side. Pinder's \"The Best Way to Travel\" was another high point, as was his closing song \"Om\" (sung by Pinder and Thomas, again featuring Hayward on sitar). Graeme Edge found a significant secondary role in the band as a writer of poetry, and some of their early albums from the late 1960s began with various band members reciting poems by Edge that were conceptually related to the lyrics of the songs that followed. Edge narrated his brief \"Departure\" poem on \"Lost Chord\", although Pinder recited the majority of Edge's poetry, as according to Edge, he had the best voice for it due to smoking more cigarettes and drinking more whisky at the time. [19] On the Threshold of a Dream [ edit ] On 1969's On the Threshold of a Dream , Hayward, Edge and Pinder share the opening narration on Edge's \"In The Beginning\", leading into Hayward's \"Lovely To See You\". His \"Never Comes the Day\" was issued as a UK single, while Thomas' wry observations of life in \"Dear Diary\" and \"Lazy Day\" were striking features. Pinder contributed the closing track on side one, \"So Deep Within You\". Side two closed with the \"Dream Sequence\", Edge's poem \"The Dream\" leading into Pinder's \"Have You Heard?\" parts I and II with the two parts separated by his classically themed instrumental piece \"The Voyage\". To Our Children's Children's Children [ edit ] The band's music continued to become more complex and symphonic, with heavy amounts of reverberation on the vocal tracks, resulting in 1969's To Our Children's Children's Children — a concept album inspired by the first moon landing. The opening track \"Higher and Higher\" saw Pinder simulate a rocket blast-off on keyboards, then narrate Edge's lyrics. Thomas' \"Floating\" and \"Eternity Road\" stood out, as did Hayward's \"Gypsy\" and a rare Pinder-Lodge collaboration \"Out and In\". Lodge provided his two-part \"Eyes of a Child\" and \"Candle of Life\" while Pinder contributed \"Sun is Still Shining\". The album closed with \" Watching and Waiting \", composed by Ray Thomas and Justin Hayward and sung by Hayward. It was during 1969 that the band established their own label \"Threshold\" under licence to Decca Records. To Our Children's Children's Children was the first of their albums to be released on their own label. The song \"Watching and Waiting\" was issued as a single on the Threshold label, but failed to chart. A Question of Balance [ edit ] Although the Moodies had by now defined a somewhat psychedelic style and helped to define the progressive rock (then also known as 'art rock') sound, the group decided to record an album that could be played in concert, losing some of their full-blown sound for A Question of Balance (1970). This album, reaching No. 3 in the American charts and No. 1 in the British charts, was indicative of the band's growing success in America. Incidentally, it seems to have been one of the first rock albums broaching the issue of ecology (e.g. line: We'll spoil the seas with the rivers we've lost, from Edge's \"Don't You Feel Small\"). Hayward's \"Question\" (in a differing version) was issued as a single, reaching No. 2 in the UK (kept from the top spot only by the England World Cup football team's novelty record \"Back Home\"). Justin Hayward began an artful exploration of guitar tone through the use of numerous effects pedals and fuzzboxes and developed for himself a very melodic buzzing guitar-solo sound. The Moody Blues had by now become a bill-topping act in their own right. They appeared twice at the famous Isle of Wight Festival (A DVD of their 1970 performance has been released). Pinder's \"Melancholy Man\" (a No. 1 single in France) stood out beside Hayward's \"Question\" on the 1970 album. Every Good Boy Deserves Favour and Seventh Sojourn [ edit ] For their next two albums, Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (1971) – from which Hayward's \" The Story in Your Eyes \" was taken as a US charting single (No. 23) - and Seventh Sojourn (1972) (which reached No. 1 in the US), the band returned to their signature orchestral sound which, while difficult to reproduce in concert, had become their trademark. The title \"Every Good Boy Deserves Favour\" was borrowed, tongue-in-cheek, from a mnemonic used to remember the musical notes that form the lines of the treble clef: EGBDF. The opening track \"Procession\" was the only item composed by all five band members, a fascinating track depicting the \"evolution\" of music, leading into Hayward's \"Story in Your Eyes\". Thomas's reflective \"Our Guessing Game\" and whimsical \"Nice To Be Here\" offset the deeper drama of Hayward's \"You Can Never Go Home\", Lodge's \"One More Time To Live\" and Pinder's \"My Song\". Edge, the long-standing drummer-poet, started writing lyrics intended to be sung, rather than verses to be spoken – his \"After You Came\" (1971) featured each of the four lead singers taking a vocal section. Then in 1972, Lodge's songs \"Isn't Life Strange?\" (No. 13) and \" I'm Just a Singer (In a Rock and Roll Band) \" (No. 36) were lifted from Seventh Sojourn as charting UK singles. Sojourn also saw Pinder using the new Chamberlin instrument in place of the mellotron and Edge using an electronic drum kit. Pinder's stirring lament \"Lost in a Lost World\" opened this last \"Core Seven\" outing, while his sympathetic ode to Timothy Leary \"When You're a Free Man\", Thomas's romantic \"For My Lady\", and Hayward's serene \"New Horizons\" all stood out. In an interview following the release of Seventh Sojourn , Graeme Edge told Rolling Stone: \"We've got two Christians, one Mystic, one Pedantic and one Mess, and we all get on a treat.\" [20] By this time, other bands were picking up their work. Pinder's songs \"A Simple Game\" (1968) and \"So Deep Within You\" (1969) were successfully covered by the Four Tops , Pinder winning an Ivor Novello Award for \"A Simple Game\", Elkie Brooks later covered Hayward's \"Nights in White Satin\". Pinder also appeared on John Lennon 's \"Imagine\" album in 1971, providing additional percussion on \"I Don't Wanna Be a Soldier (I Don't Want to Die)\". The 1968 to 1972 album sleeves, plus several solo sets up to Ray Thomas's \"Hopes, Wishes & Dreams\" in 1976, were characterised by striking surreal scenic sleeve artwork (mostly gatefold sleeves) by artist Phil Travers. In late 1972, a re-issue of the five-year-old \"Nights in White Satin\" became the Moody Blues' biggest US hit, soaring to number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming a certified million-seller; the song had \"bubbled under\" the Hot 100 charts on its original release. The song also returned to the UK charts, reaching No. 9, ten places higher than its original release in 1967. Threshold Records [ edit ] The Moodies were also among the pioneers of the idea that a successful rock band could promote itself through their own label, following the Beatles' creation of Apple Records . After their On the Threshold of a Dream album (1969), they created Threshold Records , prompted in part by disputes with London/Deram over album design costs (their gatefold record jackets and expensive cover art were not popular with company executives). The idea was for Threshold to produce new albums and deliver them to London/Decca who would act as distributor. The group attempted to build Threshold into a major label by developing new talent —most notably the UK hard rock band Trapeze and the Portland, Oregon , classical-acoustic sextet Providence —but these efforts were unsuccessful and the Moodies eventually returned to more traditional recording contracts. However, they helped lay groundwork for other major acts to set up similar personal labels and distribution deals, including the Rolling Stones ' own label and Led Zeppelin 's Swan Song , [ citation needed ] and all of the Moodies' studio releases from 1969 to 1999 bore the Threshold logo on at least one of their format versions. Hiatus and solo work, 1974–1977 [ edit ] In the spring of 1974, after completing a vast world tour that culminated with a tour of Asia , the group took an extended break, erroneously reported as a break-up at the time, because of the other band members feeling exhausted and overshadowed (this was said by Hayward in the final issue of Higher & Higher magazine 2006). Although the band had typically featured four lead vocalists (with Edge also contributing vocally), Hayward was the principal guitarist/vocalist whilst Pinder was considered to be the person most responsible for their symphonic sound, arrangements, and overall conceptual direction. Pinder and Thomas also doubled as the Moodies' onstage MCs (as the 1969 \" Caught Live + 5 \" album displayed). Before the band's 1973–74 world tour (their last with Pinder), Hayward wrote a song called \"Island\" with the intention of including it on a potential follow-up album, which the Moodies recorded in 1973 before ultimately going their separate ways. An additional cause of the hiatus were the long tours that had by this time strained Pinder, who needed a rest. [ citation needed ] In 1974 the band oversaw preparation of the compilation album This Is The Moody Blues which was released that year. Hayward and Lodge released a duo album, the very successful Blue Jays (1975), and a UK chart single, \"Blue Guitar\" (no. 8), which was credited to Hayward and Lodge even though it was just Hayward with 10cc backing him. The album had originally been a projected liaison between Hayward and Pinder, but after Pinder dropped out, John Lodge stepped in. (Tony Clarke produced it.) The members then released solo albums. Pinder said he hoped to get the band back together that year. \"Having moved to California in 1974, I returned to Britain for a visit in summer 1975. I was trying to get the band to do an album, but the response was so weak I returned to California with my two new Mk5 mellotrons and began work on my solo album The Promise.\" [21] Edge produced two albums with guitarist Adrian Gurvitz , Kick Off Your Muddy Boots (1975) and Paradise Ballroom (1976); Hayward composed the acoustically textured Songwriter (1977), which was followed up in later years by Night Flight (1980), Moving Mountains (1985), (which Hayward dedicated to Peter Knight) Classic Blue (1989), The View From The Hill (1996) and Live in San Juan Capistrano (1998); Lodge released Natural Avenue (1977); Pinder produced The Promise (1976); and Thomas collaborated on two projects with songwriter Nicky James, producing From Mighty Oaks (1975) and Hopes, Wishes and Dreams (1976). Reunion, 1977–1990 [ edit ] Reunion [ edit ] 1978–90 line-up. L-R: Patrick Moraz , Ray Thomas , Graeme Edge , Justin Hayward and John Lodge In 1977, the group made a decision to record together again, with their record company Decca urging a reunion album. London Records decided to release a somewhat poorly mixed eight-year-old recording of the band performing at London's Royal Albert Hall , against their artistic wishes. London/Decca did this in an attempt to re-energise public interest in the Moody Blues before their anticipated new album, but by this time Pinder had remarried and started a family in California , so for their reunion recording, the band decamped stateside with producer Clarke. The sessions were marked with tension and division: first there was a fire at the studios they were using, then after quickly relocating to Pinder's home studio, a landslide following torrential rains effectively marooned them, inevitably causing tensions to rise (with Pinder then dropping out before completion). Clarke was also forced to leave because of non-musical reasons before the album was completed, but by the spring of 1978 Octave was ready for release. Pinder, citing his young family, and by then probably considering the band's touring days behind them, excused himself from the touring commitments that were to follow. His decision caused acrimony within the band (notably from Edge) and Ray Thomas had said Pinder was initially agreeable to touring, but his opting out later on (with a major comeback tour already planned) was a severely embarrassing blow to them. Attempts were made by their management to downplay Pinder's absence, notably at a major UK music press party Decca organised, when the top Decca dignitary guest, while making a \"welcome back\" speech, openly referred to \"Mike Pinder being currently absent over in the States \", much to their dismay. Octave , Pinder departs and the arrival of Moraz, Long Distance Voyager and The Present [ edit ] During this period, the prog-rock band Yes had asked their Swiss-born keyboardist, Patrick Moraz , to leave. Moraz's management had some contacts with the Moodies, and after a successful audition with the band in England in 1978, he was engaged as keyboardist for the Octave World Tour that began in Germany in October. The album sold well and produced the hits \" Steppin' in a Slide Zone \", (no. 39 US) written by Lodge and \" Driftwood \", (no. 59 US) written by Hayward. The music video produced for \"Driftwood\" featured Moraz, although Pinder was the one who played on the actual recording; the video for \"Steppin' in a Slide Zone\" simply showed the other four members without Pinder (which was rather awkward as Pinder's keyboards featured extensively on the song, notably on the distinctive intro and during a solo section of the piece). A group performance of Hayward's \"Had to Fall in Love\" and Lodge's \"Slide Zone\" on the \" Kenny Everett Show\" also depicted them as a four piece. On Octave , Hayward had some four solo composed songs (more than on \"The Other Side of Life\" later in 1986), Edge contributed \"I'll Be Level With You\" (aka \"Little Man\") one of only a few songs showing a complete group unity. Several songs sounded like solo efforts, while Lodge's \"Survival\", Hayward's appropriate closing \"The Day We Meet Again\" and Pinder's final contribution and lead vocal, \"One Step into the Light\" (curiously as the band is depicted as doing so on the cover photo – where Pinder is perhaps significantly barely glimpsed at all and almost out of focus) were all high points on the album. Around this time, Justin Hayward enjoyed a solo hit (No. 5) in the UK (US No. 47) with the song \"Forever Autumn\" from Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds . In recent times Hayward has sung both this and \"The Eve of the War\" live in the touring version of the album, as featured on Wayne's original big-selling double album. The Moody Blues toured the US and Europe during much of 1979. A live CD The Moody Blues Live in Seattle 1979 during the Octave tour of a concert at Seattle Center Coliseum recorded on 25 May 1979 was later issued in 2013. By 1980 they were ready to record again, this time bringing in producer Pip Williams . Moraz was retained as the band's permanent keyboardist, though Pinder had originally understood that he would continue to record even if not touring with the band. Pinder took legal action to prevent the new Moody Blues album from reaching the public without his contributions, but he was not successful, and ultimately, he never returned to the fold. Nevertheless, when released in 1981, Long Distance Voyager was a colossal success, reaching No. 1 on Billboard and going Top 5 in the UK. The album yielded two hits, \" The Voice \", (No. 15 US) written by Hayward, and \" Gemini Dream \", (No. 12 US) written by Hayward and Lodge. John Lodge's \"Talking out of Turn\" also charted in the US, reaching No. 65. Edge provided \"22,000 Days\" (featuring Thomas as lead voice with Hayward and Lodge) while Thomas' contributions were the final portion of the set with his singing on the final two songs; \"Painted Smile\", \"Reflective Smile\" (a poem narrated by a DJ friend of the band) and \"Veteran Cosmic Rocker\". By now, the mellotron had long been set aside as their primary keyboard instrument on their studio albums and the band embraced a more modern, less symphonic approach, though still retaining a lush keyboard-led sound as Moraz gave a more contemporary edge [ citation needed ] . In live concerts, the mellotron was still used heavily by Moraz until the mid-1980s, including on songs that did not originally feature it. [22] The Present (1983), again produced by Williams, was less successful than its predecessor, though it spawned a UK Top 40 hit (No. 35) in \" Blue World \" (No. 62 in the US) and a US Top 40 hit in \" Sitting at the Wheel \" (which failed to chart in the UK). Videos were also produced for both singles. The Present was released in conjunction with Talencora Ltd shortly before Decca was bought out by Polydor Records . The Other Side of Life , Sur la Mer [ edit ] In 1986 they enjoyed renewed success with their album The Other Side of Life and in particular with the track \" Your Wildest Dreams \" – a US Top 10 hit (and No. 1 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary singles chart for two weeks) which garnered a Billboard Video of the Year award after being frequently featured on MTV . It made them \"the first act in history to earn each of its first three top 10 singles in a different decade\" (along with Go Now in 1965 and Nights In White Satin in 1972). [23] Newly employed producer Tony Visconti and Barry Radman, a synth programmer formerly engaged by Moraz, delivered a modern sound the Moodies had been seeking in order to remain competitive with their pop contemporaries and the album's title song also charted in the US, at No. 58. The renewed interest in the band ensured a younger audience, with many of their longtime followers remaining loyal despite a fair number of older fans finding the albums of this period far more lightweight in content - for example, Lodge had gone from writing powerfully reflective mystical or humanitarian themed pieces such as \"House of Four Doors\", \"Candle of Life\" and \"One More Time to Live\" to quirkier items such as \"Here Comes the Weekend\", \"Rock and Roll Over You\" and \"Love is on the Run (From Me)\" while Hayward's songs seemed [ citation needed ] less the deeper drama of numbers such as \"The Actor\", \"Dawning is the Day\", \"You Can Never Go Home\", \"The Land of Make Believe\", etc., to pleasant (and more radio-friendly) perennial far simpler songs about lost love and romance (\"Your Wildest Dreams\", \"No More Lies\", \"I Know You're Out There Somewhere\" etc.). There were still some deeper songs being created by the band, (\"The Voice\", \"22,000 Days\", \"The Other Side of Life\", \"The Spirit\", \"Deep\", etc.) but the overall tone had noticeably become a more lightweight commercialised one; presumably this was with record company agreement to keep in accordance with the then prevailing times. [ citation needed ] Their live shows from this period included a good number of their 1980s album tracks. However, over time, more of the \"Core Seven\" album era favourites reappeared in their playlist, but Pinder's compositions were permanently retired from their setlists after his departure. The Moody Blues performed live at the Birmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert 1986 which raised money for Birmingham Children's Hospital . The band played four songs, and later provided backup with The Electric Light Orchestra for George Harrison . The Moodies continued their early video-generation success with Sur La Mer (1988) and its video and single, \" I Know You're Out There Somewhere \" (No. 30 US, No. 52 UK, No. 2 US Mainstream Rock), a sequel to \"Your Wildest Dreams\". Their sound took on an ever-increasingly synthetic and technical quality as Moraz and Visconti began using modern sequencers, samplers and drum machines. Hayward and Lodge wrote and sang on most of the songs as the band came under pressure from their new record company, Polydor Records , to promote those it deemed to be the two more commercial looking and sounding members and they decided to exploit that aspect rather than catering for the band as a whole or retaining the five-way songwriting methods the group had done with Pinder. [24] By then, Ray Thomas was playing a diminished role in the recording studio with the band evolving into a synthpop act, a genre that was unsuitable for the use of a flute. Thomas provided additional percussion, notably a brisk tambourine, on many more Moodies songs which continued to be featured, plus occasional harmonica, but by this point he was largely relegated to the status of a backup singer and he was also unwell during this period, further limiting his involvement with the band in the recording studio. Thomas provided some backing vocals for both The Other Side of Life and Sur La Mer ; however, for reasons unclear, multiple production considerations led Visconti to leave Thomas' vocals off the latter of these two albums, thereby further reducing the texture of their overall vocal sound, which had previously been rich four-part harmonies (Hayward, Lodge, Thomas and Pinder), then went down to three (Thomas, Lodge and Hayward) upon Pinder's departure and reduced still further to just the more similar-sounding voices of Hayward and Lodge (Lodge also providing falsetto vocals and high harmonies), with Pinder and Thomas each having provided both lower and higher-pitched vocal harmonies in the group's earlier vocal sound. The band's vocal \"sound\" had become the blend of just Hayward and Lodge, which was still recognisable, if less textured than the original four-part, more complex \"choral\" sound. Moraz was displeased with Visconti's exclusion of Thomas from the final release of Sur La Mer and accused him of tailoring the album for radio, as revealed in a 1989 newspaper article where it revealed Moraz's anger with the state of the band and at Visconti in particular. Despite his diminished participation in the recording process, Thomas' high value remained on stage primarily from his continued ability to sing out his 1960s and 1970s Moodies classics, and also in flute and keyboard duets he composed with Moraz which were performed only during Moodies' concerts. The band had begun to reinforce their concert sound in 1986 with the addition of a second keyboardist. ( Bias Boshell was the first, replaced in 1987 by Guy Allison before Boshell returned by 1990), as well as female backing singers. 1990s to present [ edit ] Departure of Moraz and Court TV lawsuit [ edit ] In 1991, halfway through the production of their new studio album, Patrick Moraz did an interview with Keyboard Magazine and made some comments in the article that suggested dissatisfaction with his role in the Moodies. His complaints ranged from the Moodies' music becoming too simple in structure to the other members' reluctance to allow him to make significant contributions to the songwriting on their albums. He also was occupied with spending large amounts of time planning a music concert to celebrate his native Switzerland 's 700th anniversary instead of rehearsing with the Moodies and as a result, he was fired from the group before the project was completed, so Boshell and new keyboardist Paul Bliss were brought in to finish the new album's keyboard tracks. Despite previous credits as an \"official band member\" and being included in group photos on the four '80s studio albums from \"Long Distance Voyager\" to \"Sur La Mer\", subsequent Moodies compilations downplay Moraz to being merely an \"additional keyboardist\" and several band photos have him cropped or airbrushed out, notably on the covers to Gold (which did not even mention him in the booklet liner notes, let alone include his picture) and the more recent compilation \"Polydor Years 1986-1992\" [ citation needed ] . Moraz later took legal action against the group in the United States and the lawsuit, which he won, was shown on Court TV , but he was awarded only $77,175 in back pay due to accounting slow-ups instead of the $4,000,000 he sought. Keys of the Kingdom [ edit ] Keys of the Kingdom , released in 1991, had modest commercial success when released and once again, Hayward's songs led off the album, with the new singles \" Say It with Love \" and \" Bless the Wings (That Bring You Back) .\" Also included was a new ambient flute piece by Ray Thomas entitled \"Celtic Sonant.\" Hayward and Thomas also co-wrote \"Never Blame the Rainbows for the Rain\" to close the album. Lodge made a defining shift in his songwriting on this album, leaving his trademark high-energy rock music, and instead gravitating towards slow love ballads such as \"Lean on Me (Tonight)\" (though he had earlier contributed some songs in this gentler vein such as \"Emily's Song\" for his daughter in 1971, \"Survival\" in 1978, and \"Talking Out of Turn\" in 1981), while his more powerful songs continued with \"Magic\" and the Lennonesque \"Shadows on the Wall\". This gentler trend continued on the two successive Moodies albums. Hayward wrote the driving two-part piece \"Say What You Mean.\" Tony Visconti produced some of the tracks on \"Keys\", as did Christopher Neil and Alan Tarney . The ensuing tour saw them invited to play at the Montreux Jazz Festival . A non-album Hayward-Lodge song cut at these sessions, \"Highway\", was included on the \"Say It with Love\" twelve-inch single and on a later box set and compilation album , while the vinyl album did not include their song \"Once is Enough\" as on the compact disc version. The group remained a steady concert draw, and a series of video and audio versions of their 1992 Night at Red Rocks concert enjoyed great success, particularly as a fund-raiser for American public television where it had been first broadcast. The concert was conducted and arranged by Larry Baird, who has participated in many other bands' orchestral live concerts, such as Kansas , Michael Bolton , Three Dog Night , Al Jarreau and Alan Parsons . The group also continued their use of additional musicians on stage and in the studio, but after the two legal suits from both Pinder in 1981 and Moraz in 1992, the band was careful not to recognise future keyboardists as official members. Following on from his contributions as keyboardist on the 'Keys of the Kingdom' album, Paul Bliss continued to play keyboards for the band live, being promoted to first keyboardist in 2001 (but was replaced in March 2010 after 19 years continuous service). Thomas and Bliss continued the tradition of a flute/keyboard duet for many tours. After Edge injured himself in 1991, second drummer Gordon Marshall was brought in to back him up; he stayed with the group after Edge returned and remained in the position until autumn of 2015 when he left to play in a Moody Blues cover band \"Legend of a Band\" and another cover band \"Reflections\". Strange Times , 1990s tours [ edit ] From 1991 to 1998 the group took a hiatus from recording and spent time trying to perfect the art of performing live with an orchestra. The recording hiatus ended in 1999, with the album Strange Times , their first album in almost two decades to be more than moderately received by British critics, although Justin Hayward was quoted as saying he was disappointed at the album's chart performance – probably not helped by the long recording hiatus – which was notably less than \"Keys of the Kingdom\" in 1991. It was recorded in Recco , Italy, at Hayward's suggestion, and was the band's first self-produced effort. The album featured keyboards and arrangements from Italian musician Danilo Madonia, who continued to work in-studio with the band. The album opened with English Sunset , a pop song featuring a modern, nearly techno arrangement. The song This is the Moment (which is not on Strange Times ), which was originally featured in the Broadway production of Jekyll and Hyde , was a minor hit in the US. Strange Times was also the first album since 1970 to include a new poem by Graeme Edge, Nothing Changes , narrated by Edge, with Hayward then singing the concluding portion of the track, and notably concluded by quoting Mike Pinder's 1968 song title A Simple Game . Also in 1999, the Moody Blues appeared in an episode of The Simpsons called Viva Ned Flanders . [25] On Strange Times Ray Thomas appeared vocally with Hayward and Lodge on Sooner or Later (Walkin' on Air) and his own brief song My Little Lovely , plus provided a vocal snippet and backing vocals on Hayward's English Sunset ; this was his recorded vocal swan song with the band. In 2000 the band released Hall of Fame , a new live concert from the Royal Albert Hall , with a concurrent DVD release. This was taken from the last tour on which Boshell played. He left the live line-up in 2001; Bliss took over first keyboard duties, with his former second keyboard role filled by Bernie Barlow and Julie Ragins when Barlow took maternity leave from 2006 to 2009. In 2001 an IMAX film was released entitled Journey into Amazing Caves , which featured two new songs written and performed by the Moody Blues. The soundtrack also featured Justin Hayward performing vocals and playing guitar throughout. One of these songs, entitled Water , is the Moody Blues' first instrumental studio recording since their 1983 piece Hole in the World from The Present LP. Hayward and Lodge live in 2007 Thomas retires, December [ edit ] The new millennium saw the Moody Blues reducing their touring schedule. At the end of 2002, founding member Ray Thomas retired from the group, reducing the Moody Blues to the trio of Hayward, Lodge and Edge, the last being the only original member. Flautist and rhythm guitarist Norda Mullen was recruited early the following year for their North American tour, and has worked with the band live and in the studio since then. Toward the end of 2003, they released an album entitled December . The songs included originals and four covers: John Lennon 's \"Happy Xmas (War Is Over)\", Mike Batt's \"A Winter's Tale\", \"When A Child is Born\" and Irving Berlin 's \"White Christmas\". December was the group's first album to include covers since their 1965 debut album The Magnificent Moodies . In March 2006, the first five of the band's 'Core Seven' albums (the seven albums from Days of Future Passed to Seventh Sojourn ) were re-released in SACD format with Deluxe Editions, featuring bonus songs and some rare previously unreleased tracks. In April 2007, the last two of these classic albums were re-released by Universal/Threshold. These deluxe editions were unique for an art rock group like the Moodies in that one of their members, Justin Hayward, was the one taken on to do the work, instead of a professional master technician. Hayward stated that he listened to virgin vinyl copies of these albums and used them as reference points for the new compact discs. On 21 May 2007 the Moodies released a forty-one track, two-disc compilation of sessions recorded at BBC Studios, various television appearances and a previously 'lost' performance done on the Tom Jones Show titled Live at the BBC: 1967-1970 . [26] [27] Latest work [ edit ] The Moody Blues in concert at the Chumash Casino Resort in Santa Ynez, California in 2005 l-r: Justin Hayward, John Lodge, Graeme Edge In 2007, the now defunct Hard Rock Park theme park in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina , announced the building of a dark ride entitled \" Nights in White Satin: The Trip \". The ride incorporated multi-sensory experiences as well as a re-orchestrated version of the song by Justin Hayward. A re-recorded version of Graeme Edge's \"Late Lament\" again followed, which had each group member reading a verse of the poem. [28] In March 2009, the ride closed because of the conversion of the park to the Freestyle Music Park , with the new owners desiring to make the park more \"family friendly.\" The group toured the UK, Canada and the US in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010. In addition, Hayward took part in the UK tour of Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds in April 2006, and a second tour in November 2007, also with dates in 2009. The Moody Blues also toured Australia and New Zealand in 2006. Their long-time producer, Tony Clarke, died in January 2010. The band added keyboardist Alan Hewitt for their 2010 UK and North American tours. They released a new compilation album called Timeless Flight in 2013. On 19 July 2013, it was announced that the band would be appearing on the second annual Moody Blues Cruise, [29] from 2 to 7 April 2014, on the cruise ship MSC Divina . Other bands on the cruise included The Zombies and Lighthouse . The Moody Blues toured in 2015 in both the USA and the UK in June of that year, culminating in a début appearance at the Glastonbury Festival on 27 June 2015. [30] [31] Original vocalist and flautist Ray Thomas died on 4 January 2018, at the age of 76, just a few months before the band were due to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . [32] Legacy and honours [ edit ] The Moody Blues' \"rich symphonic sound\" influenced groups such as Yes , Genesis , the Electric Light Orchestra and Deep Purple . They also helped make synthesizers and philosophy \"part of the rock mainstream\". [2] The Moody Blues are members of the Vocal Group Hall of Fame . In 2013, readers of Rolling Stone voted for them as one of the ten bands that should be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . [7] Ultimate Classic Rock called them \"perennial victims of an unaccountable snubbing\" and inducted them into its own Hall of Fame in 2014. [33] In December 2017, the band were announced as inductees for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. [34] Writing for The Guardian in 2015, Rob Chapman described the band as \"psychedelia's forgotten heroes\". He stated: \"Despite their success, rock critics rarely took the Moody Blues seriously, a pattern that continued for the next 45 years.\" He also wrote: \"Despite the critical disapproval, the best of the Moody Blues music between 1967 and 1970 possessed grace and beauty. Like the Beatles , they understood how pop songs worked as ensemble pieces. None of them were particularly virtuosic or showy as musicians and their music is refreshingly free of the noodling longeurs that characterised the output of their more self-indulgent contemporaries.\" [35] Moody Bluegrass [ edit ] The Moody Bluegrass project is a group of Nashville artists who have recorded two tribute albums of Moody Blues songs in the bluegrass style. The first album, Moody Bluegrass – A Nashville Tribute to the Moody Blues , was released in 2004. Those involved included Alison Krauss , Harley Allen , Tim O'Brien , John Cowan , Larry Cordle , Jan Harvey, Emma Harvey, Sam Bush and Jon Randall . A second Moody Bluegrass album, Moody Bluegrass Two...Much Love , was released in 2011. In addition to many of the participants of the first album, a number of tracks included guest performances from Hayward, Lodge and Edge, (each of whom is credited as the lead vocalist on one song) plus Thomas and Pinder, making this the first time since 1978 that these five musicians all appeared on one newly recorded album. [36] Members [ edit ] Main article: List of the Moody Blues band members Current members Graeme Edge – drums, percussion, vocals (1964–present) Justin Hayward – guitar, vocals (1966–present) John Lodge – bass guitar, guitar, vocals (1966–present) Former members Denny Laine – guitar, vocals (1964–1966) Mike Pinder – keyboards, vocals (1964–1978) Ray Thomas – flute, percussion, harmonica, vocals (1964–2002) Clint Warwick – bass guitar, vocals (1964–1966) Rodney Clark – bass, vocals (1966) Patrick Moraz – keyboards (1978–1990) Discography [ edit ] Main article: The Moody Blues discography Studio albums The Magnificent Moodies (1965) Days of Future Passed (1967) In Search of the Lost Chord (1968) On the Threshold of a Dream (1969) To Our Children's Children's Children (1969) A Question of Balance (1970) Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (1971) Seventh Sojourn (1972) Octave (1978) Long Distance Voyager (1981) The Present (1983) The Other Side of Life (1986) Sur la Mer (1988) Keys of the Kingdom (1991) Strange Times (1999) December (2003) References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b James E. Perone (2009). Mods, Rockers, and the Music of the British Invasion . ABC-CLIO. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-275-99860-8 . Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Michael Ray, ed. (2012). Disco, punk, new wave, heavy metal, and more: Music in the 1970s and 1980s . Rosen Education Service. p. 107. ISBN 978-1615309085 . Jump up ^ Nicholas E. Tawa (2005). Supremely American: Popular Song in the 20th Century: Styles and Singers and what They Said about America . Scarecrow Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-8108-5295-2 . Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Jump up ^ Doyle Greene (10 March 2014). The Rock Cover Song: Culture, History, Politics . McFarland. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-4766-1507-3 . Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Jump up ^ Macan, Edward (2005). Endless Enigma: A Musical Biography of Emerson, Lake and Palmer . Open Court. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8126-9596-0 . Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. ^ Jump up to: a b c Eder, Bruce (2009). \"The Moody Blues: Biography\" . AMG [All Music Group, a subsidiary of Macrovision] . Retrieved 28 July 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b Greene, Andy (24 April 2013). \"Readers' Poll: 10 Bands Who Should Enter the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2014\" . Rolling Stone . Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 25 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Parker, Matt (25 July 2013). \"Justin Hayward on The Moody Blues and writing in corners\" . MusicRadar . Archived from the original on 10 September 2015 . Retrieved 27 August 2015 . Jump up ^ as told by Thomas in Pete Frame´s Rock Family Trees: Birmingham Beatsters Jump up ^ Brewer, Jon (2006). Classic Artists: Moody Blues (DVD). Archived from the original on 1 January 2018 . Retrieved 21 June 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Ray Thomas – The Moody Blues\" . The Strange Brew . Archived from the original on 13 June 2017 . Retrieved 21 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Interview With Mike Pinder\" . Classicbands.com. Archived from the original on 26 August 2015 . Retrieved 26 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Moody Blues - British Invasion Bands\" . britishinvasionbands.com . Archived from the original on 24 August 2010. Jump up ^ \"Denny left on Saturday and we´re not sure what we´re going to do. We´re waiting to see Brian Epstein to talk things over with him.\" Ray Thomas, as quoted by Record Mirror , 8 October 1966: \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 16 July 2014 . Retrieved 22 December 2014 . . Epstein, however, dropped the band almost immediately (same website) Jump up ^ see article \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 17 December 2014 . Retrieved 17 December 2014 . on Tony Brown´s website, taken from Hit Week #10 , November 1966, page 5. Jump up ^ \"I wasn't content to just carry on this gig just to bring money in. Our management thing had all fallen apart. We'd gone with Epstein and that was a disaster.\" Laine interviewed by Mark Murley in Higher & Higher # 36, 1997, page 18. Jump up ^ Obituaries – Hugh Mendl: Producer at Decca Records Archived 17 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine .; The Independent , 25 July 2008. Jump up ^ \"Show 49 - The British are Coming! The British are Coming!: With an emphasis on Donovan, the Bee Gees and the Who. [Part 6]: UNT Digital Library\" . Digital.library.unt.edu. 21 August 2015. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015 . Retrieved 26 August 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Moody Blues drummer Graeme Edge interviewed - TechnologyTell\" . TechnologyTell . Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Jump up ^ Author. \"Threshold Records (The Shop) in Moody Blues Hall Forum\" . Travellingeternityroad.yuku.com . Retrieved 2015-08-26 . Jump up ^ [1] Archived 20 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"Stepping In A Slide Zone – LIVE\" . YouTube. 15 May 2011. Archived from the original on 25 June 2014 . Retrieved 17 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Grein, Paul (1986-07-26). \"Chart Beat\". Billboard : 6. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) Jump up ^ \"The Moody Blues: In Review • Sur La Mer (1988)\" . Runstop.de. 30 September 2006. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015 . Retrieved 26 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Scully, Mike (2007). The Simpsons The Complete tenth Season DVD commentary for the episode \"Viva Ned Flanders\" (DVD). 20th Century Fox. Jump up ^ [2] Archived 14 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"The Moody Blues: Live at the BBC: 1967-1970\" . Webbeta.sov.uk.vvhp.net. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2015 . Jump up ^ [3] Archived 7 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"The Moody Blues Cruise • April 2 - 7, 2014 -\" . moodiescruise.com . Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Jump up ^ \"Michael Eavis on Kanye West's Glastonbury set: 'I wasn't there, I was at the Moody Blues ' \" . NME . 28 June 2015. Jump up ^ Worrall, Hannah (24 June 2015). \" ' I think he's going to deliver': The Moody Blues' Justin Hayward on his first Glastonbury set and watching Kanye West play live\" . St Albans & Harpenden Review . Jump up ^ Press, Associated (7 January 2018). \"Ray Thomas of British rockers The Moody Blues dies at 76\" . www.washingtonpost.com . Retrieved 7 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Giles, Jeff (30 December 2014). \"Moody Blues Inducted Into the Ultimate Classic Rock Hall of Fame\" . Ultimate Classic Rock . Archived from the original on 4 September 2015 . Retrieved 27 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Greene, Andy (13 December 2017). \"Moody Blues' Justin Hayward on Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Honor: 'It's Amazing! ' \" . Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 15 December 2017 . Retrieved 13 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Chapman, Rob (17 September 2015). \"The Moody Blues – psychedelia's forgotten heroes\" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 21 September 2016 . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . Jump up ^ \"Two Much Love: Moody Bluegrass 2\" . Twomuchlove.com. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015 . Retrieved 26 August 2015 . External links [ edit ] Find more about The Moody Blues at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Official website [ hide ] v t e The Moody Blues Graeme Edge Justin Hayward John Lodge Ray Thomas Mike Pinder Denny Laine Clint Warwick Rodney Clark Patrick Moraz Studio albums The Magnificent Moodies Days of Future Passed In Search of the Lost Chord On the Threshold of a Dream To Our Children's Children's Children A Question of Balance Every Good Boy Deserves Favour Seventh Sojourn Octave Long Distance Voyager The Present The Other Side of Life Sur la Mer Keys of the Kingdom Strange Times December Live albums Caught Live + 5 A Night at Red Rocks with the Colorado Symphony Orchestra Hall of Fame Lovely to See You: Live Live at the BBC: 1967-1970 Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 Compilations This Is The Moody Blues Voices in the Sky: The Best of The Moody Blues Prelude Greatest Hits Time Traveller The Best of The Moody Blues Anthology Gold An Introduction to The Moody Blues Singles \" Go Now \" \" I Don't Want to Go On Without You \" \" Nights in White Satin \" \" Tuesday Afternoon \" \" Voices in the Sky \" \" Ride My See-Saw \" \" Never Comes the Day \" \" Watching and Waiting \" \" Question \" \" The Story in Your Eyes \" \" Isn't Life Strange \" \" I'm Just a Singer (In a Rock and Roll Band) \" \" Steppin' in a Slide Zone \" \" Driftwood \" \" Gemini Dream \" \" The Voice \" \" Talking Out of Turn \" \" Blue World \" \" Sitting at the Wheel \" \" Your Wildest Dreams \" \" The Other Side of Life \" \" I Know You're Out There Somewhere \" \" No More Lies \" \" Say It with Love \" \" Bless the Wings (That Bring You Back) \" \" English Sunset \" Related articles Band members Discography Justin Hayward and Friends Sing the Moody Blues Classic Hits Moody Bluegrass [ show ] v t e Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Class of 2018 Performers Bon Jovi The Cars Dire Straits The Moody Blues Nina Simone Early influences Sister Rosetta Tharpe Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF : 159575746 LCCN : n87151082 ISNI : 0000 0001 2375 8787 GND : 2104674-8 BNF : cb13905083v (data) MusicBrainz : 774666d2-2064-4d6c-856c-f8cda0aaf9f0 NLA : 36017964 NKC : xx0097354 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Moody_Blues&oldid=835622955 \" Categories : The Moody Blues 1964 establishments in England Art rock musical groups British Invasion artists British psychedelic rock music groups British rhythm and blues boom musicians Counterculture of the 1960s Decca Records artists Deram Records artists English pop rock music groups English progressive rock groups Musical groups established in 1964 Musical groups disestablished in 1974 Musical groups reestablished in 1977 Musical groups from Birmingham, West Midlands Musical quartets Musical quintets Musical trios Polydor Records artists Proto-prog musicians Symphonic rock groups Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL EngvarB from March 2016 Use dmy dates from March 2016 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010 Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe 中文 23 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2018, at 20:13. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Moody Blues", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Moody_Blues&amp;oldid=835622955" }

{ "text": "Pandemic 2: The Startling - Wikipedia Pandemic 2: The Startling From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \" Pandemic 2: The Startling \" South Park episode Episode no. Season 12 Episode 11 Directed by Trey Parker Written by Trey Parker Production code 1211 Original air date October 29, 2008 Episode chronology ← Previous \" Pandemic \" Next → \" About Last Night... \" South Park (season 12) List of South Park episodes \" Pandemic 2: The Startling \" is the eleventh episode in the twelfth season of the American animated television series South Park . [1] The 178th episode of the series overall, it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 29, 2008. It is the conclusion to the previous episode, \" Pandemic \". In the episode, the boys discover the source of the havoc unleashed in the previous episode, and attempt to overthrow Michael Chertoff 's plot for world domination. The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker . Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Production 3 Reception 4 Home release 5 References 6 External links Plot [ edit ] The episode opens with a monologue recap by Craig Tucker , who is relating the events up until now in his journal. Craig is stranded in the Andes Mountains with the four main characters and two pilots at a false rendezvous point. They look for help in the jungle, but find only a \"land of the giant lost world\", filled with giant fruits. The two pilots are killed by baby Guinea bee larvae , and the boys flee. Craig and the boys discover a temple, inside of which are carvings depicting a prophecy that details all of the events of the previous episode. They learn from this that the Peruvian flute bands kept the murderous guinea pigs within the jungle. Craig is featured in the final carving. In spite of the intrigue of the carving, Craig refuses to do any more investigating and begins walking back through the jungle. The other boys follow him, complaining of boredom. Interspersed throughout this story are various flashes in Colorado with Randy, Sharon and Shelley hiding from giant guinea pig monsters (all of which are portrayed by real live-action guinea pigs wearing costumes), a parody of the movie Cloverfield . They hide at home, in a damaged bus, on the roof of a Best Buy , a grocery store, and an Outback Steakhouse . Randy does not stop filming the entire time, and uses unnecessarily shaky camera work, as well as constant zooms and heavy breathing to convey just how \"startled\" he is by the whole ordeal. The other townspeople, especially Sharon , begin to grow very annoyed by his obsessive taping of the event. Eventually, Sharon has had enough and angrily demands Randy to stop filming, but he says that the video \"will be a very important family relic, years from now\"; frustrated, Sharon attacks his camera. Also, the townsfolk discover that the guinea pigs take on various other permutations, including guinea rabbits, guinea bees, guinea mice, and guinea-saurus rexes, all of which supposedly originate from the aforementioned \"giant world\". The Guinea Pirate. Meanwhile, Homeland Security Michael Chertoff travels to Machu Picchu to finalize his plan for world domination. He accidentally runs into the boys and orders his guards to kill them, claiming they are a Peruvian flute band (which in the previous episode were all prosecuted and ordered sent to Guantanamo Bay ). Stan insists that they are not, and that the bands are the only forces which could stop the guinea pigs. Michael Chertoff snaps, revealing his plan to take over the world. One of the guards, who has had enough of all this, shoots him in the back, but that does not stop the director, since there was no human blood in him. He then reveals his true form, that of a \"guinea pirate\" (a live-action guinea pig in a pirate outfit). Craig insists that he wants no part of this; he just wants to go home, and he walks away from the scene. But by doing this he accidentally steps on a stone tile, activating some sort of magical ritual in which \"sparks\" [2] shoot from his eyes and paralyze the Guinea pirate. While concerned by this, Craig's dry tone does not change as he states flatly, \"Okay, now there are sparks shooting out of my eyes...\" When it's over, he sighs, realizing that there are some things you can't control. The episode ends with a second monologue by Craig, telling the aftermath of the incident, as a pan flute cover of Gary Numan's \" Cars \" plays in the background. The U.S. government releases all the pan flute bands, who then drive the guinea pigs back to the jungle. Craig concludes that you never know what life has in store for you, and also that he will never trust anyone who asks him for money again. He is shown shutting his front door on the boys, who have come to his house dressed as a Mariachi band, presumably beginning the cycle over again. It is also revealed at this time that Randy forgot to put a tape in his camera after buying it, therefore making his entire effort to tape the ordeal pointless. Meanwhile, back at the office of Homeland Security, the new Director is informed that the guinea pirate has broken out of jail and has begun to attack the city. The ending sequence shows the escaped giant guinea pirate roaming through the streets of Washington D.C. in his black-and-white prison uniform. Production [ edit ] The monsters and shaky camera style of cinematography are a reference to the 2008 American monster movie Cloverfield . [3] The subplot, in which the giant guinea pigs attack a small town is a parody of Night of the Lepus . The guinea pig costumes were purchased online. [4] According to the creator commentary, the guinea pigs used in filming refused to move when put into the costumes and it took hours of filming to get one usable shot for the episode. [5] The Guinny Valley where the guinea pig monsters originate from is a parody of Land of the Giants and Land of the Lost (referenced to in the episode as \"Land of the Giants Lost World\"). Reception [ edit ] The episode received mixed reviews. The A.V. Club graded the episode a C-, stating \"That was too damn long to tell a story with so little substance and so few real laughs. Kinda like Cloverfield . Maybe that was the point\". [6] Home release [ edit ] \"Pandemic 2: The Startling\", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park' s twelfth season, were released on a three-disc DVD set and two-disc Blu-ray set in the United States on March 10, 2009. The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode, a collection of deleted scenes, and two special mini-features, The Making of 'Major Boobage and Six Days to South Park . [7] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"South Park Episode Guide – 1211\" . South Park Studios. Accessed October 25, 2008 Jump up ^ \"Episode 1211 – Pandemic 2: The Startling\". spscriptorium.com (2008-11-16). Jump up ^ Entry from Tuesday, November 4, 2008 FAQ archive at South Park Studios Jump up ^ http://www.guineapigtoday.com/2011/10/16/guinea-pig-costumes-at-cuddly-cavies-creations/ Jump up ^ Parker, Trey (November 2008). South Park: The Complete Twelfth Season: \"TPandemic 2: The Startling\" (Audio commentary) (DVD). Paramount Home Entertainment . Jump up ^ Modell, Josh (2008-10-29). \"Pandemic 2, The Startling\" . The A.V. Club . Retrieved 2011-10-08 . Jump up ^ Liebman, Martin (February 26, 2009). \"South Park: The Complete Twelfth Season Blu-ray Review\" . Blu-ray.com . Retrieved January 25, 2017 . External links [ edit ] \"Pandemic 2: The Startling\" Full episode at South Park Studios \"Pandemic 2: The Startling\" Episode guide at South Park Studios \"Pandemic 2: The Startling\" on IMDb \"Pandemic 2: The Startling\" at TV.com [ hide ] v t e South Park episodes Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Season 12 \" Tonsil Trouble \" \" Britney's New Look \" \" Major Boobage \" \" Canada on Strike \" \" Eek, a Penis! \" \" Over Logging \" \" Super Fun Time \" \" The China Probrem \" \" Breast Cancer Show Ever \" \" Pandemic \" \" Pandemic 2: The Startling \" \" About Last Night... \" \" Elementary School Musical \" \" The Ungroundable \" Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pandemic_2:_The_Startling&oldid=820527714 \" Categories : South Park (season 12) episodes Guinea pigs Peru in fiction South Park episodes in multiple parts Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Nederlands Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2018, at 04:19. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Pandemic 2: The Startling", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Pandemic_2:_The_Startling&amp;oldid=820527714" }

{ "text": "Great Barrier Reef - Wikipedia Great Barrier Reef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Coral reef system off the east coast of Australia, World Heritage Site Great Barrier Reef UNESCO World Heritage site Satellite image of part of the Great Barrier Reef adjacent to the Queensland coastal areas of Airlie Beach and Mackay . Location Off the east coast of the Queensland mainland, Australia Criteria Natural: vii, viii, ix, x Reference 154 Inscription 1981 (5th Session ) Area 34,870,000 ha Website www .gbrmpa .gov .au Coordinates 18°17′10″S 147°42′00″E  /  18.28611°S 147.70000°E  / -18.28611; 147.70000 Coordinates : 18°17′10″S 147°42′00″E  /  18.28611°S 147.70000°E  / -18.28611; 147.70000 Center of the Great Barrier Reef Great Barrier Reef (Australia) Show map of Queensland Show map of Australia Show all The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system [1] [2] composed of over 2,900 individual reefs [3] and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). [4] [5] The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. [6] This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps . [7] It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. [1] [2] CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . [8] The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland. [9] A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use, such as fishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985. [10] The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and is an important part of local groups' cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very popular destination for tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is an important economic activity for the region, generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year. [11] In November 2014, Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef. [12] A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought, seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . [13] In October 2016, Outside published an obituary for the reef; [14] the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef. [15] In March 2017, the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre (500 mi) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures, an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change. [16] Contents [ hide ] 1 Geology and geography 2 Ecology 3 Environmental threats 3.1 Climate change 3.2 Pollution 3.2.1 Loss of coastal wetland 3.2.2 Eutrophication 3.2.3 Sediment runoff 3.2.4 Pesticides 3.2.5 Pollution from mining 3.3 Crown of thorns 3.4 Overfishing 3.5 Shipping 4 Protection and preservation 5 Human use 5.1 Management 5.1.1 Abbot Point coal port dredge dumping controversy 5.2 Tourism 5.3 Fishing 5.4 Dugong hunting 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Geology and geography Aerial photography The Great Barrier Reef is a distinct feature of the East Australian Cordillera division. It reaches from Torres Strait (between Bramble Cay , its northernmost island, and the south coast of Papua New Guinea ) in the north to the unnamed passage between Lady Elliot Island (its southernmost island) and Fraser Island in the south. Lady Elliot Island is located 1,915 km (1,190 mi) southeast of Bramble Cay as the crow flies . [17] It includes the smaller Murray Islands . [18] The Plate tectonic theory indicates Australia has moved northwards at a rate of 7 cm (2.8 in) per year, starting during the Cenozoic . [19] [20] : 18 Eastern Australia experienced a period of tectonic uplift , which moved the drainage divide in Queensland 400 km (250 mi) inland. Also during this time, Queensland experienced volcanic eruptions leading to central and shield volcanoes and basalt flows. [20] : 19 Some of these became high islands . [20] : 26 After the Coral Sea Basin formed, coral reefs began to grow in the Basin, but until about 25 million years ago, northern Queensland was still in temperate waters south of the tropics—too cool to support coral growth. [20] : 27 The Great Barrier Reef's development history is complex; after Queensland drifted into tropical waters, it was largely influenced by reef growth and decline as sea level changed. [20] : 27–28 Reefs can increase in diameter by 1 to 3 centimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only above a depth of 150 metres (490 ft) due to their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level. [21] When Queensland edged into tropical waters 24 million years ago, some coral grew, [20] : 29 but a sedimentation regime quickly developed with erosion of the Great Dividing Range ; creating river deltas , oozes and turbidites , unsuitable conditions for coral growth. 10 million years ago, the sea level significantly lowered, which further enabled sedimentation. The reef's substrate may have needed to build up from the sediment until its edge was too far away for suspended sediments to inhibit coral growth. In addition, approximately 400,000 years ago there was a particularly warm interglacial period with higher sea levels and a 4 °C (7 °F) water temperature change. [20] : 37 The Great Barrier Reef is clearly visible from aircraft flying over it. Heron Island , a coral cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef The land that formed the substrate of the current Great Barrier Reef was a coastal plain formed from the eroded sediments of the Great Dividing Range with some larger hills (most of which were themselves remnants of older reefs [22] or, in rare cases, volcanoes [20] : 26 ). [20] : 18 The Reef Research Centre, a Cooperative Research Centre , has found coral 'skeleton' deposits that date back half a million years. [23] The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) considers the earliest evidence of complete reef structures to have been 600,000 years ago. [24] According to the GBRMPA, the current, living reef structure is believed to have begun growing on the older platform about 20,000 years ago. [24] The Australian Institute of Marine Science agrees, placing the beginning of the growth of the current reef at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum . At around that time, sea level was 120 metres (390 ft) lower than it is today. [22] From 20,000 years ago until 6,000 years ago, sea level rose steadily around the world. As it rose, the corals could then grow higher on the newly submerged maritime margins of the hills of the coastal plain. By around 13,000 years ago the sea level was only 60 metres (200 ft) lower than the present day, and corals began to surround the hills of the coastal plain, which were, by then, continental islands . As the sea level rose further still, most of the continental islands were submerged. The corals could then overgrow the submerged hills, to form the present cays and reefs. Sea level here has not risen significantly in the last 6,000 years. [22] The CRC Reef Research Centre estimates the age of the present, living reef structure at 6,000 to 8,000 years old. [23] The shallow water reefs that can be seen in air-photographs and satellite images cover an area of 20,679 km², most (about 80%) of which [25] has grown on top of limestone platforms that are relics of past (Pleistocene) phases of reef growth. [20] The remains of an ancient barrier reef similar to the Great Barrier Reef can be found in The Kimberley , Western Australia. [26] The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area has been divided into 70 bioregions , [27] of which 30 are reef bioregions. [28] [29] In the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef, ribbon reefs and deltaic reefs have formed; these structures are not found in the rest of the reef system. [23] There are no atolls in the system, [20] : 7 and reefs attached to the mainland are rare. [20] : 18 Fringing reefs are distributed widely, but are most common towards the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef, attached to high islands, for example, the Whitsunday Islands . Lagoonal reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, and further north, off the coast of Princess Charlotte Bay . Cresentic reefs are the most common shape of reef in the middle of the system, for example the reefs surrounding Lizard Island . Cresentic reefs are also found in the far north of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and in the Swain Reefs ( 20 – 22 degrees south ). Planar reefs are found in the northern and southern parts, near Cape York Peninsula , Princess Charlotte Bay, and Cairns. Most of the islands on the reef are found on planar reefs. [20] : 158–160 Ecology Main article: Threatened species known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area A variety of colourful corals on Flynn Reef near Cairns The Great Barrier Reef supports a diversity of life, including many vulnerable or endangered species , some of which may be endemic to the reef system. [30] [31] A green sea turtle on the Great Barrier Reef Thirty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises have been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef, including the dwarf minke whale , Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin , and the humpback whale . Large populations of dugongs live there. [31] [32] [33] More than 1,500 fish species live on the reef, including the clownfish , red bass , red-throat emperor, and several species of snapper and coral trout . [32] Forty-nine species mass spawn , while eighty-four other species spawn elsewhere in their range. [34] Seventeen species of sea snake live on the Great Barrier Reef in warm waters up to 50 metres (160 ft) deep and are more common in the southern than in the northern section. None found in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area are endemic, nor are any endangered. [35] Six species of sea turtles come to the reef to breed: the green sea turtle , leatherback sea turtle , hawksbill turtle , loggerhead sea turtle , flatback turtle , and the Olive Ridley . The green sea turtles on the Great Barrier Reef have two genetically distinct populations , one in the northern part of the reef and the other in the southern part. [36] Fifteen species of seagrass in beds attract the dugongs and turtles, [32] and provide fish habitat. [20] : 133 The most common genera of seagrasses are Halophila and Halodule . [37] Saltwater crocodiles live in mangrove and salt marshes on the coast near the reef. [38] Nesting has not been reported, and the salt water crocodile population in the GBRWHA is wide-ranging but low density. [35] Around 125 species of shark , stingray , skates or chimaera live on the reef. [39] [40] Close to 5,000 species of mollusc have been recorded on the reef, including the giant clam and various nudibranchs and cone snails . [32] Forty-nine species of pipefish and nine species of seahorse have been recorded. [35] At least seven species of frog inhabit the islands. [41] 215 species of birds (including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds) visit the reef or nest or roost on the islands, [20] : 450–451 including the white-bellied sea eagle and roseate tern . [32] Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.4 to 1.7 million birds using the sites to breed. [42] [43] The islands of the Great Barrier Reef also support 2,195 known plant species; three of these are endemic. The northern islands have 300–350 plant species which tend to be woody, whereas the southern islands have 200 which tend to be herbaceous; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse, supporting 1,141 species. The plants are propagated by birds. [41] A Striped surgeonfish amongst the coral on Flynn Reef There are at least 330 species of ascidians on the reef system with the diameter of 1–10 cm (0.4–4 in). Between 300–500 species of bryozoans live on the reef. [40] Four hundred coral species, both hard corals and soft corals inhabit the reef. [32] The majority of these spawn gametes , breeding in mass spawning events that are triggered by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer, the lunar cycle, and the diurnal cycle. Reefs in the inner Great Barrier Reef spawn during the week after the full moon in October, while the outer reefs spawn in November and December. [44] Its common soft corals belong to 36 genera. [45] Five hundred species of marine algae or seaweed live on the reef, [32] including thirteen species of genus Halimeda , which deposit calcareous mounds up to 100 metres (110 yd) wide, creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover. [20] : 185 Environmental threats Main article: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Sea temperature and bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef Climate change , pollution, crown-of-thorns starfish and fishing are the primary threats to the health of this reef system. Other threats include shipping accidents, oil spills , and tropical cyclones. [46] Skeletal Eroding Band , a disease of bony corals caused by the protozoan Halofolliculina corallasia , affects 31 coral species. [47] According to a 2012 study by the National Academy of Science , since 1985, the Great Barrier Reef has lost more than half of its corals with two-thirds of the loss occurring from 1998 due to the factors listed before. [48] Climate change The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority considers the greatest threat to the Great Barrier Reef to be climate change, causing ocean warming which increases coral bleaching . [49] [50] Mass coral bleaching events due to elevated ocean temperatures occurred in the summers of 1998, 2002 and 2006, [51] and coral bleaching is expected to become an annual occurrence. [52] As global warming continues, corals will not be able to keep up with increasing ocean temperatures. Coral bleaching events lead to increased disease susceptibility, which causes detrimental ecological effects for reef communities. [53] World Heritage Committee meeting will take place in Kraków , Poland , in July 2017. UNESCO , in a draft decision published in June 2017 as part of the agenda for the meeting, expressed serious concern about the impact of coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. The draft decision also warned Australia that it will not meet the targets of the Reef 2050 report without considerable work to improve water quality. [54] Climate change has implications for other forms of reef life—some fish's preferred temperature range leads them to seek new habitat, thus increasing chick mortality in predatory seabirds. Climate change will also affect the population and sea turtle's available habitat. [55] Bleaching events in benthic coral communities (deeper than 20 metres or 66 feet) in the Great Barrier reef are not as well documented as those at shallower depths, but recent research has shown that benthic communities are just as negatively impacted in the face of rising ocean temperatures. Five Great Barrier Reef species of large benthic corals were found bleached under elevated temperatures, affirming that benthic corals are vulnerable to thermal stress. [56] Pollution Another key threat faced by the Great Barrier Reef is pollution and declining water quality . The rivers of north eastern Australia pollute the Reef during tropical flood events. Over 90% of this pollution comes from farm runoff . [57] 80% of the land adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef is used for farming including intensive cropping of sugar cane, and major beef cattle grazing. Farming practices damage the reef due to overgrazing , increased run-off of agricultural sediments, nutrients and chemicals including fertilisers , herbicides and pesticides representing a major health risk for the coral and biodiversity of the reefs. [58] Sediments containing high levels of copper and other heavy metals sourced from the Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea are a potential pollution risk for the far northern Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait regions. [59] Some 67% of corals died in the reef's worst-hit northern section, the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies report said. [60] Loss of coastal wetland The runoff problem is exacerbated by the loss of coastal wetlands which act as a natural filter for toxins and help deposit sediment. [61] [62] [63] It is thought that the poor water quality is due to increased light and oxygen competition from algae . [64] Eutrophication Farming fertiliser runoff release nitrogen , phosphorus , and potassium into the oceanic ecosystem, these limiting nutrients cause massive algal growth which leads to depletion in oxygen available for other creatures which decreases the biodiversity in the affected areas, altering the species composition. A study by Katharina Fabricius and Glen Death of Australian Institute of Marine Science found that hard corals numbers were almost double on reefs that were far from agricultural areas. [58] Fertilizers also increase the amount of phytoplankton available for the crown-of-thorns starfish larvae to consume. A study showed that a doubling of the chlorophyll in the water leads to a tenfold increase in the crown-of-thorns starfish larvae's survival rate. [58] Sediment runoff Sediment runoff from farming carries chemicals into the reef environment also reduces the amount of light available to the corals decreasing their ability to extract energy from their environment. [58] Pesticides Pesticides used in farming are made up of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic and other toxins are released into the wider environment due to erosion of farm soil, which has a detrimental effect on the coral. [58] Pollution from mining Mining company Queensland Nickel discharged nitrate-laden water into the Great Barrier Reef in 2009 and 2011 – on the later occasion releasing 516 tonnes (508 long tons; 569 short tons) of waste water. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) stated \"We have strongly encouraged the company to investigate options that do not entail releasing the material to the environment and to develop a management plan to eliminate this potential hazard; however, GBRMPA does not have legislative control over how the Yabulu tailings dam is managed\". [65] Crown of thorns Crown-of-thorns starfish The crown-of-thorns starfish preys on coral polyps. Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs. In 2000, an outbreak contributed to a loss of 66% of live coral cover on sampled reefs in a study by the RRC (Reefs Research Centre.) [66] Outbreaks are believed to occur in natural cycles, worsened by poor water quality and overfishing of the starfish's predators. [66] [67] Overfishing The unsustainable overfishing of keystone species , such as the Giant Triton , can disrupt food chains vital to reef life. Fishing also impacts the reef through increased water pollution from boats, by-catch of unwanted species (such as dolphins and turtles) and habitat destruction from trawling , anchors and nets. [68] As of the middle of 2004, approximately one-third of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is protected from species removal of any kind, including fishing, without written permission. [69] The Shen Neng 1 aground on the Great Barrier Reef, 5 April 2010. Shipping Shipping accidents are a pressing concern, as several commercial shipping routes pass through the Great Barrier Reef. [70] Although the route through the Great Barrier Reef is not easy, reef pilots consider it safer than outside the reef in the event of mechanical failure, since a ship can sit safely while being repaired. [71] There have been over 1,600 known shipwrecks in the Great Barrier Reef region. [72] On 3 April 2010, bulk coal carrier Shen Neng 1 ran aground on Douglas Shoals, [73] spilling up to four tonnes of oil into the water and causing extensive damage to the reef. [74] Protection and preservation The 2050 Plan In March 2015, the Australian and Queensland’s governments formed a plan for the protection and preservation of the reef’s universal heritage until 2050. [75] This 35 years plan, titled ‘Reef 2050 Plan’ is a document proposing possible measures for the long-term management of the pollution, climate change and other issues that threaten the life span and value of this global heritage. The plan contains all the elements for measurement and improvements, including; long-term sustainability plan, water quality improvement plan and the investment plan for the protection and preservation of The Reef until 2050. [76] Human use The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Aboriginal Australians have been living in the area for at least 40,000 years, [77] and Torres Strait Islanders since about 10,000 years ago. [78] For these 70 or so clan groups , the reef is also an important cultural feature. [79] In 1768 Louis de Bougainville found the reef during an exploratory mission, but did not claim the area for the French. [80] On 11 June 1770, the HM Bark Endeavour , captained by explorer James Cook , ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef, sustaining considerable damage. Lightening the ship and re-floating it during an incoming tide eventually saved it. [81] One of the most famous wrecks was the HMS Pandora , which sank on 29 August 1791, killing 35 men. The Queensland Museum has led archaeological digs to the Pandora since 1983. [82] Because the reef had no atolls, it was largely unstudied in the 19th century. [20] : 7 During this time, some of the reef's islands were mined for deposits of guano , and lighthouses were built as beacons throughout the system. [20] : 452 as in Raine Island , the earliest example. [83] In 1922, the Great Barrier Reef Committee began carrying out much of the early research on the reef. [20] : 9 Management This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Main article: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Map showing the extent of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Royal Commissions disallowed oil drilling in the Great Barrier Reef, in 1975 the Government of Australia created the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and prohibited various activities. [84] The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park does not include the entire Great Barrier Reef Province. [17] The park is managed, in partnership with the Government of Queensland , through the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority to ensure that it is used in a sustainable manner. A combination of zoning , management plans, permits, education and incentives (such as eco-tourism certification) are employed in the effort to conserve the reef. [46] [85] In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act , which improved the operation of national environmental law by providing guidance about regional biodiversity conservation priorities. The marine bioregional planning process came from the implementation of this law. This process conserves marine biodiversity by considering the whole ecosystem a species is in and how different species interact in the marine environment. There are two steps to this process. The first step is to identify regional conservation priorities in the five (currently) different marine regions. The second step is to identify marine reserves (protected areas or marine parks) to be added to Australia's National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Like protected areas on land, marine reserves are created to protect biodiversity for generations to come. Marine reserves are identified based on criteria written in a document created by Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council called \"Guidelines for establishing the national representative system of marine protected areas\", also known as just \"the Guidelines\". These guidelines are nationally recognised and implemented at the local level based on the Australian policy for implementation outlined in the \"Goals and Principles for the Establishment of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in Commonwealth Waters\". These policies are in place to make sure that a marine reserve is only added to the NRSMPA after careful evaluation of different data. The priorities for each region are created based on human and environmental threats and the Marine Bioregional Plans are drafted to address these priorities. To assess different region's priorities, three steps are taken, first, a bioregional profile is created, second, a bioregional plan is drafted, and third, the plan is finalised. After the plan is finalised, activity in different bioregions may become limited based on particular threats an activity may pose. [86] In 2001, the GBRMPA released a report about the declining water quality in the Great Barrier Reef and detailed the importance of this issue. In response to this report, in 2003, the Australian and Queensland governments launched a joint initiative to improve the quality of water entering the Great Barrier Reef. [87] The decline in the quality of water over the past 150 years (due to development) has contributed to coral bleaching, algal blooms , and pesticide pollution . These forms of pollution have made the reef less resilient to climate change. When the plan was introduced in October 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it doesn't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which cannot be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet. The plan specifically targets nutrients, pesticides and sediment that make their way into the reef as a result of agricultural activities. Other non-point sources of pollution that are attributed to urban areas are covered under different legislation. In 2009, the plan was updated. The updated version states that to date, none of the efforts undertaken to improve the quality of water entering the reef has been successful. The new plan attempts to address this issue by \"targeting priority outcomes, integrating industry and community initiatives and incorporating new policy and regulatory frameworks (Reef Plan 5)\". This updated version has improved the clarity of the previous plan and targets set by that plan, have improved accountability and further improved monitoring and assessment. The 2009 report found that 41 out of the 65 actions met their original goals, however, 18 were not progressing well according to evaluation criteria as well as 6 were rated as having unsatisfactory levels of progress. Some key achievements made since the plan's initial passing in 2003 were the establishment of the Reef Quality Partnership to set targets, report findings and monitor progress towards targets, improved land condition by landowners was rewarded with extended leases, Water Quality Improvement Plans were created to identify regional targets and identified management changes that needed to be made to reach those targets, Nutrient Management Zones have been created to combat sediment loss in particular areas, education programs have been started to help gather support for sustainable agriculture, changes to land management practices have taken place through the implementation of the Farm Management Systems and codes of practice, the creation of the Queensland Wetland program and other achievements were made to help improve the water quality flowing into the coral reefs. A taskforce of scientists was also created to assess the impact of different parts of the plan on the quality of water flowing into the coral reefs. They found that many of the goals have yet to be reached but found more evidence that states that improving the water quality of the Great Barrier Reef will improve its resilience to climate change. The Reefocus summit in 2008, which is also detailed in the report, came to similar conclusions. After this, a stakeholder working group was formed that worked between several groups as well as the Australian and Queensland governments to update reef goals and objectives. The updated version of the plan focuses on strategic priority areas and actions to achieve 2013 goals. Also quantitative targets have been made to critically assess whether targets are being met. Some examples of the water quality goals outlined by this plan are that by 2013, there will be a 50% reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus loads at the end of catchments and that by 2020, there will be a reduction in sediment load by 20%. The plan also outlines a number of steps that must be taken by landholders to help improve grazing, soil, nutrient, and chemical management practices. There are also a number of supporting initiatives to take place outlined in the plan to help create a framework to improve land use practices which will in turn improve water quality. Through these means the governments of Australia and Queensland hope to improve water quality by 2013. The 2013 outlook report and revised water quality plan will assess what needs to be done in the future to improve water quality and the livelihoods of the wildlife that resides there. [88] A Blue Starfish ( Linckia laevigata ) resting on hard Acropora and Porites corals. In July 2004, a new zoning plan took effect for the entire Marine Park, and has been widely acclaimed as a new global benchmark for marine ecosystem conservation. [89] The rezoning was based on the application of systematic conservation planning techniques, using marxan software. [90] While protection across the Marine Park was improved, the highly protected zones increased from 4.5% to over 33.3%. [91] At the time, it was the largest Marine Protected Area in the world, although in 2006, the new Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument became the largest. [92] In 2006, a review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975 recommended are that there should be no further zoning plan changes until 2013, and that every five years, a peer-reviewed outlook report should be published, examining the reef's health, management, and environmental pressures. [5] [93] In each outlook report, several assessments are required. Each assessment has a set of assessment criteria that allows for better presentation of available evidence. Each assessment is judged by these criteria and given a grade. Every outlook report follows the same judging and grading process so that information can be tracked over time. No new research is done to produce the report. Only readily available information goes into the report so little of what is known about the Reef is actually featured in each outlook report. [94] Abbot Point coal port dredge dumping controversy In December 2013, Greg Hunt , the Australian environment minister , approved a plan for dredging to create three shipping terminals as part of the construction of a coalport. According to corresponding approval documents, the process will create around 3 million cubic metres of dredged seabed that will be dumped within the Great Barrier Reef marine park area. [95] On 31 January 2014, the GBRMPA issued a dumping permit that will allow three million cubic metres of sea bed from Abbot Point , north of Bowen, to be transported and unloaded in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Potential significant harms have been identified in relation to dredge spoil and the process of churning up the sea floor in the area and exposing it to air: firstly, new research shows the finer particles of dredge spoil can cloud the water and block sunlight, thereby starving sea grass and coral up to distances of 80 km away from the point of origin due to the actions of wind and currents. Furthermore, dredge spoil can literally smother reef or sea grass to death, while storms can repeatedly resuspend these particles so that the harm caused is ongoing; secondly, disturbed sea floor can release toxic substances into the surrounding environment. [96] The dredge spoil from the Abbot Point port project is to be dumped 24 kilometres (15 mi) away, near Bowen in north Queensland, and the approval from the Authority will result in the production of an extra 70 million tonnes of coal annually, worth between A$1.4 billion and $2.8 billion. [96] Authority chairman, Dr Russell Reichelt, stated after the confirmation of the approval: This approval is in line with the agency’s view that port development along the Great Barrier Reef coastline should be limited to existing ports. As a deepwater port that has been in operation for nearly 30 years, Abbot Point is better placed than other ports along the Great Barrier Reef coastline to undertake expansion as the capital and maintenance dredging required will be significantly less than what would be required in other areas. It’s important to note the seafloor of the approved disposal area consists of sand, silt and clay and does not contain coral reefs or seagrass beds. [96] The approval was provided with a corresponding set of 47 new environmental conditions that include the following: A long-term water quality monitoring plan extending five years after the disposal activity is completed. A heritage management plan to protect the Catalina second world war aircraft wreck in Abbot Bay. The establishment of an independent dredging and disposal technical advice panel and a management response group, to include community representatives. [96] [97] The Australian Federal Government announced on 13 November that there would now be a ban on the dumping of dredge spoil in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The World Heritage Committee asked Environment Minister Greg Hunt to investigate alternative options to dump on land instead. The Queensland government and the Commonwealth have now accepted the alternative option and advice from The World Heritage Committee and will now commence dumping on land. [98] Tourism Main article: Tourism on the Great Barrier Reef A scuba diver looking at a giant clam on the Great Barrier Reef Helicopter view of the reef and boats Due to its vast biodiversity , warm clear waters and accessibility from the tourist boats called \" live aboards \", the reef is a very popular destination, especially for scuba divers . Tourism on the Great Barrier Reef is concentrated in Cairns and also The Whitsundays due to their accessibility. These areas make up 7%–8% of the Park's area. [46] The Whitsundays and Cairns have their own Plans of Management. [99] Many cities along the Queensland coast offer daily boat trips. Several continental and coral cay islands are now resorts , including Green Island and Lady Elliot Island . As of 1996, 27 islands on the Great Barrier Reef supported resorts. [46] In 1996, most of the tourism in the region was domestically generated and the most popular visiting times were during the Australian winter. At this time, it was estimated that tourists to the Great Barrier Reef contributed A$ 776 million per annum. [100] As the largest commercial activity in the region, it was estimated in 2003 that tourism generated over A$4 billion annually, [101] and the 2005 estimate increased to A$5.1 billion. [99] A Deloitte report published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in March 2013 states that the Reef's 2,000 kilometres of coastline attracts tourism worth A$6.4 billion annually and employs more than 64,000 people. [102] Approximately two million people visit the Great Barrier Reef each year. [103] Although most of these visits are managed in partnership with the marine tourism industry , there is a concern among the general public that tourism is harmful to the Great Barrier Reef. [46] A variety of boat tours and cruises are offered, from single day trips, to longer voyages. Boat sizes range from dinghies to superyachts . [104] Glass-bottomed boats and underwater observatories are also popular, as are helicopter flights. [105] [106] By far, the most popular tourist activities on the Great Barrier Reef are snorkelling and diving, for which pontoons are often used, and the area is often enclosed by nets. The outer part of the Great Barrier Reef is favoured for such activities, due to water quality. [ citation needed ] Management of tourism in the Great Barrier Reef is geared towards making tourism ecologically sustainable . A daily fee is levied that goes towards research of the Great Barrier Reef. [99] This fee ends up being 20% of the GBRMPA's income. [107] Policies on cruise ships , bareboat charters , and anchorages limit the traffic on the Great Barrier Reef. [99] The problems that surround ecotourism in the Great Barrier Reef revolve around permanent tourism platforms. Platforms are large, ship-like vessels that act as a base for tourists while scuba diving and snorkelling in the Great Barrier Reef. Seabirds will land on the platforms and defecate which will eventually be washed into the sea. The feces carry nitrogen, phosphorus and often DDT and mercury , which cause aspergillosis , yellow-band disease , and black band disease . Areas without tourism platforms have 14 out of 9,468 (1.1%) diseased corals versus areas with tourism platforms that have 172 out of 7,043 (12%) diseased corals. [108] Tourism is a major economic activity for the region. Thus, while non-permanent platforms could be possible in some areas, overall, permanent platforms are likely a necessity. Solutions have been suggested to siphon bird waste into gutters connecting to tanks helping lower runoff that causes coral disease. [109] The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has also placed many permanent anchorage points around the general use areas. These act to reduce damage to the reef due to anchoring destroying soft coral, chipping hard coral, and disturbing sediment as it is dragged across the bottom. Tourism operators also must comply with speed limits when travelling to or from tourist destinations, to prevent excessive wake from the boats disturbing the reef ecosystem. [ citation needed ] Fishing The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef, controlled by the Queensland Government, is worth A$ 1 billion annually. [11] It employs approximately 2000 people, and fishing in the Great Barrier Reef is pursued commercially, for recreation, and as a traditional means for feeding one's family. [79] Dugong hunting Under the Native Title Act 1993 , native title holders retain the right to legally hunt dugongs and green turtles for \"personal, domestic or non-commercial communal needs\". [110] [ unreliable source? ] Four traditional owners groups agreed to cease the hunting of dugongs in the area in 2011 due to their declining numbers, partially accelerated by seagrass damage from Cyclone Yasi . [111] See also Australia portal Queensland portal Oceania portal Islands portal Marine life portal Catlin Seaview Survey Islands on the Great Barrier Reef Galápagos Islands Komodo National Park List of reefs Sixth extinction Valdes Peninsula References ^ Jump up to: a b UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1980). \"Protected Areas and World Heritage – Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area\" . Department of the Environment and Heritage . Archived from the original on 11 May 2008 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Values\" . Archived from the original on 14 April 2013 . Retrieved 3 September 2008 . Jump up ^ The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area , which is 348,000 km squared, has 2900 reefs. 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Retrieved 12 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Representative Areas in the Marine Park\" . Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 . Retrieved 23 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Marine Park Authority. \"Protecting the Bioregions of the Great Barrier Reef\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2011. Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Bio-region Information Sheets\" . Archived from the original on 31 August 2007 . Retrieved 23 March 2007 . Jump up ^ CSIRO (2006). \"Snapshot of life deep in the Great Barrier Reef\" . Archived from the original on 30 August 2007 . Retrieved 13 March 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2000). \"Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area\" . Archived from the original on 14 October 2006 . 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Marine turtle and dugong habitats in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park used to implement biophysical operational principles for the Representative Areas Program (PDF) . Great Barrier Marine Park Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2011. Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2005). \"Environmental Status: Seagrasses\" . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report – latest updates . Archived from the original on 2 October 2006 . Retrieved 23 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2005). \"Environmental Status: Marine Reptiles\" . Archived from the original on 2 June 2011. Jump up ^ \"Environmental Status: Sharks and rays\" . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report – latest updates . Archived from the original on 29 March 2007 . Retrieved 23 May 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Appendix 4- Other species of conservation concern\" . Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area . 2000. 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Retrieved 26 September 2007 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Our changing climate\" . Archived from the original on 29 October 2007 . Retrieved 26 September 2007 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Coral Bleaching and Mass Bleaching Events\" . Archived from the original on 20 April 2006 . Retrieved 30 May 2006 . Jump up ^ \"Online version\" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 January 2007. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Jump up ^ Littman, Raechel; Willis, Bette L.; Bourne, David G. (2011). \"Metagenomic analysis of the coral holobiont during a natural bleaching event on the Great Barrier Reef\". Environmental Microbiology Reports . 3 (6): 651–660. doi : 10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00234.x . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef: Australia must act urgently on water quality, says Unesco. Archived 3 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine . The Guardian Retrieved on 3 June 2017 Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Climate change and the Great Barrier Reef\" . Archived from the original on 8 December 2006 . Retrieved 16 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Schmidt, C.; Heinz, P.; Kucera, M.; Uthicke, Sven (2011). \"Temperature-induced stress leads to bleaching in larger benthic foraminifera hosting endosymbiotic diatoms\" (PDF) . Limnology and Oceanography . 56 (5): 1587–1602. doi : 10.4319/lo.2011.56.5.1587 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Jump up ^ \"Coastal water quality\" (PDF) . The State of the Environment Report Queensland 2003 . Environment Protection Agency Queensland. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 7 June 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Human Impact on the Great Barrier Reef\" . University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013 . Retrieved 12 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Harris, P.T., 2001. Environmental Management of Torres Strait: a Marine Geologist’s Perspective, in: Gostin, V.A. (Ed.), Gondwana to Greenhouse: environmental geoscience - an Australian perspective. Geological Society of Australia Special Publication, Adelaide, pp. 317-328 Jump up ^ Griffith, Hywel (28 November 2016). \"Great Barrier Reef suffered worst bleaching on record in 2016, report finds\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 28 November 2016 . Retrieved 28 November 2016 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Wetlands\" . Archived from the original on 2 October 2006 . Retrieved 13 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Brodie, J. (2007). \"Nutrient management zones in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment: A decision system for zone selection\" (PDF) . Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2017 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . 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Jump up ^ RRC Reef Research Centre. \"Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 August 2006 . Retrieved 28 August 2006 . Jump up ^ CSIRO Marine Research (1998). \"Environmental Effects of Prawn Trawling\" . Archived from the original on 18 February 2006 . Retrieved 28 May 2006 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Marine Park Zoning\" . Archived from the original on 19 July 2006 . Retrieved 8 August 2006 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority :: Shipping\" . Archived from the original on 2 October 2006 . Retrieved 13 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Reef Dreams: Working The Reef TV documentary, Australian Broadcasting Corporation , broadcast 6 July 2006 \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 23 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland Parks and Wildlife Services. \"About the Reef\" . Archived from the original on 15 August 2007 . Retrieved 23 March 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Marine Safety Investigation Report – Preliminary – Independent investigation into the grounding of the Chinese registered bulk carrier Shen Neng 1 at Douglas Shoal, Queensland, on 3 April 2010\" . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . 15 April 2010. Archived from the original on 15 May 2010 . Retrieved 14 May 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Coal being removed at sea from stricken Shen Neng 1 carrier\" . The Australian . News Ltd. 13 May 2010 . Retrieved 13 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Griffith, Hywel (28 November 2016). \"Barrier Reef coral bleaching 'worst ever ' \" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 15 December 2017 . Retrieved 18 April 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Department of the Environment and Energy\" . Department of the Environment and Energy . Archived from the original on 4 March 2018 . Retrieved 18 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2006). \"Fact Sheet No. 4 – Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People and the Great Barrier Reef. Region\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 28 May 2006 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"reefED – GBR Traditional Owners\" . Archived from the original on 14 April 2013 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . ^ Jump up to: a b Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Culture & Dugongs and Turtles\" . Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 . Retrieved 23 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Bell, Peter. \"A history of exploration and research on the Great Barrier Reef\" . Australian Institute of Marine Science. Archived from the original on 16 October 2009 . Retrieved 11 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Captain Cook's Journal During the First Voyage Round the World at Project Gutenberg Jump up ^ Queensland Museum. \"HMS Pandora\" . Archived from the original on 29 August 2006 . Retrieved 12 October 2006 . Jump up ^ \"Raine Island Corporation\" . Archived from the original on 2 November 2007 . Retrieved 20 November 2007 . Jump up ^ Commonwealth of Australia (1975). \"Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975\" . Archived from the original on 23 February 2011 . Retrieved 30 August 2006 . Jump up ^ \"Rewards Program\" . Onboard: The Tourism Operator's Handbook for the Great Barrier Reef . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Archived from the original on 27 August 2008 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . Jump up ^ \"FACT SHEET – MARINE BIOREGIONAL PLANNING – THE PROCESS\" (PDF) . environment.gov.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2011. Jump up ^ \"History\" . Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Jump up ^ \"Reef Water Quality Protection Plan 2009\" (PDF) . reefplan.qld.gov.au. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2003). \"Zoning Plan 2003\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2008 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Fernandes et al. (2005) Establishing representative no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas , Conservation Biology, 19(6), 1733–1744. Jump up ^ World Wildlife Fund Australia. \"Great Barrier Reef – WWF-Australia\" . Archived from the original on 7 May 2010 . Retrieved 10 November 2006 . Jump up ^ BBC News (15 June 2006). \"Bush creates new marine sanctuary\" . Archived from the original on 24 February 2011 . Retrieved 28 December 2008 . Jump up ^ \"Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report\" . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 2007. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011 . Retrieved 31 August 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009 in Brief\" (PDF) . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2009 . Retrieved 10 June 2010 . Jump up ^ Oliver Milman (10 December 2013). \"Greg Hunt approves dredging off Queensland to create huge coalport\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 17 December 2013 . Retrieved 18 December 2013 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Dermot O'Gorman (31 January 2014). \"Dredge dumping: just because you can doesn't mean you should\" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 3 February 2014 . Retrieved 1 February 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Marine Parks dredge dumping permit\" (PDF) . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority . Retrieved 12 February 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Dredge dumping banned on Great Barrier Reef\" . Australian Geographic . 13 November 2014. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014 . Retrieved 17 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2005). \"Protecting Biodiversity Brochure 2005\" . Archived from the original on 17 October 2006 . Retrieved 11 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Driml, Sally; Common, Mick (1996). \"Ecological Economics Criteria for Sustainable Tourism: Application to the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas, Australia\" (PDF) . Journal of Sustainable Tourism . 4 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 December 2008 . Retrieved 31 October 2008 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2003). \"Summary report of the social and economic impacts of the rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2008 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (14 March 2014). \"Is Australia shooting itself in the foot with reef port expansions?\" . The Conversation . Archived from the original on 14 March 2014 . Retrieved 14 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. \"Number of Tourists Visiting The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park\" . Retrieved 19 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2005). \"What You Do\" . Onboard – The Tourism Operator's Handbook for the Great Barrier Reef . Archived from the original on 20 September 2006 . Retrieved 14 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Saltzer, Rebecca (February 2002). \"Understanding Great Barrier Reef visitors preliminary results\" (PDF) . CRC Reef Project B2.1.1: Understanding Tourist Use of the GBRWHA . Cooperative Research Centre for the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2005 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Hildebrandt, Amy (January 2003). \"Understanding Tourist Use of the Great Barrier Reef: The Whitsundays Visitor\" (PDF) . CRC Reef Project B2.1.1: Understanding Tourist Use of the GBRWHA . Cooperative Research Centre for the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2005 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2005). \"How is the Money Used?\" . Onboard – The Tourism Operator's Handbook for the Great Barrier Reef . Archived from the original on 20 September 2006 . Retrieved 11 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Lamb, Joleah; Bette Willis (August 2011). \"Using coral disease prevalence to assess the effects of concentrating tourism activities on offshore reefs in a tropical marine park\". Conservation Biology . 25 (5): 1044–1052. doi : 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01724.x . PMID 21848962 . Jump up ^ Kight, Caitlin. \"Are Coral Reefs Literally Sick of Ecotourists?\" . Archived from the original on 29 April 2012 . Retrieved 15 March 2012 . Jump up ^ \"DUGONGS AND TURTLES\" . Archived from the original on 11 June 2014. Jump up ^ \"Turtle and dugong footage causes controversy\" . Archived from the original on 18 October 2016. Further reading Bell, Peter (1998). AIMS: The First Twenty-five Years . Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science. ISBN 978-0-642-32212-8 . Bowen, James; Bowen, Margarita (2002). The Great Barrier Reef : history, science, heritage . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82430-3 . Done, T.J. (1982). \"Patterns in the distribution of coral communities across the central Great Barrier Reef\". Coral Reefs . 1 (2): 95–107. Bibcode : 1982CorRe...1...95D . doi : 10.1007/BF00301691 . \"Research Publications\" . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority . Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Hutchings, Pat; Kingsford, Mike; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (2008). The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management . CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09557-1 . Lucas, P.H.C.; et al. (1997). The outstanding universal value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. ISBN 0-642-23028-5 . Mather, P.; Bennett, I., eds. (1993). A Coral Reef Handbook: A Guide to the Geology, Flora and Fauna of the Great Barrier Reef (3rd ed.). Chipping North: Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-949324-47-7 . External links Media related to Great Barrier Reef at Wikimedia Commons \"How the Great Barrier Reef Works\" . howstuffworks.com. Great Barrier Reef travel guide from Wikivoyage World heritage listing for Great Barrier Reef Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority CRC Reef Research Centre \"Dive into the Great Barrier Reef\" . National Geographic. Battle for the Reef – Four Corners – ABC.au Great Barrier Reef scientists confirm largest die-off of corals recorded . 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{ "text": "Secret of the Wings - Wikipedia Secret of the Wings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Secret of the Wings DVD cover Directed by Peggy Holmes Produced by Michael Wigert Screenplay by Bobs Gannaway Peggy Holmes Ryan Rowe Tom Rogers Starring Mae Whitman Lucy Hale Lucy Liu Angela Bartys Raven-Symoné Megan Hilty Timothy Dalton Narrated by Anjelica Huston Music by Joel McNeely Edited by Mark Rosenbaum Production company DisneyToon Studios Prana Studios Distributed by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (DVD) Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (Theatrical) Release date August 16, 2012 ( 2012-08-16 ) (Ukraine) August 31, 2012 ( 2012-08-31 ) (United States (limited)) October 23, 2012 ( 2012-10-23 ) (DVD release) Running time 75 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $30—$35 million [1] Box office $67,537,798 [2] Secret of the Wings , also known as Tinker Bell: Secret of the Wings , is a 2012 computer-animated fantasy film , and the fourth in the Disney Fairies franchise, produced by DisneyToon Studios . It revolves around Tinker Bell , a fairy character created by J. M. Barrie in his play, Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up , and featured in subsequent adaptations, especially in Disney's animated works, and how she ventures to the Winter Woods and meets her twin sister, Periwinkle, who is a frost fairy. The film was directed by Peggy Holmes , and co-directed by Bobs Gannaway. [3] [4] Starring the voices of Mae Whitman , Lucy Liu , Megan Hilty , Raven-Symoné and Angela Bartys , it also features new cast members who include Matt Lanter , Timothy Dalton , Lucy Hale and Debby Ryan , while Anjelica Huston narrates. Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Release 4 Soundtrack 5 References 6 External links Plot [ edit ] At the beginning of winter , everyone prepares for the final season of the year. Out of curiosity, Tinker Bell wants to go to the Winter Woods. The tinker fairies make snowflake baskets which are delivered by snowy owls . Later that day, she helps Fawn take the animals to the Woods to hibernate . While Fawn is busy, Tink crosses the border, and her wings start to glow. Seeing this, Tink is convinced that she is meant to explore the Woods. But Fawn warns her that her wings are freezing and rushes her to the fairy hospital. After being examined, she remains curious about her wings. Tink then flies off to the Book Nook, where she finds a book on Wingology , but finds the page on \"Sparkling Wings\" chewed up by bookworms. A reading fairy tells her that the Keeper, the author who lives in the Winter Woods, might be able to help her. Preparing herself and using the final shipment as her only chance, she sneaks into the workshop and climbs inside one of the baskets. She gets picked up by a novice owl and makes her way across the border. The owl then accidentally drops the basket, and she crashes into the ice. Realizing her book has been flung from her bag, she tries to get it back. However, Milori, the Lord of the Woods, finds the book and asks Sled to return it to the Keeper. Tink then follows him to the Winter Library. Upon arriving, she spots the Keeper, Dewey. But before she can talk to him, another winter fairy rushes into the room and proclaims that her wings sparkled the day before. Tink meets the fairy, whose name is Periwinkle. Suddenly, the girls' wings start to glow. Astonished, Dewey brings the two to a platform and positions their wings before the whole chamber becomes filled with images explaining their origins: that Tinkerbell and Periwinkle were born of the same baby laughter. The two then realize that this would make them sisters. Suddenly, Lord Milori arrives, concerned about the book, warning him to send any warm fairy back. Dewey tells the two they can spend a day together before Tink has to return home. Periwinkle shows Tink her world, meeting Peri's friends and spending the day together. That night at Peri's home, as Tink builds a fire, she realizes that if she can make it warm there, she can, in turn, make it cooler at her home. Suddenly, the floor melts beneath them. Seeing this, Dewey tells them that Tink has to go home. She then comes up with a plan. When they reach the border, she tells Peri to meet her at the border tomorrow. When Tink arrives home, she asks Clank and Bobble for help, and they bring her other friends to help. The next day, Tink arrives at the border with Bobble and Clank, pulling along a snow-maker. Now able to keep her cold enough, Peri crosses the border to the warm side of Pixie Hollow. She meets Tink's friends and continues her tour. After a while, Tink then notices Peri's wings wilting; the machine is running out of ice. They then return to the border. Lord Milori appears and instructs Peri on how to fix her wings. Queen Clarion also arrives and sadly explains that they can never see each other again. As the girls leave, the machine gets knocked by Milori into the stream and creates a massive snowstorm . Later that day, Queen Clarion tries to explain to Tink why the rule is important, as does Lord Milori with Periwinkle. They are told the story of two fairies, one warm and the other a winter fairy, who met and fell in love. As their romance grew stronger, they disregarded the dangers across the border. Sadly, one of them broke a wing, for which there is no cure. From that day, Queen Clarion realized that some fairies should remain apart. Meanwhile, the trapped snow-maker begins to freeze the Autumn Woods. They, along with Tink's friends and the Ministers, arrive at the stream and find Clank and Bobble attempting to free it. They succeed, but a freeze is coming. Queen Clarion tells everyone to save the tree for the freeze will kill it, eternally stopping the flow of pixie dust. They try everything they can to save the tree. Tink then notices that a Periwinkle that Peri had covered in frost is still alive, despite its cold surroundings. She flies to the Winter Woods but, on her way, falls into the snow. She then asks Peri and her friends about the frost around the flower, and Gliss explains that frost acts like a blanket, keeping the warm air inside. This gives Peri the idea that they could frost the tree before the freeze comes, and they then head to the tree. Meanwhile, at the tree, their plan is failing, to the Queen's disappointment, but then Tink and the others arrive. They explain the power of their frost, but Spike realizes that the tree is too big for three of them to finish in time. The rest of the frost fairies then arrive to help. Accomplishing the frosting of the whole Hollow, Milori states that they've done all they can. He then warns the warm fairies that the freeze is upon them and they must take cover, including the Queen whom he gives his cape to, revealing his broken wing and that he and Queen Clarion were the fairies in the story. He then orders all the winter fairies to stand guard over the tree. Some time later, the freeze begins to melt and pixie dust begins to flow again. All the fairies celebrate. However, Tink reveals that she broke a wing when she flew to the Woods and warns Periwinkle to go back before her wings wilt. As the twins hold hands and say goodbye, they touch their wings and blindingly white light bursts from their wings, which slowly heals Tink's broken wing. In an epilogue, it is shown that warm fairies now cross over into the Winter Woods and that the two \"seasons\" now interact and become good friends, even lovers. Cast [ edit ] Main article: List of Tinker Bell cast members Mae Whitman as Tinker Bell , a tinker fairy and Periwinkle's twin sister. Lucy Hale as Periwinkle, a frost fairy and Tinker Bell's twin sister. Timothy Dalton as Lord Milori, the lord of the Winter Woods and Queen Clarion's love interest. Jeff Bennett as Dewey, a frost fairy. Lucy Liu as Silvermist, a water fairy. Raven-Symone as Iridessa, a light fairy. Megan Hilty as Rosetta, a garden fairy. Pamela Adlon as Vidia, a fast-flying fairy. Angela Bartys as Fawn, an animal fairy. Matt Lanter as Sled, a frost fairy and Rosetta's love interest. Debby Ryan as Spike, a frost fairy and Periwinkle's best friend. Grey DeLisle as Gliss, a frost fairy and Periwinkle's secondary best friend. Rob Paulsen as Bobble, a wispy tinker fairy with large glasses and Clank's best friend. Jeff Bennett as Clank, a large tinker fairy. Jane Horrocks as Fairy Mary, the oversee of all tinker fairies. Jodi Benson as Healing Fairy. Kari Wahlgren as Receptionist. Thomas Lennon as Reading Fairy. Ben Diskin as Slush, a Glacier Fairy. Jesse McCartney as Terence, a dust fairy. Jeff Bennett as Fairy Gary, the oversee of all dust fairy. Kathy Najimy as The Minister of Summer. John DiMaggio as The Minister of Autumn. Steve Valentine as The Minister of Spring. Dee Bradley Baker as Cheese / Fiona / Blaze. Anjelica Huston as Queen Clarion, the queen of all Pixie Hollow and Lord Milori's love interest. Release [ edit ] The film was given a limited theatre release in the United States between August 31, 2012 and September 13, 2012. [5] It was released on DVD and Blu-ray on October 23, 2012. [6] It was the first film in the Disney Fairies franchise that was released in 3D. [7] The Blu-ray , Blu-ray 3D , DVD releases also include the short film Pixie Hollow Games as a \"Bonus Adventure\". [8] The film was released theatrically in many countries and grossed $51,507,647 worldwide. [2] Soundtrack [ edit ] Main article: Disney Fairies: Faith, Trust, and Pixie Dust References [ edit ] Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (April 3, 2014). \"How Tinker Bell Became Disney's Stealthy $300 Million Franchise\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 5, 2014 . ...each were made for $30 million to $35 million and together have grossed $225 million in U.S. DVD sales,... ^ Jump up to: a b \"Tinker Bell - The Secret of the Wings (2012)\" . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved August 17, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Secret of the Wings (2012)\" . British Film Institute . Retrieved December 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ Adams, Mark (December 3, 2012). \"Tinker Bell And The Secret Of The Wings\" . Screen Daily . Retrieved December 10, 2016 . Jump up ^ \"El Capitan Theatre Screens SECRET OF THE WINGS, Now thru 9/13\" . Broadway World. August 12, 2012 . Retrieved June 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ Zahed, Ramin (October 22, 2012). \"Disney’s ‘Secret of the Wings’ Flies to DVD/Blu-ray\" . Animation Magazine . Retrieved June 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ Roberts, Sheila (August 19, 2012). \"25 Things to Know from Our Visit to DisneyToon Studios for SECRET OF THE WINGS\" . Collider . Retrieved June 21, 2015 . Jump up ^ Nachman, Brett (October 25, 2012). \"Disney In Depth: Blu-ray Review: Secret Of The Wings\" . Geeks of Doom . Retrieved June 21, 2015 . External links [ edit ] Official website Tinker Bell: Secret of the Wings on IMDb Secret of the Wings at Rotten Tomatoes [ show ] v t e J. M. Barrie 's Peter Pan Characters and setting Main Peter Pan Wendy Darling Captain Hook Mr. Smee Tinker Bell Tiger Lily Other Neverland Lost Boys Pixie Hollow Cast members Literary adaptations Official books/plays The Little White Bird Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens Peter and Wendy (play, book) Peter Pan in Scarlet Starcatchers books Peter and the Starcatchers Peter and the Shadow Thieves Peter and the Secret of Rundoon Peter and the Sword of Mercy The Bridge to Never Land Never Land Books Film adaptations Peter Pan films Peter Pan (1924) Peter Pan (1953) Peter Pan (1988) Hook Return to Never Land Neverland Peter Pan (2003) Pan Tinker Bell films Tinker Bell Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue Pixie Hollow Games Secret of the Wings Pixie Hollow Bake Off The Pirate Fairy Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast Adaptations Television 1976 musical The Adventures of Peter Pan Peter Pan & the Pirates Jake and the Never Land Pirates Once Upon a Time Neverland Peter Pan Live! Peter and Wendy Stage 1950 musical 1954 musical Peter Pan: A Musical Adventure Peter and the Starcatcher Peter Pan 360 Peter and Alice Finding Neverland (musical) Wendy & Peter Pan Peter Pan Goes Wrong Disney's Peter Pan Jr. Video games Peter Pan and the Pirates Peter Pan: Adventures in Never Land Kingdom Hearts Hook Prose The Child Thief Graphic novels Peter Pank Lost Girls Marvel Fairy Tales Music Albums The Wendy Trilogy Faith, Trust, and Pixie Dust \"Lost Boy\" (Ruth B song) Somewhere in Neverland \"Peter Pan\" (Kelsea Ballerini song) Attractions Disney on Ice Fantasmic! Peter Pan's Flight (ride) Pixie Hollow Allusions Never Never Land Biographies The Lost Boys Finding Neverland Related Llewelyn Davies boys Peter Pan syndrome/Wendy dilemma Peter Pan copyright Disney franchise Peter Pan statue Category [ show ] v t e John Lasseter Directed Feature films Toy Story (1995) A Bug's Life (1998) Toy Story 2 (1999) Cars (2006) Cars 2 (2011) Toy Story 4 (2019) Short films Luxo Jr. (1986) Red's Dream (1987) Tin Toy (1988) Knick Knack (1989) Mater and the Ghostlight (2006) Cars Toons (2008) Produced Short films The Adventures of André and Wally B. (1984) Luxo Jr. (1986) Written Feature films Toy Story (1995) A Bug's Life (1998) Toy Story 2 (1999) Cars (2006) Toy Story 3 (2010) Cars 2 (2011) Planes (2013) The Pirate Fairy (2014) Short films Luxo Jr. (1986) Red's Dream (1987) Tin Toy (1988) Knick Knack (1989) Mater and the Ghostlight (2006) Studios Walt Disney Animation Studios Pixar Animation Studios DisneyToon Studios Other businesses Lasseter Family Winery [ show ] v t e Disney home entertainment animated features Sequels/Followups The Return of Jafar (1994) Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996) Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997) Belle's Magical World (1998) Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998) The Lion King II: Simba's Pride (1998) An Extremely Goofy Movie (2000) The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000) Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure (2001) Cinderella II: Dreams Come True (2002) The Hunchback of Notre Dame II (2002) Atlantis: Milo's Return (2003) 101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure (2003) The Lion King 1½ (2004) Mulan II (2004) Tarzan II (2005) Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch (2005) Kronk's New Groove (2005) Bambi II (2006) Brother Bear 2 (2006) The Fox and the Hound 2 (2006) Cinderella III: A Twist in Time (2007) The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning (2008) Films based on TV series Recess Christmas: Miracle on Third Street (2001) Recess: Taking the Fifth Grade (2003) Recess: All Growed Down (2003) Leroy & Stitch (2006) TV series pilots and compilations Gargoyles the Movie: The Heroes Awaken (1995) Mighty Ducks the Movie: The First Face-Off (1997) Hercules: Zero to Hero (1998) Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins (2000) Tarzan & Jane (2002) A Very Merry Pooh Year (2002) Stitch! The Movie (2003) Once Upon a Halloween (2005) Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie (2005) Tangled: Before Ever After (2017) Original stories Pooh's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin (1997) Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999) Springtime with Roo (2004) Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004) Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004) Spin-offs Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams (2007) Tinker Bell (2008) Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure (2009) Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue (2010) Secret of the Wings (2012) The Pirate Fairy (2014) Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast (2015) Adaptations Winnie the Pooh: Seasons of Giving (1999) Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse (2001) Tarzan & Jane (2002) Mickey's House of Villains (2002) Disney Sing Along Songs series (1986–2006) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secret_of_the_Wings&oldid=790949554 \" Categories : 2012 films English-language films American films 2010s American animated films 2012 computer-animated films 2012 direct-to-video films Films featuring anthropomorphic characters Tinker Bell films DisneyToon Studios animated films Disney direct-to-video animated films Film scores by Joel McNeely Hidden categories: Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar 日本語 Polski Português Русский සිංහල Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 July 2017, at 03:41. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Secret of the Wings", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Secret_of_the_Wings&amp;oldid=790949554" }

{ "text": "United States presidential visits to Canada - Wikipedia United States presidential visits to Canada From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Governor General Michaëlle Jean escorts President Barack Obama from Air Force One , in Ottawa , Ontario , during his February, 2009 presidential visit to Canada. There have been thirty-seven United States presidential visits to Canada by twelve presidents over the past century. As the U.S. president is both head of state and head of government , these visits have taken many forms, ranging from formal state visits , to official visits, working visits, or private visits (or, as in the case of Franklin D. Roosevelt , personal vacations). Since the first presidential visit, made by Warren G. Harding in 1923 (just a few weeks before his death), Canada has become one of the most common presidential international travel destinations. Since the Franklin Roosevelt Administration, only Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter , never visited Canada while in office. [1] Incumbent president Donald Trump has not yet visited Canada. Seven presidents have addressed a joint session of the Canadian parliament , with Dwight D. Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan both speaking twice. Contents [ hide ] 1 Table of visits 2 Dominion of Newfoundland 3 See also 4 References Table of visits [ edit ] President Dates Locations Notes Warren G. Harding 01 ! July 26, 1923 Vancouver Official reception during return from Alaska , [2] hosted by British Columbia Premier John Oliver and Vancouver mayor Charles Tisdall . [3] Franklin D. Roosevelt 02 ! June 29 – July 1, 1933 Campobello Island Vacation. [4] 03 ! July 28–30, 1936 Campobello Island Vacation. [4] 04 ! July 31, 1936 Quebec City Official visit; met with Governor General John Buchan . [4] 05 ! August 18, 1938 Kingston Received honorary degree from Queen's University and together with Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , and the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario , Albert Edward Matthews , dedicated the Thousand Islands Bridge . [4] 06 ! August 14–16, 1939 Campobello Island, Sydney Vacation. [4] 07 ! August 21–23, 1939 Halifax Stopped while returning to the United States. [4] 08 ! August 17–25, 1943 Quebec City Ottawa Attended First Quebec Conference with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. [4] Addressed senators, Members of Parliament, and the general public outside the houses of parliament. [5] 09 ! September 11–16, 1944 Quebec City Attended Second Quebec Conference with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the Allied Combined Chiefs of Staff . [4] Harry S. Truman 10 ! June 10–12, 1947 Ottawa Official visit; met with the Governor General, the Earl of Athlone and Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and addressed Parliament . [6] Dwight D. Eisenhower 11 ! November 13–15, 1953 Ottawa State visit; Met with Governor General Vincent Massey and Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent and addressed Parliament. [7] 12 ! July 8–11, 1958 Ottawa Informal visit; met with Governor General Vincent Massey and Prime Minister John Diefenbaker and addressed Parliament. [7] 13 ! June 26, 1959 Montreal Joined Queen Elizabeth II in ceremony opening the St. Lawrence Seaway . [7] John F. Kennedy 14 ! May 16–18, 1961 Ottawa State visit; met with Governor General Georges Vanier and Prime Minister John Diefenbaker and addressed Parliament. [8] Lyndon B. Johnson 15 ! September 16, 1964 Vancouver Informal visit; met with Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in ceremonies related to the Columbia River Treaty . [9] 16 ! August 21–22, 1966 Campobello Island, Chamcook Laid cornerstone at Roosevelt Campobello International Park and conferred informally with Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson. [9] 17 ! May 25, 1967 Montreal, Ottawa Attended Expo 67 , and met privately with the Governor General Roland Michener and Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson. [9] Richard M. Nixon 18 ! April 13–15, 1972 Ottawa State visit; met with Governor General Michener and Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau , addressed parliament, [10] and signed the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement . [11] Ronald Reagan 19 ! March 10–11, 1981 Ottawa State visit; met with Governor General Edward Schreyer and Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and addressed Parliament. [12] 20 ! July 19–21, 1981 Ottawa, Montebello Attended 7th G7 summit with heads of state and government from Canada, France , the Federal Republic of Germany , Italy , Japan , and the United Kingdom. [12] 21 ! March 17–18, 1985 Quebec City Met with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney . [12] The meeting was commonly known as the Shamrock Summit . 22 ! April 4–6, 1987 Ottawa Official visit; met with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and addressed Parliament. [12] 22 ! June 19–21, 1988 Toronto Attended 14th G7 summit with heads of state and government from Canada, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom. [12] George H. W. Bush 23 ! February 10, 1989 Ottawa Working visit; met with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. [13] 24 ! April 10, 1990 Toronto Informal meeting with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. [13] 25 ! March 13–14, 1991 Ottawa Met with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and signed an Air Quality Agreement. [13] 26 ! July 9, 1991 Toronto Informal meeting with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. [13] Bill Clinton 27 ! April 3–4, 1993 Vancouver Summit meeting with Russian President Boris Yeltsin ; also met with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. [14] 28 ! February 23–24, 1995 Ottawa State visit; met with Governor General Roméo LeBlanc and Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and addressed Parliament. [14] 29 ! June 15–17, 1995 Halifax Attended 21st G7 summit with heads of state and government from Canada, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom. Also met with Russian President Yeltsin. [14] 30 ! November 23–25, 1997 Vancouver Attended APEC Summit meeting . [14] 31 ! October 7–8, 1999 Ottawa, Mont-Tremblant Working visit. Met with Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and Quebec Premier Lucien Bouchard , attended Federalism Conference, and dedicated new American Embassy building. [14] George W. Bush 32 ! April 20–22, 2001 Quebec City Attended the 3rd Summit of the Americas . [15] 33 ! June 25–27, 2002 Kananaskis Attended the 28th G8 summit . [15] 34 ! November 30 – December 1, 2004 Ottawa, Gatineau , Halifax Delivered a speech at Pier 21 in Halifax, met with Prime Minister Paul Martin and conducted a series of other events. [15] 35 ! August 20–21, 2007 Montebello Attended the North American Leaders' Summit , with Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Mexican President Felipe Calderón . [15] Barack Obama 36 ! February 19, 2009 Ottawa Working visit. Met with Governor General Michaëlle Jean and Prime Minister Stephen Harper. [16] 37 ! June 25–27, 2010 Huntsville , Toronto Attended the 36th G8 summit and G-20 Summit Meeting . [16] 38 ! June 29, 2016 Ottawa State visit. Met with Governor General David Johnston and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and addressed Parliament. Attended the North American Leaders' Summit with Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto . Dominion of Newfoundland [ edit ] Prior to becoming a Canadian province in 1949, Newfoundland was a separate British dominion . President Franklin Roosevelt visited there twice. He vacationed at Bay of Islands and Bonne Bay on August 17–20, 1939. Two years later, August 9–12, 1941, he returned to Newfoundland , ostensibly for another vacation. In actuality, he conferred with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill aboard ship ( HMS Prince of Wales and USS Augusta ) in Placentia Bay . At the conclusion of the conference they issued the Atlantic Charter . [4] [17] See also [ edit ] Canada–United States relations Foreign policy of the United States Foreign relations of the United States References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Presidential visits to Canada\" . Toronto Sun. 17 February 2009 . Retrieved 8 March 2009 . Jump up ^ \"Travels of President Warren G. Harding\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Jump up ^ \"Warren G. Harding & Stanley Park\" . The History of Metropolitan Vancouver . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i \"Travels of President Franklin D. Roosevelt\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Jump up ^ Parliament of Canada. \"Heads of States and of Governments who have addressed Joint Sessions of the Senate and House of Commons of Canada\" . Queen's Printer for Canada . Retrieved May 4, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Travels of President Harry S. Truman\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Travels of President Dwight D. Eisenhower\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Jump up ^ \"Travels of President John F. Kennedy\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Travels of President Lyndon B. Johnson\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Jump up ^ \"Travels of President Richard M. Nixon\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Jump up ^ National Research Council (U.S.); Royal Society of Canada (1985). The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement: an evolving instrument for ecosystem management . Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 22. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Travels of President Ronald Reagan\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Travels of President George H. W. Bush\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Travels of President William J. Clinton\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Travels of President George W. Bush\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Travels of President Barack Obama\" . U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Jump up ^ Gratwick, Harry (2009). Penobscot Bay: People, Ports & Pastimes . The History Press. p. 72. [ hide ] v t e International trips made by the President of the United States By place Africa North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Americas Canada Caribbean Central America Mexico South America Eurasia East Asia Eastern Europe & Northern Asia Middle East Northern Europe South Asia Southeast Asia Southern Europe United Kingdom and Ireland Western Europe Oceania Australia and New Zealand By president Wilson Hoover F. D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Eisenhower Kennedy L. B. Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagan G. H. W. Bush Clinton G. W. Bush Obama Trump Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_presidential_visits_to_Canada&oldid=788387224 \" Categories : Lists relating to the United States presidency Canada–United States relations United States presidential visits United States history-related lists Diplomacy-related lists Diplomatic visits by heads of government Diplomatic visits by heads of state Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 1 July 2017, at 03:18. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "United States presidential visits to Canada", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=United_States_presidential_visits_to_Canada&amp;oldid=788387224" }

{ "text": "Protein (nutrient) - Wikipedia Protein (nutrient) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about protein as nutrient. For protein as class of molecule, see protein . For other uses, see bodybuilding supplement . Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Amino acids are necessary nutrients. Present in every cell, they are also precursors to nucleic acids, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, repair and other molecules essential for life. Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body . [1] They are one of the building blocks of body tissue, and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates : 4 kcal (17 kJ ) per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. [2] Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds . During human digestion , proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the absorption of the essential amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. [3] There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition and resulting death. They are phenylalanine , valine , threonine , tryptophan , methionine , leucine , isoleucine , lysine , and histidine . [2] [4] There has been debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino acids. [5] The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since Histidine is not synthesized in adults. [6] There are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine , aspartic acid , asparagine , glutamic acid and serine . There are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine , cysteine , glycine , glutamine , proline and tyrosine . [2] Some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less 'complete' sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, as described in the article. Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants: meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains , legumes and nuts . Vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins. [7] It is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. [2] Contents [ hide ] 1 Protein functions in body 2 Sources 2.1 Protein quality 3 Digestion 3.1 Newborn 4 Dietary requirements 5 Dietary Recommendations 5.1 Active people 5.2 Aerobic exercise protein needs 5.3 Anaerobic exercise protein needs 5.4 Special populations 5.4.1 Protein allergies 5.4.2 Phenylketonuria 5.4.3 Maple syrup urine disease 6 Excess consumption 7 Testing in foods 8 Protein deficiency 9 See also 10 References Protein functions in body [ edit ] Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins . When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to nucleic acid , co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells. [1] [2] Sources [ edit ] Animal sources of protein. Protein can be found in a wide range of food. The best combination of protein sources depends on the region of the world, access, cost, amino acid types and nutrition balance, as well as acquired tastes. Some foods are high in certain amino acids, but their digestibility and the anti-nutritional factors present in these foods make them of limited value in human nutrition. Therefore, one must consider digestibility and secondary nutrition profile such as calories, cholesterol, vitamins and essential mineral density of the protein source. [8] On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods contribute over 60 percent of the per capita supply of protein, on average. In North America, animal-derived foods contribute about 70 percent of protein sources. [8] Meat, products from milk, eggs, soy , and fish are sources of complete protein . [9] Whole grains and cereals are another source of proteins. However, these tend to be limiting in the amino acid lysine or threonine, which are available in other vegetarian sources and meats. Examples of food staples and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration greater than 7.0%, are (in no particular order) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn), rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa. Vegetarian sources of proteins include legumes, nuts, seeds and fruits. Legumes , some of which are called pulses in certain parts of the world, have higher concentrations of amino acids and are more complete sources of protein than whole grains and cereals. Examples of vegetarian foods with protein concentrations greater than 7 percent include soybeans, lentils, kidney beans, white beans, mung beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lima beans, pigeon peas, lupines, wing beans, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, pecans, walnuts, cotton seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds. [8] Plant sources of protein. Food staples that are poor sources of protein include roots and tubers such as yams , cassava and sweet potato . Plantains , another major staple, are also a poor source of essential amino acids. Fruits, while rich in other essential nutrients, are another poor source of amino acids. The protein content in roots, tubers and fruits is between 0 and 2 percent. Food staples with low protein content must be complemented with foods with complete, quality protein content for a healthy life, particularly in children for proper development. [1] [10] [11] A good source of protein is often a combination of various foods, because different foods are rich in different amino acids. A good source of dietary protein meets two requirements: [8] The requirement for the nutritionally indispensable amino acids (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine) under all conditions and for conditionally indispensable amino acids (cystine, tyrosine, taurine, glycine, arginine, glutamine, proline) under specific physiological and pathological conditions The requirement for nonspecific nitrogen for the synthesis of the nutritionally dispensable amino acids (aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, alanine, serine) and other physiologically important nitrogen-containing compounds such as nucleic acids, creatine, and porphyrins. Healthy people eating a balanced diet rarely need protein supplements. [7] [8] [10] The table below presents the most important food groups as protein sources, from a worldwide perspective. It also lists their respective performance as source of the commonly limiting amino acids, in milligrams of limiting amino acid per gram of total protein in the food source. [10] The table reiterates the need for a balanced mix of foods to ensure adequate amino acid source. [ citation needed ] Food source Lysine Threonine Tryptophan Sulfur-containing amino acids Legumes 64 38 12 25 Cereals and whole grains 31 32 12 37 Nuts and seeds 45 36 17 46 Fruits 45 29 11 27 Animal 85 44 12 38 Protein source with highest density of respective amino acid. Protein source with lowest density of respective amino acid. Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common bodybuilding supplement . Protein powders – such as casein , whey , egg , rice and soy – are processed and manufactured sources of protein. [12] These protein powders may provide an additional source of protein for bodybuilders. The type of protein is important in terms of its influence on protein metabolic response and possibly on the muscle's exercise performance. The different physical and/or chemical properties within the various types of protein may affect the rate of protein digestion. As a result, the amino acid availability and the accumulation of tissue protein is altered because of the various protein metabolic responses. [12] Protein quality [ edit ] Further information: Protein quality and Amino acid score The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. [2] There are multiple systems which rate proteins by their usefulness to an organism based on their relative percentage of amino acids and, in some systems, the digestibility of the protein source. They include biological value , net protein utilization , and PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score). Also see complete protein , nitrogen balance and protein combining . The PDCAAS was developed by the FDA as an improvement over the Protein efficiency ratio (PER) method. The PDCAAS rating is a fairly recent evaluation method; it was adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations/ World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) in 1993 as \"the preferred 'best'\" method to determine protein quality. These organizations have suggested that other methods for evaluating the quality of protein are inferior. [13] Digestion [ edit ] Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract. [14] Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid , and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine. [14] Before the absorption in the small intestine , most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids. Absorption of the amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded is done by the gastrointestinal tract . The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference between soy and milk proteins [15] and between individual milk proteins, beta-lactoglobulin and casein. [16] For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested protein is absorbed between the stomach and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the ileum . [17] Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body. Newborn [ edit ] Newborns of mammals are exceptional in protein digestion and assimilation in that they can absorb intact proteins at the small intestine. This enables passive immunity , i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via milk. [18] Dietary requirements [ edit ] An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat. Considerable debate has taken place regarding issues surrounding protein intake requirements. [19] [20] The amount of protein required in a person's diet is determined in large part by overall energy intake, the body's need for nitrogen and essential amino acids, body weight and composition, rate of growth in the individual, physical activity level, individual's energy and carbohydrate intake, as well as the presence of illness or injury. [3] [12] Physical activity and exertion as well as enhanced muscular mass increase the need for protein. Requirements are also greater during childhood for growth and development, during pregnancy or when breast-feeding in order to nourish a baby, or when the body needs to recover from malnutrition or trauma or after an operation. [21] If not enough energy is taken in through diet, as in the process of starvation , the body will use protein from the muscle mass to meet its energy needs, leading to muscle wasting over time. If the individual does not consume adequate protein in nutrition, then muscle will also waste as more vital cellular processes (e.g. respiration enzymes, blood cells) recycle muscle protein for their own requirements. [ citation needed ] Dietary Recommendations [ edit ] According to US & Canadian Dietary Reference Intake guidelines, women aged 19–70 need to consume 46 grams of protein per day, while men aged 19–70 need to consume 56 grams of protein per day to minimize risk of deficiency. These Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were calculated based on 0.8 grams protein per kilogram body weight and average body weights of 57 kg (126 pounds) and 70 kg (154 pounds) respectively. [2] However, this recommendation is based on structural requirements, but disregards use of protein for energy metabolism . [19] This requirement is for a normal sedentary person. [22] In the United States, average protein consumption is higher than the RDA. According to the most recently published results of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013-2014) average protein consumption for women ages 20 and older was 69.8 grams and for men 98.3 grams/day. [23] Active people [ edit ] Several studies have concluded that active people and athletes may require elevated protein intake (compared to 0.8 g/kg) due to increase in muscle mass and sweat losses, as well as need for body repair and energy source. [19] [20] [22] Suggested amounts vary between 1.6 g/kg and 1.8 g/kg, [20] while a proposed maximum daily protein intake would be approximately 25% of energy requirements i.e. approximately 2 to 2.5 g/kg. [19] However, many questions still remain to be resolved. [20] In addition, some have suggested that athletes using restricted-calorie diets for weight loss should further increase their protein consumption, possibly to 1.8–2.0 g/kg, in order to avoid loss of lean muscle mass. [24] Aerobic exercise protein needs [ edit ] Endurance athletes differ from strength-building athletes in that endurance athletes do not build as much muscle mass from training as strength-building athletes do. [ citation needed ] Research suggests that individuals performing endurance activity require more protein intake than sedentary individuals so that muscles broken down during endurance workouts can be repaired. [25] Although the protein requirement for athletes still remains controversial (for instance see Lamont, Nutrition Research Reviews, pages 142 - 149, 2012), research does show that endurance athletes can benefit from increasing protein intake because the type of exercise endurance athletes participate in still alters the protein metabolism pathway. The overall protein requirement increases because of amino acid oxidation in endurance-trained athletes. [25] Endurance athletes who exercise over a long period (2–5 hours per training session) use protein as a source of 5–10% of their total energy expended. Therefore, a slight increase in protein intake may be beneficial to endurance athletes by replacing the protein lost in energy expenditure and protein lost in repairing muscles. Some scientists suggest that endurance athletes may increase daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.2–1.4 g per kg body weight. [12] Anaerobic exercise protein needs [ edit ] Research also indicates that individuals performing strength-training activity require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength-training athletes may increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.4–1.8 g per kg body weight to enhance muscle protein synthesis, or to make up for the loss of amino acid oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a high-protein diet as part of their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g., weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so consume high protein meals and also protein supplements. [3] [12] [25] [26] Special populations [ edit ] Protein allergies [ edit ] Main article: Food allergy A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to proteins in food. The signs and symptoms may range from mild to severe. They may include itchiness , swelling of the tongue, vomiting, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood pressure. These symptoms typically occurs within minutes to one hour after exposure. When the symptoms are severe, it is known as anaphylaxis . The following eight foods are responsible for about 90% of allergic reactions: cow's milk , eggs , wheat , shellfish , fish , peanuts , tree nuts and soy . [27] Phenylketonuria [ edit ] Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine - an essential amino acid - extremely low to prevent a mental disability and other metabolic complications. Phenylalanine is a component of the artificial sweetener aspartame, so people with PKU need to avoid low calorie beverages and foods with this ingredient. [28] Maple syrup urine disease [ edit ] Maple syrup urine disease is associated with genetic anomalies in the metabolism of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). They have high blood levels of BCAAs and must severely restrict their intake of BCAAs in order to prevent mental retardation and death. The amino acids in question are leucine, isoleucine and valine. The condition gets its name from the distinctive sweet odor of affected infants' urine. Children of Amish , Mennonite , and Ashkenazi Jewish descent have a high prevalence of this disease compared to other populations. [2] Excess consumption [ edit ] The U.S. and Canadian Dietary Reference Intake review for protein concluded that there was not sufficient evidence to establish a Tolerable upper intake level , i.e., an upper limit for how much protein can be safely consumed. [2] The body is unable to store excess protein. Dietary protein is converted to individual amino acids by the digestive process, which are then absorbed. When amino acids are in excess of needs the liver takes up the amino acids and subjects them to deamination , a process that converts the nitrogen from the amino acids into ammonia, further processed in the liver into urea via the urea cycle . Excretion of urea is performed by the kidneys. Other parts of the amino acid molecules can be converted into glucose and used for fuel. [22] [29] [30] When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the \"labile protein reserve\" to compensate for daily variations in protein intake. However, unlike body fat as a reserve for future caloric needs, there is no protein storage for future needs. [2] Research has supported a theory that excessive intake of protein increases calcium excretion in urine, occurring to compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids. This may lead to a higher risk of kidney stone formation from calcium in the renal circulatory system. [2] In theory, this calcium excretion from bone resorption could contribute to osteoporosis , but a meta-analysis by the National Osteoporosis Foundation reported no adverse effects of higher protein intakes on bone density [31] A meta-analysis reported a small decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with diets higher in protein, with no differences between animal and plant protein. [32] The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that men and teenage boys increase their consumption of fruits, vegetables and other under-consumed foods, and that a means of accomplishing this would be to reduce overall intake of protein foods. [33] Testing in foods [ edit ] The classic assays for protein concentration in food are the Kjeldahl method and the Dumas method . These tests determine the total nitrogen in a sample. The only major component of most food which contains nitrogen is protein (fat, carbohydrate and dietary fiber do not contain nitrogen). If the amount of nitrogen is multiplied by a factor depending on the kinds of protein expected in the food the total protein can be determined. This value is known as the \"crude protein\" content. On food labels the protein is given by the nitrogen multiplied by 6.25, because the average nitrogen content of proteins is about 16%. The Kjeldahl test is typically used because it is the method the AOAC International has adopted and is therefore used by many food standards agencies around the world, though the Dumas method is also approved by some standards organizations. [34] Accidental contamination and intentional adulteration of protein meals with non-protein nitrogen sources that inflate crude protein content measurements have been known to occur in the food industry for decades. To ensure food quality , purchasers of protein meals routinely conduct quality control tests designed to detect the most common non-protein nitrogen contaminants, such as urea and ammonium nitrate . [35] In at least one segment of the food industry, the dairy industry, some countries (at least the U.S., Australia, France and Hungary) have adopted \"true protein\" measurement, as opposed to crude protein measurement, as the standard for payment and testing: \"True protein is a measure of only the proteins in milk, whereas crude protein is a measure of all sources of nitrogen and includes nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea, which has no food value to humans. ... Current milk-testing equipment measures peptide bonds, a direct measure of true protein.\" [36] Measuring peptide bonds in grains has also been put into practice in several countries including Canada, the UK, Australia, Russia and Argentina where near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology, a type of infrared spectroscopy is used. [37] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recommends that only amino acid analysis be used to determine protein in, inter alia , foods used as the sole source of nourishment, such as infant formula, but also provides: \"When data on amino acids analyses are not available, determination of protein based on total N content by Kjeldahl (AOAC, 2000) or similar method ... is considered acceptable.\" [38] The limitations of the Kjeldahl method were at the heart of the Chinese protein export contamination in 2007 and the 2008 China milk scandal in which the industrial chemical melamine was added to the milk or glutens to increase the measured \"protein\". [39] [40] Protein deficiency [ edit ] Main article: Protein-energy malnutrition A child in Nigeria during the Biafra War suffering from kwashiorkor – one of the three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries. [41] Protein deficiency and malnutrition (PEM) can lead to variety of ailments including mental retardation and kwashiorkor . [11] Symptoms of kwashiorkor include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the action of lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid to form leukotrienes and the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport. [42] PEM is fairly common worldwide in both children and adults and accounts for 6 million deaths annually. In the industrialized world, PEM is predominantly seen in hospitals, is associated with disease, or is often found in the elderly. [2] See also [ edit ] Food portal Protein bar Bodybuilding supplement Biological value High-protein diet Low-protein diet Azotorrhea References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c Hermann, Janice R. \"Protein and the Body\" (PDF) . Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University : T–3163–1 – T–3163–4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids , Institute of Medicine. National Academy Press, 2005 ^ Jump up to: a b c Genton, Laurence; Melzer, Katarina; Pichard, Claude (2010). \"Energy and macronutrient requirements for physical fitness in exercising subjects\". Clinical Nutrition . 29 (4): 413–423. doi : 10.1016/j.clnu.2010.02.002 . PMID 20189694 . Jump up ^ Young VR (1994). \"Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a major revision in current recommendations\" (PDF) . J. Nutr . 124 (8 Suppl): 1517S–1523S. PMID 8064412 . Jump up ^ Rosane Oliveira, \"The Essentials–Part One\" , UC Davis Integrative Medicine , Feb 4, 2016. July 12, 2017. Jump up ^ Kopple, JD; Swendseid, ME (1975). \"Evidence that histidine is an essential amino acid in normal and chronically uremic man\" . Journal of Clinical Investigation . 55 (5): 881–891. PMC 301830 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Protein in diet\" . United States National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vernon Young; Peter Pellett (1994). \"Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition\" (PDF) . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 59 : 1203S–l2S. Jump up ^ Steinke, Waggle; et al. (1992). New protein foods in human health: nutrition, prevention and therapy . CRC Press. pp. 91–100. ISBN 978-0-8493-6904-9 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Amino acid content of foods and biological data on proteins (FAO nutritional studies number 24) . Food and Agriculture Organization. 1985. ISBN 92-5-001102-4 . ^ Jump up to: a b Michael C. Latham (1997). \"Human nutrition in the developing world\" . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lemon, PW (1995). \"Do athletes need more dietary protein and amino acids?\". Int J Sport Nutr . 5 Suppl: S39–61. PMID 7550257 . Jump up ^ Boutrif, E., Food Quality and Consumer Protection Group, Food Policy and Nutrition Division, FAO, Rome: \"Recent Developments in Protein Quality Evaluation\" Food, Nutrition and Agriculture , Issue 2/3, 1991 ^ Jump up to: a b Digestion of Dietary Proteins in the Gastro-Intestinal Tract Jump up ^ Gaudichon C, Bos C, Morens C, Petzke KJ, Mariotti F, Everwand J, Benamouzig R, Dare S, Tome D, Metges CC (2002). \"Ileal losses of nitrogen and amino acids in humans and their importance to the assessment of amino acid requirements\". Gastroenterology . 123 (1): 50–9. doi : 10.1053/gast.2002.34233 . PMID 12105833 . Jump up ^ Mahe S, Roos N, Benamouzig R, Davin L, Luengo C, Gagnon L, Gausserges N, Rautureau J, Tome D (1996). \"Gastrojejunal kinetics and the digestion of [15N]beta-lactoglobulin and casein in humans: the influence of the nature and quantity of the protein\" . Am J Clin Nutr . 63 (4): 546–52. PMID 8599318 . Jump up ^ Mahe S, Marteau P, Huneau JF, Thuillier F, Tome D (1994). \"Intestinal nitrogen and electrolyte movements following fermented milk ingestion in man\". Br J Nutr . 71 (2): 169–80. doi : 10.1079/BJN19940124 . PMID 8142329 . Jump up ^ Hurley WL, Theil PK (2011). \"Perspectives on immunoglobulins in colostrum and milk\" . Nutrients . 3 (4): 442–74. doi : 10.3390/nu3040442 . PMC 3257684 . PMID 22254105 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Bilsborough, Shane; Neil Mann (2006). \"A Review of Issues of Dietary Protein Intake in Humans\" . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism . 16 (2): 129–152. doi : 10.1123/ijsnem.16.2.129 . Retrieved 6 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d Lemon, Peter (2000). \"Beyond the Zone: Protein Needs of Active Individuals\". Journal of the American College of Nutrition . 19 (5): 513–521. doi : 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718974 . PMID 11023001 . Jump up ^ WHO, FAO, UNU (2007). \"Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition\" (PDF) . WHO Press . Retrieved 8 July 2008 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, MacDougall JD, Chesley A, Phillips S, Schwarcz HP (1992). \"Evaluation of protein requirements for trained strength athletes\". Journal of Applied Physiology . 73 (5): 1986–95. PMID 1474076 . Jump up ^ What We Eat in America, NHANES 2013-2014 (PDF) , U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 2016 Jump up ^ Phillips, Stuart M.; Loon, Luc J. C. Van (2011-01-01). \"Dietary protein for athletes: From requirements to optimum adaptation\" . Journal of Sports Sciences . 29 (sup1): S29–S38. doi : 10.1080/02640414.2011.619204 . ISSN 0264-0414 . PMID 22150425 . ^ Jump up to: a b c Phillips, Stuart (2006). \"Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to metabolic advantage\". Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab . 31 (6): 647–654. doi : 10.1139/H06-035 . PMID 17213878 . Jump up ^ Nutrition Working Group of the International Olympic Committee (2003). \"Nutrition for Athletes\". IOC Consensus Conference on Nutrition for Sport. Lausanne. Jump up ^ National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (July 2012). \"Food Allergy An Overview\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (pdf) on 2016-03-05. Jump up ^ \"phenylketonuria\" . Genetics Home Reference . September 8, 2016. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016 . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Ten Have, Gabriella A.M.; Engelen, Marielle P.K.J.; Luiking, Yvette C.; Deutz, Nicolaas E.P. (2007). \"Absorption Kinetics of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Intact Proteins\". International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism . 17 : S23–S36. Jump up ^ Smith, Jack L.; Gropper, Sareen Annora Stepnick; Groff, James L. (2009). Advanced nutrition and human metabolism . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-11657-2 . Jump up ^ Shams-White MM, Chung M, Du M, Fu Z, Insogna KL, Karlsen MC, LeBoff MS, Shapses SA, Sackey J, Wallace TC, Weaver CM (2017). \"Dietary protein and bone health: a systematic review and meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation\". Am. J. Clin. Nutr . 105 (6): 1528–1543. doi : 10.3945/ajcn.116.145110 . PMID 28404575 . Jump up ^ Rebholz CM, Friedman EE, Powers LJ, Arroyave WD, He J, Kelly TN (2012). \"Dietary protein intake and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials\". Am. J. Epidemiol . 176 Suppl 7: S27–43. doi : 10.1093/aje/kws245 . PMID 23035142 . Jump up ^ \"Some individuals, especially teen boys and adult men, also need to reduce overall intake of protein foods by decreasing intakes of meats, poultry, and eggs and increasing amounts of vegetables or other under-consumed food groups.\" in \"2015 – 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: Shifts Needed To Align With Healthy Eating Patterns: A Closer Look at Current Intakes and Recommended Shifts: Protein Foods\" (8 ed.). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. December 2015 . Retrieved January 9, 2016 . Jump up ^ D. Julian McClements. \"Analysis of Proteins\" . University of Massachusetts Amherst . Retrieved 27 April 2007 . Jump up ^ Weise, Elizabeth (24 April 2007). \"Food tests promise tough task for FDA\" . USA Today . Retrieved 29 April 2007 . Jump up ^ P.M. VanRaden; R.L. Powell. \"Genetic evaluations for true protein\" . United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 27 April 2007 . Jump up ^ Snyder, Alison (August 2007). \"Protein Pretense: Cheating the standard protein tests is easy, but industry hesitates on alternatives\" . Scientific American . Retrieved 9 November 2007 . Jump up ^ \"Food energy – methods of analysis and conversion factors\" . FAO . Retrieved 9 November 2007 . Jump up ^ Stephen Chen (18 September 2008). \"Melamine – an industry staple\". South China Morning Post . pp. Page A2. Jump up ^ Moore, J.C.; Devries, Jonathan W.; Lipp, Markus; Griffiths, James C.; Abernethy, Darrell R. (17 August 2010). \"Total Protein Methods and Their Potential Utility to Reduce the Risk of Food Protein Adulteration\" . Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety . 9 (4): 330–357. doi : 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00114.x . Jump up ^ \"Marasmus and Kwashiorkor\" . Medscape Reference. May 2009. Jump up ^ Jeffery Schwartz; Bryant, Carol A.; DeWalt, Kathleen Musante; Anita Courtney (2003). The cultural feast: an introduction to food and society . Belmont, California: Thomson/Wadsworth. pp. 282, 283. ISBN 0-534-52582-2 . Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&oldid=817938134 \" Categories : Proteins Nutrition Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Use dmy dates from May 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی Italiano Bahasa Melayu Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 31 December 2017, at 12:57. 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{ "text": "Ligand-gated ion channel - Wikipedia Ligand-gated ion channel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Ionotropic\" redirects here, not to be confused with inotropic . Neurotransmitter-gated ion-channel transmembrane region Ligand-gated ion channel Identifiers Symbol Neur_chan_memb Pfam PF02932 InterPro IPR006029 PROSITE PDOC00209 SCOP 1cek SUPERFAMILY 1cek TCDB 1.A.9 OPM superfamily 14 OPM protein 2bg9 [ show ] Available protein structures: Pfam structures PDB RCSB PDB ; PDBe ; PDBj PDBsum structure summary Ion-channel-linked receptor Ions Ligand (such as acetylcholine ) When ligands bind to the receptor, the ion channel portion of the receptor opens, allowing ions to pass across the cell membrane . Ligand-gated ion channels ( LICs , LGIC ), also commonly referred as ionotropic receptors , are a group of transmembrane ion-channel proteins which open to allow ions such as Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , and/or Cl − to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e. a ligand ), such as a neurotransmitter . [1] [2] [3] When a presynaptic neuron is excited, it releases a neurotransmitter from vesicles into the synaptic cleft . The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors located on the postsynaptic neuron . If these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, a resulting conformational change opens the ion channels, which leads to a flow of ions across the cell membrane. This, in turn, results in either a depolarization , for an excitatory receptor response, or a hyperpolarization , for an inhibitory response. These proteins are typically composed of at least two different domains: a transmembrane domain which includes the ion pore, and an extracellular domain which includes the ligand binding location (an allosteric binding site). This modularity has enabled a 'divide and conquer' approach to finding the structure of the proteins (crystallising each domain separately). The function of such receptors located at synapses is to convert the chemical signal of presynaptically released neurotransmitter directly and very quickly into a postsynaptic electrical signal. Many LICs are additionally modulated by allosteric ligands , by channel blockers , ions , or the membrane potential . LICs are classified into three superfamilies which lack evolutionary relationship: cys-loop receptors, ionotropic glutamate receptors and ATP-gated channels . Contents [ hide ] 1 Cys-loop receptors 1.1 Structure 1.2 Cationic cys-loop receptors 1.3 Anionic cys-loop receptors 2 Ionotropic glutamate receptors 2.1 AMPA receptor 2.2 NMDA receptors 3 GABA receptors 3.1 GABA A receptor 4 5-HT receptors 5 ATP-gated channels 6 PIP 2 -gated channels 7 Indirect modulation 7.1 G-protein-linked receptors 7.1.1 GABA B receptor 7.1.2 Gα signaling 7.1.3 Gβγ signaling 8 Clinical relevance 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Cys-loop receptors [ edit ] Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in closed state with predicted membrane boundaries shown, PDB 2BG9 The cys-loop receptors are named after a characteristic loop formed by a disulfide bond between two cysteine residues in the N terminal extracellular domain. They are part of a larger family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels that usually lack this disulfide bond, hence the tentative name \"Pro-loop receptors\". [4] [5] A binding site in the extracellular N-terminal ligand-binding domain gives them receptor specificity for (1) acetylcholine (AcCh), (2) serotonin, (3) glycine, (4) glutamate and (5) γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in vertebrates. The receptors are subdivided with respect to the type of ion that they conduct (anionic or cationic) and further into families defined by the endogenous ligand. They are usually pentameric with each subunit containing 4 transmembrane helices constituting the transmembrane domain, and a beta sheet sandwich type, extracellular, N terminal, ligand binding domain. [6] Some also contain an intracellular domain like shown in the image. The prototypic ligand-gated ion channel is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor . It consists of a pentamer of protein subunits (typically ααβγδ), with two binding sites for acetylcholine (one at the interface of each alpha subunit). When the acetylcholine binds it alters the receptor's configuration (twists the T2 helices which moves the leucine residues, which block the pore, out of the channel pathway) and causes the constriction in the pore of approximately 3 angstroms to widen to approximately 8 angstroms so that ions can pass through. This pore allows Na + ions to flow down their electrochemical gradient into the cell. With a sufficient number of channels opening at once, the inward flow of positive charges carried by Na + ions depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane sufficiently to initiate an action potential . While single-cell organisms like bacteria would have little apparent need for the transmission of an action potential, a bacterial homologue to an LIC has been identified, hypothesized to act nonetheless as a chemoreceptor. [4] This prokaryotic nAChR variant is known as the GLIC receptor, after the species in which it was identified; G loeobacter L igand-gated I on C channel. Structure [ edit ] Cys-loop receptors have structural elements that are well conserved, with a large extracellular domain (ECD) harboring an alpha-helix and 10 beta-strands. Following the ECD, four transmembrane segments (TMSs) are connected by intracellular and extracellular loop structures. [7] Except the TMS 3-4 loop, their lengths are only 7-14 residues. The TMS 3-4 loop forms the largest part of the intracellular domain (ICD) and exhibits the most variable region between all of these homologous receptors. The ICD is defined by the TMS 3-4 loop together with the TMS 1-2 loop preceding the ion channel pore. [7] Crystallization has revealed structures for some members of the family, but to allow crystallization, the intracellular loop was usually replaced by a short linker present in prokaryotic cys-loop receptors, so their structures as not known. Nevertheless, this intracellular loop appears to function in desensitization, modulation of channel physiology by pharmacological substances, and posttranslational modifications . Motifs important for trafficking are therein, and the ICD interacts with scaffold proteins enabling inhibitory synapse formation. [7] Cationic cys-loop receptors [ edit ] Type Class IUPHAR-recommended protein name [8] Gene Previous names Serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT 3 5-HT3A 5-HT3B 5-HT3C 5-HT3D 5-HT3E HTR3A HTR3B HTR3C HTR3D HTR3E 5-HT 3A 5-HT 3B 5-HT 3C 5-HT 3D 5-HT 3E Nicotinic acetylcholine (nAChR) alpha α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 α9 α10 CHRNA1 CHRNA2 CHRNA3 CHRNA4 CHRNA5 CHRNA6 CHRNA7 CHRNA9 CHRNA10 ACHRA, ACHRD, CHRNA, CMS2A, FCCMS, SCCMS beta β1 β2 β3 β4 CHRNB1 CHRNB2 CHRNB3 CHRNB4 CMS2A, SCCMS, ACHRB, CHRNB, CMS1D EFNL3, nAChRB2 gamma γ CHRNG ACHRG delta δ CHRND ACHRD, CMS2A, FCCMS, SCCMS epsilon ε CHRNE ACHRE, CMS1D, CMS1E, CMS2A, FCCMS, SCCMS Zinc-activated ion channel (ZAC) ZAC ZACN ZAC1, L2m LICZ, LICZ1 Anionic cys-loop receptors [ edit ] Type Class IUPHAR-recommended protein name [8] Gene Previous names GABA A alpha α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 GABRA1 GABRA2 GABRA3 GABRA4 GABRA5 GABRA6 EJM, ECA4 beta β1 β2 β3 GABRB1 GABRB2 GABRB3 ECA5 gamma γ1 γ2 γ3 GABRG1 GABRG2 GABRG3 CAE2, ECA2, GEFSP3 delta δ GABRD epsilon ε GABRE pi π GABRP theta θ GABRQ rho ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 GABRR1 GABRR2 GABRR3 GABA C [9] Glycine (GlyR) alpha α1 α2 α3 α4 GLRA1 GLRA2 GLRA3 GLRA4 STHE beta β GLRB Ionotropic glutamate receptors [ edit ] The AMPA receptor bound to a glutamate antagonist showing the amino terminal, ligand binding, and transmembrane domain, PDB 3KG2 The ionotropic glutamate receptors bind the neurotransmitter glutamate . They form tetramers with each subunit consisting of an extracellular amino terminal domain (ATD, which is involved tetramer assembly), an extracellular ligand binding domain (LBD, which binds glutamate), and a transmembrane domain (TMD, which forms the ion channel). The transmembrane domain of each subunit contains three transmembrane helices as well as a half membrane helix with a reentrant loop. The structure of the protein starts with the ATD at the N terminus followed by the first half of the LBD which is interrupted by helices 1,2 and 3 of the TMD before continuing with the final half of the LBD and then finishing with helix 4 of the TMD at the C terminus. This means there are three links between the TMD and the extracellular domains. Each subunit of the tetramer has a binding site for glutamate formed by the two LBD sections forming a clamshell like shape. Only two of these sites in the tetramer need to be occupied to open the ion channel. The pore is mainly formed by the half helix 2 in a way which resembles an inverted potassium channel . Type Class IUPHAR-recommended protein name [8] Gene Previous names AMPA GluA GluA1 GluA2 GluA3 GluA4 GRIA1 GRIA2 GRIA3 GRIA4 GLU A1 , GluR1, GluRA, GluR-A, GluR-K1, HBGR1 GLU A2 , GluR2, GluRB, GluR-B, GluR-K2, HBGR2 GLU A3 , GluR3, GluRC, GluR-C, GluR-K3 GLU A4 , GluR4, GluRD, GluR-D Kainate GluK GluK1 GluK2 GluK3 GluK4 GluK5 GRIK1 GRIK2 GRIK3 GRIK4 GRIK5 GLU K5 , GluR5, GluR-5, EAA3 GLU K6 , GluR6, GluR-6, EAA4 GLU K7 , GluR7, GluR-7, EAA5 GLU K1 , KA1, KA-1, EAA1 GLU K2 , KA2, KA-2, EAA2 NMDA GluN GluN1 NRL1A NRL1B GRIN1 GRINL1A GRINL1B GLU N1 , NMDA-R1, NR1, GluRξ1 GluN2A GluN2B GluN2C GluN2D GRIN2A GRIN2B GRIN2C GRIN2D GLU N2A , NMDA-R2A, NR2A, GluRε1 GLU N2B , NMDA-R2B, NR2B, hNR3, GluRε2 GLU N2C , NMDA-R2C, NR2C, GluRε3 GLU N2D , NMDA-R2D, NR2D, GluRε4 GluN3A GluN3B GRIN3A GRIN3B GLU N3A , NMDA-R3A, NMDAR-L, chi-1 GLU 3B , NMDA-R3B ‘Orphan’ (GluD) GluD1 GluD2 GRID1 GRID2 GluRδ1 GluRδ2 AMPA receptor [ edit ] The AMPA receptor bound to a glutamate antagonist showing the amino terminal, ligand binding, and transmembrane domain, PDB 3KG2 The α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor , or quisqualate receptor ) is a non- NMDA -type ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate that mediates fast synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). Its name is derived from its ability to be activated by the artificial glutamate analog AMPA . The receptor was first named the \"quisqualate receptor\" by Watkins and colleagues after a naturally occurring agonist quisqualate and was only later given the label \"AMPA receptor\" after the selective agonist developed by Tage Honore and colleagues at the Royal Danish School of Pharmacy in Copenhagen. [10] AMPARs are found in many parts of the brain and are the most commonly found receptor in the nervous system . The AMPA receptor GluA2 (GluR2) tetramer was the first glutamate receptor ion channel to be crystallized . AMPA receptor trafficking Ligands: Agonists : Glutamate , AMPA , 5-Fluorowillardiine , Domoic acid , Quisqualic acid , etc. Antagonists : CNQX , Kynurenic acid , NBQX , Perampanel , Piracetam , etc. Positive allosteric modulators : Aniracetam , Cyclothiazide , CX-516 , CX-614 , etc. Negative allosteric modulators : Ethanol , Perampanel , Talampanel , GYKI-52,466 , etc. NMDA receptors [ edit ] Stylized depiction of an activated NMDAR The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor ( NMDA receptor ) – a type of ionotropic glutamate receptor – is a voltage-dependent ligand-gated ion channel that is gated by the simultaneous binding of glutamate and a co-agonist (i.e., either D-serine or glycine ). [11] Studies show that the NMDA receptor is involved in regulating synaptic plasticity and memory. [12] [13] The name \"NMDA receptor\" is derived from the ligand N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), which acts as a selective agonist at these receptors. When the NMDA receptor is activated by the binding of two co-agonists, the cation channel opens, allowing Na + and Ca 2+ to flow into the cell, in turn raising the cell's electric potential . Thus, the NMDA receptor is an excitatory receptor. At resting potentials , the binding of Mg 2+ or Zn 2+ at their extracellular binding sites on the receptor blocks ion flux through the NMDA receptor channel. \"However, when neurons are depolarized, for example, by intense activation of colocalized postsynaptic AMPA receptors , the voltage-dependent block by Mg 2+ is partially relieved, allowing ion influx through activated NMDA receptors. The resulting Ca 2+ influx can trigger a variety of intracellular signaling cascades, which can ultimately change neuronal function through activation of various kinases and phosphatases\". [14] Ligands: Primary endogenous co-agonists : glutamate and either D-serine or glycine Other agonists : aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid ; D-cycloserine ; L-aspartate; quinolinate , etc. Partial agonists : N-methyl-D-aspartic acid ( NMDA ); NRX-1074 ; 3,5-dibromo-L-phenylalanine, [15] etc. Antagonists : ketamine , PCP , dextropropoxyphene , ketobemidone , tramadol , kynurenic acid ( endogenous ), etc. GABA receptors [ edit ] GABA receptors are major inhibitory neurotransmitter expressed in the major interneurons in animal cortex. GABA A receptor [ edit ] GABA A receptor schematic GABA A receptors are ligand-gated ion channels. GABA ( gamma -aminobutyric acid ), the endogenous ligand for these receptors, is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system . When activated, it mediates Cl – flow into the neuron, hyperpolarizing the neuron. GABA A receptors occur in all organisms that have a nervous system. Due to their wide distribution within the nervous system of mammals, they play a role in virtually all brain functions. [16] Various ligands can bind specifically to GABA A receptors, either activating or inhibiting the Cl – channel. Ligands : Agonists : GABA, muscimol , progabide , gaboxadol Antagonists : bicuculine , gabazine Partial agonist: piperidine-4-sulfonic acid 5-HT receptors [ edit ] 3D structure model of the 5-HT1B receptor in complex with ergotamine based on crystallographic data for PDB 4IAR 5-HT receptors , also known as the serotonin receptors, or 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, are ligand-gated ion channels. They activate an intracellular second messenger cascade to produce an excitatory/inhibitory response. They are found in mammals, both central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), as well as other animals. [17] Its natural ligand is Serotonin , and it modulates the release of multiple neurotransmitters, such as dopamine , epinephrine / norepinephrine , glutamate , and GABA . Research confirm that the 5-HT receptors are involved in many neurological processes, such as anxiety, depression, sleep, cognition, memory, and so on. Thus there are several drugs targeting the 5-HT system, including some antidepressants , antipsychotics , anxiolytics , antiemetics , and antimigraine drugs, as well as the psychedelic drugs and empathogens . [18] [19] [20] ATP-gated channels [ edit ] Figure 1. Schematic representation showing the membrane topology of a typical P2X receptor subunit. First and second transmembrane domains are labeled TM1 and TM2. Main article: P2X receptor ATP-gated channels open in response to binding the nucleotide ATP . They form trimers with two transmembrane helices per subunit and both the C and N termini on the intracellular side. Type Class IUPHAR-recommended protein name [8] Gene Previous names P2X N/A P2X1 P2X2 P2X3 P2X4 P2X5 P2X6 P2X7 P2RX1 P2RX2 P2RX3 P2RX4 P2RX5 P2RX6 P2RX7 P2X 1 P2X 2 P2X 3 P2X 4 P2X 5 P2X 6 P2X 7 PIP 2 -gated channels [ edit ] Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP 2 ) binds to and directly activates inwardly rectifying potassium channels (K ir ). [21] PIP 2 is a cell membrane lipid, and its role in gating ion channels represents a novel role for the molecule. [22] [23] Indirect modulation [ edit ] In contrast to ligand-gated ion channels, there are also receptor systems in which the receptor and the ion channel are separate proteins in the cell membrane, instead of a single molecule. In this case, ion channels are indirectly modulated by activation of the receptor, instead of being gated directly. G-protein-linked receptors [ edit ] G-protein-coupled receptor mechanism Also called G protein-coupled receptor , seven-transmembrane domain receptor, 7 TM receptor, constitute a large protein family of receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and activate inside signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. They pass through the cell membrane 7 times. G-protein-Linked receptors are a huge family that have hundreds of members identified. Ion-channel-linked receptors (e.g. GABAB , NMDA , etc.) are only a part of them. Table 1. Three major families of Trimeric G Proteins [24] FAMILY SOME FAMILY MEMBERS ACTION MEDIATED BY FUNCTIONS I GS α Activate adenylyl cyclase activates Ca2+ channels Golf α Activates adenylyl cyclase in olfactory sensory neurons II Gi α Inhibits adenylyl cyclase βɣ Activates K+ channels G0 βɣ Activates K+ channels; inactivate Ca2+ channels α and βɣ Activates phospholipase C-β Gt (transducin) α Activate cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase in vertebrate rod photoreceptors III Gq α Activates phospholipase C-β GABA B receptor [ edit ] GABAB receptors are metabotropic transmembrane receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid . They are linked via G-proteins to K+ channels, when active, they create hyperpolarized effect and lower the potential inside the cell. [25] Ligands : Agonists : GABA , Baclofen , gamma-Hydroxybutyrate , Phenibut etc. Positive Allosteric Modulators: CGP-7930 , [26] Fendiline , BSPP , etc. Antagonists :2-OH-saclofen, Saclofen , SCH-50911 Gα signaling [ edit ] The cyclic-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-generating enzyme adenylate cyclase is the effector of both the G αs and G αi/o pathways. Ten different AC gene products in mammals, each with subtle differences in tissue distribution and/or function, all catalyze the conversion of cytosolic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cAMP, and all are directly stimulated by G-proteins of the G αs class. Interaction with Gα subunits of the G αi/o type, on the contrary, inhibits AC from generating cAMP. Thus, a GPCR coupled to G αs counteracts the actions of a GPCR coupled to G αi/o , and vice versa. The level of cytosolic cAMP may then determine the activity of various ion channels as well as members of the ser/thr-specific protein kinase A (PKA) family. As a result, cAMP is considered a second messenger and PKA a secondary effector . The effector of the G αq/11 pathway is phospholipase C-β (PLCβ), which catalyzes the cleavage of membrane-bound phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2) into the second messengers inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 acts on IP3 receptors found in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to elicit Ca 2+ release from the ER, DAG diffuses along the plasma membrane where it may activate any membrane localized forms of a second ser/thr kinase called protein kinase C (PKC). Since many isoforms of PKC are also activated by increases in intracellular Ca 2+ , both these pathways can also converge on each other to signal through the same secondary effector. Elevated intracellular Ca 2+ also binds and allosterically activates proteins called calmodulins , which in turn go on to bind and allosterically activate enzymes such as Ca 2+ /calmodulin-dependent kinases (CAMKs). The effectors of the G α12/13 pathway are three RhoGEFs (p115-RhoGEF, PDZ-RhoGEF, and LARG), which, when bound to G α12/13 allosterically activate the cytosolic small GTPase , Rho . Once bound to GTP, Rho can then go on to activate various proteins responsible for cytoskeleton regulation such as Rho-kinase (ROCK). Most GPCRs that couple to G α12/13 also couple to other sub-classes, often G αq/11 . Gβγ signaling [ edit ] The above descriptions ignore the effects of Gβγ –signalling, which can also be important, in particular in the case of activated G αi/o -coupled GPCRs. The primary effectors of Gβγ are various ion channels, such as G-protein-regulated inwardly rectifying K + channels (GIRKs), P / Q - and N-type voltage-gated Ca 2+ channels , as well as some isoforms of AC and PLC, along with some phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) isoforms. Clinical relevance [ edit ] Ligand-gated ion channels are likely to be the major site at which anaesthetic agents and ethanol have their effects, although unequivocal evidence of this is yet to be established. [27] [28] In particular, the GABA and NMDA receptors are affected by anaesthetic agents at concentrations similar to those used in clinical anaesthesia. [29] By understanding the mechanism and exploring the chemical/biological/physical component that could function on those receptors, more and more clinical applications are proven by preliminary experiments or FDA . Addiction treatment : A series recent study shows that GABA receptors are involved with addiction-related behaviors, such as cocaine , [30] heroin , alcohol , [31] etc. Understanding the mechanism of receptors helped scientist develop pharmaceutical tools to treat addictions by modifying the receptors' activity. [32] [33] Memantine Memantine is approved by the U.S. F.D.A and the European Medicines Agency for the treatment of moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease , [34] and has now received a limited recommendation by the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for patients who fail other treatment options. [35] Antidepressant treatment Agomelatine , is a type of drug that acts on a dual melatonergic - serotonergic pathway, which have shown its efficacy in the treatment of anxious depression during clinical trails, [36] [37] study also suggests the efficacy in the treatment of atypical and melancholic depression . [38] See also [ edit ] MCB portal Neuroscience portal Biology portal Receptor (biochemistry) Action potential Voltage-dependent calcium channel Calcium-activated potassium channel Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel Acid-sensing ion channel Ryanodine receptor Inositol trisphosphate receptor References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"Gene Family: Ligand gated ion channels\" . 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New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-162442-8 . Jump up ^ Avedisova, A; Marachev, M (2013). \"2639 – The effectiveness of agomelatine (valdoxan) in the treatment of atypical depression\". European Psychiatry . 28 (Suppl 1): 1. doi : 10.1016/S0924-9338(13)77272-9 . External links [ edit ] Ligand-Gated Ion Channel database at European Bioinformatics Institute . Verified availability April 11, 2007. \"Revised Recommendations for Nomenclature of Ligand-Gated Ion Channels\" . IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels . International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. http://www.esf.edu/efb/course/EFB325/lectures/29HormoneSignals.htm http://www.genenames.org/ As of this edit , this article uses content from \"1.A.9 The Neurotransmitter Receptor, Cys loop, Ligand-gated Ion Channel (LIC) Family\" , which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License , but not under the GFDL . All relevant terms must be followed. [ show ] v t e Membrane transport protein : ion channels ( TC 1A ) [ show ] Ca 2+ : Calcium channel Ligand-gated Inositol trisphosphate receptor 1 2 3 Ryanodine receptor 1 2 3 Voltage-gated L-type / Ca v α 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 N-type / Ca v α2.2 P-type / Ca v α 2.1 Q-type / Ca v α2.1 R-type / Ca v α2.3 T-type / Ca v α 3.1 3.2 3.3 α 2 δ-subunits 1 2 β-subunits β1 β2 β3 β4 γ-subunits γ1 γ2 γ3 γ4 Cation channels of sperm 1 2 3 4 Two-pore channel 1 2 [ show ] Na + : Sodium channel Constitutively active Epithelial sodium channel α β γ δ Proton -gated Amiloride-sensitive cation channel 1 2 3 4 Voltage-gated Na v α 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 7A Na v β 1 2 3 4 [ show ] K + : Potassium channel Calcium-activated BK channel α1 β1 β2 β3 β4 SK channel SK1 SK2 SK3 IK channel IK1 K Ca 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 4.1 4.2 5.1 Inward-rectifier K ATP K ir 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.6 GIRK / K ir 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 K ir 4.1 4.2 5.1 6.1 6.2 7.1 Tandem pore domain K2P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 12 13 15 16 17 18 Voltage-gated K v α1-6 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 K v α7-12 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 8.1 8.2 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 11.1/hERG 11.2 11.3 12.1 12.2 12.3 K v β 1 2 3 KCNIP 1 2 3 4 minK/ISK minK/ISK-like MiRP 1 2 3 Shaker gene [ show ] Miscellaneous Cl − : Chloride channel Calcium-activated chloride channels Anoctamin ANO1 Bestrophin 1 2 Chloride Channel Accessory 1 2 3 4 CFTR CLCN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 KA KB CLIC 1 2 3 4 5 6 L1 CLNS 1A 1B H + : Proton channel HVCN1 M + : CNG cation channel α 1 2 3 4 β 1 2 3 HCN FC 1 2 3 4 M + : TRP cation channel TRPA ( 1 ) TRPC 1 2 3 4 4AP 5 6 7 TRPM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TRPML 1 2 3 TRPN TRPP 1 2 TRPV 1 2 3 4 5 6 H 2 O (+ solutes ): Porin Aquaporin 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Voltage-dependent anion channel 1 2 3 General bacterial porin family Cytoplasm : Gap junction Connexin A GJA1 GJA3 GJA4 GJA5 GJA8 GJA9 GJA10 B GJB1 GJB2 GJB3 GJB4 GJB5 GJB6 GJB7 C GJC1 GJC2 GJC3 D GJD2 GJD3 GJD4 Innexin [ hide ] By gating mechanism Ion channel class Ligand-gated Light-gated Voltage-gated Stretch-activated see also disorders [ show ] v t e Ion channel , cell surface receptor : ligand-gated ion channels Cys-loop receptors 5-HT/serotonin 5-HT 3 A B C D E GABA GABA A α 1 α 2 α 3 α 4 α 5 α 6 β 1 β 2 β 3 γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 δ ε π θ GABA A -ρ ρ 1 ρ 2 ρ 3 Glycine α 1 α 2 α 3 α 4 β Nicotinic acetylcholine monomers: α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 α9 α10 β1 β2 β3 β4 δ ε pentamers: (α3) 2 (β4) 3 (α4) 2 (β2) 3 (α7) 5 (α1) 2 (β4) 3 - Ganglion type (α1) 2 β1δε - Muscle type Zinc Zinc-activated Ionotropic glutamates Ligand-gated only AMPA ( 1 2 3 4 ) Kainate 1 2 3 4 5 Voltage- and ligand-gated NMDA 1 2A 2B 2C 2D 3A 3B L1A L1B ‘Orphan’ GluD δ 1 δ 2 ATP - gated channels Purinergic receptors P2X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand-gated_ion_channel&oldid=824163904 \" Categories : Cell biology Electrophysiology Ion channels Ionotropic receptors Membrane biology Molecular neuroscience Neurochemistry Protein families Membrane proteins Transmembrane proteins Transmembrane transporters Transport proteins Integral membrane proteins Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. Articles with imported Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Latviešu Magyar Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 February 2018, at 18:14. 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{ "text": "In the Pines - Wikipedia In the Pines From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see In the Pines (disambiguation) . \"In the Pines\" Song Published 1917 Songwriter(s) Traditional \" In the Pines \", also known as \" Where Did You Sleep Last Night? \" and \" Black Girl \", is a traditional American folk song originating from two songs, \"In the Pines\" and \"The Longest Train\", both of whose authorship is unknown and date back to at least the 1870s (though some contend an older, Irish history). The songs originated in the Southern Appalachian area of the United States in the contiguous areas of Eastern Tennessee and Kentucky , Western North Carolina and Northern Georgia . [1] [2] Versions of the song have been recorded by many artists in numerous genres, but it is most often associated with American bluegrass musician Bill Monroe and American Blues musician Lead Belly , both of whom recorded very different versions of the song in the 1940s and 1950s. [3] A version of the song performed by The Four Pennies reached the UK top-twenty in 1964. [4] A live performance by the American grunge band Nirvana reinterpreted Lead Belly's version and was recorded during their MTV Unplugged performance in 1993. [5] Contents 1 Early history 2 Influential versions 2.1 Bill Monroe 2.2 Lead Belly 2.3 Cajun versions 2.4 The Four Pennies 2.5 Mark Lanegan/Nirvana 2.6 Other versions 3 In popular culture 3.1 Film 3.2 Literature 3.3 Television 3.4 Games 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Early history [ edit ] Like numerous other folk songs, \"In the Pines\" was passed on from one generation and locale to the next by word of mouth. The first printed version of the song, compiled by Cecil Sharp , appeared in 1917, and comprised just four lines and a melody . The lines are: Black girl, black girl, don't lie to me Where did you stay last night? I stayed in the pines where the sun never shines And shivered when the cold wind blows In 1925, a version of the song was recorded onto phonograph cylinder by a folk collector. This was the first documentation of \"The Longest Train\" variant of the song, which includes a verse about \"The longest train I ever saw\". This verse probably began as a separate song that later merged into \"In the Pines\". Lyrics in some versions about \"Joe Brown's coal mine\" and \"the Georgia line\" may refer to Joseph E. Brown , a former Governor of Georgia , who famously leased convicts to operate coal mines in the 1870s. While early renditions which mention the head in the \" driver's wheel \" make clear that the decapitation was caused by the train, some later versions would omit the reference to the train and reattribute the cause. As music historian Norm Cohen pointed out in his 1981 book, Long Steel Rail: The Railroad in American Folksong , the song came to consist of three frequent elements: a chorus about \"in the pines\", a verse about \"the longest train\" and a verse about a decapitation, but not all elements are present in all versions. [6] [7] Starting in 1926, commercial recordings of the song were made by various folk and bluegrass bands. In her 1970 Ph.D. dissertation, Judith McCulloh (1935-2014) found 160 permutations of the song. [8] As well as rearrangement of the three frequent elements, the person who goes into the pines, or who is decapitated, is described as a man, woman, adolescent, husband, wife, or parent, while the pines can be seen as representing sexuality , death , or loneliness. The train is described as killing a loved one, as taking one's beloved away, or as leaving an itinerant worker far from home. [6] In variants in which the song describes a confrontation, the person being challenged is always a woman. The folk version by the Kossoy Sisters asks, \"Little girl, little girl, where'd you stay last night? Not even your mother knows.\" The reply to the question, \"Where did you get that dress/ And those shoes that are so fine?\" from one version is, \"From a man in the mines/Who sleeps in the pines.\" [6] The theme of a woman being caught doing something she should not is thus also common to many variants. One variant, performed in the early twentieth century by the Ellison clan (Ora Ellison, deceased) in Lookout Mountain , Georgia, tells of a young Georgia girl who flees to the pines after being raped. Her rapist, a male soldier, is later beheaded by the train. Some versions of the song also reference the Great Depression , with the \"black girl\" being a hobo on the move from the police, who witnesses the murder of her father while train-jumping. She hides from this by sleeping in the pines, in the cold. Influential versions [ edit ] Bill Monroe [ edit ] Bill Monroe 's 1941 and 1952 recordings, both under the title \"In the Pines\", were highly influential on later bluegrass and country versions. Recorded with his Bluegrass Boys and featuring fiddles and yodelling , they represent the \"longest train\" variant of the song, and omit any reference to a decapitation. However, as Eric Weisbard writes in a 1994 article in The New York Times , \"...the enigmatic train is almost as frightening, suggesting an eternal passage: 'I asked my captain for the time of day/He said he throwed his watch away.'\" [6] Lead Belly [ edit ] Huddie Ledbetter, a.k.a. Lead Belly , recorded over half-a-dozen versions between 1944 and 1948, most often under the title, \"Black Girl\" or \"Black Gal\". His first rendition, for Musicraft Records in New York City in February 1944, is arguably his most familiar. Listed as \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\", this version appears on a number of Lead Belly \"best-of\" compilations, such as Absolutely the Best (2000). Another familiar version was recorded for Moses Asch , founder of Folkways Records , in New York City . Listed as \"Black Girl\" or \"In the Pines\", this version appears on compilations such as Where Did You Sleep Last Night – Lead Belly Legacy Vol. 1 (1996), and The Definitive Lead Belly (2008). Lead Belly is often said to be the author of the song, e.g. by Nirvana on their MTV Unplugged album in 1994. However, Lead Belly didn't write the song, but reinterpreted it, as did other musicians before and after him. According to the American folklorist Alan Lomax , Lead Belly learned the song from someone's interpretation of the 1917 version compiled by Cecil Sharp, and by the 1925 phonograph recording. [6] Cajun versions [ edit ] \"In the Pines\", converted into the Cajun French language and sung under the titles \"Pine Grove Blues\" or \"Ma Negresse\", became one of the landmark songs of Cajun music . The song is most associated with Nathan Abshire , the Louisiana Cajun accordion player, for whom \"Pine Grove Blues\" was his biggest hit. His melody is a hard-driving blues, but the lyrics, when translated to English, are the familiar \"Hey, my girl, where did you sleep last night?\" The Cajun French word \"negresse\" and the masculine counterpart \"negre\" are terms of endearment without regard to race. [ citation needed ] He recorded it at least three times, from the 1940s onward. Since then, Abshire's version has been covered by a wide variety of Cajun and zydeco musicians, including the Pine Leaf Boys , the Lost Bayou Ramblers , Beau Jocque , and Cedric Watson . The Four Pennies [ edit ] The Four Pennies recorded and released the song as \"Black Girl\" in October 1964. Their version reached No. 20 in the UK, [4] but was not released by their label in the US. [9] Mark Lanegan/Nirvana [ edit ] \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\" Song by Nirvana from the album MTV Unplugged in New York Released 1 November 1994 Recorded November 18, 1993 at Sony Music Studios in New York City Length 5.08 Label DGC Records Songwriter(s) Lead Belly Producer(s) Alex Coletti , Scott Litt , Nirvana MTV Unplugged in New York track listing show 13 tracks \" About a Girl \" \" Come as You Are \" \" Jesus Doesn't Want Me for a Sunbeam \" \" The Man Who Sold the World \" \" Pennyroyal Tea \" \" Dumb \" \" Polly \" \" On a Plain \" \" Something in the Way \" \" Plateau \" \"Oh, Me\" \" Lake of Fire \" \" All Apologies \" \" Where Did You Sleep Last Night \" Nirvana occasionally performed the song during the early 1990s. Singer/guitarist Kurt Cobain was introduced to the song by fellow Seattle musician Mark Lanegan , and played guitar on a version on Lanegan's 1990 album, The Winding Sheet . Like Lanegan, Cobain usually screamed its final verse. It is likely that Cobain referenced Lead Belly's 1944 Musicraft version for his interpretation of the song; Lanegan owned an original 78 rpm record of this version, [6] and it is the one that Cobain's version most closely resembles in terms of lyrics, form and title. In a 2009 MTV article, Kurt Loder remembers discussing the song's title with Cobain, with Cobain insisting, \"But the Leadbelly version is called 'Where Did You Sleep Last Night,'\" and Loder preferring the \"In the Pines\" title used by Bill Monroe (as well as Lead Belly). [10] Cobain earned critical acclaim for his acoustic performance of the song during Nirvana's MTV Unplugged appearance in 1993. Canadian musician Neil Young described Cobain's vocals during the final screamed verse as \"Unearthly, like a werewolf, unbelievable.\" [11] This version was originally sanctioned to be released as a b-side to the band's \" Pennyroyal Tea \" single in 1994, but the single was cancelled following Cobain's death in April 1994. It was posthumously released on the band's MTV Unplugged in New York album in November 1994, and as a promotional single from the album. [12] In 2002 the song featured as a bonus track on Nirvana's \"best of\" compilation album Nirvana . A solo Cobain home demo, recorded in 1990, appears on the band's 2004 rarities box set , With the Lights Out . Nirvana's chart positions Chart (1995) Position French Airplay Chart [13] 62 Other versions [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Dock Walsh recorded the first known commercial version April 17, 1926 (Columbia mastered W142031-1; released on 15094-D, September 20, 1926). Darby and Tarlton recorded the song in 1927 as Lonesome In The Pines , and reworked it as Lonesome Railroad in 1928. Roscoe Holcomb recorded a version, available on The High Lonesome Sound . The Louvin Brothers ' version appears on the 1956 album, Tragic Songs of Life . Dave Van Ronk 's version appears on The Folkway Years 1959–1961 . The New Christy Minstrels recorded a version for their 1961 Columbia Records debut album. Joan Baez 's version appears on Very Early Joan , which includes performances from 1961 and 1963. Fred Gerlach 's version, titled \"Little Girl\", appears on his album Twelve-String Guitar , released on Folkways Records in 1962. Doc Watson often performed the song, and a live recording exists, dating from the 1960s. Marianne Faithfull recorded a version of the song for her 1965 album Come My Way . Jackson C. Frank recorded \"In The Pines\", which was released on the unreleased tracks and demos compilation Fixin' to Die . Tiny Tim 's version is the B-side of his single \" April Showers \", in 1966. Norma Tanega's 1966 \"Hey Girl\" is derived from Lead Belly 's version. Grateful Dead recorded the song on July 17, 1966. It appears on their 2001 box set, The Golden Road . Jerry Reed recorded a version on Jerry Reed Explores Guitar Country , released in 1969. Long John Baldry 's \"Black Girl\", a duet with Maggie Bell , appears on his 1971 album It Ain't Easy . A rendition also appears on Long John Baldry Trio-Live (1999). Link Wray recorded two versions titled \"Georgia Pines\" and \"In the Pines\" on his 1973 folk rock release Beans and Fatback . Gene Clark recorded the song for his 1977 album Two Sides to Every Story . Charlie Feathers recorded a version in the 1980s in Memphis . The Oak Ridge Boys recorded \"In the Pines\" on their 1983 album, Deliver . Dolly Parton 's version appears on her 1994 album Heartsongs: Live from Home . [6] Odetta recorded the song for her 2001 Lead Belly tribute album, Looking for a Home – Thanks to Leadbelly . Pete Seeger 's version of \"Black Girl\" appears on the 2002 Smithsonian Folkways re-release of recordings from the 1950s and 1960s entitled American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 1 . Josh White 's version of \"Black Girl\" appears on his 1955 album, 25th Anniversary: The Story of John Henry, A Musical Narrative . Another version appears on New York to London (2002). R. Crumb performed the song in Hamburg, Germany in 2003. The only known release is on R. Crumb's Music Sampler , included with the R. Crumb Handbook . (Smog) 's version appears on his 2005 album A River Ain't Too Much to Love . Ralph Stanley and Jimmy Martin 's version appears on their album First Time Together , released in 2005. Jack Rose 's version appears on his 2010 EP Ragged and Right . Laura Gibson 's version appears as a b-side on her single La Grande [14] Kid Cudi and Dot da Genius , known collectively as WZRD , recorded a rendition on their eponymous 2012 album . My Own Private Alaska on the album \"Amen\" (2010). Joe Banfi \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night?\" on the EP \"Iron\" in 2012 Brad Paisley contributed a version of the song to the Orthophonic Joy collection released in 2015. Loretta Lynn recorded a cover for her 2016 album Full Circle . The Journeymen recorded a cover of this song, titled \"Black Girl\", for their eponymous album in 1961. The Finnish rock group Lasten Hautausmaa recorded a cover of the song in Finnish with the name \"Tyttöni\" (\"My Girl\") to close their 2015 eponymous debut LP. [15] Danny Farrant and Paul Rawson covered this song for the compilation album Dark Country II . Forbidden Dimension a Calgary band, recorded a version for their album Sin Gallery (1993). Fantastic Negrito recorded a version for his album \" The Last Days of Oakland \" in 2016. Bob Dylan performed the song in concert at Carnegie Chapter Hall in New York City, November 4, 1961 (only available as a bootleg recording). Marilyn Manson performed the song at two concerts in Manchester and Glasgow in November 2015. Fábio M Silva recorded a contemporary version entitled \"In The Dark\" with adapted lyrics for his 2018 GOTH album. Danish rock band Gasolin' recorded a version in Danish titled \"Min tøs\" on their 1972 album Gasolin' 2 . In popular culture [ edit ] Film [ edit ] A version of the song is sung during Elia Kazan's 1960 film, Wild River . A few lines of the song are sung by Sissy Spacek in the Loretta Lynn biopic, Coal Miner's Daughter . The song is briefly heard in the background in the film I Know What You Did Last Summer . Literature [ edit ] Danzy Senna titled her memoir Where Did You Sleep Last Night? A Personal History after this song in memory of her paternal grandmother. Karl Edward Wagner references the song lyrics and the title in his 1973 horror story \"In the Pines\". In 2007, Czech-American writer-singer Natálie Kocábová used a strophe of \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\" for the opening of her novella Růže: Cesta za světlem... (\"Rose: A Way to the Light\"). [16] Television [ edit ] A version of the song by Danny Farrant is used in the trailer for American Gods , and appears in the first episode of the series. The song becomes an important plot point in the fourth series of Ripper Street . A version of it appears in the opening scene of the Marvel's The Defenders seventh episode \"Fish in the Jailhouse\". A version of the song is heard in the background on a scence in S1E9 of The Chi. Games [ edit ] A rendition by Jared Emerson-Johnson and Janel Drewis is played during the closing credits of The Walking Dead: Season Two - Episode 2: A House Divided released in 2014. [17] A version of the song, as of yet unidentified, can be found playing in certain parts of the Ubisoft video game Far Cry 5 , released on March 27, 2018. [18] See also [ edit ] List of train songs References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Cohen, Norm (2000), Long Steel Rail: The Railroad in American Folk Song . Chicago , University of Illinois Press , pp. 491-496. ISBN 0252068815 . Accessed 2017-09-30. Jump up ^ \" In the Pines \", Second Hand Songs . Accessed 2017-19-30. Jump up ^ \" Five Good Covers: In The Pines (Where Did You Sleep Last Night) \", [www.covermesongs.com Cover Me] . Accessed 2017-09-30. ^ Jump up to: a b Seida, Linda. \"The Four Pennies – Music Biography, Credits and Discography\" . AllMusic . Retrieved June 16, 2012 . Jump up ^ MTV Unplugged in New York (1993), DGC Records . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Weisbard, Eric (November 13, 1994). \"A Simple Song That Lives Beyond Time\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Cohen, Norm (2000). Long Steel Rail: The Railroad in American Folksong (2 ed.). p. 459. ISBN 978-0-252-06881-2 . Jump up ^ McCulloh, Judith Marie (1970), In the Pines: The Melodic-Textual Identity of an American Lyric Folksong Cluster (Ph.D. dissertation, Folklore) |format= requires |url= ( help ) , Indiana University Jump up ^ \"The Four Pennies – Discover music, videos, concerts, stats, & pictures at\" . Last.fm. March 22, 2012 . Retrieved June 16, 2012 . Jump up ^ Kurt Loder (April 8, 2009). \"Nirvana's Kurt Cobain: Still Missed\" . MTV.com . Retrieved June 16, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Nirvana's Tense, Brilliant Unplugged in New York, 20 Years Later\" . The Atlantic. December 12, 2013 . Retrieved October 27, 2015 . Jump up ^ Nirvana - Where Did You Sleep Last Night Discogs.com. Retrieved March 1, 2014. Jump up ^ \"InfoDisc : Accès direct à ces Artistes (The user must select \"Nirvana\" from the dropdown list)\" . Infodisc.fr . Retrieved October 14, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Laura Gibson - La Grande b/w In the Pines\" . Discogs . Jump up ^ \"Lasten Hautausmaa - Lasten Hautausmaa\" . Discogs . Jump up ^ Horáková, Hana (August 15, 2010). \"Cesta Natálie Kocáb\" . VašeLiteratura (in Czech). VašeLiteratura . Retrieved February 9, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"Telltale Games\" . Telltale Games . Retrieved October 27, 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Ubisoft Entertainment\" . Ubisoft . Retrieved April 4, 2018 . External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Where Did You Sleep Last Night Nirvana's version of the Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics show v t e American folk music African-American Appalachian Blues Cajun Creole Folk revival (1950s–60s) Gospel Jazz Dixieland Native American Old-time Ragtime Spirituals Swamp pop Tejano Zydeco Country music Americana Bluegrass Honky-tonk Rockabilly Western swing show v t e Truman Capote 's Breakfast at Tiffany's Adaptations House of Flowers (1954 musical) Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961 film) Breakfast at Tiffany's (1966 musical) Breakfast at Tiffany's (2013 play) Music \" Moon River \" Breakfast at Tiffany's: Music from the Motion Picture (1961 soundtrack) Jazz for \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\" (1961 album) \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\" (1995 song) Other Black Givenchy dress of Audrey Hepburn show v t e Nirvana Kurt Cobain Krist Novoselic Aaron Burckhard Dale Crover Dave Foster Chad Channing Jason Everman Dave Grohl Pat Smear Studio albums Bleach Nevermind In Utero Live albums MTV Unplugged in New York From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah Live at Reading Compilation albums Incesticide Nirvana Sliver: The Best of the Box Icon Box sets Singles With the Lights Out Nevermind: The Singles Extended plays Blew Hormoaning Singles \" Love Buzz \" \" Sliver \" \" Smells Like Teen Spirit \" \" Come as You Are \" \" Lithium \" \" In Bloom \" \" Heart-Shaped Box \" \" All Apologies \"/\" Rape Me \" \" Pennyroyal Tea \" \" About a Girl \" \" You Know You're Right \" Promotional singles \" On a Plain \" \" \"All Apologies\" (Unplugged) \" \" The Man Who Sold the World \" \" Where Did You Sleep Last Night \" \" Lake of Fire \" \"Aneurysm\" (live) \"Drain You\" (live) Split singles \" Candy/Molly's Lips \" \" Here She Comes Now/Venus in Furs \" \" Puss/Oh, the Guilt \" Other songs \" Been a Son \" \" Breed \" \" Do Re Mi \" \" Dumb \" \" I Hate Myself and Want to Die \" \" Marigold \" \" Negative Creep \" \" Old Age \" \" Polly \" \" Sappy \" \" Scentless Apprentice \" \" Something in the Way \" \" Spank Thru \" Videos Live! Tonight! Sold Out!! MTV Unplugged in New York Live at Reading Live at the Paramount Live and Loud Related Articles Discography ( Bootlegs ) Awards and nominations Songs Concerts \" Smells Like Nirvana \" Frances Bean Cobain Suicide of Kurt Cobain 12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief Verse Chorus Verse Bands Dain Bramage Eyes Adrift Fecal Matter Flipper Foo Fighters Melvins The No WTO Combo Scream Sweet 75 Them Crooked Vultures Queens of the Stone Age Books Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana Heavier Than Heaven Journals Letters to Kurt Albums Nevermind It's an Interview The \"Priest\" They Called Him Smells Like Bleach: A Punk Tribute to Nirvana Newermind: A Tribute to Nirvana In Utero, in Tribute, in Entirety Whatever Nevermind Doused in Mud, Soaked in Bleach Montage of Heck: The Home Recordings Films and documentaries 1991: The Year Punk Broke Teen Spirit: The Tribute to Kurt Cobain Hype! Kurt & Courtney Classic Albums: Nirvana – Nevermind Last Days Nirvana – A Classic Album Under Review – In Utero Kurt Cobain: About a Son Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck Soaked in Bleach Autopsy: The Last Hours of...Kurt Cobain Book Category Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=In_the_Pines&oldid=850428611 \" Categories : Appalachian folk songs Lead Belly songs Nirvana (band) songs Live singles 1870s songs Songs about trains Hidden categories: Pages using citations with format and no URL CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 Duration without hAudio microformat Articles needing additional references from November 2016 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages বাংলা Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano עברית Norsk Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 6 more Edit links This page was last edited on 15 July 2018, at 20:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "In the Pines", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=In_the_Pines&amp;oldid=850428611" }

{ "text": "Love It or List It - Wikipedia Love It or List It From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Love It or List It Genre Reality renovations , upgrading Created by Maria Armstrong Catherine Fogarty Directed by Various Starring Hilary Farr David Visentin Narrated by Jacqueline Hennessy Theme music composer Lou Pomanti Country of origin Canada United States Original language(s) English No. of seasons 10 No. of episodes 130 ( List of episodes ) Production Executive producer(s) Maria Armstrong Catherine Fogarty Producer(s) Maria Armstrong Location(s) Toronto, Ontario , Canada, Raleigh–Durham, North Carolina , United States Running time 44 minutes Production company(s) Big Coat Productions Release Original network W Network HGTV Original release September 8, 2008 – present External links Website Production website Love It or List It is a Canadian home design TV show currently airing on HGTV , W Network , and on OWN Canada , and is the original show in the Love it or List It franchise . The show is produced by Big Coat Productions and was based in Toronto and other surrounding areas in Ontario , Canada. The show premiered as a primetime program on W Network on September 8, 2008, and has since aired on OWN Canada as well as HGTV in the United States. In September 2014, the show began filming in the United States in North Carolina . [1] In September 2017, HGTV ordered 20 additional episodes of the program. The next season is to start airing in July 2018. [2] Contents [ hide ] 1 Format 2 Host and crew 3 Episodes 4 Franchise 5 International syndication 6 Reception 7 Controversy 8 References 9 External links Format [ edit ] This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Every episode of Love It or List It follows the same formula. A couple (usually, but not in all cases) presents their living situation in the current house that they own. In most episodes, the couple is split on whether or not they want to stay in the house. Interior designer Hilary Farr and real estate agent David Visentin tour the couple's home before meeting with them. The tour usually consists of David finding mostly negative things to say about the residence while Hilary is convinced that she can work magic with whatever plans she is given. At the meetup between the couple and the hosts of the show, both Hilary and David are briefed as to what the couple's desires are. Hilary is given a list of renovations the couple wants for the current house and her budget for the entire project. David, meanwhile, is tasked with searching for a new home for the couple that both meets their needs and stays within their desired budget. Common challenges faced by Hilary are an inadequate budget to complete the entire request list from the homeowners, often due to discovery of unforeseen issues with the house that are uncovered during the renovation such as lack of compliance with modern building codes. Common issues for David, meanwhile, depend on the homeowners' desires; for instance, the couple has children enrolled in the neighborhood school and they do not desire to change, or the potential house is too distant from family members or a workplace. After Hilary's renovation is complete, the homeowners are given a tour of their current home to see what she was able to accomplish. After the tour, David meets with them and hands them an evaluation of the home's current market value following the renovations. He will then remind the couple what they could have in one of the new homes they looked at and that they would not get that in their current home. After a moment to deliberate, Hilary and David pose a question to the homeowners. They must choose to either Love It, meaning that they will continue to live in their current home with the renovations, or to List It, meaning that they will buy one of the homes David showed them and sell their current home. After they reveal their decision, the homeowners explain their reasoning to Hilary and David (who, if they decided to Love It, reacts with incredulity) before bidding them farewell. Host and crew [ edit ] Hosts Hilary Farr – Hilary Farr is a home designer from Toronto , Ontario. She has lived in Australia, England , California , and New York City . Farr honed her skills on properties in Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, New York and Toronto. When she first moved back to Toronto, she became the first designer to \"stage\" properties for sale. She continues to build and design homes in the downtown core where she herself owns properties. [3] David Visentin – David Visentin is a real estate agent in Southern Ontario with Country Living Realty Limited. He has been practicing since 1987. [4] Assistant Designer Desta Ostapyk (Canadian episodes) – Desta is a Toronto-based designer who graduated in 2004 from the Toronto International Academy of Design and Technology in Interior Design, and has since focused on a career in the Television Industry. She first started working with Big Coat Productions during her last semester of school as an intern for HGTV's hit series My Parents House . She soon became the Design Stylist for the show. [5] Contractors Eric Eremita (North Carolina episodes) – General contractor and designer Eric Eremita was selected to be the one and only general contractor on HGTV's \"Love It or List It\" U.S. version, after HGTV network took notice of him when he competed in its \"Brother vs. Brother\" reality show. Eddie Richardson (Canadian episodes) – Eddie Richardson was a contractor on Love It or List It who started his own family business. Richardson has also been a pro-beach volleyball player and professional bass fisherman. Fergus McLaren (Canadian episodes) – Fergus McLaren started up his own construction company, R-Mac Solutions, 10 years ago. Behind the Scenes Architect: Simon West Senior Production Coordinator: Linda Johnstone Construction Coordinator: David Violante Construction Assistants: Chris Blinn, Adam Dalgarno, Ahren Mrowietz, Dale George Design Coordinator: Kaaveh Shoman Episodes [ edit ] Main article: List of Love It or List It episodes Season Start date End date Episodes Hilary wins David wins 1 September 8, 2008 January 5, 2009 12 9 3 2 April 6, 2009 December 7, 2009 18 10 8 3 May 3, 2010 November 8, 2010 21 9 12 4 March 14, 2011 November 11, 2011 19 12 7 5 February 20, 2012 November 19, 2012 18 10 8 6 January 19, 2013 July 1, 2013 14 8 6 7 January 8, 2014 April 9, 2014 14 11 3 8 September 8, 2014 January 19, 2015 16 8 8 9 March 9, 2015 December 7, 2015 22 13 9 Total 154 90 64 Victories for Hilary are families or clients who decided to love their home and stay. Victories for David are families and clients who decided to list and move into a new or better home. Franchise [ edit ] Main article: Love It or List It (franchise) Love It or List It has spawned five spinoffs. The first, [6] known as Love It or List It Vancouver (or Love it or List it Too in the US), was launched in winter 2012 and is hosted by Jillian Harris and Todd Talbot . The second spin-off, a British version known as Love It or List It UK , debuted in 2015, [7] is hosted by Kirstie Allsopp and Phil Spencer . The third spin off, Love It or List It Vacation Homes [8] debuted in spring 2016 and is hosted by Dan Vickery and Elisa Goldhawke . A fourth spin off, Vendre ou renover au Quebec debuted in January 2017 and is hosted by Maika Desnoyers and Daniel Corbin. [9] The fifth spin off, Love It Or List It Australia debuted in September 2017 and is hosted by Andrew Winter and Neale Whittaker. [10] International syndication [ edit ] Country / Region Name Television Network Dubbing / Subtitles Australia Love It or List It Lifestyle Home N/A Canada Love It or List It W Network N/A USA Love It or List It HGTV [11] N/A Spain Tu casa a juicio Divinity Spanish Brazil Ame-a ou Deixe-a Discovery Home & Health Portuguese Norway Bolighjelpen TV 2 (Norway) Norwegian Bulgaria Podnovi ili proday Fox Life (Bulgaria) Bulgarian Italy Prendere o lasciare Cielo dubbed in Italian Reception [ edit ] On August 31, 2010, Love It or List It was nominated for two Gemini Awards : Best Reality Program or Series and Best Direction in a Reality Program or Series. When HGTV premiered the show on the network, the company stated that Love It or List It has been the highest rating reality series since Candice Olson's Candice Tells All . [12] In 2012, New York Times' columnist Gail Collins noted that it was US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's favorite TV show. [13] [14] According to Collins, Clinton finds the show \"very calming\" [15] after being interviewed about her departure from politics. [16] [17] [18] In a 2013 interview with Las Vegas Magazine, Vanna White from Wheel of Fortune said it was one of her favourite HGTV programs. [19] Actress Julianne Moore also gave similar praise for the show in an interview with Katie Couric and the Daily Mail . [20] [21] According to the Wall Street Journal , the show and its Vancouver spinoff is one of Canada's beloved reality series. [22] Controversy [ edit ] In April 2016, homeowners Deanna Murphy and Tim Sullivan who had participated in a 2015 Love It or List It episode filed suit against production company Big Coat TV, as well as the North Carolina contractor (Aaron Fitz Construction) [23] who had been hired by the show to do the renovations on their home. The couple alleges that the renovation funds that they provided were not properly disbursed, and that the work on their home was done to a substandard quality. [24] Moreover, the lawsuit states that the television personalities on the show do not play an active role in the renovation process, and that they were not shown homes on the market by any licensed North Carolina real estate agent. Big Coat TV has commented that they \"do intend to vigorously defend what [they] consider to be false allegations.\" [25] The suit was settled in April 2017. [26] The plaintiffs had signed a confidentiality agreement; their lawyer would not comment on the settlement. [27] Big Coat had previously filed a countersuit for libel, slander and product disparagement; parts of that suit had been dismissed by the time of the settlement but that was under appeal by Big Coat. After the agreements had been concluded, both suits were dismissed. [28] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ http://www.bigcoatproductions.com/blog/post/love-it-or-list-it-is-on-the-move-to-the-us . Big Coat Productions. Retrieved 12 December 2014 Jump up ^ \"HGTV Orders 20 New Episodes of Hit Series 'Love It or List It' | Scripps Networks Interactive Newsroom\" . newsroom.scrippsnetworksinteractive.com . Retrieved 2018-01-02 . Jump up ^ Host Bios; Hilary Farr \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on July 18, 2011 . Retrieved June 10, 2011 . Jump up ^ Host Bios; David Visentin \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on July 18, 2011 . Retrieved June 10, 2011 . Jump up ^ \"Big Coat Productions\" . Big Coat Productions. Archived from the original on July 16, 2013 . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ Love it or List it launches new spin off Jump up ^ \"Kirstie and Phil's Love It or List It will return for a second series:Channel 4 orders six more episodes of the show to air in 2016\" . Digital Spy . 2 June 2015 . Retrieved 14 March 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.bigcoatmedia.com/ Jump up ^ http://www.hgtv.ca/tags/love-it-or-list-it-vacation-homes/ Jump up ^ http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/reality-tv/i-fear-pineapples-are-very-much-the-new-owls-love-it-or-list-it-hosts-kiss-and-tell-on-renos/news-story/935d73b586c68943a6a455f02354bef9 Jump up ^ Vlessing, Etan (November 28, 2011). \"HGTV Acquires Canadian Lifestyle Series 'Love It Or List It ' \" . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ W Network's Top Rated Show; http://corusent.com/home/Corporate/PressReleases/tabid/1697/Default.aspx?Id=2323 Jump up ^ Maga, Carly (March 29, 2012). \"Hillary Clinton's favorite show is Canada's 'Love It Or List It ' \" . Ca.omg.yahoo.com . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ Miller, Julie. \"Hillary Clinton's Unlikely Favorite TV Show Revealed\" . Vanity Fair . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Vanity Fair: Hillary Clinton's Unlikely Favorite TV Show Revealed\" . Huffingtonpost.com. November 13, 2012 . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Hillary Clinton likes 'Love It or List It ' \" . Politico.Com . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Love it or list it News, Video and Gossip\" . Jezebel. November 11, 2012 . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . Jump up ^ Collins, Gail (November 10, 2012). \"Hillary's Next Move\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ \"Q&A WITH VANNA WHITE\" . Las Vegas Magazine. September 13, 2013. Jump up ^ Daily Mail . London http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/you/article-2376232/Julianne-Moore-My-50s-important-years.html . Missing or empty |title= ( help ) Jump up ^ \"Julianne Moore Opens Up About Her Family\" . KatieCouric.com . Retrieved August 17, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"W Network Announces Return of Home-grown Favourites in Fall 2013 Lineup\" . The Wall Street Journal . July 17, 2013. Jump up ^ https://www.bizjournals.com/charlotte/bizwomen/news/latest-news/2017/05/lawsuit-against-producer-of-love-it-or-list-it.html Jump up ^ CNN, Lisa Respers France. \" ' Love It or List It' homeowners file suit\" . CNN . Retrieved 2016-05-03 . Jump up ^ \" ' Love It Or List It' homeowners sue over Raleigh renovation\" . miamiherald . Retrieved 2016-05-03 . Jump up ^ \" \" Raleigh property owners settle lawsuit with 'Love It or List It'\"\" . News & Observer . Retrieved 2017-11-26 . Jump up ^ http://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/article150134792.html Jump up ^ https://www.bizjournals.com/charlotte/bizwomen/news/latest-news/2017/05/lawsuit-against-producer-of-love-it-or-list-it.html External links [ edit ] Love It or List It on HGTV Love It or List It on W Network Love It or List It at the Internet Movie Database [ hide ] v t e Love It or List It franchise Love It or List It Hosts Hilary Farr David Visentin Other Episodes Love It or List It Vancouver Hosts Jillian Harris Todd Talbot Love It or List It UK Hosts Kirstie Allsopp Phil Spencer Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Love_It_or_List_It&oldid=834260200 \" Categories : Love It or List It 2008 Canadian television series debuts 2000s Canadian reality television series Television series produced in Toronto 2010s Canadian reality television series Hidden categories: Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Use mdy dates from February 2014 Articles needing additional references from November 2016 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2018, at 19:27. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Love It or List It", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Love_It_or_List_It&amp;oldid=834260200" }

{ "text": "The Alienist - Wikipedia The Alienist From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For the 1881–1882 novella \"The Alienist\" by Machado de Assis, see O alienista . For the 1970 Brazilian comedy film, see The Alienist (film) . For the 2018 U.S. television series, see The Alienist (TV series) . The Alienist 1st ed cover Author Caleb Carr Country United States Language English Publisher Random House Publication date 15 March 1994 Media type Print ( Hardcover ) Pages 496 ISBN 0-679-41779-6 OCLC 28798086 Dewey Decimal 813/.54 20 LC Class PS3553.A76277 A44 1994 Followed by The Angel of Darkness The Alienist is a crime novel by Caleb Carr first published in 1994 and is the first book in the Kreizler series . It takes place in New York City in 1896, and includes appearances by many famous figures of New York society in that era, including Theodore Roosevelt and J. P. Morgan . The sequel to the novel is The Angel of Darkness . [1] The story follows Roosevelt, then New York City police commissioner , and Dr. Laszlo Kreizler, as their investigative team attempts to solve gruesome murders through new methods including fingerprinting and psychology . The first murder victim investigated is a 13-year-old immigrant who has had his eyes removed, his genitals removed and stuffed in his mouth, and other injuries. The investigators deal with various interest groups that wish to maintain the status quo regarding the poor immigrant population in New York City. The book made best-sellers lists of Publishers Weekly and The New York Times the month it was published, and film rights to the story were purchased by producer Scott Rudin and Paramount Pictures . The film studio has since moved the rights over to its television division, where a 10-part event TV series adaptation began its run on January 22nd on TNT. [2] [3] The Alienist received generally positive reception. Booklist described it as \"superbly atmospheric and compelling\", [4] Forbes called the work a \"fascinating, fast-paced spine-tingler\", [5] and author Paul Levine wrote in the Chicago Tribune \"at the end the reader thirsts for another tale of Dr. Laszlo Kreizler\". [6] The Houston Chronicle characterized it \"an out-and-out page-turner\", [7] and The Seattle Times noted \"Carr brings the dual sensibilities of historian and novelist to the story.\" [8] Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot summary 2 Characters 2.1 Historical figures 3 Composition and biographical background 4 Genre and style 5 Themes 6 Reception 6.1 Sales and marketing 6.2 Reviews 7 Adaptations 7.1 Film 7.2 TV series 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Plot summary [ edit ] Narrated from the first-person perspective of John Moore, a crime reporter for The New York Times , the novel begins on January 8, 1919, the day that Theodore Roosevelt is buried. Moore has dinner with Laszlo Kreizler, the famous alienist . Kreizler is surrounded by those he has rescued, including his black servant, Cyrus Montrose, and a boy named Stevie \"Stevepipe\" Taggert. (Mary Palmer, another patient and Kreizler's housekeeper, is deceased by the time of this dinner.) Together, they reminisce about their times with Roosevelt, but they focus on one moment: the spring of 1896 and their efforts to catch a serial killer on the Lower East Side of Manhattan . The novel is narrated in retrospect, with Moore commenting on the events and how they impacted later history. At 2 AM on March 3, 1896, Moore is awakened by one of Kreizler's servants banging incessantly on his door. Stevie, a young boy whom Kreizler had saved from being institutionalized and who is dedicated to Kreizler, brings Moore to the scene of a crime that Kreizler wants Moore to see. Roosevelt, the police commissioner, is already at the scene. When Moore sees the nature of the brutal murder, he is appalled. The victim, Georgio \"Gloria\" Santorelli, is a 13-year-old boy who prostituted himself by dressing up as a girl; the boy's wrists are tied behind his back, and he is kneeling with his face pressed on the steel walkway where he was found. Though makeup paint and powder on his face are still intact, his eyes are gouged out, his right hand is chopped off, his genitals are cut off and stuffed between his jaws, he has huge gashes across his entire body, his throat has been slashed, and his buttocks are \"shorn off\". The policeman at the scene, Detective Sergeant Connor, makes it clear that murders of such victims are usually ignored. Ambulance standing outside Bellevue , a psychiatric hospital, in New York City in 1895 \"Prior to the twentieth century, persons suffering from mental illness were thought to be 'alienated,' not only from the rest of society but from their own true natures. Those experts who studied mental pathologies were known as 'alienists'.\" —\"Note\" at the beginning of the novel [9] At Roosevelt's request, Moore, Kreizler, and he meet the following morning in Roosevelt's office to discuss the case. Kreizler has examined the body and disagrees with the official coroner's report. He connects the Santorelli killing to that of a second case he knows of in which two children, Benjamin and Sofia Zweig, were killed and had their eyes gouged out. Roosevelt announces that he knows of two more murders that match the pattern. Roosevelt decides to investigate, but because Kreizler has such a dubious reputation as an alienist, and because the investigation will become politically difficult, he establishes a base of operations for them outside the police precinct. Politically, Roosevelt cannot afford to be associated with the investigation and is not involved with the day-to-day operations. Kreizler asks for some young detectives who are open to new methods and receives the help of Sara Howard, the first woman to be hired by the police department, and Marcus and Lucius Isaacson, two Jewish brothers who were hired when Roosevelt began removing corrupt police officers from the force. The Isaacsons bring sophisticated methods, such as the Bertillon system and fingerprinting , to the investigation, although these were not popular in New York City police departments at the time nor accepted in courts of law. The group begins to investigate the victims, hoping to understand the mind of the murderer by understanding his victims. They interview Georgio Santorelli's mother and discover, for example, that there was discord in his family. Georgio's parents had learned of his being manipulated into performing sexual acts for older boys in school, and the father's response was to try to beat it out of the boy. Georgio eventually left home and lived on the streets as a male-for-male prostitute. They also read the emerging science of psychology, such as the works of William James . Another body is discovered, and the evidence suggests that the victim knew his attacker. The team also deduces that the killer's agility on rooftops suggests that he is familiar with mountain- or rock-climbing. Kreizler, Roosevelt, Moore, and Howard must deal with various interest groups during their investigation who wish to maintain society's status quo, including a corrupt police force, which takes bribes from owners of the brothels whose prostitutes include poor immigrants; the Catholic Church , which is wary of the potential power of an organized immigrant population; the Episcopal Church ; and J. P. Morgan . Characters [ edit ] John Moore a freelance reporter and the narrator of the novel; Dr. Laszlo Kreizler the titular alienist of the novel; Sara Howard Moore's longtime friend, now a secretary at NYPD headquarters; Stevie Taggert Kreizler's teenage groom and carriage driver; Cyrus Montrose Kreizler's valet and bodyguard; Mary Palmer Kreizler's housemaid; Marcus and Lucius Isaacson brother Detective Sergeants with the NYPD; Historical figures [ edit ] Thomas F. Byrnes Anthony Comstock Michael Corrigan James \"Biff\" Ellison H. H. Holmes (mentioned only) Paul Kelly Jack McManus Adolf Meyer J. P. Morgan Jesse Pomeroy Henry C. Potter Jacob Riis Theodore Roosevelt Lincoln Steffens Composition and biographical background [ edit ] The Alienist is set in the neighborhood where Carr lives, and he has spent hours wandering around it. He also spent a lot of time researching his book at the J. P. Morgan Library . [10] Carr pitched the book as non-fiction, because he was afraid his agent and editor would not accept a fiction book from a non-fiction author. Only when the publisher was on the verge of buying the book did he reveal the truth. [11] The novel \"allowed him to exorcise some of his demons, mostly centered on his relationship with his father, which was stormy and sometimes violent.\" [10] Carr will not reveal specific details of his family history, but he has said, \"It's safe to assume that I know something about family violence....\" and he told New York magazine, \"I'm the only kid in my family who never tried to kill himself...I kind of figured somebody else was going to kill me anyway.\" [10] Carr's natural father, Lucien Carr , was a writer, who in the 1940s was at the center of a group of as-yet unknown writers ( Jack Kerouac , Allen Ginsberg , and William Burroughs ). In the summer of 1944, he killed his former scoutmaster , a man who was enamored with him. One night, the scoutmaster supposedly made a move on Lucien Carr, and Carr stabbed him in the chest with his Boy Scout knife. Carr disposed of the body in the Hudson River , and together he and Kerouac got rid of the knife. Carr was sentenced to two years' jail time and Kerouac a few days. [10] Caleb Carr was \"fascinated with the psychology of killers, who were subliminally acting out the pain of being controlled by monstrous parents by controlling and killing victims, seeking a release that would never come.\" [10] As he explains, \"For me it began in New York with the Son of Sam killings while I was in college...I think I can understand some of the kind of rage that's behind what they do. I can't understand the major portion of it because that's what leads to the violence they commit. But I can understand the germ of it.\" [10] Genre and style [ edit ] The Alienist has been called a detective novel , an historical novel , and a mystery novel . [6] It is set in 1896, \"the moment in history when the modern idea of the serial killer became available\", eight years after the Jack the Ripper case, and at a time when the word psychopath was new to scientists. [12] Like E. L. Doctorow 's Ragtime , the novel combines fact with fiction. [6] Historical figures such as Lincoln Steffens , Jacob Riis , Anthony Comstock , and J. Pierpont Morgan appear briefly in the novel and interact with the fictional characters. [13] Carr includes period details, such as descriptions of \"sumptuous meals of turtle soup au clair, Creole eggs, broiled squab, saddle of lamb a la Colbert and 'a liter of smooth, dark Wurzburger (beer) that had a head as thick as whipped cream'\". [6] Themes [ edit ] \"The biggest challenge was to study the psychological literature of that day, so that none of my characters would know any more than they *could* have known about psychology.\" —Caleb Carr [14] In an interview with The Record , Carr stated he wanted to entertain the reader, while also staying faithful to the time period. [14] Carr, a historian by training, wanted to find a form of writing where he could meld his interest in fiction with his knowledge of history. [14] \"The one thing I wanted to show was that people back then are a lot more like people today than we realize,\" said Carr. [14] Carr researched the science and literature of the time period and noted, \"The biggest challenge was to study the psychological literature of that day so that none of my characters would not know more than they could have known in terms of psychology. We're talking about a time when [Sigmund Freud] had just published his first book.\" [14] Author Paul Levine compares Kreizler to Sherlock Holmes and Sigmund Freud . [6] He likens The Alienist to Ragtime by E.L. Doctorow ; both stories fuse historical fiction with real characters from the time period. [6] Levine notes the story serves as a \"painless history lesson\", and comments that the juxtaposition of J.P. Morgan 's lifestyle with \" the teeming tenements where police dare not enter\", serve as \"reminders that crime and class distinction are hardly new\". [6] Carr has said that \"The Alienist is about how violent behavior is perpetuated from one generation to the next.\" [10] The Alienist \"explores the causes of insanity and criminality, and ultimately the nature of evil\". [15] Another theme is destiny, and the novel investigates New York City's destiny, \"saying its basic character and problems have endured over history\". [11] Reception [ edit ] Sales and marketing [ edit ] Random House paid Carr in advance of $60,000 for the book. [16] Paperback rights were sold at auction to Bantam for $1,001,000. [16] The book made Publishers Weekly 's list of best-sellers in April 1994, [17] and during the summer of 1994 reached between no. 4 and no. 7 on The New York Times Best Seller list . [10] [18] Reviews [ edit ] \"The story feels like a Sherlock Holmes tale, reads like a modern thriller, and is historically accurate.\" — The Record [14] The book has received generally favorable reviews; \"while most critics found it entertaining, some said it was sometimes flabby with historical detail and its prose was less than literature.\" [11] In a review published in Booklist , Brad Hooper calls The Alienist and Caleb Carr's sequel, The Angel of Darkness , \"superbly atmospheric and compelling\". [4] A review of The Alienist in Forbes comments: \"Wonderfully evocative of the age, this fascinating, fast-paced spine-tingler never flags.\" [5] Writing for The Record , Laurence Chollet notes: \"The story feels like a Sherlock Holmes tale, reads like a modern thriller, and is historically accurate.\" [14] In his review in The Gazette of Colorado Springs , Victor Greto wrote: \"Through his research into the New York of the late 19th century, [Carr] has also fleshed out an atmosphere and a time that, on the one hand, seems grimly real and unapproachably evil, but, on the other, is within our intellectual grasp.\" [19] In her review for Tulsa World , Patricia Ann Jones wrote that the novel \"breaks new ground on several fronts. As a historical novel it paints an unrivaled picture of New York. As a thriller it sets a new pace. But as a psychological study it stands completely on its own. The writing is quite simply, superb.\" [20] In his review of the book for the Chicago Tribune , Mortal Sin author Paul Levine writes: \"the long story never becomes tedious, and at the end the reader thirsts for another tale of Dr. Lazlo Kreizler\". [6] Kathye Self of the Houston Chronicle characterizes the work as \"an out-and-out page-turner about the first time a 'psychological profile' was used to track down a serial murderer\". [7] Christopher Lehmann-Haupt writes in The Tampa Tribune : \"Carr has lovingly evoked not only a physical sense of old New York but the spirit of the time as well, when the powers in charge were worried about unrest among the masses of cheap immigrant labor.\" [21] In a review for The Seattle Times , Deloris Tarzan Ament comments: \"A contributing editor to Military History Quarterly, Carr brings the dual sensibilities of historian and novelist to the story.\" [8] In his review for The Washington Post , novelist Jack Katzenbach argued that Carr's impeccable research and rich detail hindered the work's pace but rewarded readers by portraying \"the excitement of a world on the verge of change, where invention was the stuff of daily miracle,\" specifically when it came to forensics. [22] According to The New York Times , \"the only real weakness of the book lies in the stringent rationality of Kreizler's investigation. The more his logic makes sense the less threatening his quarry seems, at least to the reader....The story's fatalism grows tedious....Nor does it help that throughout most of the story none of the major characters are directly threatened by the killer. Of course, it is deplorable that children are being murdered. But none of them figure strongly enough in the story to arouse the reader's visceral identification.\" [15] Scott Eyman of The Palm Beach Post was critical of the \"flaccid dialogue\" and \"vague characters\". [23] Hary Levins from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch noted that the novel does include a few notable anachronisms. For example, the \"heroes display an early (and highly improbable) political correctness toward blacks and homosexuals. And his detective team anticipates the feminist movement by enlisting a tough-minded career woman who's unafraid to pack a pistol and spout a bit of scatological English.\" [13] Adaptations [ edit ] Film [ edit ] Carr told The Orange County Register he had envisioned a film adaptation of his work while writing the story. [24] \"I was always aware that if done correctly, this could end up being a great movie. I grew up with the movies. I've written scripts. Movies are something I've always loved,\" he said. [24] Carr thought of Emma Thompson to play Sara, and Anthony Hopkins or Sam Neill to play Kreizler. [24] Before the book was published, film producer Scott Rudin purchased the film rights to the novel for $500,000. [14] [24] In June 1993, Paramount Pictures bought the film rights to the novel for $750,000. [8] [25] In January 1995, The River Wild director Curtis Hanson was reported to have been in the process of final negotiations with Scott Rudin and Paramount Pictures to direct The Alienist . [25] By May 1995, Hanson was signed on as the film's director. [26] Variety reported that the film's producers planned for filming to start in Spring 1995, with an intended Christmas release date in mind. [25] Tony Award -winning playwright David Henry Hwang adapted the book for film. [25] Scouts for the film visited Philadelphia in May 1995 to consider location shooting in the city. [26] Film scouts for The Alienist were particularly interested in Philadelphia's Academy of Music , Eastern State Penitentiary , and Waterworks . [26] Paramount Pictures was concerned with the film's budget, which reportedly was almost $50 million. [27] By 1997, multiple script drafts from three writers brought costs to approximately $2 million. [27] After delays in production, Paramount Pictures told the group behind the film they had two months to set the project up at another studio. [27] In a review of Carr's sequel The Angel of Darkness , Malcolm L. Johnson of The Hartford Courant cited concerns over how to depict the mutilation of the murdered prostitutes in the film, writing: \"Questions about how to treat this gruesome element has perhaps delayed the film of The Alienist. \" [28] When in a 1999 online chat with fans, set up by Time and Yahoo! , Carr was asked if there were film plans for The Alienist or The Angel of Darkness , he responded: \"Only 'The Alienist,' and the attempts have been so bad that I have not yet sold 'Angel' to the movies. What happened was that a producer bought the rights and then decided he had to completely change the characters in the book. We got into a huge conflict, one that is actually ongoing.\" [29] TV series [ edit ] Main article: The Alienist (TV series) In April 2015, Deadline reported that Paramount Television had decided to use a three-year, first-look production deal they made with Anonymous Content productions to adapt The Alienist as an event TV series. [2] Jakob Verbruggen will serve as director after replacing Cary Fukunaga . [3] References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (September 29, 1997). \" ' The Angel of Darkness': Pursuing a Mysterious Kidnapper in Old New York\" . The New York Times . ^ Jump up to: a b Jaafar, Ali (April 14, 2015). \"Cary Fukunaga Behind Event TV Series 'The Alienist' Reteaming With Anonymous Content & Paramount\" . Deadline.com . Penske Media Corporation . Retrieved December 12, 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b McLehman, Cindy (September 26, 2016). \"The Alienist: Jakob Verbuggen Replaces Cary Fukunaga as Director of TNT Series\" . TVseriesfinale.com . Retrieved September 30, 2016 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hooper, Brad (April 1, 2000). \"The Alienist (Book review)\". Booklist . 96 (15): 1442. ^ Jump up to: a b Forbes staff (October 14, 1996). \"The Alienist\". Forbes . Forbes, Inc. 158 (9): 28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Levine, Paul (April 17, 1994). \"Psychology Yesterday - A Period Mystery Introduces Modern Sleuthing to 1896\". Chicago Tribune . p. 4. ^ Jump up to: a b Bergin, Kathye Self (April 24, 1994). \"Hunting the 'imaginary man': Compelling thriller tracks 1890s serial killer with early psychological profile\". Houston Chronicle . p. 23. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ament, Deloris Tarzan (May 1, 1994). \"Murder, He Wrote - 'The Alienist' Crackles With History, Colorful Characters\". The Seattle Times . p. M2. Jump up ^ Carr, Caleb (1994). The Alienist . New York: Random House. pp. \"Note\". ISBN 0-679-41779-6 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Capuzzo, Mike (August 25, 1994). \"Author feeds his romantic, sinister iamge\". Philadelphia Inquirer . LexisNexis . |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b c Purdy, Matthew (May 19, 1994). \"Writing to Flee the Past\". The New York Times . Jump up ^ Begley, Adam (March 31, 1994). \"Tracking a Serial Killer In Victorian New York\". Newsday . AccessWorldNews. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b Levins, Harry (May 1, 1994). \"On the trail of a murderer - thriller unfolds in 19th-century\". St. Louis Post-Dispatch . AccessWorldNews. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Chollet, Laurence (April 10, 1994). \"Authenticity Fills a Novel\". The Record . Bergen Record Corp. p. E05. ^ Jump up to: a b Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (March 29, 1994). \"Of an Erudite Sleuth Tracking a Madman\". The New York Times . |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b New York Times News Service (June 26, 1994). \" ' Alienist' Makes Publisher Blush In Paperback Profits\". The Deseret News . Deseret News Publishing Company. p. E5. Jump up ^ The Cincinnati Post staff (April 9, 1994). \"Publishers Weekly best-sellers\". The Cincinnati Post . p. 3D. Jump up ^ \"New York Times Best Sellers List\". Austin American-Statesman . April 17, 1994. p. 6. Jump up ^ Greto, Victor (April 10, 1994). \"19th century New York comes to life - 'The Alienist' fleshes out a city where decay, indifference coexist\". The Gazette (Colorado Springs) . p. 3. Jump up ^ Jones, Patricia (May 22, 1994). \" ' The Alienist ' Is Best Seller With Reason - Superb Thriller Explores Mental Illness in 1890s\". Tulsa World . AccessWorldNews. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) Jump up ^ Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (May 1, 1994). \"Murder and philosophy\". The Tampa Tribune . The Tribune Co. p. 6. Jump up ^ Katzenbach, Jack (March 27, 1994). \"Ragtime Ripper\". The Washington Post . LexisNexis . |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) Jump up ^ Eyman, Scott (May 15, 1994). \"Tedious 'Alienist' has no place on best-seller list\". The Palm Beach Post . AccesWorldNews. |access-date= requires |url= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b c d Takahama, Valerie (July 3, 1994). \" ' Alienist' author is no stranger to films - Profile: Caleb Carr had a movie in mind when he wrote his book _ and now Hollywood has picked up on the idea\". The Orange County Register . p. e28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Busch, Anita M. ( Variety magazine ) (January 18, 1995). \" ' River Wild' Director Set to Steer 'Alienist ' \". Chicago Sun-Times . Chicago Sun-Times, Inc. p. 32. ^ Jump up to: a b c Rea, Steven (Knight-Ridder Newspapers) (May 3, 1995). \" \" Alienist\" scouts take look at Philadelphia\". The Tampa Tribune . The Tribune Co. p. 6. ^ Jump up to: a b c Mercury News Staff and Wire Reports (January 1, 1997). \"Pressure Applied To 'Alienist' Team\". San Jose Mercury News . p. 12E. Jump up ^ Johnson, Malcolm L. (September 14, 1997). \"Carr's 'Angel' Falls Short of Chilling 'Alienist ' \". The Hartford Courant . The Hartford Courant Co. p. G3. Jump up ^ \"Novelist Caleb Carr - Transcript from Nov. 3, 1999\" . Time . Visions of the 21st Century. November 3, 1999 . Retrieved 2009-05-27 . Further reading [ edit ] Bergmann, Ina, \"Jack the Ripper's American Cousins: Representations of Good and Evil in Historical Crime Fiction,\" Representations of Evil in Fiction and Film , Anglistik – Amerikanistik – Anglophonie, vol. 11, ed. Jochen Achilles and Ina Bergmann (Trier: WVT, 2009) 137-56. Link, Alex, \"City Limits: Fixing New York in Caleb Carr's The Alienist ,\" CLUES: A Journal of Detection 23.3 (Spring 2005): 31-41. Tallack, Douglas, \"Caleb Carr: Running Away from the Darkness,\" The Detective as Historian: History and Art in Historical Crime Fiction , ed. Ray B. Browne and Lawrence A. Kreiser, Jr. (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State U Popular P, 2000) 251-64. External links [ edit ] Books portal Psychology portal 17th Street Comprehensive site dedicated to The Alienist and The Angel of Darkness Discussion BHW The book The Alienist discussed in detail on a popular forum. [ hide ] v t e Novels by Caleb Carr Dr. Laszlo Kreizler novels The Alienist (1994) The Angel of Darkness (1997) Surrender, New York (2016) Other novels Casing the Promised Land (1980) Killing Time (2000) The Italian Secretary (2005) The Legend of Broken (2012) Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Alienist&oldid=837648052 \" Categories : American crime novels American historical novels 1994 American novels Novels by Caleb Carr Novels about prostitution 1896 in fiction Novels set in New York City Anthony Award-winning works Random House books American mystery novels Hidden categories: Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Pages to import images to Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2018, at 03:38. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "The Alienist", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Alienist&amp;oldid=837648052" }

{ "text": "Slow Hand - Wikipedia Slow Hand From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the Pointer Sisters song. For the Eric Clapton album, see Slowhand . For other uses, see Slow Hand (disambiguation) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) \"Slow Hand\" Single by The Pointer Sisters from the album Black & White B-side \"Holdin' Out for Love\" Released May 1981 Format 7\" Genre R&B , pop , soul Length 3 : 57 Label Planet Songwriter(s) Michael Clark, John Bettis Producer(s) Richard Perry The Pointer Sisters singles chronology \"Where Did the Time Go\" (1980) \" Slow Hand \" (1981) \"What a Surprise\" (1981) \"Where Did the Time Go\" (1980) \" Slow Hand \" (1981) \"What a Surprise\" (1981) \" Slow Hand \" is a ballad written by John Bettis and Michael Clark and recorded by The Pointer Sisters . It was first released in the spring of 1981 as the advance single for Black & White . Contents [ hide ] 1 Background and impact 2 Charts 2.1 Weekly charts 2.2 Year-end charts 3 Personnel 4 Del Reeves version 5 Conway Twitty version 5.1 Charts 6 Modestep version 7 References 8 External links Background and impact [ edit ] Although its sultry style recalls the Pointer Sisters' first top ten hit, the 1978 number 2 hit \" Fire \", \"Slow Hand\" was not written for the group; in fact John Bettis would state \"the Pointer Sisters were the furthest [act] from [the composers'] minds.\" [1] Like \"Fire\"—which also featured Anita Pointer on lead—\"Slow Hand\" peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for 3 weeks, behind \" Endless Love \" by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie . \"Slow Hand\" reached that position in August 1981 when it also reached number 7 on the R&B chart . \"Slow Hand\" also afforded the Pointer Sisters international success, including the first appearance by the group in the UK top 10. The track was ranked in the top 25 best singles of the year by The Village Voice Pazz & Jop poll. [ citation needed ] \"Slow Hand\" was not the first song recorded by the sisters to have a country feel. In 1974 the group wrote and recorded the breakthrough track \"Fairytale\". Charts [ edit ] Weekly charts [ edit ] Chart (1981) Peak position Australian Kent Music Report 5 Canadian RPM Top Singles 2 Dutch Top 40 33 French Singles Chart 55 Irish Singles Chart 2 New Zealand Singles Chart 6 UK Singles Chart 10 US Billboard Hot 100 2 US Billboard R&B Chart [2] 7 US Billboard Adult Contemporary [3] 6 US Cash Box Top 100 [4] 2 Year-end charts [ edit ] Chart (1981) Rank Australia 28 Canada [5] 68 New Zealand [6] 20 UK 100 US Billboard Hot 100 [7] 19 US Cash Box [8] 5 Personnel [ edit ] Lead vocals by Anita Pointer Background vocals by Ruth Pointer and June Pointer Produced by Richard Perry Written by John Bettis and James Bruce Clark (ASCAP listing) Del Reeves version [ edit ] The song was covered in 1981 by country singer Del Reeves , whose version peaked at #53 on the Hot Country Singles chart. Conway Twitty version [ edit ] \"Slow Hand\" Single by Conway Twitty from the album Southern Comfort B-side \"When Love Was Something Else\" Released April 24, 1982 Genre Country Length 2 : 56 Label Elektra Songwriter(s) Michael Clark, John Bettis Producer(s) Jimmy Bowen , Conway Twitty Conway Twitty singles chronology \" The Clown \" (1981) \" Slow Hand \" (1982) \"Over Thirty (Not Over the Hill)\" (1982) \" The Clown \" (1981) \" Slow Hand \" (1982) \"Over Thirty (Not Over the Hill)\" (1982) The song was covered in April 1982 by country singer Conway Twitty with minor lyric changes to accommodate a heterosexual male singer. His version, on Elektra Records , topped the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart for two weeks that June, and was his last multi-week number-one song. [9] Charts [ edit ] Chart (1982) Peak position US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) [10] 1 Canadian RPM Country Tracks 6 Modestep version [ edit ] The song was covered in 2013 by dubstep and hard rock group, Modestep . It was included on their debut album Evolution Theory . References [ edit ] Jump up ^ Billboard vol. 93 #33 (22 August 1981) p. Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004 . Record Research. p. 465. Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2002). Top Adult Contemporary: 1961-2001 . Record Research. p. 194. Jump up ^ Cash Box Top 100 Singles, September 5, 1981 Jump up ^ http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4689&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=mhe12pta2k83e08udtq66ot062 Jump up ^ http://nztop40.co.nz/chart/?chart=3870 Jump up ^ Musicoutfitters.com Jump up ^ http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/80s_files/1981YESP.html Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book Of Top 40 Country Hits: 1944-2006, Second edition . Record Research. p. 362. Jump up ^ \"Conway Twitty – Chart history\" Billboard Hot Country Songs for Conway Twitty. External links [ edit ] Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Preceded by \" For All the Wrong Reasons \" by The Bellamy Brothers Billboard Hot Country Singles number-one single June 19-June 26, 1982 Succeeded by \" Any Day Now \" by Ronnie Milsap [ show ] v t e The Pointer Sisters Anita Pointer Ruth Pointer Sadako Johnson Bonnie Pointer June Pointer Issa Pointer Studio albums The Pointer Sisters That's a Plenty Steppin' Having a Party Energy Priority Special Things Black & White So Excited! Break Out Contact Hot Together Serious Slammin' Right Rhythm Only Sisters Can Do That Live albums Live at the Opera House Compilation albums The Best of the Pointer Sisters Singles \" Yes We Can Can \" \" Wang Dang Doodle \" \" Steam Heat \" \" Fairytale \" \" How Long (Betcha' Got a Chick on the Side) \" \" Fire \" \" He's So Shy \" \" Slow Hand \" \" I'm So Excited \" \" Automatic \" \" Jump (for My Love) \" \" Neutron Dance \" \" Dare Me \" Related topics Discography * Pinball Number Count Book:The Pointer Sisters [ show ] v t e Conway Twitty Studio albums Sings Saturday Night with Conway Twitty Lonely Blue Boy House on Old Lonesome Road Crazy in Love Even Now Final Touches Collaboration albums We Only Make Believe Lead Me On Louisiana Woman, Mississippi Man Country Partners Dynamic Duo Compilation albums 25 Number Ones Notable singles \" It's Only Make Believe \" \" Mona Lisa \" \" Danny Boy \" \" Next in Line \" \" I Love You More Today \" \" To See My Angel Cry \" \" Hello Darlin' \" \" Fifteen Years Ago \" \" How Much More Can She Stand \" \" I Can't See Me Without You \" \" (Lost Her Love) On Our Last Date \" \" I Can't Stop Loving You \" \" She Needs Someone to Hold Her (When She Cries) \" \" You've Never Been This Far Before \" \" There's a Honky Tonk Angel (Who'll Take Me Back In) \" \" I'm Not Through Loving You Yet \" \" I See the Want To in Your Eyes \" \" Linda on My Mind \" \" Touch the Hand \" \" This Time I've Hurt Her More Than She Loves Me \" \" After All the Good Is Gone \" \" The Games That Daddies Play \" \" I Can't Believe She Gives It All to Me \" \" Play Guitar Play \" \" I've Already Loved You in My Mind \" \" Georgia Keeps Pulling on My Ring \" \" Boogie Grass Band \" \" Your Love Had Taken Me That High \" \" Don't Take It Away \" \" I May Never Get to Heaven \" \" Happy Birthday Darlin' \" \" I'd Love to Lay You Down \" \" Rest Your Love on Me \" \" Tight Fittin' Jeans \" \" Red Neckin' Love Makin' Night \" \" The Clown \" \" Slow Hand \" \" We Did But Now You Don't \" \" The Rose \" \" We Had It All \" \" Lost in the Feeling \" \" Heartache Tonight \" \" Three Times a Lady \" \" Somebody's Needin' Somebody \" \" I Don't Know a Thing About Love (The Moon Song) \" \" Ain't She Somethin' Else \" \" Don't Call Him a Cowboy \" \" Between Blue Eyes and Jeans \" \" Desperado Love \" \" Fallin' for You for Years \" \" Julia \" \" I Want to Know You Before We Make Love \" \" That's My Job \" \" Goodbye Time \" \" Saturday Night Special \" \" I Wish I Was Still in Your Dreams \" \" She's Got a Single Thing in Mind \" \" House on Old Lonesome Road \" \" Fit to Be Tied Down \" \" Crazy in Love \" \" I Couldn't See You Leavin' \" \" Rainy Night in Georgia \" Collaboration singles \" After the Fire Is Gone \" \" Lead Me On \" \" Louisiana Woman, Mississippi Man \" \" Feelins' \" \" The Letter \" \" I Can't Love You Enough \" \" Making Believe \" \" Don't Cry Joni \" Related articles Discography Discography with Loretta Lynn MGM Records Decca Records MCA Records Elektra Records Warner Bros. Records Joni Lee Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slow_Hand&oldid=783786969 \" Categories : 1981 singles 1982 singles The Pointer Sisters songs Conway Twitty songs Del Reeves songs Billboard Hot Country Songs number-one singles Songs with lyrics by John Bettis Song recordings produced by Jimmy Bowen Song recordings produced by Richard Perry Elektra Records singles 1981 songs Planet Records singles Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from April 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014 Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Singlechart called without song Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 4 June 2017, at 17:12. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Slow Hand", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Slow_Hand&amp;oldid=783786969" }

{ "text": "Monarch butterfly migration - Wikipedia Monarch butterfly migration From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Diagram showing Monarch butterfly migration ( click to enlarge ) 1) March; 2) April; 3) End of April; 4) April - June; 5) June - August; 6) September - November Monarch butterflies ( Danaus plexippus ) perform annual migrations across North America which have been called \"one of the most spectacular natural phenomena in the world\". [1] Starting in September and October, eastern and northeastern populations migrate from southern Canada and the United States to overwintering sites in central Mexico where they arrive around November. They start the return trip in March, arriving around July. No individual butterfly completes the entire round trip; female monarchs lay eggs for the next generation during the northward migration [2] and at least four generations are involved in the annual cycle. Similarly, the western populations migrate annually between regions west of the Rocky Mountains including northern Canada and overwintering sites on the coast of California. Monarchs also perform small distance migrations in Australia and New Zealand. There are also some populations, for instance in Florida and the Caribbean, that do not migrate. Recently [ when? ] discovered overwintering sites have been identified in Arizona and northern Florida. [3] [4] Contents [ hide ] 1 Range of the migration 2 Habitats 3 Historical accounts 3.1 Before 1975 3.2 After 1975 4 Southern migration 4.1 Initiation 4.2 Monarchs in diapause 4.3 Other characteristics of migrant monarchs 5 Colony dispersal and northern migration 5.1 Northern migration 5.1.1 Initiation 5.2 Rates of recolonization 6 Migration routes 7 Roosting sites 8 Overwintering sites 9 Sex ratios 10 Population and migratory study methods 10.1 Mark and recapture 10.2 Butterfly counts 10.3 Aerial and satellite observations 10.4 Direct observations 10.4.1 Types of data collected 10.4.2 Use of data and availability 10.4.3 Observers 10.5 Tagging 11 Migratory theory mechanisms 11.1 Instinct 11.2 Geographical features 11.3 Chemical markers 11.4 Position of the sun 11.5 Other theories 12 Extinction 13 Conservation 13.1 Adult mortality 13.2 Overwintering sites 13.3 Reductions in milkweed and agricultural regions of the United States 13.4 Other threats 14 Conservation programs 15 Proposed policies to conserve the migration 16 Economic influences related to the migration phenomena 17 Politics 17.1 Affected people groups 17.2 Presidential memorandum and national strategy 17.3 Efforts to designate the monarch as endangered 17.4 Scientific community 17.5 Local governments 18 See also 19 References 20 Bibliography 21 External links Range of the migration [ edit ] The western population overwinters in various coastal sites in central and southern California , United States , notably in Pacific Grove , Santa Cruz , and Grover Beach . Western monarchs also overwinter in Baja, California's central valley, and the Sierra Nevada foothills. [5] Not all monarchs migrate. Migrating populations and non-migrating populations coexist in many areas. [6] Monarchs are year-round residents in Florida and monarchs migrate to Florida and Gulf coast areas, and can often continue to breed and survive the winter. [7] The monarch population in Florida may be a result from migratory butterflies that do not to migrate north in the spring. [8] [6] These locations provide access to nectar plants. If there is a hard frost in these areas they do not survive. Asclepias curassavica , an introduced annual ornamental, provides larval food if native species are unavailable, although because of the risks to monarchs from the spread of the parasite, OE, this plant is not recommended for planting. [9] Year-round breeding of resident monarch populations exist in the Caribbean, and in Mexico as far south as the Yucatán peninsula. Surprisingly, monarchs do not migrate over most of their global range. Tagging records demonstrate that the eastern and western populations are not entirely separate. Arizona butterflies have been captured at overwintering sites in both California and Michoacan, Mexico. [10] In some instances monarchs from Arizona and New Mexico were found overwintering in California and in Mexico. [10] [11] Overwintering monarchs cluster on oyamel trees in a preserve outside of Angangueo , Michoacan , Mexico; one tree is completely covered in butterflies. roosting, overwintering butterflies in Pacific Grove, California Monarchs roosting during fall in central Texas Fall-migrating monarchs are not the same ones that migrated northward approximately five months before. Instead the northern-migrating butterflies are at least four generations removed from overwintering sites. The eastern population migrates up to 4830 miles (7,778 km) to overwintering sites in Mexico. [12] Other insects show migratory behavior but not nearly for as long distances. The exception would be the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria : it was reported once in 1950 that individual swarms were seen migrating from the Arabian peninsula over 5,000 km (3,105 miles) to the west coast of Africa in seven weeks. [13] Habitats [ edit ] Ideal habitats have a profound effect on the migration of large numbers of monarchs. The single most influential factor is the weather. Ideal habitats promote the migration of large numbers of migrating monarchs. Summer The ideal summer breeding habitat will provide ample nectaring plants for the adults and abundant, healthy larval plants. Low populations of predators and parasites will also allow for more monarchs surviving into adulthood. A low prevalence of disease will improve the survival. Monarchs breed the fastest within a specific temperature range. An increase of the range of the breeding population is another indicator that the habitat is conducive to reproductive success. Fall In North America the ideal breeding habitat changes in late summer. The migration begins and the ideal habitat required for successful migration changes to a 'corridor' (to Mexico) of available nectaring plants, optimal temperatures, tailwinds and low precipitation. The butterflies must also remain hydrated. An early frost will kill migrating butterflies. Winter The ideal habitat for monarchs in winter exists in their overwintering sites. The factors influencing the habitat include: the condition of the forest canopy, precipitation, predation, availability of suitable trees on which to roost, sources of water, the ideal temperature range, sunlight, lack of rain and ice and human activity near the sites. [14] Roosting butterflies have been observed to roost in sumacs, locusts, basswood elm, oak, osage orange, mulberry, pecan, willow, cottonwood, and mesquite. [15] If conditions are too hot in the overwintering sites, the butterflies will use up their fat reserves and not survive until spring. High temperatures initiate reproductive behavior with the possibility of the butterflies leaving the overwintering areas too early while it is still too cold in the north to stimulate the emergence of food plants and nectar plants [8] Spring The ideal habitat for monarchs migrating north from Mexico sites to Texas and Oklahoma is less studied. Presumably, tailwinds assist the migration north. Rainfall is critical in creating the ideal habitat for the returning monarchs which must have abundant, lush and healthy food plants available for larvae. Ideal growth of larval plants that emerge in succession as the breeding butterflies migrate north, is also critical. Drought is a big factor influencing the emergence of food plants. If any of these habitats is less than ideal, the population of monarchs will be negatively affected though ideal conditions in the other habitats monarchs encounter make up for the 'losses'. Historical accounts [ edit ] Before 1975 [ edit ] As late as 1951, monarchs were thought to overwinter in northern latitudes as adults or pupae. Roosts of thousands were observed in southern regions of North America. [16] Migrating western populations of D. plexippus and their overwintering sites were known long before the winter sites in Mexico were located by Canadian and American researchers in the 1970s. Pre-Hispanic Native Americans, the Purépecha and Otomi once occupied this area and tied the harvest of corn to the arrival of the butterflies. Monarchs appear in legends of the people that live near overwintering areas. In the areas surrounding the overwintering sites in Mexico, local residents were quite aware of the overwintering behavior of monarch butterflies long before 1975. The local people, called the Mazahua, have lived near the overwintering sites for centuries. The arrival of the monarchs is closely tied to the traditional the Day of the Dead celebrations. Local residents today easily recall seeing the migrating butterflies prior to 1975. [17] [18] [19] [20] For at least a century, monarchs were observed overwintering in California in the fog belt. [21] Historical records of lepidopterists do not mention the existence of monarchs in their current western range that extends northward through Washington, Oregon and Canada possibly because milkweed was not available until human disturbance expanded its range. [22] After 1975 [ edit ] Formal studies began when Fred Urquhart graduated from the University of Toronto in 1935 and accepted a graduate fellowship in the field of entomology . In 1937, Urquhart began to plot the route taken by the migrating butterflies. He was the first to record that monarchs move S/SW in the fall and that these movements were correlated to high pressure systems. He began the first successful tagging program which returned data. He and his volunteers recognized the existence of roosting behavior. [23] : 290–296, 305, 306, 310 The search for overwintering sites was initiated by Fred Urquhart when he advertised for 'interested persons' in the Mexican press. Catalina Trail and Kenneth C. Brugger responded to the ad and in January 1975 discovered one of the major overwintering sites. Urquhart, William Calvert, John Christian, and Lincoln P. Brewer cooperated to put together the details in this discovery of a major overwintering site of monarchs in 1976. [24] [25] [26] At first, information on the discovery of the first major overwintering was suppressed due to the concerns that public knowledge might lead to endangerment of the butterflies. [27] Since 1976 multiple overwintering sites have been identified and their locations are public knowledge. [28] Southern migration [ edit ] By the end of October, the population of monarchs east of the Rocky Mountains migrates to the sanctuaries of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve within the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests in the Mexican states of Michoacán and México . They also overwinter in areas that are privately owned. Some monarchs migrate to other locations such as Cuba and Florida in the fall. [29] Two migratory fly ways exist through North America. One in the Central states leads to the Mexican overwintering areas and a smaller flyway along the eastern North American seaboard. The timing of the eastern flyway lags behind the more central flyway. Monarchs migrating along the coast are less likely of being recovered in Mexico. This suggests that butterflies migrating along the eastern seaboard are migrating to locations other than Mexico, or they have a higher rate of mortality than those migrating inland. [30] Initiation [ edit ] Monarchs respond to different cues that promote the fall season, southern migration. These include the angle of light coming from the sun, the senescence of larval host plants, the decreasing day period and temperature drop. [31] The migration begins at the northernmost summer range approximately in August. Migrating monarchs are thought to rely heavily on the nectar of fall flower composites that lie along the migration path. [1] [32] Monarchs in diapause [ edit ] Diapause is a physiological state found most often in arthropods, especially insects, and in embryos of fish that allows survival when conditions become harsh. Diapause is not only induced in an organism by specific stimuli or conditions, but once initiated, only certain other stimuli are capable of bringing the organism out of diapause. [31] [33] The latter feature is essential in distinguishing diapause from other forms of dormancy such as stratification , and hibernation . [17] [34] [35] [36] Part of a series on Animal dormancy Torpor Hibernation Hibernaculum HIT Aestivation Cryptobiosis Brumation Diapause Embryonic diapause Winter rest Critical thermal maximum Sleep (non-human) Developmental biology v t e When the adult monarch begins its southern migration, it enters diapause . Where other species in diapause remain fairly immobile, monarchs remain active. When diapause is initiated the butterflies accumulate and store lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. [32] Monarchs migrating to Mexico accumulate more lipids than those migrating to California. [37] Fats and lipids reduce water to provide energy reserves and prevent desiccation. [38] These substances are used to maintain the insect throughout diapause and to provide fuel for development following diapause termination. It occurs genetically well in advance of environmental stress. [33] It is a state resulting in the cessation of high-metabolic activities including reduced oxygen use. [39] Monarchs in diapause of the fall migrating population are physiologically distinct from those in active reproduction behavior in the spring and summer. In diapause, the measurement of fats and lipids levels a can be as high as 34%. The fat storage organ is substantially larger in migrating and overwintering monarchs compared to the summer generations. Samples of tissue excluding the fat body also show higher levels of free lipids in the hemeolymph . Females in diapause show little evidence of mature eggs. Mating is repressed and only occasionally observed among overwintering monarchs. This is thought to increase the survivability of winter populations and maintain fat reserves that will promote spring northward migration. At one site, the population stayed in diapause until the middle to the end of January. By the beginning of February the day length increases to just over 11 hours, the point at which monarchs come out of diapause. [33] In addition to the required day length, monarchs in diapause must also have temperatures that promote the formation of eggs. When these two conditions are met, mating occurs and females migrate northward. While migrating, the monarch in diapause uses nectar along its migration to create a significant increase in its fat reserves. There are reports of monarchs laying eggs while traveling southward to overwintering sites. Eggs and larvae are killed by freezing temperatures. Migration ends at the first frost. Diapause has distinct phases. While diapause varies considerably from one taxon of insects to another, these phases are characterized by series of metabolic processes and responsiveness of the insect environmental stimuli. [33] Decreasing day period and dropping temperatures have been found to initiate the production of juvenile hormone . This represses the development of gonadal activity, mating behaviors, and egg-laying. While in diapause new behaviors emerge such as the development of social nectaring groups and late afternoon formation of night-time clusters or roosts. [40] Roosting reduces water loss, probably due to decreased surface area to volume ratios reducing evaporative water loss. [41] Other characteristics of migrant monarchs [ edit ] Migrating monarchs tend to have darker orange and larger wings than they do during the breeding phase in the summer. [42] In fact, the darkness of the orange color in monarch wings appears to be a visual indicator of their migratory ability. This has been shown in field and laboratory research. [43] Wing size is a key element during the migration, and much research has shown how important it is for migrants to have large wings. Comparisons of migratory vs. non-migratory populations shows migrant populations are much larger than non-migrants, which suggests natural selection acts to keep migratory populations large. [44] Two studies have used stable isotopes to infer natal origins of migrating monarchs captured at their wintering sites (eastern and western), and both showed that monarchs migrating from father distances tended to be larger, [45] [46] which also is consistent with the idea that long-distance migration selects for larger wings, or that small-winged butterflies tend not to be successful. One researcher summarized what the optimal size of migrant monarch wings should be, which is 51 mm in length or more. [47] There is other research around migrant wing size that shows how this differs between early and late migrants. This has to do with the fact that earlier migrants tend to be the more robust, healthier individuals, while late-migrating monarchs represent the ones that fell behind, presumably because they are less well-suited for migration. A study published in the journal, Animal Migration, showed that early-migrating monarchs tended to be redder, have larger, and more elongated wings, than those at the tail end of the migration. [48] Another study that examined long-term records of tagging data from a site in South Carolina found early migrants tended to be larger. [49] In females the production of eggs ceases. Mating behavior is not observed presumably due to changing levels of hormones that promote breeding. Colony dispersal and northern migration [ edit ] Northern migration [ edit ] There is a northward migration in the spring. [50] Female monarchs lay eggs for the next generation during these migrations. [2] Northward migration from Florida normally occurs from mid-March to mid-May and the initial wave of the migration may be the offspring of monarchs that have overwintered in Florida and along the northern Gulf Coast, not in central Mexico. Tagged monarchs from Tallahassee were recovered in Virginia and Georgia. [51] The distance and length of these journeys exceeds the normal lifespan of monarchs, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The first generation leaving the overwintering sites only migrates as far north as Texas and Oklahoma. The second, third and fourth generations return to their northern breeding locations in the United States and Canada in the spring. Initiation [ edit ] As with the initiation of the southern migration, a variety of cues trigger the cessation of diapause, the beginning of breeding activity and the movement north. In the case of the western population, the dispersal proceeds in a westerly and northwesterly direction. During this process, roosting sites sometimes move and the monarchs move to lower elevations. Rising temperatures and increasing daylengths influence the initiation of the northward migration. Temperature also has an effect. Mated females leave the overwintering sites before the males. Monarchs travelling north do not form roosts. [10] Rates of recolonization [ edit ] Rates of recolonization have remained steady between 1997 and 2011. The recolonization of the breeding grounds in the United States and Canada is a two generation process. The pattern of recolonization of the northern breeding areas has not changed since monitoring began in 1997. The timetables of the re-colonization range is not correlated to the censuses of overwintering monarchs in Mexico. [30] Migration routes [ edit ] Generally speaking, the eastern population migrates from southern Canada and the Midwest United States almost directly south toward Mexico. Monarchs from the Northeast tend to migrate in a southwesterly direction. Monarchs transplanted from the midwest to the east coast began migrating directly south but then reoriented their path to the southwest in one study. Geographical features affect the migration route. [52] In general, the western population of monarchs migrates from areas west of the Rocky Mountains including northern Canada to California. Australian monarchs that migrate travel from the west to eastern regions closer to the Pacific. Roosting sites [ edit ] During the migration, the eastern and western populations tend to group together during the migration and then at the overwintering sites. These roosts form along the migration routes, and scientists have used these roost locations to map out the flyways of the entire population. [53] [54] Prior to the discovery of the overwintering sites in Mexico, Fred Urquhart observed roosting behavior in south-migrating butterflies in Mexico and Michoacan. He documented 1500 monarchs roosting at lighthouse point Florida. [23] : 88, 305–306 In California, monarchs have been observed roosting in a wide variety of locations: Fremont, Natural Bridges Beach, golf courses, suburban areas. California roosts differ from those in Mexico. Roosts are observed in inland areas and on non-native tree species. [55] Overwintering sites [ edit ] Overwintering sites in California, Northwestern Mexico, Arizona, the Gulf Coast, central Mexico and Florida share the same habitat characteristics: a moderating climatic conditions (thermally stable and frost free), are relatively humid, allow access to drinking water and have the availability of trees on which to roost and avoid predation. California has more than 200 overwintering sites. [56] : 2 Overwintering sites have also been observed in coastal South Carolina along with ovipositing females. [30] On the US East Coast, they have overwintered as far north as Lago Mar, Virginia Beach, Virginia . [57] At least twenty colonies exist in Mexico. [56] : 1 California overwintering sites exist in areas that are developed and are not considered especially forest-like. These sites have been referred to as having a uniform vegetation population of either Monterey pine or eucalyptus trees and are sometimes present in urban areas. Over wintering sites are dynamic in that tagged butterflies are observed in different roosts throughout the winter. [58] Monarchs overwintering along the Gulf Coast and in Florida do not enter diapause and breed year-round. Further information: Monarch butterfly conservation in California Sex ratios [ edit ] An unusual pattern has been observed in the sex ratios of monarchs in the eastern North American population, both during the fall migration and at the overwintering sites in Mexico. Normally during the breeding season, the ratio of males and females is roughly the same, but during the migration the ratio is skewed toward males. This persists during the overwintering period as well, likely because it's the same cohort that advances from migration to the overwintering sites. Scientists have examined records from the overwintering period over 30 years, and found that the skewed sex ratio has grown more pronounced in recent years, perhaps because of a loss of females. [59] The ratio appears to be even more evident in observations of roosting or migrating monarchs, where fewer than 30% of the monarchs are females. [60] Population and migratory study methods [ edit ] Urquharts population assessments Western monarch populations 1997–2013 from Xerces data These are tags used to attach to the wings of monarch butterflies to study their migration. The circular tags are presently used (2014) and the green tags were used in the past by Monarch Watch - the University of Kansas Population counts \"dramatically\" vary year to year. [61] The cause of the variations are attributed to natural occurrences, [37] different methods used to count migrating butterflies, [30] and man-made changes to the habitat. The validity of the population census at overwintering sites in North America is questioned. The discrepancy between migrating populations and populations present at the overwintering sites suggests a significant adult mortality during the migration. [62] The Commission for Environmental Cooperation has determined that population variations require a long-term and large scale monitoring effort [61] Population estimates of adults, or of eggs and larva, and milkweed abundance, should correlate with the censuses at the overwintering sites. Data are currently unavailable at this time to determine these censuses but a current study by The Monarch Larva Monitoring Project is designed to determine whether or not population censuses in Mexico match the population censuses in the Midwestern United States and Canada. [63] Mark and recapture [ edit ] This is the technique whereby a sample of the population is captured, tagged, and returned to the original location. After the tagged monarchs are released they are later re-captured. This procedure allows the determination of the total populations since the recaptured monarchs are directly proportional to the number in the whole population. An estimate of the total population size can be obtained by dividing the number of marked individuals by the proportion of marked individuals in the second sample. This method of population determination is useful because it is not practical to count all the individuals in the population. Other names for this method, or closely related methods, include capture-recapture, capture-mark-recapture, mark-recapture, sight-resight, mark-release-recapture, multiple systems estimation, band recovery, the Petersen method and the Lincoln method. [64] has been used to estimate the number of butterflies remigrating to Florida in the spring and overwintering in California. [65] [66] Butterfly counts [ edit ] Monarch butterfly counts can be compared to bird counts . During a butterfly count , individuals and organized groups count the numbers of butterflies that they observe during a discrete time period and within a predetermined area. The western population of monarchs are counted during their 'Thanksgiving Butterfly Count'. [67] Methods differ but can include consistent observations of butterflies traversing areas within predetermined limits, presumably along the migratory route measured in butterflies/hour sometimes with recording vectors. Data collected are likely to be accurate and become more accurate with the increasing number of samples. [8] Concentrations of migrating monarchs are consistently monitored by Cape May Bird Observatory, [68] Peninsula Point Light , Michigan , and Point Pelee National Park , Ontario, Canada. Butterfly counts of monarchs serve many purposes. The results of the counts allow the determination of the range of the monarch. This includes what is known as 'accidental sightings'; sightings that occur out of the normally established range. Determining the range will reveal the expansion or contraction of the butterfly's normal range. The range of the monarch does vary year. Another result that is obtained during the butterfly count of the monarch is an estimate of the butterflies population. Butterfly counts of the monarch reflect effects of weather on the range and populations. Habitat change can impact a count; many assess habitat changes in the range of the monarch based upon the counts. The ratio of monarchs to other species observed during a count provides information about habitat changes. Publicized butterfly counts can generate interest. [69] [70] Monarch butterfly counts from 1979-1990 revealed fluctuations. Some of these are attributed to severe weather effects, El Nino Southern Oscillation and volcanic eruption. [69] Migrating monarchs tend to congregate and form roosts on peninsulas that point south. Monitoring programs count the number of monarchs in roosts that develop along the migration route. Monitoring data from multiple sites correlate. [71] Protocols used to conduct the censuses include: Driving Census Walking Census Roosting Counts Hawk-watch Observations [72] Aerial and satellite observations [ edit ] The condition of the Mexican forest habitats and progression of deforestation of overwintering roosts can be observable via satellite imagery . These images show the changes in and around the overwintering areas. Efforts to visual the satellite images for actual presence of the roosts of butterflies have not been successful. Small aircraft were used in one study, allowing views of the colonies. Aerial assessments of the areas surrounding the colonies revealed the presence of potential areas of colonization. After these efforts the costs out-weighed the benefits of high-altitude aerial photography. It was determined to be time-consuming and expensive and did not allow a reliable method for identifying or conducting a census of the colonies. [70] [73] Direct observations [ edit ] Direct observation was the primary method used when monarch migration studies began. [74] These past sightings and recovery of tagged butterflies is information cited in publications even up to 2014. Direct observations are performed by laypeople, scientists and those residing close to overwintering sites. Types of data collected [ edit ] Direct observation usually means that an observer records data while the butterfly is one stage of its migration. This can include: Historical accounts. [17] flight vectors densities appearance in the northern breeding range appearance in overwintering sites location of overwintering sites wing condition sex size roosts butterfly counts (butterfly sightings/minute) emergence of host plants local frosts estimations of populations and densities wind direction cloud cover parasite loads latitude/longitude Use of data and availability [ edit ] Recorded, anecdotal information is most often submitted to the sponsoring organization. Data has significantly accumulated over the years and is used by researchers. Scientific observations are sometimes treated like proprietary information and are not available to the public or other researchers. [61] [75] [76] Observers have begun to record their sightings via Google maps. [77] Observers [ edit ] Main article: Citizen science Most observers are laypersons (trained and untrained), individuals identified with the term ' citizen scientist ' but also called \"amateur naturalists\". [78] Anecdotal information by observers has been criticized and labelled as not \"good science\" and \"not science at all\". [78] Conservation organizations and scientists use observations in their research. Those who participate in organized butterfly counts also provide valid observations. Some regions in Texas are located in the flight path during the migration and the patterns, distributions, and populations are recorded by observers there. [79] Tagging [ edit ] Tagging was done as early as 1796 on silk moths by Indian silk producers. It was discovered that the moths would migrate up to 100 miles (160 km). Prior to the tagging activity of Fred Urquart, other methods of monarch tagging included wing incisions, spots arrangements, colored spots, spraying with dyes, painted letters and numbers. The reason these methods resulted in no information about the migration was because there were no instructions to return or at least record the recovery. [23] : 279 Many organizations currently use tagging to study migration. [80] [81] [82] Monarch tagging is a popular educational project for students. [83] Captive/commercially bred monarchs have been known to migrate to overwintering sites in Mexico, [84] although their success rate is much lower than it is for wild monarchs. [85] Scientists who study monarch migration have utilized monarch tagging records to answer a number of questions about monarch migration biology. A study from South Carolina showed, through tagging records, that monarchs with smaller and/or damaged wings tend to remain longer at stopover sites, which leads to them falling behind in the migration. [86] Another study used tagging records to show how monarchs tagged in areas along the Atlantic coast have a lower migration success rate than do those tagged at inland locations. [87] Collectively, the conservation value of tagging data are vast, yet one scientist argued that these data remain largely untapped. [88] Monarch tagging allows scientists to assess migration directions and speeds, by comparing the timing of the initial tag date and the date and location of the subsequent recovery of the tagged individual. For example: A tagged monarch in Lincoln, Nebraska , was recovered in Paullina, Iowa , 158 miles in 18 days. [89] A tagged monarch in Geneva, Kentucky, was recovered in Lindsborg, Kansas , some 550 miles west of its origin, and was considered \"the most unusual migrant\" of the 1998 season (most migration is north-south). [90] The official record for the longest tag-recovery is for a monarch tagged by Don Davis, from Ontario, Canada. This record is listed in the Guinness Book of Records for the longest insect migration. [91] It was a monarch tagged in southern Ontario during the fall of 1988, that traveled to Mexico and then north again in the spring where it was recovered in Texas, for a grand total of 4,635 km (2,880 miles). This record assumed the monarch traveled to Mexico and back north in the spring. Also, the straight line distance from the tag site to the overwintering site was 3,429 km (2,131 miles). In fall 2015, a new (unofficial) record was set by a tagger from Nova Scotia, Canada - Larry bogan, who tagged a monarch that was recovered in Mexico, for a distance of 4,330 km (2,690 miles). One monarch researcher argues the Nova Scotia monarch should be the record-holder, since its one-way migration was longer than the Ontario monarch's. [92] While the practice of transferring monarchs from place to place is generally not condoned by scientists, some reciprocal transfers of tagged monarchs have demonstrated that monarchs from east of the Rocky Mountains will migrate south if transferred west, in the range of the western population (rather than SW). Monarchs transferred from Nebraska to Oregon will also migrate south. [93] New methods of studying the migration include the use of VHF transmitters and commercial aircraft. [94] Isotopic tagging has been employed. [95] [96] Migratory theory mechanisms [ edit ] Further information: animal navigation Theories that explain monarch migration are many. \"Science has not yet offered a sufficient explanation for how that [the migration] happens.\" [97] Researchers often propose that multiple migratory mechanisms play a role. Not all who study monarch migration agree on the mechanisms that allow the migrating butterflies to find overwintering sites. Instinct [ edit ] It is proposed that the ability to find overwintering sites in California and Mexico is an inherited trait. It has also been called a genetic memory. [98] The possibility of an inherited map has been posited suggesting that the butterflies may follow streams and recognize landmarks. [99] [100] [101] Other studies provide evidence against the theory of an inherited map. [102] Geographical features [ edit ] Migration theories take into account the terrain monarchs encounter during their migration. Mountains, rivers, lakes and oceans are credited with influencing the migration. [37] Large roosts of migrating monarchs are often formed at a locations that act as obstacles impeding their movement S/SW. Roosting butterflies are thought to form these roosts to wait for ideal weather conditions that will aid them in crossing these landforms, such as lack of rain, temperature, tailwinds, and sunlight. Some years the roosting sites form predictably and consistently year to year. In other instances, roosting sites form in new areas on a transient basis. A roost of migrating monarchs can contain as few as four and as many as thousands. Other geographic features such as the Appalachian Mountains and the Sierra Madres in Mexico 'funnel' the migration, orienting it to the S/SW. [52] [102] One monarch tagged in Ontario was recovered on an oil rig 100 miles south of Galveston, Texas. [103] Chemical markers [ edit ] One recent hypothesis suggests that monarchs may be chemically marking certain trees, using an unknown substance and so orienting themselves when they return the following winter. [104] Position of the sun [ edit ] Further information: Sun compass in animals The migratory patterns may be based on the position of the sun in the sky including its angle and spectrum changes that occur near the end of the summer breeding season. [105] [106] The proposed Sun compass depends upon a circadian clock based in their antennae. [107] [108] The antennae contain cryptochrome , a photoreceptor protein sensitive to the violet-blue part of the light spectrum. In the presence of violet or blue light, it can function as a chemical compass. [109] [110] Other theories [ edit ] The Colombus Hypothesis is another theory that accounts for the phenomena of the mass migration of the eastern population of the monarch by examining historical records. This theory discusses how many butterflies engage in mass movements to expand their range [111] or relieve pressure on their habitat. [21] According to this theory, the eastern population did not have such an extensive range and did not migrate. Historical observations of animal life during the colonial period in America make no mention of monarch butterflies. Observations of monarchs began and seemed to be related to the deforestation of the Northeast. Monarchs were presumably residents of subtropical and tropical areas but began to move north to breed on the increased numbers of larval host plants that replaced the deforested areas. [112] Populations found in other regions do not migrate over such long distances (in Australia, for example) This may suggest that the migratory behavior of the eastern population of the monarch butterfly developed after other populations of monarchs had become established in other regions. [113] Another theory denies the existence of the mass migration, but instead explains the movements of monarchs in the fall to weather conditions : In the fall, monarch adults in Canada and the upper Midwest likely receive an environmental trigger (change in photoperiod or seasonal cold snap) and cease egg laying. When the main jets stream moves south out of Canada, high and low pressure cells become carried across extreme southern Canada and later across the US. At that time, monarchs need merely rise on thermals during clearing conditions and become carried toward the South out of the region in which they were reared. If they have reached sufficient altitude in their ride on thermals, the north winds can carry some of them considerable distance towards Mexico.\" Adrian Wenner, professor emeritus of natural history at the University of California, Santa Barbara [78] Wenner goes on to say that monarchs were found in Mexico in the winter simply because people expected they would be there. He contends that monarchs may be in other places, but just haven't been found yet. Extinction [ edit ] Main article: Monarch butterfly § Range The range of the monarch is worldwide and while monarch butterflies are not endangered as a species, the migration of the eastern North American population may be an endangered phenomenon. [114] The media consistently reports that the monarch is endangered of becoming extinct . [115] [116] [117] Media reports of the monarch becoming extinct have been criticized by scientists. \"Monarchs are not in danger of extinction,\" states Lincoln Brower , a monarch conservation researcher. [118] [119] Conservation [ edit ] Monitoring and conservation organizations can be organized by their efforts directed to each of the four stages in the monarch life cycle. [120] \"We have a lot of habitat in this country but we are losing it at a rapid pace. Development is consuming 6,000 acres a day, a loss of 2.2 million acres per year. Further, the overuse of herbicides along roadsides and elsewhere is turning diverse areas that support monarchs, pollinators, and other wildlife into grass-filled landscapes that support few species. The adoption of genetically modified soybeans and corn have further reduced monarch habitat. If these trends continue, monarchs are certain to decline, threatening the very existence of their magnificent migration.\" O.R. Taylor [121] The winter roosts in both Mexico and California were declared to be threatened phenomena by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in the IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. [122] Historical conservation regulations began when the residents of Pacific Grove, CA passed an ordinance prohibiting the disturbance of the \"peaceful occupation of the Monarch butterflies\". [23] Adult mortality [ edit ] Unknown factors that impact the numbers of migrating monarchs requires more research. Culling may occur during the migration due to high counts of infection with the parasite ' Ophryocystis elektroscirrha '. [123] This parasite is known to cause reductions in flying ability, [124] thus infected monarchs have a reduced chance of reaching the overwintering sites. Another source of mortality during migration is death from car-strikes. One researcher examined all evidence from the scientific literature on this and concluded that hundreds of millions of monarchs die on roadways each fall. [125] Overwintering sites [ edit ] Work to protect the overwintering sites in Mexico began before 1975 and were initiated by local residents. Populations of overwintering monarchs in Mexico have been declining. It is expected that the numbers of monarchs will increase this winter (2014–15) due to favorable conditions that existed during the early spring migration and throughout the summer. [126] Gulf Coast areas and Florida Overwintering sites exist along the Gulf Coast states and in Florida. [ citation needed ] Mexico Periodic disasters at the Mexican overwintering sites are the main reason for the population decline. Some sites have experienced losses of 30% to 90% during storms. [122] [127] Conservation efforts in and around the overwintering sites include the planting of native tree species on which the monarchs prefer to roost. [128] California Main article: Monarch butterfly conservation in California Overwintering monarchs in California have shown to have a slight preference to roost on native species but will also consistently choose introduced eucalyptus species, even when native species are present. [129] Roosting sites in California are typically located close to the coastline, though some have been found further inland. [130] Reductions in milkweed and agricultural regions of the United States [ edit ] Some conservationists blame the reductions in monarch overwintering numbers in Mexico on the loss of milkweeds in the Midwestern region of the United States. 167 million acres of monarch habitat has been lost since 1996. [131] These conservationists argue that the reduction in milkweed habitat in agricultural regions of North America is a major cause of the declines in the number of monarchs that reach Mexico. [132] [133] However, other top researchers doubt this claim, because it is not consistent with data collected by several long-term butterfly monitoring programs in the United States. The data from these programs do not show evidence that the numbers of breeding adult monarchs has declined since the 1990s. [134] Despite this evidence, some conservationists cite the use of pesticides and herbicides as a cause of the declines in overwintering monarchs. They state that prior to the introduction of genetically altered corn and soybeans, milkweed was common in the crop fields. The connection between the use of GMO crops and the decline in the numbers of overwintering monarchs has been called 'suggestive but not conclusive', as there are other factors such as deforestation and weather events that could be the cause. [135] Milkweed habitat is also destroyed by the expansion of urban and suburban areas. [136] Based on the recent evidence that failed to show declines in the breeding season, coupled with the clear declines in the number of overwintering monarchs in Mexico, some of the leading monarch researchers have embraced the theory that the problem must lie en route to Mexico, i.e. that losses during migration is the reason that fewer monarchs are seen in Mexico in recent years. Conservationists also call attention to the decreased habitat that allows the growth of nectaring plants. [127] [137] [138] [139] Other threats [ edit ] Factors that have a negative effect on the migration are extreme weather, including colder winters in central Mexico, droughts in Texas, invasive (non—milkweed )flora on which monarchs lay eggs and the increased use of synthetic insecticides that are less biodegradable. [140] Conservation programs [ edit ] There are many organizations and programs existing to promote the preservation of the monarch and its migration. Health monitoring contributes to conservation by studying the health of butterflies in all or various stages of its life cycle. Habitat restoration contributes to conservation by planting larval food plants, nectaring plants and overwinter plants necessary for winter survival. Policy contributes to the conservation by coordination of efforts across governmental and non-governmental organizations Reserves protect habitat for the butterfly. Education contributes to the conservation of the monarch by raising awareness and participation in conservation activities. Censuses of the monarch provide information regarding the migration routes, relative population comparisons between different populations. Grants are given and received to help foster new conservation programs and to fund research. Research provides information regarding the butterfly and its migration. Citizen science participation involves activities by lay-persons to promote conservation. Tagging and then recapturing monarchs provides information useful to provide information on migration. Regulations exit to protect the butterfly and its habitat Economic development promotes the development of alternative sources of income around Mexican overwintering sites to prevent the harvesting of trees used by overwintering butterflies Repository is the accumulated data produced by scientists and citizen scientists. Available to public indicates whether this data are shared freely to the public. Organization or political entities Monarch conservation programs Database Health monitoring Habitat restoration Policy Reserve Education Censuses Grants-Rec'd or Granted Research Citizen science participation Tagging Regulation Economic Development Repository Available to public Monarch Watch ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Monarch Joint Venture ♦ Association for butterflies ♦ ♦ G ♦ ♦ Project Monarch Health ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Pollinator Partnership ♦ ♦ ♦ UNESCO [141] ♦ ♦ La Naturaleza Nos Llama ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ National Park System ♦ ♦ ♦ [142] ♦ Executive Order - Presidential Memorandum [143] ♦ ♦ Xerces ♦ ♦ ♦ R ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Volunteer Match ♦ ♦ ♦ Iowa Department of Natural Resources Iowa Prairie Resource Center ♦ ♦ ♦ California State Park system ♦ ♦ City ordinance of Capitola, California ♦ ♦ ♦ The Coastal Zone Management Act, California [144] ♦ ♦ Assessment and Status Report, Canada ♦ ♦ Monarch Butterfly Fund ♦ G Forest For Monarchs ♦ [145] R ♦ Larson Juhl ♦ ♦ Monarch Ecology Fund ♦ Plantit ♦ Global Climate Summit California Environmental Protection Agency ♦ ♦ G USDA ♦ ♦ Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales ♦ ♦ G ♦ ♦ Texas Milkweeds and Monarchs ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Wild Ones Wild for Monarchs ♦ ♦ Notes Proposed policies to conserve the migration [ edit ] Much discussion exists concerning what actions may benefit the migration. Efforts to preserve this phenomenon include: continued discussion via the Trilateral Committee for Wildlife and Ecosystem Conservation and Management Summit to organize continent wide conservation actions [146] Reforestation of overwintering habitat in Mexico. [147] Promote the Farm Service Agency Conservation Reserve Program in which enrolled farmers receive yearly payments for removing environmentally sensitive areas from production and to promote species of plants that improve habitat. [148] the formation of specific organizations to educate the public about the migration and monarch biology [149] the study of the effects of diseases, parasites and predators on populations [150] limiting activities at the overwintering sites (logging, tourism), [52] [151] payments to local residents to monitor forest habitats [52] mass planting of milkweed and nectar plants. Concerned individuals governmental agencies, and organizations have made efforts to restore milkweed habitats to provide nectar and food plants. [152] [153] [154] [155] [156] [157] studies that involve the participation of citizen-scientists who monitor and apply tags to migrating monarchs the lobbying of lawmakers, corporations, highway departments, utilities and policy-makers to preserve habitat [158] [159] [160] the creation of media (websites, magazine articles, art, newspapers, movies, children's books, documentaries, educational curricula) that provides information about monarch migration. [ citation needed ] Economic influences related to the migration phenomena [ edit ] Tourism around the overwintering sites in Mexico and California provides income for those who provide such services. [161] Residents near the overwintering sites are concerned that their children do not have enough to eat so they are forced to continue illegal logging. Other residents take advantage of the months butterflies overwinter near their homes. Though they consider themselves quite poor, it is possible for them to generate enough income to last them through the year acting as guides, providing lodging and meals, selling crafts and souvenirs. Overwintering monarchs roost in trees on privately owned land. Laws and regulations regarding the protection of the overwintering sites and habitat override the interests of land owners, farmer' cooperatives and local governing bodies. In 1986, Mexico created sanctuaries for the winter months. Sections of the forest were closed to the local people who depended on lumber for their income. Small-scale logging operations continued though illegal. Conservation organizations pay residents to patrol the forest. [52] Contributions are solicited to fund programs that support monarch conservation efforts. [162] [163] Some donations to conservation programs are directed toward fundraising for the organization. [164] Politics [ edit ] The scientific and conservation efforts require the involvement of the United States, Canada and Mexico. This has resulted in the formation of the North American Monarch Conservation plan. Conservation plans in Mexico have been suggested to be deficient. [165] Conservation has both practical and theoretical components, with the former often having little to do with science or biology. Education shapes attitudes, a sympathetic populace lobbies government, regulations are instituted, and where possible, land is set aside as reserves. Joel Berger, University of Nevada [166] Affected people groups [ edit ] Indigenous people groups, residents, farmers and landowners surrounding the overwintering sites have made statements about their dissatisfaction with the involvement of Canadian and American conservationists concerning the enforcement of restricting the use of lands in and around preserves. Sustainable development in the areas surrounding overwintering colonies has been identified as a major factor in conservation efforts. It refers to the substitution of economic activities that have a negative effect on conservation efforts with economic opportunities that have a positive effect on conservation goals. Mexican communities have expressed concern with the limitations placed on their use of land and resources. Conservation proposals are met with 'little enthusiasm' if not inclusive of local interests. [56] [167] [168] [169] Sustainable development and conservation today is a problem of marketing and financing, with real numbers and real mechanisms-not of good intentions. - Roberto Solis, Instituto Nacional de Ecologia, Mexico [56] : 11 Animal research in conservation has a role but it has little significance unless sociological, economic and political issues are satisfactorily resolved. [166] Access to overwintering colonies is tightly controlled by Mexico and monitored by Profepa, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), local and international volunteers. [170] The world Wildlife Fund pays for the salaries of enforcement officers. [52] Presidential memorandum and national strategy [ edit ] On June 20, 2014, President Barack Obama issued a presidential memorandum entitled \"Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators\". The memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency , and stated: The number of migrating Monarch butterflies sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013–14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration. [143] In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a \"National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators\". The strategy lays out current and planned federal actions to achieve three goals, two of which are: • Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by 2020. • Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships. Many of the priority projects that the National Strategy identifies will focus on the I-35 corridor extending for 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota that provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the monarch's key migration corridor. [171] Efforts to designate the monarch as endangered [ edit ] Both the United States and Canada have taken steps to move closer to providing federal protection for the monarch, although these efforts come with some controversy. In the United States, based on the 20-yr declines seen in the numbers of monarchs that reach Mexico each fall, the Center for Biological Diversity , The Center for Food Safety , The Xerces Society and Lincoln Brower have filed a petition to the Interior Department (USA) to protect the monarch by having it declared as an endangered species . [172] The environmental activist Robert Kennedy has endorsed the petition but has said the designation should be 'threatened', not 'endangered'. Critics state monarchs are not threatened and do not need Federal protection. Listing the monarch could divert funding take attention away from rarer species at greater risk of extinction. Critics also are concerned about what the petition does not say. ... it could create a backlash. Fear of regulation, he said, could make landowners into opponents. He pointed out the petition calls for the \"designation of critical habitat\" via the powers of the act, but doesn't spell out what that means. Chip Taylor, Monarch Watch [173] In fall 2016, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada recently proposed that the monarch be listed as endangered in Canada, as opposed to its current listing as a 'species of concern' in that country. This move, once enacted, would protect critical monarch habitat in Canada, such as major fall accumulation areas in southern Ontario, but it would also have implications for citizen scientists who work with monarchs, and for classroom activities. If the monarch were federally protected in Canada, these activities could be limited, or require federal permits. [174] Scientific community [ edit ] Not all researchers are in consensus regarding lobbying for federal government intervention, population censuses, [63] steps to take to conserve the migration, and the possible endangered status of the monarch. They have been critical of the data generated by citizen scientists calling it 'inappropriate'. Differences in opinions by researchers are common. [63] Some researchers have been critical of each other for not making their data available to the public and to each other. [175] [62] [61] Like all scientific research, opinions are voiced, sometimes explicitly. One scientistist is critical of the first tagging efforts by Fred Urquhart calling it an \"amateurish self-serving approach to biology that isn't science\". [78] Another researcher denies that the monarch migrates but instead is greatly affected by weather conditions to head south. [78] Local governments [ edit ] Local governments are considering legislation to provide habitat for migrating monarchs. [176] See also [ edit ] Conservation biology Lepidoptera migration Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Peninsula Point Light , Michigan Catalina Trail References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b Brower 1977 , p. 52. ^ Jump up to: a b Pyle 1981 , pp. 712–713. Jump up ^ Morris, Gail. \"Status of Danaus plexippus in Arizona\" (PDF) . Southwest Monarch Study . Retrieved 2016-01-09 . Jump up ^ Morris, Gail M.; Klein, Christopher; Morris, Scott M. (2015). \"Status of Danaus plexippus population in Arizona\" (PDF) . Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society . 69 (2): 91–107. doi : 10.18473/lepi.69i2.a10 . Retrieved 2016-01-09 . 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White Paper Prepared for the Xerces Society . Jump up ^ Marriott, David. \"Where To See The Monarchs In California\" (PDF) . Monarch Watch . The Monarch Program . Retrieved 29 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Taylor, Chip (January 29, 2014). \"Monarch Population Status\" . Monarch Watch . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"The lonely flight of the monarch butterfly\" . NewsAdvance.com, Lynchburg, Virginia Area . Retrieved 2014-10-07 . Jump up ^ \"Monarch Butterfly's Reign Threatened by Milkweed Decline\" . National Geographic Society . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ Inamine, Hidetoshi; Ellner, Stephen P.; Springer, James P.; Agrawal, Anurag A. (2016). \"Linking the continental migratory cycle of the monarch butterfly to understand its population decline\". Oikos. 125 (8): 1081. doi:10.1111/oik.03196 Jump up ^ \"Are GMOs causing monarch butterflies to become extinct?\" . Tampa Bay times . Retrieved 2015-03-10 . Jump up ^ Taylor, Chip (January 29, 2014). \"Monarch Population Status\" . Monarch Watch . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"Monarch Butterfly\" . The Native Plant Herald . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"Monarch ESA Petition - Center for Biological Diversity\" (PDF) . Center for biological diversity . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"Monarchs in Migration : The Humane Society of the United States\" . the Humane Society . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ Drouin, Roger. \"Monarch Butterflies at the Center of a Continent-Wide Conservation Effort\" . Scientific American . Retrieved 2014-10-08 . Jump up ^ United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural organization Jump up ^ This includes more than acres 1273.51 acres in national monuments and 23,019,204 acres in national parks ^ Jump up to: a b Obama, President Barack (2014-06-20). \"Presidential Memorandum -- Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators\" . Office of the Press Secretary . Washington, D.C.: The White House . Archived from the original on 2014-07-02 . Retrieved 2015-06-02 . Jump up ^ cities and counties are required to develop legislative Local Coastal areas and programs Jump up ^ Reforestation of monarch reserve areas in Mexico Jump up ^ Drouin, Roger. \"Monarch Butterflies at the Center of a Continent-Wide Conservation Effort\" . Scientific American . Retrieved 2014-10-08 . Jump up ^ \"Forests For Monarchs-Reforestation Program, Mexico\" . Forests For Monarchs . Retrieved 2014-10-17 . Jump up ^ \"Conservation Reserve Program\" . US Department of Agriculture, Farm service agency . Retrieved 2014-10-08 . Jump up ^ \"Education Programs\" . The Monarch Program . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"Monarch Larva Monitoring Project\" . University of Minnesota . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"The lonely flight of the monarch butterfly\" . NewsAdvance.com, Lynchburg, Virginia Area . Retrieved 2014-10-07 . Jump up ^ \"Habitat For Arthropods\" . Jump up ^ \"Monarch Waystations\" . Retrieved March 25, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"North American Leaders Urged to Restore Monarch Butterfly's Habitat\" . Retrieved March 25, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Project Milkweed\" . Retrieved June 29, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"The lonely flight of the monarch butterfly\" . NewsAdvance.com, Lynchburg, Virginia Area . Retrieved 2014-10-07 . Jump up ^ \"CMBG becomes 'Monarch Butterfly Waystation ' \" . The Times Record . Retrieved 2014-10-08 . Jump up ^ \"Monarch Habitat Development on Utility Rights of Way\" (PDF) . TransCanada, Wildlife Habitat Council, Monarch Joint Venture, Monarch Watch, North American Pollinator Protection Campaign, Pollinator Partnership, United States Forest Service . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"Petition to protect the Monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus plexippus ) under the endangered species act\" (PDF) . Xerces Society . Retrieved September 1, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Saving Monarch Butterflies\" . AdkAction.org . Retrieved 2014-10-06 . Jump up ^ \"Petition to protect the Monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus plexippus ) under the endangered species act\" (PDF) . Xerces Society. p. 12 . Retrieved September 1, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Donations\" . Retrieved August 26, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Monarch Butterflies\" . The Xerces Society For Invertebrate Conservation . Retrieved September 4, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"The Xerces Society, Inc., Notes To Financial Statements\" (PDF) . The Xerces Society For Invertebrate Conservation. December 31, 2013 . Retrieved September 4, 2014 . Jump up ^ Oberhauser 2009 , p. 4. ^ Jump up to: a b Berger, Joel (1994). \"Science, Conservation, and Black Rhinos\". Journal of Mammalogy . 75 (2): 298. doi : 10.2307/1382548 . JSTOR 1382548 . Jump up ^ Ramírez, Maria Isabel; Azcárate, Joaquín G.; Luna, Laura (2003). \"Effects of human activities on Monarch Butterfly habitat in protected mountain forests, Mexico\" . Forestry Chronicle . Canadian Institute of Forestry. 79 (2): 242–246. doi : 10.5558/tfc79242-2 . Retrieved 2014-10-10 . Jump up ^ Tucker, Catherine (2004). \"Community Institutions and Forest Management in Mexico's Monarch Butterfly Reserve\" . Society and Natural Resources . Routledge. 17 (7): 569–587. doi : 10.1080/08941920490466143 . ISSN 1521-0723 . Retrieved 2014-10-10 . Jump up ^ \"Región Mariposa Monarca\" [Monarch Butterfly Region] (in Spanish). Mexico: World Wildlife Fund Mexico. 2007 . Retrieved December 19, 2010 . Jump up ^ Oberhauser 2009 , p. 32. Jump up ^ Pollinator Health Task Force (2015-05-19). \"National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators\" (PDF) . Washington, D.C.: The White House . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-21 . Retrieved 2015-05-30 . Jump up ^ \"Petition to protect the Monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus plexippus ) under the endangered species act\" (PDF) . Xerces Society . Retrieved September 1, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"The lonely flight of the monarch butterfly\" . Lynchburg, Virginia: NewsAdvance.com . Retrieved 2014-10-07 . Jump up ^ http://akdavis6.wixsite.com/monarchscience/single-post/2016/12/18/Monarchs-to-be-listed-as-endangered-in-Canada---is-this-the-beginning-of-the-end-for-citizen-science Jump up ^ Brower et al. 1995 , p. 544. Jump up ^ \"Dwindling monarch butterflies in Cape May County has legislators worried\" . pressofAtlanticCity.com: Upper Cape May . Retrieved 2014-10-08 . Bibliography [ edit ] Books Halpern, Sue (2002). Four Wings and a Prayer . Kindle edition. New York, New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-307-78720-0 . Oberhauser, Karen S. ; Batalden, Rebecca; Howard, Elizabeth (2009). Monarch Butterfly Monioring in North America: Overviews and Protocols . Montreal, Quebec: The Commission for Environmental Cooperation. ISBN 978-2-923358-56-7 . Retrieved September 17, 2014 . Oberhauser, Karen S.; Solensky, Michelle J (2004). The Monarch Butterfly: Biology and Conservation (First ed.). Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4188-2 . Pyle, Robert Michael (2014). Chasing monarchs: Migrating with the butterflies of passage . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-20387-5 . Pyle, Robert Michael (2010). Mariposa Road:the first butterfly big year . New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-618-94539-9 . Pyle, Robert Michael (1981). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies . New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-51914-2 . Journals Brower, Lincoln (1977). \"Monarch Migration\". Natural History . 85 (6). Brower, Lincoln P.; Fink, Linda S.; Brower, Andrew Van Zandt; Leong, Kingston; Oberhauser, Karen; Altizer, Sonia; Taylor, Orley; Vickerman, Danel; Calvert, William H.; Van Hook, Tonya; Alonso-Mejia, Alphonso; Malcolm, Stephen B.; Owen, Denis F.; Zalucki, Myron P. (September 1995). \"On the dangers of interpopulational transfers of monarch butterflies\". BioScience . 45 (8): 540–544. doi : 10.2307/1312699 . JSTOR 1312699 . Davis, Andrew K. (June 20, 2011). \"Are migratory monarchs really declining in easteren North America\". Insect Conservation and Diversity . 5 (2): x. doi : 10.1111/j.1752-4598.2011.00158.x . Davis, Andrew K. (2014). \"Opinion: conservation of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) could be enhanced with analyses and publication of citizen science tagging data\". Insect Conservation and Diversity . 8 (2): 103–106. doi : 10.1111/icad.12084 . External links [ edit ] Journey North Forests For Monarchs, Mexico MonarchScience A blog from a leading monarch scientist focusing on latest research around monarchs Wikimedia Commons has media related to Danaus plexippus . Wikispecies has information related to Danaus plexippus Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monarch_butterfly_migration&oldid=816155637 \" Categories : Animal migration Danaus (genus) Insects of North America Hidden categories: CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from August 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014 Commons category without a link on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 19 December 2017, at 17:08. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view Enable previews", "title": "Monarch butterfly migration", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Monarch_butterfly_migration&amp;oldid=816155637" }

{ "text": "List of Prime Ministers of India - Wikipedia List of Prime Ministers of India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Narendra Modi is the current (14th) Prime Minister of India , since 26 May 2014. The Prime Minister of India is the chief executive of the Government of India . In India's parliamentary system , the Constitution names the President as head of state de jure , but his or her de facto executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers . Appointed and sworn-in by the President, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party or alliance that has a majority in the Lok Sabha , the lower house of India's Parliament . Since 1947, India has had fourteen Prime Ministers, fifteen including Gulzarilal Nanda who twice acted in the role. The first was Jawaharlal Nehru of the Indian National Congress party, who was sworn-in on 15 August 1947, when India gained independence from the British . Serving until his death in May 1964, Nehru remains India's longest-serving prime minister. He was succeeded by fellow Congressman Lal Bahadur Shastri , whose 19-month term also ended in death. Indira Gandhi , Nehru's daughter, succeeded Shastri in 1966 to become the country's first woman premier. Eleven years later, she was voted out of power in favour of the Janata Party , whose leader Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress prime minister. After he resigned in 1979, his former deputy Charan Singh briefly held office until Indira Gandhi was voted back six months later. Indira Gandhi's second stint as Prime Minister ended five years later on the morning of 31 October 1984, when she was gunned down by her own bodyguards. That evening, her son Rajiv Gandhi was sworn-in as India's youngest premier, and the third from his family . Thus far, members of Nehru–Gandhi dynasty have been Prime Minister for a total of 37 years and 303 days. [1] Rajiv's five-year term ended with his former cabinet colleague, V. P. Singh of the Janata Dal , forming the year-long National Front coalition government in 1989. A six-month interlude under Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar followed, after which the Congress party returned to power, forming the government under P. V. Narasimha Rao in June 1991. Rao's five-year term was succeeded by four short-lived governments—the Bharatiya Janata Party 's Atal Bihari Vajpayee for 13 days in 1996, a year each under United Front prime ministers H. D. Deve Gowda and I. K. Gujral , and Vajpayee again for 19 months in 1998–99. After Vajpayee was sworn-in for the third time, in 1999, he managed to lead his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government to a full five-year term, the first non-Congressman to do so. Vajpayee was succeeded by Congressman Manmohan Singh , the first Sikh premier, whose United Progressive Alliance government was in office for 10 years between 2004 and 2014. The incumbent Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi who has headed the BJP-led NDA government since 26 May 2014 which is India's first non-Congress single party majority government. [2] Prime Ministers of India (by state of birth) Contents [ hide ] 1 Key 2 Prime Ministers of India 3 See also 4 References Key [ edit ] Colour key for party of the prime ministers Bharatiya Janata Party Indian National Congress designated Indian National Congress (I) 1977–1996 [3] Janata Dal Janata Party Janata Party (Secular) Samajwadi Janata Party Other key №: Incumbent number † Assassinated or died in office § Returned to office after a previous term RES Resigned NC Resigned following a no-confidence motion Prime Ministers of India [ edit ] № Name (birth–death); constituency Portrait Prior Office Party ( Alliance ) Elected constituency Term of office [4] Elections (Lok Sabha) Ministry Appointed by 1 Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) Indian freedom fighter Indian National Congress Phulpur, Uttar Pradesh 15 August 1947 27 May 1964 [†] 7003613000000000000♠ 16 years, 286 days — Nehru I Lord Mountbatten 1952 ( 1st ) Nehru II Rajendra Prasad 1957 ( 2nd ) Nehru III 1962 ( 3rd ) Nehru IV – Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) (1898–1998) Union Minister of Labour and Employment Indian National Congress Sabarkantha , Gujarat 27 May 1964 9 June 1964 13 days ( 3rd ) ( acting ) Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 2 Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904–1966) Minister of Home Affairs Indian National Congress Allahabad , Uttar Pradesh 9 June 1964 11 January 1966 [†] 7002581000000000000♠ 1 year, 216 days ( 3rd ) Shastri – Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) (1898–1998) Minister of Home Affairs Indian National Congress Sabarkantha , Gujarat 11 January 1966 24 January 1966 13 days ( 3rd ) ( acting ) 3 Indira Gandhi (1917–1984) Minister of Information and Broadcasting Indian National Congress Rajya Sabha MP for Uttar Pradesh 24 January 1966 24 March 1977 7003407700000000000♠ 11 years, 59 days ( 3rd ) I. Gandhi I Prime Minister (Re-elected) Rae Bareli , Uttar Pradesh 1967 ( 4th ) Prime Minister (Re-elected) 1971 ( 5th ) I. Gandhi II V. V. Giri 4 Morarji Desai (1896–1995) Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of India before he resigned in 1969 Janata Party Surat , Gujarat 24 March 1977 28 July 1979 [RES] 7002856000000000000♠ 2 years, 126 days 1977 ( 6th ) Desai B. D. Jatti (acting President) 5 Charan Singh (1902–1987) Minister of Finance Janata Party (Secular) with INC Baghpat , Uttar Pradesh 28 July 1979 14 January 1980 [RES] 170 days – ( 6th ) C. Singh Neelam Sanjiva Reddy (3) Indira Gandhi (1917–1984) Former Prime Minister Indian National Congress (I) Medak , Andhra Pradesh 14 January 1980 [§] 31 October 1984 [†] 7003175200000000000♠ 4 years, 291 days 1980 ( 7th ) I. Gandhi III 6 Rajiv Gandhi (1944–1991) MP for Amethi Indian National Congress (I) Amethi , Uttar Pradesh 31 October 1984 2 December 1989 7003185800000000000♠ 5 years, 32 days ( 7th ) R. Gandhi Zail Singh Former Prime Minister (Re-elected) 1984 ( 8th ) 7 V. P. Singh (1931–2008) Minister of Defence Janata Dal ( National Front ) Fatehpur , Uttar Pradesh 2 December 1989 10 November 1990 [NC] 343 days 1989 ( 9th ) V. P. Singh R. Venkataraman 8 Chandra Shekhar (1927–2007) MP for Ballia Samajwadi Janata Party with INC Ballia , Uttar Pradesh 10 November 1990 21 June 1991 [a] 223 days ( 9th ) Chandra Shekhar 9 P. V. Narasimha Rao (1921–2004) Minister of External Affairs Indian National Congress (I) Nandyal , Andhra Pradesh 21 June 1991 16 May 1996 7003179100000000000♠ 4 years, 330 days 1991 ( 10th ) Rao 10 Atal Bihari Vajpayee (born 1924) Minister of External Affairs Bharatiya Janata Party Lucknow , Uttar Pradesh 16 May 1996 1 June 1996 [RES] 16 days 1996 ( 11th ) Vajpayee I Shankar Dayal Sharma 11 H. D. Deve Gowda (born 1933) Chief Minister of Karnataka Janata Dal ( United Front ) Rajya Sabha MP for Karnataka 1 June 1996 21 April 1997 [RES] 324 days ( 11th ) Deve Gowda 12 Inder Kumar Gujral (1919–2012) Minister of External Affairs Janata Dal ( United Front ) Rajya Sabha MP for Bihar 21 April 1997 19 March 1998 332 days ( 11th ) Gujral (10) Atal Bihari Vajpayee (born 1924) Former Prime Minister Bharatiya Janata Party ( NDA ) Lucknow , Uttar Pradesh 19 March 1998 [§] 22 May 2004 7003225600000000000♠ 6 years, 64 days 1998 ( 12th ) Vajpayee II K. R. Narayanan Former Prime Minister (Re-elected) 1999 ( 13th ) Vajpayee III 13 Manmohan Singh (born 1932) Minister of Finance Indian National Congress ( UPA ) Rajya Sabha MP for Assam 22 May 2004 26 May 2014 7003365600000000000♠ 10 years, 4 days 2004 ( 14th ) M. Singh I A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Former Prime Minister (Re-elected) 2009 ( 15th ) M. Singh II Pratibha Patil 14 Narendra Modi (born 1950) Chief Minister of Gujarat Bharatiya Janata Party ( NDA ) Varanasi , Uttar Pradesh 26 May 2014 [5] Incumbent 7003123500000000000♠ 3 years, 139 days 2014 ( 16th ) Modi Pranab Mukherjee Jump up ^ Shekhar officially resigned as Prime Minister on 13 March 1991, but he and his ministers continued in office until Rao succeeded him See also [ edit ] Government of India portal India portal Prime Minister's Office List of Prime Ministers of India by longevity List of Presidents of India References [ edit ] Jump up ^ \"In India, next generation of Gandhi dynasty\" . Washington Post . Retrieved 2016-12-27 . Jump up ^ Diplomat, Ankit Panda, The. \"BJP, Modi Win Landslide Victory in Indian Elections\" . The Diplomat . Retrieved 2016-12-27 . Jump up ^ \"Indian National Congress\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 21 May 2014 . Jump up ^ \"Former Prime Ministers\" . PM India. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014 . Retrieved 2 January 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Narendra Modi appointed Prime Minister, swearing in on May 26\" . The Times of India . 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . [ show ] v t e Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) Lal Bahadur Shastri Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) Indira Gandhi Morarji Desai Charan Singh Rajiv Gandhi V. P. Singh Chandra Shekhar P. V. Narasimha Rao Atal Bihari Vajpayee H. D. Deve Gowda I. K. Gujral Manmohan Singh Narendra Modi List List by longevity Official residence PM's Office [ show ] v t e Lists of Prime Ministers Lists of Prime Ministers by country Abkhazia Albania Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Bhutan Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Burkina Faso Cambodia Canada Catalonia Congo Croatia Cuba Czech Republic Czechoslovakia Denmark Djibouti Dominica Egypt Equatorial Guinea Fiji Finland France Ghana Great Britain Greece Greenland Grenada Guinea Guyana Haiti Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Jammu and Kashmir Japan Jordan Kampuchea Kazakhstan Korea Kuwait Lebanon Libya Luxembourg Macedonia Madagascar Malaysia Malta Mauritania Mauritius Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Nagorno-Karabakh Nepal Netherlands Netherlands Antilles Newfoundland New Zealand Niger North Korea Northern Cyprus Northern Ireland North Rhine-Westphalia Norway Pakistan Palestine Papua New Guinea Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Prussia Qatar Queen Elizabeth II Queen Victoria Republika Srpska Rhodesia Romania Russia Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa São Tomé and Príncipe Serbia Serbian Krajina Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Korea South Vietnam Soviet Union Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Syria Tajikistan Tanganyika Tanzania Tatarstan Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Vietnam Yugoslavia [ show ] v t e Government ministries of India President ( List ) • Government of India • Prime Minister ( List • Office ) • Deputy Prime Minister • Council of Ministers Current Agriculture and Farmers Welfare AYUSH Chemicals and Fertilizers Civil Aviation Coal Commerce and Industry Communications Consumer Affairs Culture Defence Drinking Water and Sanitation Earth Sciences Electronics and Information Technology Environment, Forest and Climate Change External Affiars Finance Food Processing Industries Health and Family Welfare Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises Home Affairs Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Human Resource Development Information and Broadcasting Labour and Employment Law and Justice Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Mines Minority Affairs New and Renewable Energy North East Panchayati Raj Parliamentary Affairs Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions Petroleum Power Railways Road Transport and Highways Rural Development Science and Technology Shipping Skill Development and Entrepreneurship Social Justice and Empowerment Statistics and Programme Implementation Steel Textiles Tourism Tribal Affairs Urban Development Water Resources Women and Child Development Defunct Communications and Information Technology Overseas Indian Affairs Surface Transport Ministers Home Affairs Finance External Affairs Defence Railways Health and Family Welfare HRD Information and Broadcasting Labour and Employment Parliamentary Affairs Science and Technology Tribal Affairs North Eastern Region Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_India&oldid=804987067 \" Categories : Prime Ministers of India Lists of prime ministers Lists of political office-holders in India Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from May 2013 Use Indian English from May 2013 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية অসমীয়া বাংলা भोजपुरी Deutsch فارسی Français ગુજરાતી हिन्दी Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം नेपाली 日本語 Norsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Português संस्कृतम् Simple English Suomi தமிழ் اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 12 October 2017, at 10:16. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ;\nadditional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view", "title": "List of Prime Ministers of India", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_India&amp;oldid=804987067" }

{ "text": "Mussel - Wikipedia Mussel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search Not to be confused with Muscle . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Mussel A bed of blue mussels, Mytilus edulis , in the intertidal zone in Cornwall , England Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Mollusca Class: Bivalvia Subclasses Pteriomorphia (marine mussels) Palaeoheterodonta (freshwater mussels) Heterodonta ( zebra mussels ) Mussel is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs , from saltwater and freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other edible clams, which are often more or less rounded or oval. The word \"mussel\" is most frequently used to mean the edible bivalves of the marine family Mytilidae , most of which live on exposed shores in the intertidal zone, attached by means of their strong byssal threads (\"beard\") to a firm substrate. [1] A few species (in the genus Bathymodiolus ) have colonised hydrothermal vents associated with deep ocean ridges. In most marine mussels the shell is longer than it is wide, being wedge-shaped or asymmetrical. The external colour of the shell is often dark blue, blackish, or brown, while the interior is silvery and somewhat nacreous . The common name \"mussel\" is also used for many freshwater bivalves, including the freshwater pearl mussels . Freshwater mussel species inhabit lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, canals, and they are classified in a different subclass of bivalves, despite some very superficial similarities in appearance. Freshwater zebra mussels and their relatives in the family Dreissenidae are not related to previously mentioned groups, even though they resemble many Mytilus species in shape, and live attached to rocks and other hard surfaces in a similar manner, using a byssus. They are classified with the Heterodonta , the taxonomic group which includes most of the bivalves commonly referred to as \"clams\". Contents [ hide ] 1 General anatomy 2 Life habits 2.1 Feeding 2.2 Reproduction 2.3 Predators 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Aquaculture 4.1 Culture methods 4.2 Harvest 5 Medical 6 Environmental applications 7 Mussels and nutrient mitigation 8 Conservation 8.1 Freshwater Mussels 9 As food 9.1 Preparation 9.2 Nutrition highlights 10 See also 11 References 12 External links General anatomy [ edit ] Marine blue mussel , Mytilus edulis , showing some of the inner anatomy. The white posterior adductor muscle is visible in the upper image, and has been cut in the lower image to allow the valves to open fully. Play media Flight around a 3D- Rendering of a µCT -Scan of a young Mytilus that is almost completely covered with Balanidae (barnacles). Resolution of the scan is 29µm/ Voxel . The mussel's external shell is composed of two hinged halves or \"valves\". The valves are joined together on the outside by a ligament, and are closed when necessary by strong internal muscles (anterior and posterior adductor muscles). Mussel shells carry out a variety of functions, including support for soft tissues, protection from predators and protection against desiccation. The shell has three layers. In the pearly mussels there is an inner iridescent layer of nacre (mother-of-pearl) composed of calcium carbonate , which is continuously secreted by the mantle; the prismatic layer, a middle layer of chalky white crystals of calcium carbonate in a protein matrix; and the periostracum , an outer pigmented layer resembling a skin. The periostracum is composed of a protein called conchin , and its function is to protect the prismatic layer from abrasion and dissolution by acids (especially important in freshwater forms where the decay of leaf materials produces acids). Like most bivalves, mussels have a large organ called a foot. In freshwater mussels, the foot is large, muscular, and generally hatchet-shaped. It is used to pull the animal through the substrate (typically sand, gravel, or silt) in which it lies partially buried. It does this by repeatedly advancing the foot through the substrate, expanding the end so it serves as an anchor, and then pulling the rest of the animal with its shell forward. It also serves as a fleshy anchor when the animal is stationary. In marine mussels, the foot is smaller, tongue-like in shape, with a groove on the ventral surface which is continuous with the byssus pit. In this pit, a viscous secretion is exuded, entering the groove and hardening gradually upon contact with sea water. This forms extremely tough, strong, elastic, byssal threads that secure the mussel to its substrate allowing it to remain sessile in areas of high flow. [2] The byssal thread is also sometimes used by mussels as a defensive measure, to tether predatory molluscs, such as dog whelks , that invade mussel beds, immobilising them and thus starving them to death. In cooking, the byssus of the mussel is known as the \"beard\" and is removed before the mussels are prepared. Life habits [ edit ] A Mytilus with its byssus clearly showing, at Ocean Beach , San Francisco , California A starfish consuming a mussel in Northern California Feeding [ edit ] Both marine and freshwater mussels are filter feeders ; they feed on plankton and other microscopic sea creatures which are free-floating in seawater. A mussel draws water in through its incurrent siphon. The water is then brought into the branchial chamber by the actions of the cilia located on the gills for ciliary-mucus feeding. The wastewater exits through the excurrent siphon. The labial palps finally funnel the food into the mouth, where digestion begins. Marine mussels are usually found clumping together on wave-washed rocks, each attached to the rock by its byssus. The clumping habit helps hold the mussels firm against the force of the waves. At low tide mussels in the middle of a clump will undergo less water loss because of water capture by the other mussels. Reproduction [ edit ] Both marine and freshwater mussels are gonochoristic , with separate male and female individuals. In marine mussels, fertilization occurs outside the body, with a larval stage that drifts for three weeks to six months, before settling on a hard surface as a young mussel. There, it is capable of moving slowly by means of attaching and detaching byssal threads to attain a better life position. Freshwater mussels reproduce sexually. Sperm is released by the male directly into the water and enters the female via the incurrent siphon. After fertilization, the eggs develop into a larval stage called a glochidium (plural glochidia), which temporarily parasitizes fish, attaching themselves to the fish's fins or gills. Prior to their release, the glochidia grow in the gills of the female mussel where they are constantly flushed with oxygen-rich water. In some species, release occurs when a fish attempts to attack the mussel's minnow or other mantle flaps shaped like prey; an example of aggressive mimicry . Glochidia are generally species-specific, and will only live if they find the correct fish host. Once the larval mussels attach to the fish, the fish body reacts to cover them with cells forming a cyst , where the glochidia remain for two to five weeks (depending on temperature). They grow, break free from the host, and drop to the bottom of the water to begin an independent life. Predators [ edit ] Marine mussels are eaten by humans, starfish , seabirds, and by numerous species of predatory marine gastropods in the family Muricidae , such as the dog whelk , Nucella lapillus . Freshwater mussels are eaten by otters, raccoons, ducks, baboons, humans (off the coast of South Africa) [ further explanation needed ] and geese, although the main cause of mortality is starfish. Distribution and habitat [ edit ] Mussels completely covering rocks in intertidal zone , in Dalian , Liaoning Province , China Marine mussels are abundant in the low and mid intertidal zone in temperate seas globally. [1] Other species of marine mussel live in tropical intertidal areas, but not in the same huge numbers as in temperate zones. Certain species of marine mussels prefer salt marshes or quiet bays, while others thrive in pounding surf, completely covering wave-washed rocks. Some species have colonized abyssal depths near hydrothermal vents . The South African white mussel exceptionally doesn't bind itself to rocks but burrows into sandy beaches extending two tubes above the sand surface for ingestion of food and water and exhausting wastes. Freshwater mussels inhabit permanent lakes, rivers, canals and streams throughout the world except in the polar regions. They require a constant source of cool, clean water. They prefer water with a substantial mineral content, using calcium carbonate to build their shells. Aquaculture [ edit ] Mussel dredgers Bouchots are marine pilings for growing mussels, here shown at an agricultural fair. Bamboo is used for mussel breeding and propagation ( Abucay, Bataan , Philippines ). In 2005, China accounted for 40% of the global mussel catch according to a FAO study. [3] Within Europe, where mussels have been cultivated for centuries, Spain remained the industry leader. Aquaculture of mussels in North America began in the 1970s. [4] In the US, the northeast and northwest have significant mussel aquaculture operations, where Mytilus edulis (blue mussel) is most commonly grown. While the mussel industry in the US has increased, in North America, 80% of cultured mussels are produced in Prince Edward Island in Canada. [5] In Washington State , an estimated 2.9M pounds of mussels were harvested in 2010, valued at roughly $4.3M. [6] Culture methods [ edit ] Longline culture (rope culture) mussel farm in Bay of Kotor , ( Montenegro ). Freshwater mussels are used as host animals for the cultivation of freshwater pearls . Some species of marine mussel, including the Blue mussel ( Mytilus edulis ) and the New Zealand green-lipped mussel ( Perna canaliculus ), are also cultivated as a source of food. In some areas of the world, mussel farmers collect naturally occurring marine mussel seed for transfer to more appropriate growing areas, however, most North American mussel farmers rely on hatchery-produced seed. [4] Growers typically purchase seed after it has set (about 1mm in size) or after it has been nursed in upwellers for 3-6 additional weeks and is 2-3mm. [4] The seed is then typically reared in a nursery environment, where it is transferred to a material with a suitable surface for later relocation to the growing area. After about three months in the nursery, mussel seed is \"socked\" (placed in a tube-like mesh material) and hung on longlines or rafts for grow-out. Within a few days, the mussels migrate to the outside of the sock for better access food sources in the water column. Mussels grow quickly and are usually ready for harvest in less than two years. Unlike other cultured bivalves, mussels use byssus threads (beard) to attach themselves to any firm substrate, which makes them suitable for a number of culture methods. There are a variety of techniques for growing mussels. Bouchot culture: Intertidal growth technique, or bouchot technique: pilings, known in French as bouchots, are planted at sea; ropes, on which the mussels grow, are tied in a spiral on the pilings; some mesh netting prevents the mussels from falling away. This method needs an extended tidal zone. On-bottom culture: On-bottom culture is based on the principle of transferring mussel seed (spat) from areas where they have settled naturally to areas where they can be placed in lower densities to increase growth rates, facilitate harvest, and control predation (Mussel farmers must remove predators and macroalgae during the growth cycle). [7] Raft culture: Raft culture is a commonly used method throughout the world. Lines of rope mesh socks are seeded with young mussels and suspended vertically from a raft. The specific length of the socks depends on depth and food availability. Longline culture (rope culture): Mussels are cultivated extensively in New Zealand, where the most common method is to attach mussels to ropes which are hung from a rope back-bone supported by large plastic floats. The most common species cultivated in New Zealand is the New Zealand green-lipped mussel. Longline culture is the most recent development for mussel culture [7] and are often used as an alternative to raft culture in areas that are more exposed to high wave energy. A long-line is suspended by a series of small anchored floats and ropes or socks of mussels are then suspended vertically from the line. Harvest [ edit ] In roughly 12–15 months, mussels reach marketable size (40mm) and are ready for harvest. Harvesting methods depend on the grow-out area and the rearing method being used. Dredges are currently used for on-bottom culture. Mussels grown on wooden poles can be harvested by hand or with a hydraulic powered system. For raft and longline culture, a platform is typically lowered under the mussel lines, which are then cut from the system and brought to the surface and dumped into containers on a nearby vessel. After harvest, mussels are typically placed in seawater tanks to rid them of impurities before marketing. Cleaning mussels in a mussel farm ( Bay of Kotor , Montenegro ). Medical [ edit ] Byssal threads, used to anchor mussels to substrates, are now recognized as superior bonding agents. A number of studies have investigated mussel \"glues\" for industrial and surgical applications. [8] Additionally byssal threads have provided insight into the construction of artificial tendons. [9] Environmental applications [ edit ] Mussels are widely used as bio-indicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. They are particularly useful since they are distributed worldwide and they are sessile. These characteristics ensure that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed. Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the status of the ecosystem. [10] Mussels and nutrient mitigation [ edit ] Marine nutrient bioextraction is the practice of farming and harvesting marine organisms such as shellfish and seaweed for the purpose of reducing nutrient pollution . Mussels and other bivalve shellfish consume phytoplankton containing nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). On average, one live mussel is 1.0% N and 0.1% P. [11] When the mussels are harvested and removed, these nutrients are also removed from the system and recycled in the form of seafood or mussel biomass, which can be used as an organic fertilizer or animal feed-additive. These ecosystem services provided by mussels are of particular interest to those hoping to mitigate excess anthropogenic marine nutrients, particularly in eutrophic marine systems. While mussel aquaculture is actually promoted in some countries such as Sweden as a water management strategy to address coastal eutrophication, [11] mussel farming as a nutrient mitigation tool is still in its infancy in most parts of the world. Ongoing efforts in the Baltic Sea (Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Poland) and Long Island Sound [12] and Puget Sound [13] in the U.S. are currently examining nutrient uptake, cost-effectiveness, and potential environmental impacts of mussel farming as a means to mitigate excess nutrients and complement traditional wastewater treatment programs. Conservation [ edit ] Freshwater Mussels [ edit ] In the United States and Canada, areas home to the most diverse freshwater mussel fauna in the world, there are 297 known freshwater mussel taxa. [14] Of the 297 known species, 213 (71.7%) taxa are listed as endangered, threatened, of special concern. [15] The main factors contributing to the decline of freshwater mussels include destruction from dams, increased siltation, channel modification, and the introduction of invasive species like the Zebra mussel . [14] As food [ edit ] Mussel farm, New Zealand. The Asian green mussel, Perna viridis , gathered in Chonburi Province , Thailand Humans have used mussels as food for thousands of years. About 17 species are edible, of which the most commonly eaten are Mytilus edulis , M. galloprovincialis, M. trossellus and Perna canaliculus . [16] Freshwater mussels nowadays are generally considered to be unpalatable, though the native peoples in North America ate them extensively. During the second World War in the United States, mussels were commonly served in diners. This was due to the unavailability of red meat related to wartime rationing . [17] In Belgium, the Netherlands, and France, mussels are consumed with french fries (\"mosselen met friet\" or \" moules-frites \") or bread. In Belgium, mussels are sometimes served with fresh herbs and flavorful vegetables in a stock of butter and white wine. Fries and Belgian beer sometimes are accompaniments. In the Netherlands, mussels are sometimes served fried in batter or breadcrumbs , particularly at take-out food outlets or informal settings. In France, the Éclade des Moules , or, locally, Terré de Moules, is a mussel bake that can be found along the beaches of the Bay of Biscay . In Italy, mussels are mixed with other sea food, they are consumed often steam cooked (most popular), sometimes with white wine, herbs, and served with the remaining water and some lemon. In Spain, they are consumed mostly steam cooked, sometimes boiling white wine, onion and herbs, and served with the remaining water and some lemon. They can also be eaten as \"tigres\", a sort of croquette using the mussel meat, shrimps and other pieces of fish in a thick bechamel then breaded and fried in the clean mussel shell. They are used in other sort of dishes such as rices or soups or commonly eaten canned in a pickling brine made of oil, vinegar, peppercorns, bay leaves and paprika. In Turkey, mussels are either covered with flour and fried on shishs ('midye tava'), or filled with rice and served cold ('midye dolma') and are usually consumed after alcohol (mostly raki or beer). They are used in Ireland boiled and seasoned with vinegar, with the \"bray\" or boiling water as a supplementary hot drink. In Cantonese cuisine , mussels are cooked in a broth of garlic and fermented black bean. In New Zealand, they are served in a chili or garlic-based vinaigrette , processed into fritters and fried, or used as the base for a chowder. In India, mussels are popular in Kerala , Maharashtra , Karnataka - Bhatkal , and Goa . They are either prepared with drumsticks , breadfruit or other vegetables, or filled with rice and coconut paste with spices and served hot. Fried mussels ('Kadukka' കടുക്ക in Malayalam ) of north Kerala especially in Kozhikode are a spicy, favored delicacy. In coastal Karnataka Beary 's prepare special rice ball stuffed with spicy fried mussels and steamed locally known as \"pachilede pindi\". Preparation [ edit ] Moules frites A mussel dish with cherry tomatoes and croutons Simple mussels roasting in a mussel farm ( Bay of Kotor , Montenegro . Mussels can be smoked, boiled, steamed, roasted, barbecued or fried in butter or vegetable oil. As with all shellfish , except shrimp, mussels should be checked to ensure they are still alive just before they are cooked; enzymes quickly break down the meat and make them unpalatable or poisonous after dying or uncooked. [ citation needed ] Some mussels might contain toxins. [18] A simple criterion is that live mussels, when in the air, will shut tightly when disturbed. Open, unresponsive mussels are dead, and must be discarded. Unusually heavy, wild-caught, closed mussels may be discarded as they may contain only mud or sand. (They can be tested by slightly opening the shell halves.) A thorough rinse in water and removal of \"the beard\" is suggested. Mussel shells usually open when cooked, revealing the cooked soft parts. Historically, it has been believed that after cooking all the mussels should have opened and those that have not are not safe to eat and should be discarded. However, according to marine biologist Nick Ruello, this advice may have arisen from an old, poorly researched cookbook's advice, which has now become an assumed truism for all shellfish. Ruello found 11.5% of all mussels failed to open during cooking, but when forced open, 100% were \"both adequately cooked and safe to eat.\" [19] Although mussels are valued as food, mussel poisoning due to toxic planktonic organisms can be a danger along some coastlines. For instance, mussels should be avoided along the west coast of the United States during the warmer months. This poisoning is usually due to a bloom of dinoflagellates (red tides), which contain toxins. The dinoflagellates and their toxin are harmless to mussels, even when concentrated by the mussel's filter feeding, but if the mussels are consumed by humans, the concentrated toxins cause serious illness, such as paralytic shellfish poisoning . A person affected in this way after eating mussels is said to be musselled . [20] Nutrition highlights [ edit ] Raw blue mussels [21] Serving size 3 ounces (85 g) Calories 70 Protein 10.1 g Carbohydrate 3.1 g Fiber 0.0 g Total fat 1.9 g Saturated fat 0.4 g Sodium 243 mg Excellent source of: selenium (44.8 µg), and vitamin B12 (12 µg) Good source of: zinc (1.6 mg), and folate (42 µg) [22] Foods that are an \"excellent source\" of a particular nutrient provide 20% or more of the recommended daily value . Foods that are a \"good source\" of a particular nutrient provide between 10 and 20% of the recommended daily value. See also [ edit ] Marine life portal Food portal Clam Oyster Zebra mussel California mussel Dwarf wedgemussel Water purification References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (22 May 2009). \"Mussel\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ Vaccaro, Eleonora; Waite, J. Herbert (2001-09-01). \"Yield and Post-Yield Behavior of Mussel Byssal Thread:  A Self-Healing Biomolecular Material\" . Biomacromolecules . 2 (3): 906–911. doi : 10.1021/bm0100514 . ISSN 1525-7797 . Jump up ^ China catches 0.77m tonnes of mussels in 2005 ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Mussel Culture in British Columbia\" . BC Shellfish Growers Association. Jump up ^ Calta, Marialisa (August 28, 2005). \"Mussels on Prince Edward Island\" . The New York Times . Retrieved April 26, 2009 . Jump up ^ Northern Economics, Inc. \"The Economic Impact of Shellfish Aquaculture in Washington, Oregon and California\" (PDF) . Prepared for Pacific Shellfish Institute . Retrieved April 2013 . Check date values in: |access-date= ( help ) ^ Jump up to: a b \"Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme, Mytilus edulis\" . FAO. Jump up ^ Bilic, Grozdana; Brubaker, Carrie; Messersmith, Phillip B.; Mallik, Ajit S.; Quinn, Thomas M.; Haller, Claudia; Done, Elisa; Gucciardo, Leonardo; Zeisberger, Steffen M.; Zimmermann, Roland; Deprest, Jan; Zisch, Andreas H. (2010). \"Injectable candidate sealants for fetal membrane repair: bonding and toxicity in vitro\" . American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology . 202 (1): 85.e1–9. doi : 10.1016/j.ajog.2009.07.051 . PMC 2837921 . PMID 20096254 . Lay summary – Science Daily (January 23, 2010). Jump up ^ Qin, Zhao; Buehler, Markus J. (2013). \"Impact tolerance in mussel thread networks by heterogeneous material distribution\". Nature Communications . 4 : 2187. doi : 10.1038/ncomms3187 . PMID 23880603 . Lay summary – redOrbit (July 24, 2013). Jump up ^ Mussel Watch Programme Archived 2015-09-07 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to: a b Lindahl, O, Hernroth, R., Kollberg, S., Loo, L.-O, Olrog, L., Rehnstam-Holm, A.-S., Svensson, J., Svensson S., Syversen, U. (2005). \"Improving marine water quality by mussel farming: A profitable solution for Swedish society\". Ambio . 34 (2): 131–138. doi : 10.1579/0044-7447-34.2.131 . PMID 15865310 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ \"Ribbed Mussel Pilot Study in the Bronx River, New York City\" . Long Island Sound Study. Jump up ^ \"Nutrient Mitigation\" . Puget Sound Restoration Fund. ^ Jump up to: a b Haag, Wendell (2012). North American Freshwater Mussels: Natural History, Ecology, and Conservation . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521199384 . Jump up ^ Williams, James D.; Jr, Melvin L. Warren; Cummings, Kevin S.; Harris, John L.; Neves, Richard J. (1993-09-01). \"Conservation Status of Freshwater Mussels of the United States and Canada\" . Fisheries . 18 (9): 6–22. doi : 10.1577/1548-8446(1993)0182.0.CO;2 . ISSN 0363-2415 . Jump up ^ Zeldes, Leah A. (2010-10-13). \"Eat this! Mussels, mighty fine mollusks\" . Dining Chicago . Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc . Retrieved 2010-11-17 . Jump up ^ Alton Brown, Good Eats, Jump up ^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Poisoning - fish and shellfish Jump up ^ \"Mussel myth an open and shut case\" . ABC Science. 2008-10-29 . Retrieved 2015-08-04 . Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary : mussel (verb). Jump up ^ \"Calories in Mussel, raw | Nutrition, Carbohydrate and Calorie Counter\" . Calorieking.com . Retrieved 2012-08-27 . Jump up ^ \"Full Nutrition Info and calories in Raw Blue Mussels\" . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mussel . Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Mussel Look up mussel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The MUSSEL Project - Hosted by The University of Alabama and Funded by The National Science Foundation MolluSCAN eye , online biomonitoring project hosted by the University of Bordeaux and the CNRS Freshwater Mussel Genera Methods of mussel farming Mississippi River Mussels Marine Ecology Station Nutrition Facts for Mussels [ show ] v t e Commercial mollusks Marine gastropods Abalone Periwinkle Whelk Buccinum undatum Bullacta exarata Land and freshwater gastropods Helix pomatia Helix aspersa Helix aperta Cepaea nemoralis Otala lactea Escargot Free-swimming marine bivalves Scallop Queen scallop Pecten maximus Pecten jacobaeus Argopecten irradians Placopecten magellanicus Infaunal bivalves Clam Atlantic surf clam Soft-shell clam Mercenaria mercenaria Austrovenus stutchburyi Saxidomus nuttalli Arctica islandica Cockle Geoduck Spisula solidissima Paphies ventricosa Paphies australis Tuatua Ruditapes largillierti Grooved carpet shell Sessile bivalves Oyster Mussel Pearl oyster Pinctada maxima Freshwater bivalves Freshwater pearl mussel Cephalopods Octopus Squid Techniques Heliciculture Gathering by hand Clam digging Dredging Oyster farming Oyster boats Pearl farming Pearl diving Ama divers Trawling List of fishing topics by subject [ show ] v t e Principal commercial fishery species groups Wild Large pelagic fish Mackerel Salmon Saury Shark Swordfish Tuna albacore bigeye Atlantic bluefin Pacific bluefin southern bluefin skipjack yellowfin Forage fish Anchovy Capelin Herring Ilish Menhaden Sardines Shad Sprat european Demersal fish Catfish Cod Atlantic Pacific Alaska pollock Flatfish flounder halibut plaice sole turbot Haddock Mullet Orange roughy Pollock Rockfish Smelt-whitings Toothfish Freshwater fish Carp Sturgeon Tilapia Trout Other wild fish Eel Whitebait more... Crustaceans Crab Krill Lobster Shrimp more... Molluscs Abalone Mussels Octopus Oysters Scallops Squid more... Echinoderms Sea cucumbers Sea urchin more... Farmed Carp bighead common crucian grass silver Catfish Freshwater prawns Gilt-head bream Mussels Oysters Salmon Atlantic salmon trout coho chinook Scallops Seaweed Shrimp Tilapia Commercial fishing World fish production Commercial species Fishing topics Fisheries glossary [ show ] v t e Edible mollusks Bivalves Clams Atlantic jackknife Atlantic surf Geoduck Grooved carpet shell Hard clam Horse Mactra stultorum Blunt gaper Ocean quahog Pacific razor Venus California butterclam Senilia senilis Smooth clam Soft-shell Triangle shell Tuatua Japanese littleneck Razor clam Pod razor Ensis (razor genus) Paphies Cockles Common Blood Goolwa New Zealand Sydney Mussels Blue Mediterranean New Zealand green-lipped California Brown Asian/Philippine green Date Mytilidae (mussel family) Oysters Auckland Eastern Olympia Southern mud Colchester native Pacific Portuguese Windowpane Rock Sydney rock Ostra chilena /Bluff Gillardeau oysters Crassostrea (\"true oyster\" genus) Scallops Atlantic bay Great/king New Zealand Pecten jacobaeus Peruvian calico Yesso Placopecten magellanicus Gastropods Abalone White Red Black Green Pink Blacklip Greenlip Green ormer Pāua (group of three species) South African abalone Chilean Conches Queen Elegant Dog Limpets Black-foot opihi/Hawaiian Turtle/talc Yellow-foot opihi China Common European Rayed Mediterranean Ribbed Mediterranean Rustic Periwinkles Common Banded Littorina sitkana Whelks Common Kellet's Knobbed Lightning Channeled Other snails Sea Mud-flat Korean mud Chorus giganteus Land Cornu aspersum Helix lucorum Helix pomatia Freshwater Nerites Inkfish Cuttlefish Spineless Bottletail Octopus Common Atlantic white-spotted Big blue Pacific giant Southern red Mimic Amphioctopus fangsiao Squid New Zealand arrow Japanese flying Humboldt Neon flying Chitons Chiton magnificus Acanthopleura granulata Related topics Oyster farming Land snail farming Gastropod anatomy Bivalve anatomy Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mussel&oldid=822173271 \" Categories : Belgian cuisine Commercial molluscs Marine edible bivalves Mollusc common names Conservation Hidden categories: CS1 errors: dates Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list Articles needing additional references from February 2008 All articles needing additional references Articles with 'species' microformats Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans فارسی Gaeilge गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 한국어 தமிழ் Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2018, at 20:42. 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{ "text": "The Winds of Winter - Wikipedia The Winds of Winter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search This article is about the novel. For the episode of the television series, see The Winds of Winter (Game of Thrones) . The Winds of Winter Author George R. R. Martin Country United States Language English Series A Song of Ice and Fire Genre Fantasy Publisher Bantam Spectra /US Voyager Books /UK Preceded by A Dance with Dragons Followed by A Dream of Spring The Winds of Winter is the planned sixth novel in the epic fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin . Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be big books of 1,500+ manuscript pages each. [1] They will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and the Others will appear in The Winds of Winter . [2] Martin has refrained from making hard estimates for The Winds of Winter 's final release date. [3] In 2014, estimates based on extrapolation of Martin's writing pace predicted the release date sometime between 2015 and 2018. [4] [5] Contents [ hide ] 1 Plot 2 Viewpoint characters 3 Background and publication 3.1 Chapters 3.2 Publication date 4 References 5 External links Plot [ edit ] The Winds of Winter will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and the Others will appear in the book. [2] The previous installment, A Dance with Dragons , covered less story than Martin intended, excluding at least one planned large battle sequence and leaving several character threads ending in cliffhangers . [3] Martin intends to resolve these storylines \"very early\" in The Winds of Winter , saying \"I'm going to open with the two big battles that I was building up to, the battle in the ice and the battle at Meereen —the battle of Slaver's Bay. And then take it from there.\" [2] A Victarion Greyjoy chapter will begin five minutes after the end of A Dance with Dragons , taking place on the eve of the Iron Islanders ' arrival in Slaver's Bay. [6] Arianne Martell sample chapters that Martin released on his website showed her heading for Griffin's Roost to see the young man who is calling himself Aegon . [7] [8] Viewpoint characters [ edit ] George R. R. Martin has confirmed that the following characters have point-of-view chapters in The Winds of Winter : Sansa Stark : One chapter was removed from A Dance with Dragons in June 2010, [9] and one sample chapter titled Alayne appeared on Martin's website in April 2015. [10] Arya Stark : One chapter was removed from A Dance with Dragons in June 2010, [9] and one sample chapter titled Mercy appeared on Martin's website in March 2014. [11] [12] Arianne Martell : Two chapters were removed from A Dance with Dragons in June 2010. [9] One sample chapter appeared on Martin's website in January 2013, [7] and was read at Harbour Front Literaturfestival in June 2015. [13] Martin read from both chapters at MystiCon in February 2016. [14] In May 2016, Martin replaced the sample Sansa Stark chapter titled Alayne on his website from 2015 with the first Arianne Martell chapter he has read from at MystiCon. [15] Aeron Greyjoy : One chapter was removed from A Dance with Dragons in July 2010. [16] A chapter titled The Forsaken was read in May 2016 at Balticon . It was written in, or before, 2011 but there was no confirmation that this was the chapter removed from A Dance with Dragons . [17] Theon Greyjoy : One sample chapter appeared on Martin's website in December 2011. [18] [19] It also appears as a teaser chapter at the end of the UK paperback edition of A Dance with Dragons (part two). Victarion Greyjoy : Portions of one chapter were first read at TIFF Bell Lightbox in March 2012. [6] Tyrion Lannister : One chapter was read at Eastercon in April 2012, [20] and another one at Worldcon in August 2013, [21] the second of which was later published in the official iOS app on March 20, 2014. [22] Barristan Selmy : One chapter was released as a teaser at the end of the 2013 U.S. paperback edition of A Dance with Dragons . [23] In 2013 Martin read from 2 chapters at Boskone . [24] [ better source needed ] George R. R. Martin confirmed that there are no new viewpoint characters intended for The Winds of Winter . [25] Martin confirmed that Areo Hotah [26] and Melisandre [27] will return as viewpoints but did not state which novel their chapters will appear in, and that Bran Stark [28] will appear in the novel, but did not elaborate if as a viewpoint. In addition, he teased at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con that Jeyne Westerling, Robb Stark's widow, will appear in the prologue chapter, but did not reveal who will be the POV character. [29] Background and publication [ edit ] Chapters [ edit ] The Winds of Winter [9] was originally intended, in the very early stages of the series, to be the final installment of A Song of Ice and Fire (then conceived as a trilogy). [30] Following his expansion of the series, Martin eventually concluded it would be succeeded by one final novel, A Dream of Spring . [31] By June 2010, Martin had finished four chapters for The Winds of Winter from the viewpoints of Sansa Stark , Arya Stark , and Arianne Martell . [9] In July 2010, he added an Aeron Greyjoy chapter that had been moved from A Dance with Dragons to The Winds of Winter , accumulating around 100 completed manuscript pages. [16] Following the publication of A Dance with Dragons in the summer of 2011, Martin announced his return to writing the series in January 2012, [3] having spent the intervening time on his U.S. and overseas book publicity tours and attending various conventions. He continued to work, with his two co-authors Elio Garcia and Linda Antonsson, on the planned illustrated series companion guide The World of Ice & Fire concordance and Westeros history, which at one time he wanted to have completed by the end of 2011. He also worked on a Westeros story, the fourth Tales of Dunk and Egg novella , that will eventually find anthology publication elsewhere. A year after that eventual publication, the story and the three previously published Dunk and Egg tales will be collected and published in the U.S. by Bantam Spectra as a stand-alone fix-up novel. [32] In December 2011, Martin posted a Theon Greyjoy viewpoint chapter from The Winds of Winter ; he also announced that another sample chapter would be included at the end of the North American paperback version of A Dance with Dragons , [2] [33] which was originally expected to be released in summer 2012, [2] but was released on October 29, 2013. [34] (International paperback editions of A Dance with Dragons published a year earlier did not include a new, as yet unpublished sample chapter.) [35] In the first quarter of 2012, Martin read new chapters of other characters at public events, including the chapters of Victarion Greyjoy and Tyrion Lannister . [20] Martin continued work editing anthologies and completing a large, highly detailed series atlas The Lands of Ice and Fire , which was published in October 2012. [36] [37] Martin published another sample chapter from Arianne Martell's POV on his website in January 2013. [7] On March 27, ten days before the Game of Thrones season four premiere, Martin posted a chapter on his website, titled Mercy . Martin said the new chapter is actually an old one, though never published nor publicly read. [11] In April 2015, Martin posted a Sansa Stark viewpoint chapter from The Winds of Winter titled Alayne . [10] In May 2016, Martin replaced this chapter with an Arianne Martell chapter he had read from at Mysticon, [15] and an Aeron Greyjoy chapter that was removed from A Dance with Dragons was read at Balticon. As of June 2016, a total of 11 chapters from The Winds of Winter have been either read publicly or published as a sample chapter. The point of view characters with released material are Victarion, Aeron, Tyrion, Barristan, Arianne, Theon, Mercy (Arya), and Alayne (Sansa). [38] Several websites, including Goodreads , have dedicated entire discussion panels to any material that has been released from The Winds of Winter , including plot twists, theories, and speculations. At Guadalajara International Book Fair 2016, George R.R. Martin gave some clues about the dark nature of The Winds of Winter : ... \"I’ve been telling you for 20 years that winter was coming. Winter is the time when things die, and cold and ice and darkness fill the world, so this is not going to be the happy feel-good that people may be hoping for. Some of the characters [are] in very dark places. .... Things get worse before they get better, so things are getting worse for a lot of people.” [39] Publication date [ edit ] Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be massive works of 1,500+ manuscript pages each. [1] He does not intend to separate characters by geography again, as he was forced to do because of the unpublishable length of A Feast for Crows ' original manuscript. But, as Martin stated in a 2011 interview, \"Three years from now when I'm sitting on 1,800 pages of manuscript with no end in sight, who the hell knows\". [40] In April 2011, shortly before the publication of A Dance with Dragons which took him six years to write, Martin hoped that \"the last two books will go a little quicker than this one has\" and estimated that it would take \"three years to finish the next one at a good pace\". [41] [42] By October 2012, 400 pages of the sixth novel had been written, although Martin considered only the first 200 as \"really finished\", the rest still needing revisions. [43] In April 2013, Martin estimated that he had a quarter of the book. [44] In the past, Martin has angered some of his fan base for repeatedly estimating his publication dates too optimistically; therefore, he has refrained from making hard estimates for The Winds of Winter 's final release date. [3] Ultimately the book \"will be done when it's done\". [30] In 2012, Martin had acknowledged his concerns about the final novel, A Dream of Spring , not being completed by the time Game of Thrones catches up in its story line to the novels. [45] In January 2014, Martin's UK publisher, Jane Johnson , declared on Twitter that the book would \"certainly\" not be published before 2015. [46] In September 2014 Johnson stated that the book was \"not a 2015 release\", [47] a statement she repeated in January 2015. [48] [49] In April 2015, Martin commented on his blog that The Winds of Winter will not be eligible for the 2016 Hugo Award which is awarded for science fiction or fantasy works of the previous year [50] but he also said he would like to have it published before the sixth season of the HBO series Game of Thrones (which would cover material from the book) aired in 2016. [51] [52] In Autumn 2015, statements made by the Spanish editor and the Polish translator of the novel indicated that it was expected to be published in 2016. [53] [54] [55] [56] In early January 2016, Martin confirmed on his Live Journal that he had not met an end-of-year deadline that he had established with his publisher for release of the book before the sixth season of the HBO show. He added that there was \"a lot still left to write\" and that completion of the book was \"months away still... if the writing goes well\". Martin also revealed there had been a previous deadline of October 2015 that he had considered achievable in May 2015, and that in September 2015 he had still considered the end-of-year deadline achievable. He further confirmed that some of the plot of the book might be revealed in the upcoming season of Game of Thrones [57] but one of the showrunners, David Benioff , claimed that while certain key elements would be the same, the show would diverge from the book in many respects. [58] In February 2016, Martin stated that he had dropped all his editing projects except for Wild Cards , and that he would not be writing any teleplays, screenplays, short stories, introductions or forewords before delivering The Winds of Winter . [59] In September 2014, Walt Hickey of FiveThirtyEight and Christopher Ingraham of the Washington Post estimated the release date sometime between 2015 and 2018, based on extrapolation of Martin's writing pace. [4] [5] In 2017, Goodreads advertised its expected publication in 2020. [60] On January 10, 2017, Martin announced on his blog in a response to a comment that he believed that The Winds of Winter will be released \"this year\", referring to 2017. However, he also noted that he had believed the same thing would occur the previous year. [61] [62] [38] He confirmed on his blog that he was still working on The Winds of Winter as of July 22, 2017, being \"still months away\" from finishing the book. He also indicated that it may not be published until 2018 or later. [63] References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b \"George R. R. Martin Webchat Transcript\" . empireonline.com. April 2012 . Retrieved April 26, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"George R.R. Martin Talks Season Two, 'The Winds of Winter,' and Real-World Influences for 'A Song of Ice and Fire ' \" . SmarterTravel . March 26, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Hibberd, James (July 22, 2011). \"The Fantasy King\" . ew.com . Retrieved January 21, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hickey, Walt. \"Predicting When 'Game of Thrones' Author George R. R. Martin Will Come Out With His Next Book\" . Fivethirtyeight.com . Retrieved September 7, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Ingraham, Christopher (June 16, 2014). \"Predict when George R.R. Martin will finish 'Game of Thrones', using the magic of geometry\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved September 7, 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b Martin, George R. R. (2012). In Conversation With... George R.R. Martin on Game of Thrones Part 3 – TIFF Bell Lightbox . TIFF Bell Lightbox . Event occurs at 30:50 min. ^ Jump up to: a b c Martin, George R. R. (January 27, 2013). \"Arianne\" . George R. R. Martin. Archived from the original on March 29, 2013. Jump up ^ \"Excerpt from the Winds of Winter - George R.R. Martin\" . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin, George R. R. (June 27, 2010). \"Dancing in Circles\" . grrm.livejournal.com. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"Excerpt from the Winds of Winter - George R.R. Martin\" . georgerrmartin.com . ^ Jump up to: a b \" ' Winds Of Winter' Chapter — George RR Martin Releases 'Game Of Thrones' Excerpt - Hollywood Life\" . Hollywood Life . Jump up ^ \"The Winds of Winter: Mercy\" . georgerrmartin.com . Archived from the original on March 27, 2014 . Retrieved March 26, 2014 . Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2015). George R. R. Martin reads TWoW Arianne @ Harbour Front Literaturfestival 2015 Jump up ^ \"George R.R. Martin Reads Winds of Winter Chapters At Mysticon\" . Winter is Coming . ^ Jump up to: a b \"A Taste of This, A Taste of That\" . Archived from the original on May 11, 2016. ^ Jump up to: a b Martin, George R. R. (July 31, 2010). \"Dancing\" . grrm.livejournal.com. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"6 Things We Learned From the New Winds of Winter Chapter\" . Jump up ^ \"The Winds of Winter: Theon Chapter\" . georgerrmartin.com . Archived from the original on June 3, 2012 . Retrieved January 8, 2012 . Jump up ^ Sacks, Ethan (December 30, 2011). \"George R.R. Martin surprises Song of Ice and Fire fans with free chapter of next book\" . nydailynews.com . Retrieved January 21, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"EasterCon – Eat, Drink and talk SFF!\" . harpervoyagerbooks.com . April 10, 2012. Archived from the original on April 19, 2012 . Retrieved April 11, 2012 . Jump up ^ Schwartz, Terry (February 26, 2014). \" Winds of Winter : Read a new excerpt from George R.R. Martin's next Game of Thrones novel\" . Zap2it.com . Retrieved July 15, 2014 . Jump up ^ \"New Winds of Winter Chapter Coming Out Today\" . Tor.com . March 20, 2014 . Retrieved July 15, 2014 . Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (October 29, 2013). \"The Dragons Are Here\" . grrm.livejournal.com. Archived from the original on December 27, 2014 . Retrieved November 2, 2013 . Jump up ^ \"How Much of George R. R. Martin's The Winds of Winter is Out So Far?\" . March 27, 2014. Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. \"A Taste of This, A Taste of That\" . Not A Blog . Retrieved November 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. \"A Taste of This, A Taste of That\" . Not A Blog . Retrieved November 25, 2016 . Jump up ^ JUEGOS DE TRONOS de George R.R Martin en la FIL de Guadalajara 2016 Event occurs at 27:22 Jump up ^ \"Conventions and Cancellations\" . GRRM Not A Blog. April 1, 2015 . Retrieved January 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ \"George R.R. Martin teases the prologue and plotlines of 'The Winds of Winter ' \" . ^ Jump up to: a b Brown, Rachael (July 11, 2011). \"George R.R. Martin on Sex, Fantasy, and A Dance With Dragons \" . theatlantic.com . Retrieved February 2, 2012 . Jump up ^ Gevers, Nick (December 2000). \"Sunsets of High Renown – An Interview with George R. R. Martin\" . infinityplus.co.uk . Retrieved January 21, 2012 . (Interview approved by GRRM Archived February 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine ..) Jump up ^ Harte, Bryant (July 12, 2011). \"An Interview with George R. R. Martin, Part I\" . indigo.ca . Archived from the original on April 4, 2012 . Retrieved February 15, 2012 . Jump up ^ Kepler, Adam W. (January 1, 2012). \" ' Game of Thrones' Treat\" . The New York Times . Retrieved January 2, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"A Dance with Dragons by George R. R. Martin\" . Random House . Retrieved February 16, 2013 . Jump up ^ \" A Dance with Dragons : A Song of Ice and Fire : Book Five\" . amazon.de . Retrieved February 9, 2012 . Jump up ^ Martin, George R.R (April 8, 2012). George R.R. Martin Interview . Eastercon . Event occurs at 58:00 . Retrieved April 12, 2012 . Jump up ^ \"The Lands of Ice and Fire (A Game of Thrones)\" . randomhouse.ca . Retrieved April 20, 2012 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Winds of Winter: release date, news, plot, chapters and returning characters\" . NME . 2017-01-15 . Retrieved 2017-01-17 . Jump up ^ Gettell, Oliver (December 6, 2016). \"George RR Martin on Winds of Winter: Things are getting worse\" . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved December 21, 2016 . Watch Martin’s full Q&A above. Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (July 12, 2011). \"EW interview: George R.R. Martin talks A Dance With Dragons \" . ew.com . Retrieved January 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ Flood, Alison (April 13, 2011). \"George RR Martin: Barbarians at the gate\" . guardian.co.uk . Retrieved January 21, 2012 . Jump up ^ Miller, Laura (April 11, 2011). \"Just Write It! A fantasy author and his impatient fans\" . newyorker.com . Retrieved April 23, 2010 . Jump up ^ Guxens, Adrià (October 7, 2012). \"George R.R. Martin: \"Trying to please everyone is a horrible mistake \" \" . adriasnews.com . Retrieved October 9, 2012 . Jump up ^ Game of Thrones - George R. R. Martin Interview . YouTube . April 1, 2013. Jump up ^ Griffin, Bryant (June 13, 2012). \"Martin Talks 'Game Of Thrones,' 'The Winds Of Winter ' \" . Airlock Alpha . Retrieved August 20, 2012 . Jump up ^ Johnson, Jane (January 24, 2014). \"Twitter / JaneJohnsonBakr: @bonefish914 Certainly not this year\" . Twitter . Retrieved 27 February 2018 . Jump up ^ \"Jane Johnson on Twitter\" . Twitter . Jump up ^ \"Jane Johnson on Twitter\" . Twitter . Jump up ^ Alison Flood. \"George RR Martin's The Winds of Winter: no plans for publication in 2015\" . the Guardian . Jump up ^ \"Reading for Rockets\" . Archived from the original on March 12, 2016. Jump up ^ \" ' Game of Thrones' author George R.R. Martin determined to finish book by 2016 - EW.com\" . Entertainment Weekly's EW.com . Jump up ^ \"Winds of Winter release date: Book to be out before Game of Thrones Season 6\" . Retrieved June 12, 2015 . Jump up ^ Hooton, Christopher (September 10, 2015). \"The Winds of Winter release date 2016: George RR Martin's next book might finally be coming\" . The Independent. Archived from the original on September 12, 2015 . Retrieved January 21, 2017 . Jump up ^ Jesús Baratheon. \"Alejo Cuervo (Gigamesh): \"Está previsto que Vientos de Invierno salga en 2016 (también en español) \" \" . Los Siete Reinos . Jump up ^ \"Relacja z konwentu Kapitularz 2015\" . Pieśń lodu i ognia - Gra o tron . Jump up ^ Christopher Hooton (October 2, 2015). \"The Winds of Winter release date news: Polish translator slip suggests late 2015/early 2016 for next George RR Martin book\" . The Independent . Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (January 2, 2016). \"Last Year (Winds of Winter)\" . Archived from the original on January 2, 2016 . Retrieved January 2, 2016 . Jump up ^ \" ' Game of Thrones' showrunners: Season 6 won't spoil the books - EW.com\" . Entertainment Weekly's EW.com . Jump up ^ Selcke, Dan (February 17, 2016). \"George R.R. Martin: \"I am not writing anything until I deliver WINDS OF WINTER \" \" . Winter is Coming . Retrieved February 18, 2016 . Jump up ^ https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/12111823-the-winds-of-winter ? Jump up ^ George R. R. Martin (January 9, 2017). \"Doom, Despair, Defeat\" . Not a Blog. Archived from the original on 15 August 2017 . Retrieved January 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (January 11, 2017). \"George R.R. Martin on Winds of Winter release date: 'I think this year ' \" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 11, 2017 . Jump up ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/544709.html External links [ edit ] Official website of author George R. R. Martin [ show ] v t e George R. R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire A Game of Thrones (1996) A Clash of Kings (1998) A Storm of Swords (2000) A Feast for Crows (2005) A Dance with Dragons (2011) The Winds of Winter (TBA) Franchise media Novellas Tales of Dunk and Egg (1998–2010) The Princess and the Queen (2013) The Rogue Prince (2014) The Sons of the Dragon (2017) TV series Episodes Season 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Awards Characters Music \" Game of Thrones Theme \" \" The Rains of Castamere \" \" The Bear and the Maiden Fair \" \" Light of the Seven \" Catch the Throne Live Concert Experience Soundtracks Season 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Title sequence After the Thrones Thronecast Video games A Game of Thrones: Genesis Game of Thrones (2012) Game of Thrones Ascent Game of Thrones (2014) Other media The World of Ice & Fire (2014) Board game Card game ( Second edition ) Comic book series Characters Petyr Baelish Joffrey Baratheon Renly Baratheon Robert Baratheon Stannis Baratheon Tommen Baratheon Ramsay Bolton Roose Bolton Bronn Gregor Clegane Sandor Clegane Khal Drogo Gendry Tormund Giantsbane Gilly Theon Greyjoy Cersei Lannister Jaime Lannister Tyrion Lannister Tywin Lannister Oberyn Martell Melisandre Missandei Jorah Mormont Daario Naharis Ellaria Sand Davos Seaworth Jon Snow High Sparrow Arya Stark Bran Stark Catelyn Stark Ned Stark Rickon Stark Robb Stark Sansa Stark Daenerys Targaryen Viserys Targaryen Samwell Tarly Brienne of Tarth Margaery Tyrell Olenna Tyrell Varys Ygritte World Languages Dothraki Valyrian Themes Iron Throne White Walker Miscellaneous Fandom Book Category [ show ] v t e Works by George R. R. Martin Novels A Song of Ice and Fire A Game of Thrones A Clash of Kings A Storm of Swords A Feast for Crows A Dance with Dragons The Winds of Winter Dying of the Light Windhaven Fevre Dream The Armageddon Rag Hunter's Run Novellas A Song for Lya The Ice Dragon Sandkings The Skin Trade Westeros The Hedge Knight The Sworn Sword The Mystery Knight The Princess and the Queen The Rogue Prince The Sons of the Dragon Short stories \" With Morning Comes Mistfall \" \" The Way of Cross and Dragon \" Collections A Song for Lya Songs of Stars and Shadows Sandkings Songs the Dead Men Sing Nightflyers Tuf Voyaging Portraits of His Children Quartet: Four Tales from the Crossroads Dreamsongs: A RRetrospective Television The Twilight Zone \" The Last Defender of Camelot \" \" The Once and Future King \" \" Lost and Found \" \" The Toys of Caliban \" \" The Road Less Traveled \" Game of Thrones \" The Pointy End \" \" Blackwater \" \" The Bear and the Maiden Fair \" \" The Lion and the Rose \" Beauty and the Beast Doorways Retrieved from \" https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Winds_of_Winter&oldid=827503829 \" Categories : 21st-century American novels A Song of Ice and Fire books American fantasy novels HarperCollins books Novels by George R. R. Martin Unpublished novels Upcoming books Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from September 2014 Books with missing cover All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from June 2016 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية भोजपुरी Čeština Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית 日本語 Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 February 2018, at 02:49. 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{ "text": "Protestantism - Wikipedia Protestantism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search \"Protestant\" redirects here. For the album by Rorschach, see Protestant (album) . Part of a series on Protestantism Topics [show] Reformation Great Awakenings History Culture Demographics Persecution Criticism Major branches [show] Adventism Anabaptism Anglicanism Baptist churches Calvinism Lutheranism Methodism Pentecostalism Minor branches [show] Hussitism Waldensianism Plymouth Brethren Holiness movement Quakerism Multiple others Interdenominational movements [show] Evangelicalism Charismatic movement Neo-charismatic movement Other developments [show] Arminianism Pietism Puritanism Neo-orthodoxy Paleo-orthodoxy Christian fundamentalism Modernism and liberalism Related movements [show] Nondenominational churches House churches v t e Protestantism is the second largest form of Christianity with collectively more than 900 million adherents worldwide or nearly 40% of all Christians . [1] [2] [3] [a] It originated with the Reformation , [b] a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church . [5] Ever since, Protestants reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy and sacraments , but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist . [6] They emphasize the priesthood of all believers , justification by faith alone ( sola fide ) rather than by good works , and the highest authority of the Bible alone (rather than with sacred tradition ) in faith and morals ( sola scriptura ). [7] The \" Five solae \" summarize basic theological differences in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. [8] Protestantism is popularly considered to have begun in Germany in 1517 when Martin Luther published his Ninety-five Theses as a reaction against abuses in the sale of indulgences by the Roman Catholic Church , which purported to offer remission of sin to their purchasers. [9] However, the term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical . [10] Although there were earlier breaks and attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church — notably by Peter Waldo , John Wycliffe , and Jan Hus — only Luther succeeded in sparking a wider, lasting, and modern movement. [11] In the 16th century , Lutheranism spread from Germany [c] into Denmark , Norway , Sweden , Finland , Latvia , Estonia , and Iceland . [12] Reformed (or Calvinist) denominations spread in Germany, [d] Hungary , the Netherlands , Scotland , Switzerland and France by reformers such as John Calvin , Huldrych Zwingli , and John Knox . [13] The political separation of the Church of England from the pope under King Henry VIII began Anglicanism , bringing England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. [e] Protestants developed their own culture , with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields. [14] Protestantism is diverse, being more divided theologically and ecclesiastically than either the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church , or Oriental Orthodoxy . [15] Without structural unity or central human authority, [15] Protestants developed the concept of an invisible church , in contrast to the Roman Catholic view of the Catholic Church as the visible one true Church founded by Jesus Christ. [14] Some denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. [15] A majority of Protestants [f] are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families: Adventists , Anabaptists , Anglicans , Baptists , Reformed , [g] Lutherans , Methodists , and Pentecostals . [1] Nondenominational , evangelical , charismatic , independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. [17] [18] Proponents of the branch theory consider Protestantism one of the three major divisions of Christendom , together with the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental). [19] [1] Contents [ hide ] 1 Terminology 1.1 Protestant 1.2 Evangelical 2 Theology 2.1 Main principles 2.2 Trinity 2.3 Five solae 2.4 Christ's presence in the Eucharist 3 History 3.1 Pre-Reformation 3.2 Reformation proper 3.3 Post-Reformation 4 Radical Reformation 5 Denominations 5.1 United and uniting churches 6 Major branches 6.1 Adventism 6.2 Anabaptism 6.3 Anglicanism 6.4 Baptists 6.5 Calvinism 6.6 Lutheranism 6.7 Methodism 6.8 Pentecostalism 6.9 Other Protestants 7 Interdenominational movements 7.1 Evangelicalism 7.2 Charismatic movement 7.3 Neo-charismatic churches 8 Other Protestant developments 8.1 Arminianism 8.2 Pietism 8.3 Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists 8.4 Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy 8.5 Christian fundamentalism 8.6 Modernism and liberalism 9 Protestant culture 9.1 Thought and work ethic 9.2 Science 9.3 Government 9.4 Rights and liberty 9.5 Social teaching 9.6 Arts 10 Catholic responses 11 Ecumenism 12 Spread and demographics 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Terminology [ edit ] Memorial Church (finished and consecrated 1904) in Speyer commemorates the Protestation . The Protesting Speyer , a part of the Luther Memorial in Worms . Protestant [ edit ] During the Reformation, the term protestant was hardly used outside of German politics. People who were involved in the religious movement used the word evangelical ( German : evangelisch ). For further details, see the section below. Gradually, protestant became a general term, meaning any adherent of the Reformation in the German-speaking area. It was ultimately somewhat taken up by Lutherans , even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ. French and Swiss Protestants instead preferred the word reformed ( French : réformé ), which became a popular, neutral, and alternative name for Calvinists . Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities , who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer , were the first individuals to be called Protestants. [20] The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier . The term protestant later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles. [20] However, it is often misused to mean any church outside the Roman and Eastern Orthodox communions. Protestantism as a general term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i.e. Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Evangelical [ edit ] Direction signs showing ways to two different Protestant churches in the German city of Wiesbaden . The word evangelical ( German : evangelisch ), which refers to the gospel , was widely used for those involved in the religious movement in the German-speaking area. [21] Nowadays, evangelical is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran, Calvinist, and United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed) traditions in Europe, and those with strong ties to them (e.g. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod ). Above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area , such as the Evangelical Church in Germany . In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran, a Calvinist, or a United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed). The German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal , which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism . The English word evangelical usually refers to evangelical Protestant churches, and therefore to a certain part of Protestantism rather than to Protestantism as a whole. The English word traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. The word reformatorisch is used as an alternative for evangelisch in German, and is different from English reformed ( German : reformiert ), which refers to churches shaped by ideas of John Calvin , Huldrych Zwingli and other Reformed theologians. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran , preferring the term evangelical , which was derived from euangelion , a Greek word meaning \"good news\", i.e. \" gospel \". [22] The followers of John Calvin , Huldrych Zwingli , and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two evangelical groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed . Nowadays, the word also pertains in the same way to some other mainline groups, for example Evangelical Methodist . As time passed by, the word evangelical was dropped. Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists . Theology [ edit ] Main principles [ edit ] Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church pulpit . These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship. The Bible translated into vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism. Various experts on the subject tried to determine what makes a Christian denomination a part of Protestantism. A common consensus approved by most of them is that if a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism. [23] Scripture alone The belief, emphasized by Luther, in the Bible as the highest source of authority for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of church tradition . The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church before the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of its tradition, though some would maintain tradition has been maintained and reorganized in the liturgy and in the confessions of the Protestant churches of the Reformation. In the early 20th century, a less critical reading of the Bible developed in the United States, leading to a \"fundamentalist\" reading of Scripture. Christian fundamentalists read the Bible as the \"inerrant, infallible\" Word of God, as do the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches, but interpret it in a literalist fashion without using the historical critical method. \"Biblical Christianity\" focused on a deep study of the Bible is characteristic of most Protestants as opposed to \"Church Christianity,\" focused on performing rituals and good works, represented by Catholic and Orthodox traditions. However Quakers and Pentecostalists, emphasize the Holy Spirit and personal closeness to God. [24] . Justification by faith alone The belief that believers are justified , or pardoned for sin, solely on condition of faith in Christ rather than a combination of faith and good works . For Protestants, good works are a necessary consequence rather than cause of justification. [25] Universal priesthood of believers The universal priesthood of believers implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the vernacular , but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people. [25] Trinity [ edit ] See also: Trinity and Nontrinitarianism Protestants who adhere to the Nicene Creed believe in three persons ( God the Father , God the Son , and the Holy Spirit ) as one God. Movements emerging around the time of the Protestant Reformation, but not a part of Protestantism, e.g. Unitarianism also reject the Trinity. This often serves as a reason for exclusion of the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement , Unitarian Universalism , Oneness Pentecostalism and other movements from Protestantism by various observers. Unitarianism continues to have a presence mainly in Transylvania, England and the United States, as well as elsewhere. Five solae [ edit ] Main article: Five solae Five solae of the Protestant Reformation Sola scriptura Sola fide Sola gratia Solus Christus Soli Deo gloria v t e The Five solae are five Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Catholic Church of the day. The Latin word sola means \"alone\", \"only\", or \"single\". The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching principle of sola scriptura (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity). The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text. The second main principle, sola fide (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to sola scriptura , this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because sola scriptura placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, sola fide epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric. The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation. Solus Christus : Christ alone The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition. [26] Sola Gratia : Grace alone Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works, for no one deserves salvation. [Matt. 7:21] Soli Deo Gloria : Glory to God alone All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient atonement of Jesus on the cross but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the Holy Spirit . The reformers believed that human beings—even saints canonized by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory. Christ's presence in the Eucharist [ edit ] Main article: Eucharistic theology A Lutheran depiction of the Last Supper by Lucas Cranach the Elder , 1547. The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Eucharist . Early Protestants rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation , which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion. Lutherans hold that within the Lord's Supper the consecrated elements of bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ \"in, with, and under the form\" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it, [1Cor 10:16] [11:20,27] [27] a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the Sacramental union . [28] God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament, [Lk 22:19-20] [29] forgiveness of sins, [Mt 26:28] [30] and eternal salvation. [31] The Reformed churches emphasize the real spiritual presence , or sacramental presence , of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely with the bread and wine rather than in the elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of the sacrament but instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid. This is often referred to as dynamic presence . A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view , without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism ). Anglicans refuse to define the Presence preferring to leave it a mystery. The Prayer Books describe the bread and wine as outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace which is the Body and Blood of Christ. However, the words of their liturgies suggest that one can hold to a belief in the Real Presence and Spiritual and Sacramental Present at the same time. For example, \"... and you have fed us with the spiritual food in the Sacrament of his body and Blood;\" \"...the spiritual food of the most precious Body and Blood of your Son our Savior Jesus Christ, and for assuring us in these holy mysteries...\" American Book of Common Prayer, 1977, pp. 365-366. Perhaps the best way to see it is that the Anglican view incorporates all three of the above positions and the Roman nd Orthodox. The classic Anglican view is that the bread and win are instruments of God's Grace. Perhaps the closest that one can get to pinning down an Anglican view (they are notorious for refusing to so) are the words of St. John of Damascus, \"the bread and wine are visible symbols of a spiritual reality.\" The symbol is not empty but the visible to another reality present. History [ edit ] Main article: History of Protestantism Pre-Reformation [ edit ] See also: Arnoldists , Waldensians , Hussites , Lollards , and Girolamo Savonarola Execution of Jan Hus in 1415. Spread of Lollardy in medieval England and medieval Scotland . In the late 1130s, Arnold of Brescia , an Italian canon regular became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on apostolic poverty gained currency among Arnoldists , and later more widely among Waldensians and the Spiritual Franciscans , though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as a part of the wider Reformed tradition . In the 1370s, John Wycliffe —later dubbed the \"Morning Star of Reformation\"—started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power, translated the Bible into vernacular English , and preached anticlerical and biblically-centred reforms. Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century, Jan Hus —a Roman Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded the Hussite movement. He strongly advocated his reformist Bohemian religious denomination. He was excommunicated and burned at the stake in Constance , Bishopric of Constance in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the Pope . Later on, theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. Utraquists maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the Taborites , who opposed the Utraquists in the Battle of Lipany during the Hussite Wars . There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches in Bohemia included Adamites , Orebites , Orphans and Praguers. The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund , his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. Tensions arised as the Thirty Years' War reached Bohemia in 1620. Both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by Catholics and Holy Roman Emperor's armies. Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone. Some of Hus' followers founded the Unitas Fratrum —\"Unity of the Brethren\"—which was renewed under the leadership of Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf in Herrnhut , Saxony in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the Thirty Years' War and the Counter-Reformation . Today, it is usually referred to in English as the Moravian Church and in German as the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine . Evolution of the Hussite movement in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown from 1419 to 1620, superimposed on modern borders. Reformation proper [ edit ] Main article: Protestant Reformation Distribution of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Central Europe on the eve of the Thirty Years' War (1618). Henry VIII of England , known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church . John Knox, who led the Reformation in Scotland , founding Presbyterianism . Part of a series on Reformation Ninety-five Theses Precursors [show] Arnold of Brescia and Arnoldists Peter Waldo and Waldensians Girolamo Savonarola John Wycliffe and Lollardy William Tyndale Jan Hus and Hussites Beginning [show] Ninety-five Theses Diet of Worms Luther Bible Iconoclasm Magisterials Radicals Contributing factors [show] Western Schism Avignon Papacy Bohemian Reformation Northern Renaissance Humanism Johann Reuchlin German mysticism Johannes Gutenberg and his printing press Erasmus Propaganda Art Theologies of seminal figures [show] Theology of Martin Luther Theology of Huldrych Zwingli Theology of John Calvin Protestant Reformers [show] Martin Luther Philip Melanchthon Huldrych Zwingli John Calvin Martin Bucer Theodore Beza Heinrich Bullinger Peter Martyr Vermigli William Farel John Knox Roger Williams Thomas Müntzer Balthasar Hubmaier Andreas Karlstadt Menno Simons Thomas Cranmer Richard Hooker Many others Major political leaders [show] Henry VIII of England Elizabeth I of England Oliver Cromwell James VI and I William the Silent Gaspard II de Coligny Henry IV of France Jeanne d'Albret Stephen Bocskai Gabriel Bethlen Gustav II Adolf Frederick V, Elector Palatine Philip I of Hesse Frederick III, Elector of Saxony John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony By location [show] Germany Switzerland ( Geneva / Zürich ) England Scotland Netherlands Czech Lands Slovakia Hungary Romania Slovenia Denmark–Norway and Holstein Sweden and Finland Iceland Estonia and Latvia Austria France Italy Poland-Lithuania Ireland Political and religious conflicts [show] Thirty Years' War French Wars of Religion Eighty Years' War War of the Three Kingdoms German Peasants' War Wars of Kappel Schmalkaldic War Opposition [show] Catholic Church Council of Trent Anti-Protestantism Criticism of Protestantism Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Conclusion [show] Peace of Westphalia Rise of Pietism No end thesis Commemoration [show] Reformation Day Reformation Wall Lutheran commemorations Anglican commemorations Protestantism v t e The Protestant Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church . On 31 October 1517 ( All Hallows' Eve ) Martin Luther allegedly nailed his Ninety-five Theses (Disputation on the Power of Indulgences) on the door of the All Saints' Church in Wittenberg , Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Roman Catholic Church , especially the selling of indulgences . The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of purgatory , particular judgment , and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to Virgin Mary , the intercession of and devotion to the saints, the sacraments, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments. [32] The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg . [33] [h] Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe. [35] [i] Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Bern reformer William Farel , Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the city of Geneva . His Ordinances of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563. Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots . Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the French Wars of Religion . The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II of France in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Roman Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes , promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Roman Catholicism remained the official state religion , and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Roman Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam , giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg , which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England , after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon ; [37] this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way ( via media ) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the English Reformation came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England . Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell , the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I . The Elizabethan Religious Settlement largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the 17th century. The success of the Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age . The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists , eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations. The Scottish Reformation of 1560 decisively shaped the Church of Scotland . [38] The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560 , forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise , who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter . Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included Jacobus Arminius , Theodore Beza , Martin Bucer , Andreas von Carlstadt , Heinrich Bullinger , Balthasar Hubmaier , Thomas Cranmer , William Farel , Thomas Müntzer , Laurentius Petri , Olaus Petri , Philipp Melanchthon , Menno Simons , Louis de Berquin , Primož Trubar and John Smyth . In the course of this religious upheaval, the German Peasants' War of 1524–25 swept through the Bavarian , Thuringian and Swabian principalities. After the Eighty Years' War in the Low Countries and the French Wars of Religion , the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of Germany , killing between 25% and 40% of its population. [39] The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia , which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio ) Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty \"null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times\" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei . European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict. [40] Peak of the Reformation & beginning of the Counter-Reformation (1545-1620) End of the Reformation & Counter-Reformation (1648) Religious situation in Europe, late 16th & early to mid 17th century Post-Reformation [ edit ] See also: Great Awakenings and Azusa Street Revival Great Awakening First (c. 1730–1755) Second (c. 1790–1840) Third (c. 1855–1900) Fourth (c. 1960–1980) v t e The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history. The First Great Awakening was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and British America , especially the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism . It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality. [41] 1839 Methodist camp meeting during the Second Great Awakening in the U.S. The Second Great Awakening began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, deism , and rationalism , although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood. [42] It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. The Third Great Awakening refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century. [43] It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism. [44] It gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness , Nazarene , and Christian Science movements. [45] The Fourth Great Awakening was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, Robert Fogel —say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following World War II . The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted. [46] In 1814, Le Réveil swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France. In 1904, a Protestant revival in Wales had tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones. A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern Pentecostal movement . Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the Charismatic movement within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in Western Christianity . In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the evangelical wing of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches . In the post– World War I era, Liberal Christianity was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post– World War II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures. In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism . The Enlightenment is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Several scholars have argued for a link between the rise of secularism and Protestantism, attributing it to the wide-ranging freedom in the Protestant countries. [47] In North America, South America and Australia Christian religious observance is much higher than in Europe. United States remains particularly religious in comparison to other developed countries . South America, historically Roman Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th and 21st centuries. Radical Reformation [ edit ] Main article: Radical Reformation Dissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 prompted Swiss Brethren to part ways with Huldrych Zwingli . Unlike mainstream Lutheran , Calvinist and Zwinglian movements, the Radical Reformation , which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the \"Church visible\" as distinct from the \"Church invisible\". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Roman Catholics and Magisterial Protestants. [48] The early Anabaptists believed that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships. [49] Therefore, the church should not be supported by the state, neither by tithes and taxes, nor by the use of the sword; Christianity was a matter of individual conviction, which could not be forced on anyone, but rather required a personal decision for it. [49] Protestant ecclesial leaders such as Hubmaier and Hofmann preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ( \"believer's baptism\" ) instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the Albigenses in 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition. Thomas Müntzer was involved in the German Peasants' War . Andreas Karlstadt disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers. [50] Kaspar Schwenkfeld and Sebastian Franck were influenced by German mysticism and spiritualism . In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the Magisterial Reformation had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt , for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the \"new papists\". [51] Since the term \"magister\" also means \"teacher\", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of Hans Hut , although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism. Anabaptism in shape of its various diversification such as the Amish , Mennonites and Hutterites came out of the Radical Reformation. Later in history, Schwarzenau Brethren , Bruderhof [52] , and the Apostolic Christian Church would emerge in Anabaptist circles. Denominations [ edit ] See also: List of Christian denominations § Protestantism , and List of the largest Protestant churches Protestantism as state religion : Lutheranism Anglicanism Calvinism Methodism Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as denominations . [53] The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference: Branch/denominational family/tradition: Methodism Communion/international body: World Methodist Council Denomination/national body: United Methodist Church Congregation/church: First United Methodist Church (Paintsville, Kentucky) Protestants reject the Roman Catholic Church's doctrine that it is the one true church , believing in the invisible church , which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ. [54] Some Protestant denominations are less accepting of other denominations, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, non-denominational groups and organizations are also considered Protestant. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. Several countries have established their national churches , linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several Nordic countries ; Denmark (including Greenland), [55] the Faroe Islands ( its church being independent since 2007), [56] Iceland [57] and Norway [58] [59] [60] have established Evangelical Lutheran churches. Tuvalu has the only established church in Reformed tradition in the world, while Tonga — in the Methodist tradition . [61] The Church of England is the officially established religious institution in England, [62] [63] [64] and also the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion . In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to disestablish its Evangelical Lutheran church by introducing the Church Act. [j] Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as a state religion in the Finnish Constitution or other laws passed by the Finnish Parliament . [65] In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so. [66] United and uniting churches [ edit ] Protestant Church in the Netherlands , founded in 2004, brings together most Reformed and Lutherans in the Netherlands. Main article: United and uniting churches See also: Continuing churches United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations. Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also other organizational reasons. As modern Christian ecumenism progresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are the United Protestant Church of France (2013) and the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (2004). As mainline Protestantism shrinks in Europe and North America due to the rise of secularism , Reformed and Lutheran denominations merge, often creating large nationwide denominations. The phenomenon is much less common among evangelical , nondenominational and charismatic churches as new ones arise and plenty of them remain independent of each other. Perhaps the oldest official united church is found in Germany , where the Evangelical Church in Germany is a federation of Lutheran , United ( Prussian Union ) and Reformed churches , a union dating back to 1817. The first of the series of unions was at a synod in Idstein to form the Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau in August 1817, commemorated in naming the church of Idstein Unionskirche one hundred years later. [67] Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in the Reformed tradition and many are members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches . Major branches [ edit ] Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude of denominations , this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are, in alphabetical order: Adventist , Anglican , Baptist , Calvinist (Reformed) , Lutheran , Methodist and Pentecostal . A small but historically significant Anabaptist branch is also discussed. The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts. Adventism [ edit ] Main article: Adventism Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the Second Great Awakening revival in the United States . The name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming (or \"Second Advent\") of Jesus Christ . William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites . Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. [68] The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible , leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath . The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification. In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches. [69] The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church —has more than 18 million members. James Springer White and his wife, Ellen G. White founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church. An Adventist pastor baptizes a young man in Mozambique . Loma Linda University Seventh-day Adventist Church in Loma Linda, California, United States . Anabaptism [ edit ] Main article: Anabaptism Anabaptism traces its origins to the Radical Reformation . Anabaptists believe in delaying baptism until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one. [70] [71] The Amish , Hutterites , and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement. Schwarzenau Brethren , Bruderhof , and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists. The name Anabaptist , meaning \"one who baptizes again\", was given them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants. [72] Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants . The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist , claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics . [k] While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount , which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise. [l] They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish , Mennonites , and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were John of Leiden , Thomas Müntzer , Kaspar Schwenkfeld , Sebastian Franck , Menno Simons . Second Front Reformers included Hans Denck , Conrad Grebel , Balthasar Hubmaier and Felix Manz . Balthasar Hubmaier , one of the earliest and most prominent Anabaptist theologians. An Amish family in a horse-drawn square buggy. Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in rural Goessel, Kansas, United States . Anglicanism [ edit ] Main article: Anglicanism Anglicanism comprises the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. [73] The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana , a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church . There is no single \"Anglican Church\" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy . As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in full communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury . The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international Anglican Communion , [74] which has 85 million adherents. [75] The Church of England declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement . [76] Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer , as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism. [77] By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer , the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together. Thomas Cranmer , one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity. The various editions of the Book of Common Prayer contain the words of structured services of worship in the Anglican Church. British coronations are held in Westminster Abbey , a royal peculiar under the direct jurisdiction of the monarch . Baptists [ edit ] Main article: Baptists Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers ( believer's baptism , as opposed to infant baptism ), and that it must be done by complete immersion (as opposed to affusion or sprinkling ). Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency (liberty), salvation through faith alone , Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation . Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, pastors and deacons . Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. [78] Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship. [79] Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam , with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor. [80] In accordance with his reading of the New Testament , he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. [81] Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect . In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies . In the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South. [82] The Second Great Awakening in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support for abolition and manumission of slavery , which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent. [81] The Baptist World Alliance reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations. [83] In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America. [81] The largest Baptist association is the Southern Baptist Convention , with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. [82] Roger Williams was an early proponent of religious freedom and the separation of church and state . Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers . The First Baptist Church in America . Baptists are roughly one-third of U.S. Protestants . [84] Calvinism [ edit ] Main article: Calvinism Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as Martin Bucer , Heinrich Bullinger , Peter Martyr Vermigli , and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century. Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches of which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the five points of Calvinism , though these points identify the Calvinist view on soteriology rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things—in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of predestination and total depravity . The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. [85] [86] There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches , as well as independent churches . John Calvin 's theological thought influenced a variety of Congregational , Continental Reformed , United , Presbyterian , and other Reformed churches. The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by John Henry Lorimer , 1891. A Congregational church in Cheshire, Connecticut, United States . Lutheranism [ edit ] Main article: Lutheranism Lutheranism identifies with the theology of Martin Luther—a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer, and theologian. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification \"by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone \", the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, denying the belief of the Catholic Church defined at the Council of Trent concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition . [87] In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first four ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church. [88] [89] Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist , or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology , the purpose of God's Law , the divine grace , the concept of perseverance of the saints , and predestination . Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents, [90] it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism . [1] The Lutheran World Federation , the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people. [91] Additionally, there are also many smaller bodies such as the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference , as well as independent churches . Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517. Philip Melanchthon , the co-founder of Lutheranism, baptizing an infant. Martin Luther nailed the Ninety-five Theses to the main door of the Schlosskirche . Methodism [ edit ] Main article: Methodism Methodism identifies principally with the theology of John Wesley —an Anglican priest and evangelist. This evangelical movement originated as a revival within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the British Empire , the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide. [92] Originally it appealed especially to labourers and slaves. Soteriologically , most Methodists are Arminian , emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of monergism ). Methodism is traditionally low church in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother, Charles , was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church, [93] and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition. John Wesley , the primary founder of the Methodism. A United Methodist elder celebrating the Eucharist . Methodist Central Hall in Westminster , London . Pentecostalism [ edit ] Main article: Pentecostalism Pentecostalism is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism with the Holy Spirit . The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost , the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks . For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ , as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts . This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from conversion that enables a Christian to live a Holy Spirit–filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing —two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church . For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement. Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South . Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement . Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents. [94] Charles Fox Parham , who associated glossolalia with the baptism in the Holy Spirit. A modern Protestant worship band leading a contemporary worship session. A Pentecostal church in Ravensburg, Germany . Other Protestants [ edit ] Main article: List of Christian denominations § Protestantism There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as \"Christians\" or \" born-again Christians\". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and/or creedalism of other Christian communities [95] by calling themselves \" non-denominational \" or \" evangelical \". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. [96] Hussitism follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the Moravian Church , Unity of the Brethren , and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches. [97] The Plymouth Brethren are a conservative , low church, evangelical movement , whose history can be traced to Dublin , Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from Anglicanism . [98] [99] Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes sola scriptura . Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the title The Brethren , is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as brethren . The Holiness movement refers to a set of beliefs and practices emerging from 19th-century Methodism, and a number of evangelical denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements which emphasized those beliefs as a central doctrine. There are an estimated 12 million adherents in Holiness movement churches. [100] The Salvation Army and The Wesleyan Church are notable examples. Quakers , or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers . [101] [102] Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical , holiness , liberal , and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity . Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. [103] Unitarianism is sometimes considered Protestant due to its origins in the Reformation and strong cooperation with other Protestants since the 16th century. [104] It is excluded due to its Nontrinitarian nature. [105] Unitarians can be regarded as Nontrinitarian Protestants, or simply Nontrinitarians. Unitarianism has been popular in the region of Transylvania within today's Romania , England, and the United States. It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . George Fox was an English dissenter and a founder of the Religious Society of Friends , commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. Friedensthal Moravian Church Christiansted, St Croix, USVI founded in 1755. A night shelter of The Salvation Army in Geneva, Switzerland. Interdenominational movements [ edit ] There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and cannot be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms. Evangelicalism is a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian-wide. Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the Roman Catholic Church , such as does it the Charismatic Movement , which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals into the various branches of Christianity. Neo-charismatic churches are sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Both are put under a common label of Charismatic Christianity (so-called Renewalists ), along with Pentecostals. Nondenominational churches and various house churches often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements. Megachurches are usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity. In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades. [106] It has since spread worldwide. The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism. Evangelicalism [ edit ] Main article: Evangelicalism Evangelicalism, or evangelical Protestantism, [m] is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ 's atonement . [107] [108] Evangelicals are Christians who believe in the centrality of the conversion or \"born again\" experience in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message. It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English Methodist movement, Nicolaus Zinzendorf , the Moravian Church , Lutheran pietism , Presbyterianism and Puritanism . [69] Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley , George Whitefield , Jonathan Edwards , Billy Graham , Harold John Ockenga , John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones . There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13.1% of the Christian population and 4.1% of the total world population . The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals. [109] Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and the developing world . William Wilberforce , a British evangelical abolitionist. Billy Graham , a prominent evangelical revivalist, preaching in Duisburg, Germany in 1954. Calvary Church , a non-denominational evangelical church in Charlotte, North Carolina . Charismatic movement [ edit ] Christian Open Door Church , an evangelical charismatic church in Mulhouse , France . Main article: Charismatic movement The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals . Fundamental to the movement is the use of spiritual gifts . Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960. In America, Episcopalian Dennis Bennett is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence. [110] In the United Kingdom , Colin Urquhart , Michael Harper , David Watson and others were in the vanguard of similar developments. The Massey conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the Life in the Spirit seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include Bill Subritzky . Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in San Pedro, California , did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in Minneapolis . Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially \"Hosanna!\" in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches . There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach. Richard A. Jensen 's Touched by the Spirit published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement. In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionally Calvinist or Reformed theology there are differing views regarding present-day continuation or cessation of the gifts ( charismata ) of the Spirit. [111] [112] Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such as Word of Faith , Toronto Blessing , Brownsville Revival and Lakeland Revival . Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are the Sovereign Grace Churches and the Every Nation Churches in the US, in Great Britain there is the Newfrontiers churches and movement, which leading figure is Terry Virgo . [113] A minority of Seventh-day Adventists today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more \"progressive\" Adventist beliefs . In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace. [114] [115] Neo-charismatic churches [ edit ] Main article: Neo-charismatic churches Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the Christian Renewal movement. Neo-charismatics include the Third Wave , but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of postdenominational and independent charismatic groups. [116] Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of gifts of the Holy Spirit , including glossolalia , healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the \"infilling\" of the Holy Spirit . However, a specific experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches. Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic. [117] Neo-charismatic tenets and practices are found in many independent, nondenominational or post-denominational congregations, with strength of numbers centered in the African independent churches , among the Han Chinese house-church movement , and in Latin American churches. [ citation needed ] Other Protestant developments [ edit ] A plenty of other movements and thoughts to be distinguished from the widespread transdenominational ones and branches appeared within Protestant Christianity. Some of them are also in evidence today. Others appeared during the centuries following the Reformation and disappeared gradually with the time, such as much of Pietism . Some inspired the current transdenominational ones, such as Evangelicalism which has its foundation in the Christian fundamentalism . Arminianism [ edit ] Main articles: Arminianism , Remonstrants , and Calvinist-Arminian debate Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch Reformed theologian, whose views influenced parts of Protestantism. A small Remonstrant community remains in the Netherlands. Arminianism is based on theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants . His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of Martin Luther , Huldrych Zwingli , John Calvin , and other Protestant Reformers . Jacobus Arminius was a student of Theodore Beza at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism . [118] However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus. [119] Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States General of the Netherlands . Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century, [120] the Methodists in the 18th century and the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 19th century. The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius , John Wesley , and others as well. Classical Arminianism and Wesleyan Arminianism are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the history of Christian theology . However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor. [121] Pietism [ edit ] Main articles: Pietism and Haugean movement Pietism was an influential movement within Lutheranism that combined the 17th century Lutheran principles with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life. [122] It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Brethren movement among Anabaptists . Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the Puritan movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government. [123] Philipp Jakob Spener , German pioneer and founder of Pietism. Pietism has been a strong cultural influence in Scandinavia. The Broad and the Narrow Way , a popular German Pietist painting, 1866. Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists [ edit ] Main articles: Puritanism , English Dissenters , Independent (religion) , Nonconformism , English Presbyterianism , Ecclesiastical separatism , and 17th-century denominations in England The Puritans were a group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries , which sought to purify the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning clergy exiled under Mary I shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England . Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the University of Cambridge . They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism . They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine , as well as personal and group piety . Puritans adopted a Reformed theology , but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous gathered churches . These separatist and independent strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a Presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church. Nonconforming Protestants along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe were the primary founders of the United States of America. John Cotton , who sparked the Antinomian Controversy with his free grace theology . Pilgrim Fathers landing at Plymouth Rock in 1620. Built in 1681, the Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts is the oldest church in America in continuous ecclesiastical use. [124] Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy [ edit ] Main articles: Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy Karl Barth , often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century [125] [126] A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth and Jürgen Moltmann , neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called \"Crisis theology\", according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism . Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the most notable exponent in the movement is United Methodist theologian Thomas Oden . Christian fundamentalism [ edit ] Main article: Christian fundamentalism In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress Biblical inerrancy and Biblical literalism . Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism. Modernism and liberalism [ edit ] Main article: Liberal Christianity Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment . New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy within the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in the 1920s. Protestant culture [ edit ] Main article: Protestant culture The Berlin Cathedral , a United Protestant cathedral in Berlin . Max Weber 's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts. [14] Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry. [23] Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries. [127] Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. bishops ), in most Protestant churches. As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 per cent, in Scotland 65 per cent, and in Sweden eight of ten men and women were able to read and to write. [128] Colleges and universities were founded. For example, the Puritans who established Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628 founded Harvard College only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including Yale (1701). Pennsylvania also became a centre of learning. [129] [130] Members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life , including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education. [131] Thought and work ethic [ edit ] See also: Protestant work ethic The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15 , make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the humanities and the sciences . [132] Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code. [133] [134] In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors. [135] [136] [137] [138] The Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated mass action that influenced the development of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution . This idea is also known as the \"Protestant ethic thesis.\" [139] However, eminent historian Fernand Braudel (d. 1985), a leader of the important Annales School wrote: \"all historians have opposed this tenuous theory [the Protestant Ethic] , although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management.\" [140] Social scientist Rodney Stark moreover comments that \"during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant — the Reformation still lay well into the future,\" [141] while British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (d. 2003) said, \"The idea that large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed.\" [142] In a factor analysis of the latest wave of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch ( Corvinus University of Budapest ) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of liberalism . The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc. [143] Episcopalians and Presbyterians , as well as other WASPs , tend to be considerably wealthier [144] and better educated (having graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States , [145] and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business , [146] law and politics , especially the Republican Party . [147] Numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts and the Astors , Rockefeller , Du Pont , Roosevelt , Forbes , Whitneys , the Morgans and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families. [144] Science [ edit ] See also: Merton thesis Columbia University , established by the Church of England . Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis , there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other. [148] The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology ; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values. [149] Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science. [150] Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research. [148] According to Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States by Harriet Zuckerman , a review of American Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American Nobel Prize laureates identified a Protestant background. [151] Overall, 84.2% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in Chemistry , [151] 60% in Medicine , [151] and 58.6% in Physics [151] between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants. According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005) , a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65.4% of Nobel Prize Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes). [152] While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes), [152] although Protestant comprise 11.6% to 13% of the world's population. Government [ edit ] Church flags, as used by German Protestants. In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle ( doctrine of the two kingdoms ). [153] The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture ; 1523). [154] Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen ( church elders , presbyters ) in his representative church government. [155] The Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches. [156] Politically, Calvin favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy : \"It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords.\" [157] Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances ( separation of powers ). Thus he and his followers resisted political absolutism and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy. [158] Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle . Hugo Grotius was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible. [159] Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the English Civil War , Oliver Cromwell , John Milton , John Locke , the Glorious Revolution , the English Bill of Rights , and the Act of Settlement . [160] Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, Plymouth Colony ( Pilgrim Fathers ; 1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) practised democratic self-rule and separation of powers . [161] [162] [163] [164] These Congregationalists were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. [165] The Mayflower Compact was a social contract . [166] [167] Rights and liberty [ edit ] Enlightenment philosopher John Locke argued for individual conscience, free from state control. Protestants also took the initiative in advocating for religious freedom . Freedom of conscience had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person. [168] The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practised separation of church and state . [169] In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like John Smyth and Thomas Helwys published tracts in defense of religious freedom. [170] Their thinking influenced John Milton and John Locke 's stance on tolerance. [171] [172] Under the leadership of Baptist Roger Williams , Congregationalist Thomas Hooker , and Quaker William Penn , respectively, Rhode Island , Connecticut , and Pennsylvania combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews . [173] [174] [175] The United States Declaration of Independence , the United States Constitution , and the American Bill of Rights with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework. [176] The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses. [177] In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany). The strongest link between the American and French Revolutions was Marquis de Lafayette , an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document. [178] The United Nations Declaration and Universal Declaration of Human Rights also echo the American constitutional tradition. [179] [180] [181] Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state – these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by Enlightenment thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment – Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , John Toland , David Hume , Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , Christian Wolff , Immanuel Kant , and Jean-Jacques Rousseau – had Protestant backgrounds. [182] For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on \"a set of Protestant Christian assumptions\", [183] derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders (\"Adam and Eve\"), from Genesis 1, 26–28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed \"the consent of the governed.\" [184] These Lockean ideas were fundamental to the United States Declaration of Independence, which also deduced human rights from the biblical belief in creation: \"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.\" Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, torture was abolished in Prussia in 1740, slavery in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 ( William Wilberforce , Harriet Beecher Stowe , Abraham Lincoln – against Southern Protestants). [185] [186] Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to international law . [187] [188] The Geneva Convention , an important part of humanitarian international law , was largely the work of Henry Dunant , a reformed pietist . He also founded the Red Cross . [189] Social teaching [ edit ] The Young Men's Christian Association founded by Congregationalist George Williams and aimed at empowering young people. Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies. [190] [191] [192] In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and woman suffrage . [193] [194] [195] As an answer to the \"social question\" of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced insurance programs that led the way to the welfare state ( health insurance , accident insurance , disability insurance , old-age pensions ). To Bismarck this was \"practical Christianity\". [196] [197] These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world. Arts [ edit ] The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs. Martin Luther, Paul Gerhardt , George Wither , Isaac Watts , Charles Wesley , William Cowper , and many other authors and composers created well-known church hymns. Musicians like Heinrich Schütz , Johann Sebastian Bach , George Frideric Handel , Henry Purcell , Johannes Brahms , Philipp Nicolai and Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy composed great works of music. Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, Albrecht Dürer , Hans Holbein the Younger , Lucas Cranach the Elder , Lucas Cranach the Younger , Rembrandt , and Vincent van Gogh . World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser , John Milton , John Bunyan , John Donne , John Dryden , Daniel Defoe , William Wordsworth , Jonathan Swift , Johann Wolfgang Goethe , Friedrich Schiller , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Edgar Allan Poe , Matthew Arnold , Conrad Ferdinand Meyer , Theodor Fontane , Washington Irving , Robert Browning , Emily Dickinson , Emily Brontë , Charles Dickens , Nathaniel Hawthorne , Thomas Stearns Eliot , John Galsworthy , Thomas Mann , William Faulkner , John Updike , and many others. Martin Luther Memorial in Worms, Germany , which features some of the Reformation's crucial figures. The International Monument to the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland. The Adoration of the Trinity by Albrecht Dürer. The Crucifixion of Christ by Lucas Cranach the Elder. The Adam and Eve by Lucas Cranach the Younger. A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew's Day, Refusing to Shield Himself from Danger by Wearing the Roman Catholic Badge by John Everett Millais . The Return of the Prodigal Son , detail, c. 1669 by Rembrandt . The Church at Auvers , 1890. Musée d'Orsay, Paris. By Vincent van Gogh . Catholic responses [ edit ] Main articles: Anti-Protestantism , Counter-Reformation , Council of Trent , and Criticism of Protestantism Passional Christi und Antichristi , by Lucas Cranach the Elder , from Luther's 1521 Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist . The Pope as the Antichrist, signing and selling indulgences . St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants, 1572. The view of the Roman Catholic Church is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they are ecclesial communities or specific faith-believing communities because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood and therefore lack true apostolic succession . [198] [199] According to Bishop Hilarion (Alfeyev) the Eastern Orthodox Church shares the same view on the subject. [200] Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic or universal church was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Roman Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Roman Catholic Church that had left them. [201] In order to justify their departure from the Roman Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument, saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church —this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation. Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole invisible church , but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the Papacy and central authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th and 15th century Conciliar movement , rejecting the papacy and papal infallibility in favor of ecumenical councils , but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the Council of Trent . Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action. There are Protestants, especially of the Reformed tradition , that either reject or down-play the designation Protestant because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation Reformed , Evangelical or even Reformed Catholic expressive of what they call a Reformed Catholicity and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions. [202] Ecumenism [ edit ] Main article: Christian ecumenism The Edinburgh Missionary Conference is considered the symbolic starting point of the contemporary ecumenical movement. [203] The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference . Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India , the Church of North India , the US-based United Church of Christ , the United Church of Canada , the Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine. [204] A Protestant baptism is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the priesthood after a period of study. In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification , apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although Confessional Lutherans reject this statement. [205] This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. [206] [207] Spread and demographics [ edit ] Main article: Protestants by country See also: Christianity by country Protestant majority countries. Countries by percentage of Protestants. There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide, [1] [2] [3] [15] [208] [209] [210] [211] [n] among approximately 2.4 billion Christians. [2] [212] [213] [214] [o] In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa. [1] Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population. [1] Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%, [208] 36%, [215] 36.7%, [1] and 40%, [15] while in relation to the world's population at 11.6% [1] and 13%. [211] In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion. [208] These include the Nordic countries and the United Kingdom. [208] [216] In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia and Hungary, it remains one of the most popular religions. [217] Although Czech Republic was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements , [218] there are only few Protestant adherents; [219] [220] mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs , [221] restrictions during the Communist rule , and also the ongoing secularization . [218] Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as secularization has increased. [208] [222] According to a 2012 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer , Protestants made up 12% of the EU population. [223] According to Pew Research Center , Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 17.8%) of the continent's Christian population in 2010. [1] Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010. [208] [210] Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant. [15] [210] [224] Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America. [23] [211] [224] That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion. [210] [224] Much of the growth has occurred after World War II , when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred. [211] According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians. [211] In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 5.5%, respectively. [211] According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth . [210] By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa. [210] In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined. [210] Almost as many lived in each of Nigeria and China as in all of Europe. [210] China is home to world's largest Protestant minority. [1] [p] Protestantism is growing in Africa, [23] [225] [226] Asia, [23] [226] [227] Latin America, [226] [228] and Oceania, [23] [224] while declining in Anglo America [224] [229] and Europe, [208] [230] with some exceptions such as France, [231] where it was eradicated after the abolition of the Edict of Nantes by the Edict of Fontainebleau and the following persecution of Huguenots , but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly. [231] According to some, Russia is another country to see a Protestant revival. [232] [233] [234] In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (10.8%), Anglican (10.6%), Lutheran (9.7%), Baptist (9%), United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3.4%), Adventist (2.7%), Congregationalist (0.5%), Brethren (0.5%), The Salvation Army (0.3%) and Moravian (0.1%). Other denominations accounted for 38.2% of Protestants. [1] United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants. [1] According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time. [235] [236] The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches, [235] [237] while Evangelical Protestant and Black churches are stable or continue to grow. [235] By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population. [238] [q] According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics. [239] According to Mark Jürgensmeyer of the University of California , popular Protestantism [r] is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside the resurgent Islam . [18] See also [ edit ] Religion portal Christianity portal Seventh-day Adventist Church portal Anabaptism portal Anglicanism portal Arminianism portal Baptist portal Calvinism portal Lutheranism portal Methodism portal Evangelical Christianity portal Anti-Catholicism Anti-Protestantism Criticism of Protestantism Criticism of the Catholic Church European wars of religion Islamic Protestantism Jehovah's Witnesses Latter Day Saint movement Messianic Judaism Protestantism and Islam Restorationism Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement Unitarianism Universalism Unitarian Universalism Oneness Pentecostalism The New Church / Swedenborgianism Christadelphians Notes [ edit ] Jump up ^ Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to more than a billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000, [4] while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015. [2] Jump up ^ Some movements such as the Hussites or the Lollards are also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to years before the launch of the Reformation. Others, such as the Waldensians , were later incorporated into another branch of Protestantism; in this case, the Reformed branch. Jump up ^ At the time Germany and the surrounding region was fragmented into numerous states of the Holy Roman Empire . Areas which turned Protestant were primarily located in northern, central, and eastern areas of the Reich . Jump up ^ Several states of the Holy Roman Empire adopted Calvinism, including the County Palatine of the Rhine . Jump up ^ Further information: English Reformation . In this article, Anglicanism is considered a branch of Protestantism as a part of movements derived directly from the 16th century Reformation. While today the Church of England often considers itself to be a via media between Protestantism and the Roman Catholic Church, until the rise of the Oxford Movement in the 1830s the church generally considered itself to be Protestant. (Neill, Stephen. Anglicanism Pelican 1960, pp. 170; 259–60) Jump up ^ According to Pew 2011 report on Christianity about 60% (defined strictly, as some denominations given individual percentages in the report could be considered a part of one of the seven main distinguishable Protestant branches, e.g. The Salvation Army could be considered a part of Methodism). The majority figures given in such reports, or in other sources may vary considerably. Jump up ^ This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, but many find the word Reformed to be more descriptive. [16] It includes Presbyterianism , Congregationalism , many of United and uniting churches , as well as historic Reformed churches in France, Switzerland, Germany, and Hungary. Jump up ^ In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors. [34] Jump up ^ In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height. [36] Jump up ^ Finland's State Church was the Church of Sweden until 1809. As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia 1809–1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and a state church separate from Sweden, later named the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland , was established. It was detached from the state as a separate judicial entity when the new church law came to force in 1869. After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919 and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922. Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland lost its position as a state church but gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside the Finnish Orthodox Church , whose position, however, is not codified in the constitution. Jump up ^ [ citation needed ] Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term \"Wiedertäufer\" (translation: \"Re-baptizers\") considering it biased. The term \"Täufer\" (translation: \"Baptizers\") is now used, which is considered more impartial. From the perspective of their persecutors, the \"Baptizers\" baptized for the second time those \"who as infants had already been baptized\". Since the denigrative term Anabaptist signifies re-baptizing , it is considered a polemic term and therefore has been dropped from use in modern German. However, in the English-speaking world it is still in use in order to distinguish the \"Baptizers\" more clearly from the \"Baptists\" who emerged later. Jump up ^ For example, the followers of Thomas Müntzer and Balthasar Hubmaier . Jump up ^ Primarily in the United States, where Protestants are usually placed in one of two categories— Mainline or Evangelical. Jump up ^ Estimates vary considerably, from 400 up to more than a billion. One of the reasons is the lack of a common agreement among scholars which denominations constitute Protestantism. Nevertheless, 800 million is the most accepted figure among various authors and scholars, and thus is used in this article. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000, [4] while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015. [2] Jump up ^ Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015. Jump up ^ Estimates for China vary in dozens of millions. Nevertheless, in comparison to the other countries, there is no disagreement that China has the most numerous Protestant minority. Jump up ^ Protestant, Independent and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book: Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here. Jump up ^ A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation. References [ edit ] ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m \"Pewforum: Christianity (2010)\" (PDF) . Retrieved 14 May 2014 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact\" (PDF) . gordonconwell.edu. January 2015 . Retrieved 29 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"CCC – Global Statistics\" . Retrieved 5 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. (2 August 2004). \"Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set\" . Routledge – via Google Books. Jump up ^ \"Protestant - Definition of Protestant in English by Oxford Dictionaries\" . Oxford Dictionaries - English . Jump up ^ Dixon, C. Scott (16 July 2010). \"Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517 - 1740\" . John Wiley & Sons – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Faithful, George (3 April 2014). \"Mothering the Fatherland: A Protestant Sisterhood Repents for the Holocaust\" . Oxford University Press – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Voerding, Philip (1 August 2009). \"The Trouble with Christianity\" . AuthorHouse – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Dixon, C. Scott (16 July 2010). \"Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517 - 1740\" . John Wiley & Sons – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (1974) art. \"Speyer (Spires), Diets of\" Jump up ^ Watson, James (24 June 2014). \"Religious Thoughts\" . iUniverse – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Gassmann, Günther; Larson, Duane H.; Oldenburg, Mark W. (4 April 2001). \"Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism\" . Scarecrow Press – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Kuyper, Abraham (16 January 1899). \"Calvinism\" . Primedia E-launch LLC – via Google Books. ^ Jump up to: a b c Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Hillerbrand, Hans J. (2 August 2004). \"Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set\" . Routledge – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Hägglund, Bengt (2007). Teologins Historia [ History of Theology ] (in German). Translated by Gene J. Lund (Fourth Revised ed.). Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House. Jump up ^ World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches : \"Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition \"per se\" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between \"evangelical\" and \"mainline\" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities.\" ^ Jump up to: a b Juergensmeyer, Mark (3 November 2005). \"Religion in Global Civil Society\" . Oxford University Press – via Google Books. Jump up ^ \"Divisions of womens weave Christianity\" . North Virginia College . Retrieved 31 December 2007 . ^ Jump up to: a b \"protestant - Origin and meaning of protestant by Online Etymology Dictionary\" . www.etymonline.com . Jump up ^ MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2003). The Reformation: A History . New York: Penguin. p. xx. Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference OOE796 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Melton, J. Gordon (16 January 2018). \"Encyclopedia of Protestantism\" . Infobase Publishing – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Woodhead, Linda. Christianity: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2014) pp 57-70 ^ Jump up to: a b Johann Jakob Herzog, Philip Schaff, Albert. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge . 1911, page 419. https://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419 Jump up ^ Matt. 16:18 , 1 Cor. 3:11 , Eph. 2:20 , 1 Pet. 2:5–6 , Rev. 21:14 Jump up ^ Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics . St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. \"The Lord's Supper\", paragraph 131. Jump up ^ \"The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper\" . Bookofconcord.com . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology . Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Jump up ^ Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology . Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. Archived from the original on 28 May 2011. Jump up ^ Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology . Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Jump up ^ Schofield Martin Luther p. 122 Jump up ^ Cameron European Reformation [ page needed ] Jump up ^ Pettegree Reformation World p. 543 Jump up ^ Edwards Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther [ page needed ] Jump up ^ Pettegree and Hall \"Reformation and the Book Historical Journal p. 786 Jump up ^ William P. Haugaard \"The History of Anglicanism I\" in The Study of Anglicanism Stephen Sykes and John Booty (eds) (SPCK 1987) pp. 6–7 Jump up ^ Article 1, of the Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'. Jump up ^ \" History of Europe – Demographics \". Encyclopædia Britannica. Jump up ^ Cross, (ed.) \"Westphalia, Peace of\" Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church Jump up ^ Thomas S. Kidd, The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America (2009) Jump up ^ Nancy Cott , \"Young Women in the Great Awakening in New England,\" Feminist Studies 3, no. 1/2 (Autumn 1975): 15. Jump up ^ William G. McLoughlin, Revivals Awakenings and Reform (1980) Jump up ^ Mark A. Noll , A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (1992) pp. 286–310 Jump up ^ Robert William Fogel, The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism (2000) Jump up ^ Robert William Fogel (2000), The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism ; see the review by Randall Balmer, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2002 33(2): 322–325 Jump up ^ Cranach (22 March 2012). \"Has Lutheranism caused secularism?\" . Jump up ^ Horsch, John (1995). Mennonites in Europe . Herald Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0836113952 . ^ Jump up to: a b Gonzalez, A History of Christian Thought , 88. Jump up ^ Hein, Gerhard. \"Karlstadt, Andreas Rudolff-Bodenstein von (1486–1541)\" . Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online . Retrieved 19 April 2014 . Jump up ^ The Magisterial Reformation . Jump up ^ Bruderhof (29 October 2015), What is the Bruderhof? , retrieved 5 December 2017 Jump up ^ Company, DIANE Publishing (1 June 1996). \"Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1996-1997\" . DIANE Publishing – via Google Books. Jump up ^ \"An Orthodox Response to the Recent Roman Catholic Declaration on the Nature of the Church - Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese\" . www.antiochian.org . Jump up ^ Denmark – Constitution : Section 4 State Church, International Constitutional Law . Jump up ^ \"Føroyska kirkjan\" . Fólkakirkjan . Jump up ^ Constitution of the Republic of Iceland : Article 62, Government of Iceland . Jump up ^ Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke Archived 27 December 2012 at WebCite , ABC Nyheter Jump up ^ Staten skal ikke lenger ansette biskoper , NRK Jump up ^ Forbund, Human-Etisk. \"Ingen avskaffelse: Slik blir den nye statskirkeordningen\" . Jump up ^ Fasse, Christoph. \"Address data base of Reformed churches and institutions\" . www.reformiert-online.net . Jump up ^ Eberle, Edward J. (2011). Church and State in Western Society . Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4094-0792-8 . Retrieved 9 November 2012 . The Church of England later became the official state church, with the monarch supervising church functions. Jump up ^ Fox, Jonathan (2008). A World Survey of Religion and the State . Cambridge University Press . p. 120. ISBN 978-0-521-88131-9 . Retrieved 9 November 2012 . The Church of England (Anglican) and the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) are the official religions of the UK. Jump up ^ Ferrante, Joan (2010). Sociology: A Global Perspective . Cengage Learning . p. 408. ISBN 978-0-8400-3204-1 . Retrieved 9 November 2012 . the Church of England [Anglican], which remains the official state church Jump up ^ Finland – Constitution , Section 76 The Church Act, http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/fi00000_.html . Jump up ^ \"MAARIT JÄNTERÄ-JAREBORG: Religion and the Secular State in Sweden\" (PDF) . Jump up ^ \"Staatlicher Dirigismus und neue Gläubigkeit (Die Kirche im Herzogtum Nassau)\" (in German). Nassau-info.de. Jump up ^ Mead, Frank S; Hill, Samuel S; Atwood, Craig D, \"Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches\", Handbook of Denominations in the United States (12th ed.), Nashville: Abingdon Press, pp. 256–76 ^ Jump up to: a b \"Christianity report\" (PDF) . Jump up ^ McGrath, William, \"Neither Catholic nor Protestant\", CBC 4 me (PDF) , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 December 2016 Jump up ^ Gilbert, William, \"CHAPTER 15 THE RADICALS OF THE REFORMATION\", THE ANABAPTISTS AND THE REFORMATION . Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas (2010) [2001], \"Anabaptist\", Online Etymological Dictionary , retrieved 25 April 2011 . Jump up ^ \"What it means to be an Anglican\" . Church of England . Retrieved 16 March 2009 . Jump up ^ \"The Anglican Communion official website – homepage\" . Archived from the original on 19 March 2009 . Retrieved 16 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Office, Anglican Communion. \"Member Churches\" . www.anglicancommunion.org . Jump up ^ Green, Jonathon (1996). \"Chapter 2: The Middle Ages\". Chasing the Sun: Dictionary Makers and the Dictionaries They Made (1st USA ed.). New York, US: Henry Holt . pp. 58–59. ISBN 0-8050-3466-8 . Jump up ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch , Thomas Cranmer: A Life , Yale University Press, p.617 (1996). Jump up ^ Buescher, John. \" Baptist Origins .\" Teaching History . Retrieved 23 September 2011. Jump up ^ Shurden, Walter (2001). \"Turning Points in Baptist History\" . Macon, GA: The Center for Baptist Studies, Mercer University . Retrieved 16 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Gourley, Bruce. \"A Very Brief Introduction to Baptist History, Then and Now.\" The Baptist Observer. ^ Jump up to: a b c Cross, FL, ed. (2005), \"Baptists\", The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church , New York: Oxford University Press ^ Jump up to: a b \" Baptist .\" 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Jump up ^ \"Member Body Statistics\" . Baptist World Alliance. 30 May 2008. Archived from the original on 1 April 2010 . Retrieved 6 May 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Appendix B: Classification of Protestant Denominations\" . 12 May 2015. Jump up ^ \"Theology and Communion\" . Wcrc.ch . Retrieved 5 December 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Member Churches\" . Wcrc.ch . Archived from the original on 12 April 2014 . Retrieved 5 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent , Fourth Session, Decree on Sacred Scripture (Denzinger 783 [1501]; Schaff 2:79-81). For a history of the discussion of various interpretations of the Tridentine decree, see Selby, Matthew L., The Relationship Between Scripture and Tradition according to the Council of Trent , unpublished Master's thesis, University of St Thomas, July 2013. Jump up ^ Olson, Roger E. (1 April 1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform . InterVarsity Press. p. 158. ISBN 9780830815050 . The magisterial Protestant denominations such as major Lutheran, Reformed and Anglican (Church of England, Episcopalian) denominations recognize only the first four as having any special authority, and even they are considered subordinate to Scripture. Jump up ^ Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History . Liturgical Press. p. 64. ISBN 9780814653760 . The Church of England and most Lutheran churches accept the first four councils as ecumenical; Orthodox churches accept the first seven. Jump up ^ \"About Us\" . Lutheran Church of New Zealand . Retrieved 5 March 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Member Churches – The Lutheran World Federation\" . Retrieved 5 March 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Member Churches\" . World Methodist Council . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ A Collection of Hymns, for the use of the people called Methodists . T. Blanshard . Retrieved 31 December 2007 . Jump up ^ Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population ( PDF ) , Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 19 December 2011, p. 67 . Jump up ^ Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to \"the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed.\" (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History , p. xxiv.) Jump up ^ \"Classification of Protestant Denominations\" (PDF) . Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey . Retrieved 27 September 2009 . Jump up ^ Nĕmec, Ludvík \"The Czechoslovak heresy and schism: the emergence of a national Czechoslovak church,\" American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975, ISBN 0-87169-651-7 Jump up ^ Abigail, Shawn (June 2006). \"What is the history of the 'Brethren'?\" . \"Plymouth Brethren\" FAQ . Archived from the original on 18 May 2016 . Retrieved 12 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Mackay, Harold (1981). Assembly Distinctives . Scarborough , Ontario : Everyday Publications. ISBN 978-0-88873-049-7 . OCLC 15948378 . [ page needed ] Jump up ^ \"Holiness churches\" . oikoumene.org . Retrieved 31 May 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Quaker Faith & Practice\" . Britain Yearly Meeting. Jump up ^ \"Baltimore Yearly Meeting Faith & Practice 2011 draft\" . Archived from the original on 13 April 2012. Jump up ^ The Trouble With \"Ministers\" Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine . by Chuck Fager gives an overview of the hierarchy Friends had until it began to be abolished in the mid-eighteenth century. Retrieved 25 April 2014. Jump up ^ \"BBC - Religions - Unitarianism: Unitarianism at a glance\" . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Unitarian Christianity\" . www.americanunitarian.org . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . Jump up ^ \"Redirect\" . www.secularhumanism.org . Jump up ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary . Oxford University Press. 1978. Jump up ^ Operation World Jump up ^ How Many Evangelicals Are There? , Wheaton College: Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals, archived from the original on 30 January 2016 Jump up ^ Balmer, Randall (2004), \"Charismatic Movement\", Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and Expanded Edition (2nd ed.), Waco: Baylor . Jump up ^ Masters, Peter; Whitcomb, John (Jun 1988). Charismatic Phenomenon(ISBN) . London: Wakeman. p. 113. ISBN 9781870855013 . Jump up ^ Masters, Peter; Wright, Professor Verna (1988). Healing Epidemic . London: Wakeman Trust. p. 227. ISBN 9781870855006 . Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 11 November 2014 . Retrieved 5 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Patrick, Arthur (c. 1999). \"Early Adventist worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Preliminary Historical Perspectives\" . Spiritual Discernment Conference . SDAnet AtIssue . Retrieved 15 February 2008 . Jump up ^ Patrick, Arthur (c. 1999). \"Later Adventist Worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Further Historical Perspectives\" . Spiritual Discernment Conference . SDAnet AtIssue . Retrieved 15 February 2008 . Jump up ^ Burgess, Stanley M; van der Maas, Eduard M, eds. (2002), \"Neocharismatics\", The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements , Grand Rapids: Zondervan . Jump up ^ Burgess, Stanley M; van der Maas, Eduard M, eds. (2002), The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements , Grand Rapids: Zondervan, pp. 286–87 . Jump up ^ \"Chambers Biographical Dictionary,\" ed. Magnus Magnusson (Chambers: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 62. Jump up ^ Kenneth D. Keathley, \"The Work of God: Salvation,\" in A Theology for the Church , ed. Daniel L. Akin (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2007), 703. Jump up ^ Robert G. Torbet, A History of the Baptists , third edition Jump up ^ Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity, Vol. Two: The Reformation to the Present Day (New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1985; reprint – Peabody: Prince Press, 2008) 180 Jump up ^ In places, such as parts of England and America, where Pietism was frequently juxtaposed with Roman Catholicism , Catholics also became naturally influenced by Pietism, helping to foster a stronger tradition of congregational hymn-singing, including among Pietists who converted to Catholicism and brought their pietistic inclination with them, such as Frederick William Faber . Jump up ^ Calvinist Puritans believed that government was ordained by God to enforce Christian behavior upon the world; pietists see the government as a part of the world, and believers were called to voluntarily live faithful lives independent of government. Jump up ^ Butterfield, Fox (14 May 1989). \"The Perfect New England Town\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 30 May 2010 . Jump up ^ McGrath, Alister E (14 January 2011), Christian Theology: An Introduction , John Wiley & Sons, pp. 76–, ISBN 978-1-4443-9770-3 Jump up ^ Brown, Stuart; Collinson, Diane; Wilkinson, Robert (10 September 2012), Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers , Taylor & Francis, pp. 52–, ISBN 978-0-415-06043-1 Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , p. 319 Jump up ^ Heinrich August Winkler (2012), Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert , Third, Revised Edition, Munich (Germany), p. 233 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 69–80, 88–89, 114–117, 186–188 Jump up ^ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770 Jump up ^ McKinney, William. \"Mainline Protestantism 2000.\" Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol. 558, Americans and Religions in the Twenty-First Century (July 1998), pp. 57–66. Jump up ^ Gerhard Lenski (1963), The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life , Revised Edition, A Doubleday Anchor Book, Garden City, New York, pp. 348–351 Jump up ^ Cf. Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 , Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9 , p. 52 Jump up ^ Jan Weerda, Soziallehre des Calvinismus , in Evangelisches Soziallexikon , 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 934 Jump up ^ Eduard Heimann , Kapitalismus , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1136–1141 Jump up ^ Hans Fritz Schwenkhagen, Technik , in Evangelisches Soziallexikon , 3. Auflage, col. 1029–1033 Jump up ^ Georg Süßmann, Naturwissenschaft und Christentum , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 1377–1382 Jump up ^ C. Graf von Klinckowstroem, Technik. Geschichtlich , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 664–667 Jump up ^ Kim, Sung Ho (Fall 2008). \"Max Weber\" . The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University . Retrieved 21 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Braudel, Fernand. 1977. Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. Baltimore: Johns Hopskins University Press. Jump up ^ Manager. \"Protestant Modernity\" . Jump up ^ Trevor-Roper. 2001. The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. Liberty Fund Jump up ^ Tausch, Arno (31 March 2015). \"Towards new maps of global human values, based on World Values Survey (6) data\" – via ideas.repec.org. ^ Jump up to: a b B.DRUMMOND AYRES Jr. (19 December 2011). \"The Episcopalians: An American Elite with Roots Going Back To Jamestown\" . New York Times . Retrieved 17 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Irving Lewis Allen, \"WASP—From Sociological Concept to Epithet,\" Ethnicity , 1975 154+ Jump up ^ Hacker, Andrew (1957). \"Liberal Democracy and Social Control\". American Political Science Review . 51 (4): 1009–1026 [p. 1011]. JSTOR 1952449 . Jump up ^ Baltzell (1964). The Protestant Establishment . p. 9. ^ Jump up to: a b Sztompka, 2003 Jump up ^ Gregory, 1998 Jump up ^ Becker, 1992 ^ Jump up to: a b c d Harriet Zuckerman , Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States New York, The Free Pres, 1977 , p.68: Protestants turn up among the American-reared laureates in slightly greater proportion to their numbers in the general population. Thus 72 percent of the seventy-one laureates but about two thirds of the American population were reared in one or another Protestant denomination-) ^ Jump up to: a b Baruch A. Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003),Atlantic Publishers & Distributors , p.57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65.4% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. While separating Roman Catholic from Protestants among Christians proved difficult in some cases, available information suggests that more Protestants were involved in the scientific categories and more Catholics were involved in the Literature and Peace categories. Atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers comprise 10.5% of total Nobel Prize winners; but in the category of Literature, these preferences rise sharply to about 35%. A striking fact involving religion is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith – over 20% of total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. The numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.02% of the world's population) are Jewish. By contrast, only 5 Nobel Laureates have been of the Muslim faith-0.8% of total number of Nobel prizes awarded – from a population base of about 1.2 billion (20% of the world's population) Jump up ^ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937 Jump up ^ Original German title: Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , pp. 4–10 Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , 11. Auflage, p. 325 Jump up ^ Quoted in Jan Weerda, Calvin , in Evangelisches Soziallexikon , 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , p. 10 Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , pp. 396–397 Jump up ^ Cf. M. Schmidt, England. Kirchengeschichte , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band II (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 476–478 Jump up ^ Nathaniel Philbrick (2006), Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War , Penguin Group, New York, N.Y., ISBN 0-670-03760-5 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , pp. 65–76 Jump up ^ Christopher Fennell (1998), Plymouth Colony Legal Structure Jump up ^ \"Liberties\" . history.hanover.edu . Jump up ^ M. Schmidt, Pilgerväter , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 384 Jump up ^ Christopher Fennell, Plymouth Colony Legal Structure Jump up ^ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel (2002), The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower , DK Publishing, Inc., New York, N.Y., ISBN 0-7894-8903-1 , p. 61 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , p. 5 Jump up ^ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937-938 Jump up ^ H. Stahl, Baptisten , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 863 Jump up ^ G. Müller-Schwefe, Milton, John , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 955 Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , p. 398 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , pp. 99–106, 111–117, 124 Jump up ^ Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America , Judson Press, Valley Forge, p. 28 Jump up ^ Hans Fantel (1974), William Penn: Apostle of Dissent , William Morrow & Co., New York, N.Y., pp. 150–153 Jump up ^ Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 , Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9 , pp. 4–6, 49–52, 622–685 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , pp. 192–209 Jump up ^ Cf. R. Voeltzel, Frankreich. Kirchengeschichte , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1039 Jump up ^ Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), American Life and Institutions , Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart (Germany), p. 34 Jump up ^ G. Jasper, Vereinte Nationen , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1328–1329 Jump up ^ Cf. G. Schwarzenberger, Völkerrecht , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1420–1422 Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , 11. Auflage, pp. 396–399, 401–403, 417–419 Jump up ^ Jeremy Waldron (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought , Cambridge University Press, New York, N.Y., ISBN 978-0521-89057-1 , p. 13 Jump up ^ Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality , pp. 21–43, 120 Jump up ^ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America , pp. 189–309 Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte , 11. Auflage, pp. 403, 425 Jump up ^ M. Elze, Grotius, Hugo , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 1885–1886 Jump up ^ H. Hohlwein, Pufendorf, Samuel , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 721 Jump up ^ R. Pfister, Schweiz. Seit der Reformation , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 1614–1615 Jump up ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , pp. 484–494 Jump up ^ H. Wagner, Diakonie , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 164–167 Jump up ^ J.R.H. Moorman, Anglikanische Kirche , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 380–381 Jump up ^ Clifton E.Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , pp. 461–465 Jump up ^ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America , pp. 274–275 Jump up ^ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1770 Jump up ^ K. Kupisch, Bismarck, Otto von , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 1312–1315 Jump up ^ P. Quante, Sozialversicherung , in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart , Band VI, col. 205–206 Jump up ^ Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church, 29 June 2007, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Jump up ^ Stuard-will, Kelly; Emissary (2007). Karitas Publishing, ed. A Faraway Ancient Country . United States: Gardners Books. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-615-15801-3 . Jump up ^ OrthodoxEurope.org. \"Bishop Hilarion of Vienna and Austria: The Vatican Document Brings Nothing New\" . Orthodoxeurope.org . Retrieved 14 May 2014 . Jump up ^ The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Church is \"catholic\" (lower-case \"c\") rather than \"Catholic\" (upper-case \"C\"). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of parochial, congregational or national churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part, although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic Roman Catholic understanding that the Roman Catholic Church was the one true Church of Christ. Yet in the Protestant understanding, the visible church is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a totum integrale , it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker in The Theology of Theologians of Scotland. (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp.95–6. Jump up ^ The Canadian Reformed Magazine , 18 (20–27 September, 4–11 October, 18, 1, 8 November 1969) http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm Jump up ^ \"History — World Council of Churches\" . www.oikoumene.org . Jump up ^ \"Orthodox Church: text – IntraText CT\" . Intratext.com . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ \"Justification\" . WELS Topical Q&A . Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod . Archived from the original on 27 September 2009 . Retrieved 26 July 2016 . A document which is aimed at settling differences needs to address those differences unambiguously. The Joint Declaration does not do this. At best, it sends confusing mixed signals and should be repudiated by all Lutherans. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ \"News Archives\" . UMC.org . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ \"CNS STORY: Methodists adopt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification\" . Catholicnews.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017 . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Clarke, Peter B.; Beyer, Peter (7 May 2009). \"The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations\" . Taylor & Francis – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Brown, Stephen F. (16 January 2018). \"Protestantism\" . Infobase Publishing – via Google Books. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Noll, Mark A. (25 August 2011). \"Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction\" . OUP Oxford – via Google Books. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy . 2005, page 119. link (saying \" Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.') Jump up ^ 33.39% of ~7.2 billion world population (under the section 'People') \"World\" . CIA world facts. Jump up ^ \"Major Religions Ranked by Size\" . Adherents.com . Retrieved 5 May 2009 . Jump up ^ ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). \"Global Christianity\" . Pewforum.org . Retrieved 17 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Protestant Demographics and Fragmentations Archived 18 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ \"Religious Populations in England\" . Office for National Statistics . Retrieved 8 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Thorpe, Edgar (16 January 2018). \"The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2012\" . Pearson Education India – via Google Books. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic) - Musée virtuel du Protestantisme\" . www.museeprotestant.org . Jump up ^ \"Tab 7.1 Population by religious belief and by municipality size groups\" (PDF) (in Czech). Czso.cz. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2015 . Retrieved 19 November 2013 . Jump up ^ \"Tab 7.2 Population by religious belief and by regions\" (PDF) (in Czech). Czso.cz. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2013 . Retrieved 19 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Mastrini, Hana (16 June 2008). \"Frommer's Prague & the Best of the Czech Republic\" . Wiley – via Google Books. Jump up ^ Lilla, Mark (31 March 2006). \"Europe and the legend of secularization\" . The New York Times . Jump up ^ \"Discrimination in the EU in 2012\" (PDF) , Special Eurobarometer , 383, European Union : European Commission , p. 233, 2012, archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 14 August 2013 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Witte, John; Alexander, Frank S. (16 January 2018). \"The Teachings of Modern Protestantism on Law, Politics, and Human Nature\" . Columbia University Press – via Google Books. Jump up ^ \"Study: Christianity grows exponentially in Africa\" . ^ Jump up to: a b c OSTLING, RICHARD N. (24 June 2001). \"The Battle for Latin America's Soul\" – via content.time.com. Jump up ^ \"In China, Protestantism's Simplicity Yields More Converts Than Catholicism\" . 28 March 2012. Jump up ^ Arsenault, Chris. \"Evangelicals rise in Latin America\" . www.aljazeera.com . Jump up ^ America's Changing Religious Landscape , by Pew Research Center , 12 May 2015 Jump up ^ Halman, Loek; Riis, Ole (16 January 2018). \"Religion in a Secularizing Society: The Europeans' Religion at the End of the 20th Century\" . BRILL – via Google Books. ^ Jump up to: a b Sengers, Erik; Sunier, Thijl (16 January 2018). \"Religious Newcomers and the Nation State: Political Culture and Organized Religion in France and the Netherlands\" . Eburon Uitgeverij B.V. – via Google Books. Jump up ^ \"Moscow Church Spearheads Russia Revival\" . Retrieved 14 February 2015 . Jump up ^ \"Protestantism in Postsoviet Russia: An Unacknowledged Triumph\" (PDF) . Jump up ^ Felix Corley and Geraldine Fagan. \"Growing Protestants, Catholics Draw Ire\" . ChristianityToday.com . Retrieved 14 February 2015 . ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Nones\" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation , Pew Research Center (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life), 9 October 2012 Jump up ^ \"US Protestants no longer majority\" . 10 October 2012 – via www.bbc.co.uk. Jump up ^ \"Mainline Churches: The Real Reason for Decline\" . www.leaderu.com . Jump up ^ Johnstone, Patrick, \"The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities\" , p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11 Jump up ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J., \"Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set\" , p. 1815, \"Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first time ever in the history of Protestantism, Wider Protestants will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Roman Catholics – each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year.\" Further reading [ edit ] Cook, Martin L. (1991). The Open Circle: Confessional Method in Theology . Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press. xiv, 130 p. N.B.: Discusses the place of Confessions of Faith in Protestant theology, especially in Lutheranism. ISBN 0-8006-2482-3 Dillenberger, John , and Claude Welch (1988). Protestant Christianity, Interpreted through Its Development . Second ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. ISBN 0-02-329601-1 Giussani, Luigi (1969), trans. Damian Bacich (2013). American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch . Montreal: McGill-Queens UP. McGrath, Alister E. (2007). Christianity's Dangerous Idea . New York: HarperOne . Nash, Arnold S., ed. (1951). Protestant Thought in the Twentieth Century: Whence & Whither ? New York: Macmillan Co. Noll, Mark A. (2011). Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press . Hillerbrand, Hans Joachim (2004). Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume set . Oxford: Routledge . — comprehensive scholarly coverage on Protestantism worldwide, current and historical; 2195pp; index in vol 4 is online Melton, J, Gordon. Encyclopedia of Protestantism (Facts On File, 2005), 800 articles in 628pp Ryrie, Alec Protestants: The Radicals Who Made the Modern World (Harper Collins, 2017). Ryrie, Alec \"The World's Local Religion\" History Today (Sept 20, 2017) online External links [ edit ] Look up Protestant , Protestantism , or evangelical in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Protestantism . 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